South Pacific Regional Environment Programme South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission

Coastal Protection in the Pacific islands: Current Trends and Future Prospects

Proceedings of the First and Second Regional Coastal Protection Meetings: Held on 21-23 February 1994 in Apia, Western Samoa, and on 16-20 May 1994 in Suva, .

SOPAC Miscellaneous Report 177

Pub~hedinJune1994 Apia, Western Samoa

i Coastal Protection in the Pacific islands Forward

It was the 24th South Pacific Forum, held last year in Nauru, that cloarly r~xprr~sspdits concern for the provision of effective coastal protection systems in rho region Its request to SPREP and SOPAC to convene such workshops as mav bo rcqu ired of regional officials and distinguished experts to assess the region's needs and to oxam inn various systems of coastal protection, then provide recommendations for consideration at this year's Forum, has been ably supported by the financial assistance of t ho N(~\\' Zealand and Australian Governments, In convening the two meetings SPREP and SOPAC invited their respective member countries and territories to attend. This was done in the interest of strengthening regional cooperation and in broadening the range of experience and expertise at the meetings, The governments of Germany, Japan and The Netherlands were also invited to attend, due to their past and present involvement with coastal protection in the region. Unfortunately, they did not attend. In assessing the coastal protection needs of the region during the First Coastal Protection Meeting, it was unanimously agreed that the provision of effectivp coastal protection systems required consideration in the broadest context and over the long-PI' time-frame. The construction of engineered coastal protection structures are therefore only one particular aspect of the provision of effective coastal protection. Both SPREP and SOPAC have encouraged the meetings to openly discuss all t.ho issues associated with the Forum's request, and to arrive at the recommendations in a transparent manner. SPREP has appreciated SOPAC's assistance and cooperation in organising and running these meetings. With the necessary support the two agencies will be able to continue with the activities identified during the meetings. These meetings have successfully layed the ground-work for the effective provision of coastal protection in the region. It is now hoped that the support necessary to maintain the momentum generat(~d by these successful meetings will be forthcoming.

Viii A. Fuavao Director, SPREP June 1994

ii Current Trends and Future Prospects Contents

Forward...... ii Preface...... v

Part 1: First Coastal Protection Meeting 1

Su.nunary Report 0/ the Meeting 3 Introduction...... 3

Programme 3 Summary Statements 3 Needs 4 Second Workshop...... 7 Annexes...... 8

Annex 1: List of participants 8 Annex 2: Programme for the First Coastal Protection Meeting 10 Annex 3: Papers presented by distinguished experts 11 Annex 4: Country Papers 25

Part 2: Second Coastal Protection Meeting...... 55 Summary Report 0/ the Meeting 57 Introduction 57 First Coastal Protection Meeting 57 Second Coastal Protection Meeting 57 Summary Statements :...... 58 Needs and Priorities 58 Recommendations 61 Annexes 63

Annex 1: List of participants 63 Annex 2: Programme for the Second Coastal Protection Meeting... 66 Annex 3: Report submitted to the 1994 Forum Officials Committee...... 67

Annex 4: Opening Address... 74 Annex 5: Country Reports and Case Studies...... 76 Annex 5: Summary of the Discussions During Country Reports 149 Annex 6: Papers Presented by Individuals 158

iii Coastal Protection in the Pacific islands

iv Preface Cum'" Trends and Future JT<,.pe,U

The protection of the coastal areas of Pacific American Samoa, , Federated island nations is fundamental to their States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Northern sustained economic development. Concern Mariana Islands, Nauru, , Papua New about protection from coastal erosion was Guinea, , Tuvalu, and Western expressed by Pacific island leaders at the 1992 Samoa were represented. Sailimalo Pati Liu, South Pacific Forum Meeting held in Honiara, Environment Planning Officer, Western . Samoa, was elected to chair the meeting and SPREP and SOPAC representatives to be Heads of Government then noted the need for rapporteurs. effective coastal protection in the region and requested that SOPAC and SPREP, together: The primary objective of the First Coastal firstly, investigate various coastal protection Protection Meeting was to assess the key needs systems being developed or that are already in of the region for the provision of effective place that might be beneficial throughout the coastal protection. Country reports on the region; and secondly, convene jointly such issues and needs relating to coastal protection meetings as may be necessary for that purpose, in their areas were presented. In addition, four and report back to the Forum countries as soon papers were presented by the distinguished as possible. As a first step, and before the 1993 experts. A field trip was held around the Apia Forum conference, a review report was area to examine various systems of coastal prepared which was intended as a background protection currently being practiced. paper for a subsequent workshop, or workshops. A range of needs and issues were identified during the country presentations and the The 24th South Pacific Forum, held in Nauru ensuing discussions. From these the meeting (10-11 August, 1993), "...reiterated its concern developed six summary statements and to ensure the early provision of effective coastal identified eight general needs categories for protection systems in the region." It requested, effective coastal protection in the region. It "...SPREP, in consultation with SOPAC, to was decided that these eight general needs convene at an early date such workshops as categories should form the basis for initial may be required of regional officials and discussions at the Second Coastal Protection distinguished experts in the field to assess the Meeting. needs of the region; examine various systems of coastal protection, both existing and in the The summary report of the First Coastal process of development; and prepare a detailed Protection Meeting, along with the papers report, with recommendations for consideration presented, are all included in Part 1 of this at the 1994 meeting of the Forum." (1993 volume. Forum Communique). In convening the two meetings SPREP and Second Coastal Protection Meeting SOPAC invited their respective member countries and territories to attend. This was The Second Coastal Protection Meeting done in the interest of strengthening regional was held in Suva, Fiji, 16-20 May 1994. The cooperation and in broadening the range of meeting was attended by 43 regional officials, experience and expertise at the meetings. experts and observers representing 17 The financial assistance the Australian and countries and territories. New Zealand governments provided to support Once again the areas of expertise of the the meetings is gratefully acknowledged. participants covered the range of disciplines represented at the first meeting. Those countries and territories were: American First Coastal Protection Meeting Samoa, Australia, Cook Islands, Fiji, Federated States of Micronesia, Guam, Kiribati, Marshall The First Coastal Protection Meeting was Islands, Nauru, Niue, , Papua New held in Apia, Western Samoa, 21-23 February Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, 1994, and attended by 29 regional officials and Vanuatu and Western Samoa. experts. These included coastal managers, environmental officers, geoscientists and engmeers.

v Sailimalo Pati Liu, the Chairman for the first Each country representative reported to the meeting was elected by consensus to chair the meeting experiences and problems concerning second meeting so as to provide continuity the eight coastal protection needs identified between the meetings. SPREP and SOPAC during the first meeting. Although the country representatives, with assistance from the four reports and case studies are presented country invited experts, were rapporteurs of the by country in this proceedings volume, the meeting. actual presentations and discussions were conductedneed by need. The objectivesof the secondmeeting were to: Particular examples of man-made coastal • discuss the eight general needs identified protection structures in the region were during the first meeting, on a country by presented and discussed by member country country basis; participants and the resource people. A • provide case studies of various systems of number of presentations on coastal protection coastal protection, both in use and in and coastal protection systems were made by development,within the region; the resource people and observers. From the ensuing discussion recommendations for action • identify the actions required to provide were proposed and the content of the report to effective coastal protection within the the Forum determined. A half-day field trip region; and, was held to observe'coastal protection systems • prepare a report from the meetingto the and issues in the Suva area. South Pacific Forum, as requested in the The summary report of the Second Coastal communique, Protection Meeting, the report to the Forum Officials Committee, along with the papers presented at the second meeting, form Part 2 ofthese Proceedings.

vi Part 1:

First Coastal Protection Meeting

Held on 21-23 February 1994 in. Apia, Western Samoa.

1 Summary Report of the Meeting

Introduction Summary Statements The 24th South Pacific Forum, held in Nauru (10-11 August, 1993), "...reiterated its concern The meeting recognised that the need for to ensure the early provision of effective coastal effective coastal protection systems in the protection systems in the region." It requested, region was due to increased use of, and "...SPREP, in consultation with SOPAC, to pressure on the coastal zone for infrastructure, convene at an early date such workshops as commercial, residential and recreational uses. may be required of regional officials and The meeting agreed that healthy coral reefs, distinguished experts in the field to assess the beaches and mangroves are Nature's form of needs of the region; examine various systems of protecting a coastline and are the best and coastal protection, both existing and in the most effective coastal protection systems. process of development; and prepare a detailed However, with increased use and pressure on report, with recommendations for consideration the coastal zone alternatives to the natural at the 1994 meeting of the Forum." (Forum systems were now necessary in certain Communique). situations. The first meeting was held in Apia, Western Samoa, 21-23 February and attended by 29 The meeting agreed that effective coastal regional officials and experts. The following protection systems in the region required consideration in the broadest context and over countries were represented: American Samoa, the longer time-frame rather than just a "best Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Northern Mariana Islands, solution'" site-specific response to a problem at a particular time. Nauru, Niue, Papua New Guinea, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu and Western Samoa. In order to ensure the early provision of Western Samoa was elected to chair the effective coastal protection systems in the workshop and SPREP and SOPAC region the meeting recognised many needs representatives to be rapporteurs. which were grouped together into eight major categories.

Programme The meeting agreed that it should not attempt to prioritise or rank these eight categories of needs but that member country Member country reports on issues and needs presentations to the Second Coastal Protection relating to coastal protection were presented. Meeting should be prepared using these In addition, four papers were presented by categories and attempt to illustrate and rank distinguished experts as follows: the importance of each category. • Dr Rick Gillie: The meeting agreed that substantial costs "Distinctive physical features of Pacific would be incurred in order to satisfy the needs island coastal zones"; identified, and recognising that aid donor support is diminishing, suggested that in order • Mr Peter Asher: to provide sufficient funding for coastal "Coastal erosion as a planned for and protection matters that consideration should be preventable occurrence"; given to alternative methods of funding -- for example, a levy being placed on all major • Prof Richard Silvester: development projects in the coastal zone by "Stabilisation of island shores"; and, foreign investors. • Mr Gerry Byrne: "Artificial armouring of tropical coasts". A field trip was held. around the Apia area to examine various systems of coastal protection currently being practiced.

3 Needs • "For site specific needs, aerial photos are As a result of the presentations and subsequent essential, especially in remote areas where discussion eight general areas of needs were aerial photos, if they exist at all, are defined: outdated." • Mapping and data collection to better • "There are lessons to be learned from understand physical processes in coastal experiences in the region. That is, environments; mistakes should not be duplicated by • Integrated coastal zone management; learning from experiences elsewhere in the region." • Education and public awareness; • "There are enough examples of systems • Regulatory regimes; working and not working. There is a need • Social and cultural practices; to document what works and what doesn't work -- but we need to do it honestly." • Alternatives to coastal derived sand and gravel; Need 2: • Consideration of economic values; Integrated Coastal Zone Management. • Coastal engineering. The early provision of effective coastal Need 1: protection can best be achieved through Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM). Mapping and Data Collection to Better ICZM is a comprehensive, multi-sectoral, Understand Physical Processes in integrated approach to the planning and Coastal Environments management of coastal areas. It encompasses a process of assessment, planning and It is increasingly important in the coastal management for the sustainable development, environment to survey physical processes and multiple use and conservation of coastal areas, in particular the effects of geological and other resources and ecosystems. natural hazards and to establish baseline conditions against which the effects of • Need to establish national Integrated development can be monitored and where Coastal Zone Management programmes, necessary effective coastal protection planned. especially to address long-term coastal protection. • Need for well documented case studies from throughout the region, especially on • Need to develop greater coordination and human induced changes. cooperation between regional organisations and also between island governments on • Need for coastal maps at suitable scales coastal related issues and problems. (1:10,000) of the coastal physical environment. • Need to develop the capacity to coordinate short-term, issue-targeted projects to • Need for sediment budget studies at the immediately address coastal management national and regional level (eg, determine problems that require attention on time reef carbonate production rates) and at the scales too short for standard funding and site-specific level. programme development cycles. • Need for monitoring of coastlines. • Need to develop approaches to ICZM Representative comments from the meeting: appropriate to the Pacific islands region. • "Before a solution can be made an • Need to develop ICZM training for investigation must be carried out first national planners and managers whose before one can hope to formulate some sort responsibilities impact on coastal areas. of plan to alleviate the problem. How can • Need to minimise or mitigate the impacts one form a solution when you do not know of coastal hazards in both the long-term what the source of the problem is or what and short-term through effective ICZM. is causing the problem?" • "There is usually very little data available before development decisions are made which affect the coastal areas."

4 Representative comments from the meeting: Representative comments from the meeting: • "Both the short-term and long-term • "Education or public awareness context should be taken into programmes are very important as they consideration." can lead to active participation by the grass-roots level. So try to get villagers • "This meeting should identify features for aware of problems." future planning purposes." • "Develop educational awareness using past • "There should be some sort of setback experience, good visual aids such as videos guidelines for coastal zone management." and slides in workshops -- such awareness • "Need to have an overview of the big should be a priority in coastal protection picture -- coastal management is a coastal issues." protection system." • "Traditional leaders should be informed as • "Coastal problems are environmental as well or be at least involved, that is, some well as engineering problems." subtle education, some community awareness targeting traditional leaders. " • "One of the major reasons for coastal problems is the lack of control on land use • "At times decisions are made based on (agriculture, development, etc), so we must political reasons and technical advice is look at land use management for coastal ignored or not even sought. Political protection." leaders and decision makers need to be made aware of the serious coastal • "The decision making process is extremely protection problems that usually arise from important. " such decisions." • "Hazard planning should be a part of • "How do we generate understanding of the ICZM." issues at top political level?"

Need 3: • "We need to emphasise the importance of site specific problems and solutions -. Education and Public Awareness advice or a manual is needed to identify coastal protection problems, that is, Responsible actions by individuals at all levels practical experience in the Pacific should of society can be of great assistance in be incorporated into a sort of advice achieving effective coastal protection. manual so the Pacific islands can use it to Education and public awareness are necessary help make educated guesses." in order to reach the public at large. • Need to influence landowners. Need 4: • Need for teaching materials. RegUlatory Regimes • Need to document lessons learnt/case Many diverse regulatory regimes, including studies. legislation, exist in the region which relate to • Need to exchange data and information at coastal protection. the national and regional levels. • Need to review and up-date regulatory • Need to provide material for national practices and procedures relevant to school curricula. coastal protection in the region. • Provide public awareness programmes for Representative comments from the meeting: radio and TV. • "The decision making process must be • Make resources/data from regional looked at." organisations more readily available for use by school teachers. • "Traditional practices that affect coastal use need to be included in any regulatory • Education needed at community level and mechanism. " for decision makers. • "We need a review of the different • Need to generate awareness of the needs regulatory procedures in the region." and benefits of ICZM in the general public and the decision makers. • "Let each country adapt or modify legislation according to their own needs."

5 • "A regular review process of regulatory Need 6: procedures is needed." Alternatives to Coastal Derived Sand and Gravel Need 5: Increasing use of beach sand and gravel is Social and Cultural Practices being made for construction, fill and cultural purposes. This needs to be discouraged, and in Effective coastal protection needs to take into some instances prevented, whilst at the same consideration social and cultural factors, time realistic and practical alternatives specifically the values of traditional practices. identified. • Need to identify appropriate technology • Need for studies to identify alternatives and planning/management policies to sources of sand and gravel. ensure minimal impact on the social and cultural use of the coast. • Need for economic evaluation of options to beach mining of sand and gravel. • Need to consider conflict between traditional practices and modern • Need to examine options to control and/or technology. regulate beach mining. • Need to consider peoples expectations of • Need for education and awareness protection projects. programmes to discourage sand mining. Representative comments from the meeting: Representative comments from the meeting: • "Site-specific cultural and social issues • "Sand mining is a traditional activity, should be considered because of the especially on private land, coastal officers diversity in the region." have been chased out when they try to control such mining practices." • "Projects have just gone along with the guidelines set by the aid donors. Major • "Need to study sources of sand availability. projects happen through reasons Islands with high tourist economy, eg originating from outside the country. So Hawaii, import sand." the solution has ueen mfluenced by the • "Need to find alternative ways of getting donor rather than toe needs of the country sand for construction .. also find .. resulting m socially and culturally alternatives to present activities." inappropriate solutions."

• "With coastal protection we need to look at Need 7: appropriate technology, cost can be high because of remoteness, solutions are costly, Consideration of Economic Values coastal protection systems need maintenance .. we need to assess whether The aim of effective coastal development is to it can be done locally." provide for the use of existing and future coastal development and resource needs on a • "Technical solutions may not be socially or cost effective and sustainable basis (both culturally acceptable in many cases." financially and environmentally). • "Sometimes the solution is not acceptable. • Need for cost-benefit analyses Sometimes the actual solution is similar to the technical solution used. The nature of • Need for risk assessment analyses. the way of life should be taken into account • Need for long-term coastal development as compared to more industrialised plans to reduce cost and the need for cultures. Before technical solutions are expensive engineered coastal protection made, the traditional background should structures. be understood first." Representative comments from the meeting: • "At times people, including the political leaders, just don't understand the design • "What do we mean by 'coastal protection' .. limitations of certain technical solutions .. is it really the protection of the assets that is, they just don't understand what inland, and not the protection 6r the coast sort of protection they're getting." itself?" • "Consider the economic value of the coastline .- tourism is based on the be.auty of the coastline."

6 • "There is an economic benefit from longer Representative comments from the meeting: term planning to reduce the cost and need • "Some individuals have built their own for expensive coastal protection engineered seawalls to combat erosion without any structures. " technical consultation. In most cases they • "Need to stress the significant role that aid have done more harm than good. In funding plays in coastal protection, much building their own seawalls they cause of which has had a negative effect." problems elsewhere." • "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound • "Most of the available coastal protection of cure." manuals are either outdated or are not applicable to tropical areas." • "There is a link between the economy and coastal problems in our island, for example • "We need to look at appropriate technology tourism is based on the existence of and solutions. " beaches." • "Appropriate innovation should be encour- • "Our coasts, including beaches and aged." mangroves, are long-term assets which • "Any technical solution, whether must be preserved." traditional or modern engineering, should be subject to EIA" Need 8: • "The long-term maintenance and Coastal Engineering environmental costs must be included in assessing coastal engineering solutions." Man-made or engineered structures are a • "Engineered structures have been seen as consequence of continued reclamation and short-term solutions only. But with the protection of assets in and adjacent to the increasing development in the coastal zone coastal zone. A large number of alternatives there will also be an increased need for have been tried and many have been less than coastal protection structures." successful. They have been expensive and have tended to have detrimental effects on adjacent areas. Any proposed system should be critically evaluated in the region in the light of Second Workshop local physical processes, previous experiences and cost. Appropriate innovation should be The Workshop was informed that the Second encouraged. Coastal Protection Meeting was planned to be held in Suva, Fiji, from the 16 to 20 May, • Need for technical training. 1994, in order to fmalise the report in response • Need for all proposed man-made structures to the Forum Communique. to be subject to Environmental Impact The needs categories determined at the First Assessment (EIA). Meeting would form the basis for the member • Traditional (customary) methods should be country presentations and the outline of the utilised wherever appropriate. programme for the Second Meeting. In addition sessions will be held on various • Preservation or reestablishment of natural systems of coastal protection both existing and beaches and mangrove areas should be in the process of development in the region. encouraged. A field trip is planned to examine various • Need to resist "donor driven" solutions that systems of coastal protection currently being are inappropriate. practised around south .

7 Annexes

Annex 1: List of participants

AMERICAN SAMOA FIJI

Ms Gene Failauga Mr Viliame Baleivanualala Coastal Hazards Specialist Marine Geologist American Samoa Coastal Mineral Resources Department Management PlanninglDevelopment Private Mail Bag Planning Office Suva Pago Pago Fiji American Samoa 96799 Telephone: (679)381611 Telephone: (684)633 5155 Fax: (679) 370039 Fax: (684)633 4195 FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA AUSTRALIA Mr Francis I. Itimai Professor Richard Silvester Fisheries Development Specialist Dept. of Civil Engineering Department of Resources and Development University of Western Australia Pohnpei 96941 Perth Federated States of Micronesia Australia Telephone: (691) 320 2620 Telephone: (619) 386 7775 Fax: (691)320 5854 Fax: (619) 380 1018 KIRIBATI Mr Gerry Byrne Kinhill Riedel & Byrne Mr Tapetulu Merang 437 St Kilda Road Acting Civil Engineer Melbourne Ministry of Works and Energy Australia Tarawa Telephone: (613)867 5911 Kiribati Fax: (613)820 0136 Telephone: Fax: (686) 26172 CANADA MARIANAS ISLANDS Dr Rick Gillie AXYSEnvironmental Consulting Ltd Mr Peter J. Barlas Box 2219 Assistant Administrator Mills Road Coastal Resources Management Sidney, British Columbia Officeof the Governor Canada V8L 358 Saipan Telephone: (604) 6560881 Northern Marianas Islands Fax: (604) 656 4789 Telephone: (670)234 6623 Fax: (670) 2340007 COOK ISLANDS NAURU Mr Teariki Rongo Director Mr Joseph Cain Department of Conservation Services Senior Project Officer PO Box 371 Department of Island Development Rarotonga and Industry Cook Islands Nauru Telephone: (682)21256 Telephone: (674) 4443181 Fax: (682)22256 Fax: (674)444 3195

Mr Don Dorrell NEW ZEALAND Coastal Protection Consultant Coastal Environmental International Ltd Mr Peter Asher PO Box 37 Coastal Works South Pacific Rarotonga BayView Cook Islands Napier Telephone: (682) 22055 New Zealand Fax: (682) 21040 Telephone: (64) 683 66824 Fax: (64) 683 66824

8 NIUE Mr Faatoia Malele Assistant Superintendent Mr Ataloma Misihepi Apia Observatory Chairperson Apia Makefu Village Council Western Samoa ALOFI Telephone: (685)20855/20856 Niue Fax: (685)20857 Telephone: (683)4019 Fax: (683)4010 Mr John Bell Chief Civil Engineer PAPUA NEW GUINEA Public Works Apia Mr Walain Ulaiwi Western Samoa Coastal Management Officer Telephone: (685)26688 Department of Environment & Conservation Fax: (685)26780 PO Box 6601 Boroko Mr Matini Tanielu Papua New Guinea Engineering Officer Telephone: Public Works Fax: Apia Western Samoa TONGA Telephone: (685)24241/21611 Fax: Mr Saimone P. Helu Principal Geologist OBSERVER Ministry of Lands, Survey and Natural Resources Mr Trevor Sankey Tonga Science Adviser Telephone: (676)23611 EXT 37 UNESCO Fax: (676)23216 PO Box5766 Apia TUVALU Western Samoa Telephone: (685)24276 Mr Alefaio Semese Fax: (685)22253 Environment Officer Funafuti SOPAC SECRETARIAT Tuvalu Telephone: (688)20836 Dr Russell Howorth Fax: (688)20800 Training Coordinator SOPAC VANUATU Private Bag Suva Mr Martin Sokomanu Fiji Lands, Survey Department Telephone: (679)381377 PO Box 024 Fax: (679)370040 Port Vila Vanuatu SPREP SECRETARIAT Telephone: (678)22427 Fax: (678)25973 Dr ViiiA. Fuavao Director WESTERN SAMOA P.O. Box240 Apia Mr Sailirnalo Pati Liu Western Samoa Environment Planning Officer Telephone: (685)21929 Lands, Survey and Environment Fax: (685)20231 Apia Wester n Samoa Dr Andrew Smith Telephone: (685)26681/35800 Coastal Management Officer Fax: (685)23176 Ms Lucille Apis Mr Roger Cornforth Assistant Coastal Management Officer Environment Planning Adviser Lands, Survey and Environment Ms Sia Patelesio Apia OfficeAssistant Western Samoa Telephone: (685)26681/35800 Fax: (685)23176

Mr Ausetalia Titimaea Superintendent Apia Observatory Apia Western Samoa Telephone: (685).20855/20856 Fax: (6~5)20857

9 Annex 2: Programme for the First Coastal Protection Meeting

Monday 21 February • Opening of the Meeting by Dr V. Fuavao, Director of SPREP • Introductory remarks by SPREP Secretariat: reason for the Coastal Protection Meetings; objectives for this meeting; proposed format and output • Election of Chairperson • Adoption of Agenda • Working Procedures • Presentations by invited experts (including discussion and questions): • Dr Rick Gillie - "Distinctive physical features of Pacific island coastal zones" • Mr Peter Asher· "Coastal erosion as a planned for and preventable occurrence" • Prof Richard Silvester· "Stabilisation of island shores" • Mr Gerry Byrne - "Artificial armouring of tropical coasts" • Summary of the day Tuesday 22 February • Country reports addressing the issues and problems of coastal protection in-country (including discussion and questions). • Field trip Wednesday 23 February • Identify the issues and problems facing the region. • Discussion on the needs required to address the issues and problems. • Formulation of Report of the First Meeting for presentation at the Second Coastal Protection Meeting and to the Forum. • Closing of the Workshop

10 Annex 3: Papers presented by distinguished experts

Distinctive Physical Features of Pacific Island Coastal Zones

Dr Richard D. Gillie

Abstract From a coastal processes perspective Pacific Island coastal zones are char- coral reefs are important for a number of reasons, chiefly their abundance, natural acterised by a number of distinctive physical features. Many of these phys- protection and sediment supply. For this ical features are not unique and are reason the preservation of coral reefs and found elsewhere in the world. However, coral reef environments are critical to the combination of these distinctive feat- maintaining a natural coastal protection ures within the region is unique. In add- system around Pacific island countries. ition to those features which are common to coastal zones throughout the world, Introduction some distinctive physical features of Pacific island coastal zones include: The coastal zone can be defined as the interface between the land and the sea and includes the • islands and groups of islands with a relevant components of the adjacent terrestrial diversity of geological origin, and marine areas. The mandate and composition, age, size, and elevation responsibility of the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) in the coastal • marked temporal and spatial variations in climatic and zone is largely driven by member countries oceanographic regimes interests. The essence of SOPAC's activities in the coastal zone has been applied geoscience • wave conditions which have a research including coastal and nearshore dominant role in physical coastal processes and related natural phenomena such processes and which also vary as physical oceanographic processes, sea level significantly in the region changes, river mouth and sedimentary • coral reefs which are a common and processes, and geohazards related to the often dominant feature and other coastal zone. carbonate related coastal features Other SOPAC responsibilities in the coastal zone include marine mineral placer and • water levels and currents in the coastal zone which are strongly aggregate resource delineation and assistance modified by fringing reefs with coastal development and construction activities. Coastal zone considerations may • natural beach material supply which also be influenced by traditional, administ- may be from either entirely rative and legal boundaries (Howorth and terrigenous or carbonate sources, or a Shorten, 1992). variable combination of both In general, coastal zones throughout the world • mangroves are often a prominent and exist as a result of past and present important feature of the coast. interactions and linkages between the land and Atoll islets form some of the smallest and the sea. Modern interactions are frequently most isolated habitable land areas on driven, either directly or indirectly, by vari- earth which are extremely vulnerable to ations in weather and climate. Nowhere are natural and human-induced environ- such interactions more evident than within the mental changes. Prevailing patterns of coastal environments of islands in the South wind and wave regimes may reverse Pacific (McLean, 1991). under El Nino / Southern Oscillation (ENSO) conditions. Tropical cyclones are also distinctive features of the region.

11 Pacific island coastal zones are characterised Volcanic islands may be old or young, high or by a number of distinctive physical features. low, small or large. Each characteristic affects In this respect, many of these physical features the coastal zone directly or indirectly. Coastal are not unique and are found elsewhere in the types may vary from rugged cliffs and pocket world. However, the combination of these beaches associated with relatively recent distinctive features within the region is unique. volcanic islands (yV estern Samoa) to extensive In addition to those features which are common coastal plains and associated deltas on larger, to coastal zones throughout the world, some older islands which characterise the Mela- distinctive physical features of Pacific island nesian countries (Fiji; Solomon Islands; Vanu- coastal zones include: atu; Papua New Guinea). Younger volcanic islands tend to be fringed with a narrow coral • islands and groups of islands with a reef (Rarotonga, Cook Islands) while older diversity of geological origin, volcanic islands have extensive barrier reefs composition, age, size, and elevation; with wide, deep lagoons (Viti Levu, Fiji). • distribution over a vast oceanic Low lying coral islands, both atolls and reef hemisphere with marked temporal and islands, are coral reefs whose growth has kept spatial variations in climatic and them at the surface after the volcanos on which oceanographic regimes; they are founded sank beneath the sea. Atolls • wave conditions which have a dominant are a common type of island in the Pacific role in physical coastal processes and (Kiribati; Tuvalu; Marshall Islands; Federated which also vary significantly in time and States of Micronesia; Tokelau; French Poly- between locations throughout the region; nesia; and northern Cook Islands). The surface of an atoll represents the top of hundreds of • coral reefs which are a common and often meters of coral deposits which overlay the dominant feature and other carbonate subsided volcanic rock. related coastal features; The habitable land area on coral atolls is • water levels and currents in the coastal limited to islets, or motu, which are zone which are strongly modified by geologically recent coastal deposits of coral fringing reefs; rubble and sand accumulated under storm • natural beach material supply which conditions and/or by sea level changes. The may be from either entirely terrigenous highest elevations of the islets do not exceed or carbonate sources, or a variable five meters and are commonly between one and combination of both; two metres. The islets form some of the smallest and most isolated habitable land areas • mangroves are often a prominent and on earth which are extremely vulnerable to important feature of the coast. natural and human-induced environmental changes. In this regard, the possibility of Island Types, Geology and Coasts accelerated sea level rise could have profound Within the region of Pacific island developing effects on the viability of the atoll islets. nations, there is a variety of islands which can Emergent or elevated coral islands are former be classified into three main types and defined coral atolls or reef islands which have been on the basis of their origin, composition, age, lifted above the ocean surface leaving near size, and elevation. The three main types vertical limestone cliffs or a very narrow include (i) volcanic islands; (ii) low lying coral limestone platform (Nauru; Banaba, Kiribati). atolls and reef islands; and (iii) emergent Variations in this type may include a makatea limestone islands. Associated with this range which is an annular ring of raised reefs around of island types, and their tectonic regimes, is a a volcanic core (Mangaia and Atiu, Cook corresponding variety of coastal environments. Islands). Some island groups are composed of It is also possible to find combinations of these chains of volcanic and uplifted and tilted coral island types, such as elevated reefs on volcanic reefs (Tonga). islands and smaller volcanic islands surrounded by an atoll-like lagoon. It should also be emphasised that islands and their coasts have been far from static over geologic time. Tectonic activity (horizontal and vertical crustal movements) is a variable but common characteristic of all islands in the region.

12 Island tectonic regimes include convergent and Wave Conditions divergent plate boundaries (associated with Because of the vast oceanic hemisphere in island arcs, subduction zones, and back-arc which Pacific island countries are located, basins) and mid-plate areas associated with wave conditions vary significantly in time and hot-spots and areas of rising and sinking location. The wave environment of the region seafloor. Changes in sea levels associated with can be considered to be made up of at least four these tectonic regimes, and world-wide eustatic major components: changes associated with climatic variations, have in the past and presently exert a • prevailing, trade wind generated, fundamental influence on the coastal zone. northeast to southeast seas and swell waves, Climatic and Oceanographic Regimes • in equatorial regions seas generated by The Pacific Ocean is the largest feature on the westerly gales during the wet season, earth's surface and even the area generally • tropical storm or cyclone generated sea referred to as the South Pacific (which includes and swell waves, and the islands of Micronesia in the North Pacific) is enormous. All coastal zones within the • swell waves generated by mid-latitude region are dependent upon the climate and storms in both the South and North physical characteristics of the ocean. Climatic Pacific Ocean. patterns (prevailing winds, rainfall and general The wave climate of each country, island or weather patterns) and oceanographic processes shoreline is derived from a variable varying over the region are important factors contribution of these four major components. in determining corresponding variations in Because of seasonal and annual variations in coastal zone characteristics. the four components, the wave climate can Also of significance is the fact that these winds vary significantly through time and cause and currents may change or even reverse in cycles of shoreline erosion and deposition. direction under "abnormal" conditions assoc- On eastward facing coastlines local seas and iated with EI Nino / Southern Oscillation swell waves generated by trade winds are (ENSO) events which vary in period and generally persistent and may form the intensity every few years. There were ENSO dominant component of the local wave events in 1972 (moderate), 1977-78 (moderate), environment. Thus, the eastern side of most 1982-83 (strong), 1987 (moderate), and a recent islands are the so called "windward coast" and prolonged moderate event from 1990-1993. the western side the "leeward or sheltered The timing of actual ENSO characteristics such coast". In atoll countries, most islets are on the as deviations in wind strength and direction, windward side of the atoll. However, most rainfall, and sea level deviations will vary villages are located along the lagoon shoreline, across the region and can also vary within on the leeward side of windward islets and are similar Southern' Oscillation Index (SOl) sheltered from the prevailing winds. values. In low latitude regions the normal easterly Tropical cyclones are also distinctive features trade wind dominance is reversed for periods of of the region. They are extreme climatic events time during the westerly or wet season which occur with a variable seasonal frequency (typically December-February in the southern in all parts of the tropical and subtropical hemisphere) and especially so during prolonged Pacific island region, with the exception of a EI Nino events as has been recently relatively narrow zone (5·10 degrees) either experienced from 1990 to 1993 (NIWAR, 1993). side of the equator. The high winds, large Gale force westerlies can generate moderate waves, storm surge and heavy rainfall seas in the open ocean which may pass over the associated with tropical cyclones have short submerged reefs on the leeward side of the term catastrophic and permanent impacts on atoll and into the normally sheltered lagoon all coastal environments in general and low environment (Gillie, 1993). This results in lying islands in particular. In this respect, it phases of erosion on lagoon shoreline beaches has been noted that tropical cyclones which are otherwise normally stable (Gillie, "represent a high magnitude, low-frequency 1991; Harper, 1989; Howorth, 1991). event necessary for the long term replenish- ment of sediment on shorelines, but that in the short term such storms will seem to have mainly destructive effects" (Bayliss-Smith, 1988).

13 Waves, currents and storm surges associated Until recently there had been little direct with tropical cyclones generate extremely high measurement of the wave environment in the energy conditions in the coastal zone for short South Pacific. Characterisation of the wave durations at infrequent and irregular intervals. climate was based upon wind and weather In the last 10 years the average number of systems. about which the long term pattern cyclones in the southwest Pacific has been 14 and variability is better documented. Rocontlv, per year (NIWAR, 1993). The immediate effect a wave measurement programme has been of cyclones on the coastal zone is wave damage carried out by SOPAC which has included of structures, flooding and in most cases coastal wave buoy deployments of 2-:3 years for non- erosion (Woodroffe, 1984; Rearic, 1990; Holden, directional wave measurements and shorter 1992a). However, as note above tropical periods of directional wave measurements. cyclones contribute significantly to the long Measurement locations have included Tonga. term replenishment of sediment on shorelines, Cook Islands, Western Samoa, Tuvalu. especially in atoll environments. Vanuatu and Fiji (Barstow and Deo, l~)~);l). Although this programme was pr-imarily Typically, cyclones in the Pacific occur north carried out to assess the wave energy potcnt.ial and south of the 5-10 degree latitude band within the region, thee results of the wave either side of the equator and their tracks measurements will also contribute to the normally run to higher latitudes. Therefore, understanding of coastal processes. extreme winds due to cyclones do not normally occur over the equatorial islands. However, Coral Reefs the common presence of coral rubble and boulders on islands outside of the cyclone belt Coral reefs may be (i) fringing (adjacent to the (eg. on atolls in Kiribati) suggests that cyclone shoreline or separated from the shoreline by a storm waves can penetrate beyond the cyclone shallow moat. or boat channel): (ii) barrier belt and that these also occasionally playa role (separated from the shoreline by a deep in reef erosion and islet shoreline deposition. It channel); or (iii) form atolls (reef rim with a should also be recognised that there is central lagoon) or (iv) reef islands (table or widespread evidence which indicates the platform reefs without a central lagoon). Out important role of storms in the accumulation of of a world total of some 3:30atolls identified by coastal deposits on reef islands (McLean, 1991). Cloud (1958) a majority of these are located in This is a natural process which, along with the South Pacific. sea-level changes over thousands of years, has From a coastal processes perspective, coral contributed to the formation of the habitable reefs are important because of the way they portions of atolls and table reef islands. produce characteristic coastal morphological Swell waves generated by large storms in the structures, affect water levels and currents mid-latitude regions of the North and South within the coastal zone and ultimately supply Pacific Ocean can travel vast distances with beach material (sand, pebbles and boulders) relatively little energy loss. The south facing from which beaches, small islands (islets, motu coasts of most South Pacific island countries or cays) and larger islands are constructed. are exposed to persistent southerly swell wave Coral reefs may be quite narrow (in the order conditions in all seasons. Moderate (2-4 m) to of 10 m wide) or very broad (up to several heavy (4-6 m) swell wave conditions are kilometres wide). They act as a first line of usually experienced during the southern defence against ocean waves and will always hemisphere winter (May-September) on the initiate wave breaking when the wave height south facing coasts of the exposed southern exceeds the water depth over the reef. In the islands of Fiji, Tonga, the Cook Islands and case of fringing reefs, which are probably the French Polynesia. However, heavy southerly most common type of coral reef structure in the swell conditions resulting in coastal damage coastal zone, the width and depth of the reef is are possible at any time of the year as reported critical in determining the residual energy of recently on the south coast of Rarotonga in the wave that acts on the shoreline. If the reef mid-December 1993 (Surf Report 1994). Low is narrow or deep (typically this means a reef (1-2 m) swells may also be experienced on the width of less than 50 m) the wave that starts to north facing coasts during the northern break on the reef edge contains most of its hemisphere winter (November-March). energy when it reaches the shoreline. In this case the reduction of wave forces that act on the shoreline is limited and erosive forces can be large.

14 Thus, during cyclones the waves acting on the Natural Sources of Beach Material beaches may exceed heights of 5 m. If the reef Natural beach material supply may be entirely is wide and shallow. then most of the wave from either of terrigenous or carbonate sources, energy will dissipate on the reef before or a combination of both. Terrigenous mater- reaching the shoreline (SOPAC/SPREP, 1993). ials dominate the shoreline near large rivers in Since most coral reef shelves are at a level close the larger volcanic islands of the Melanesian to low tide, with t id« ranges of 1-2 m, it follows countries. Various combinations of terrigenous that the reformed waves will rarely exceed 2 m and carbonate sediment sources are also in height. Friction caused by the width and common. However, the most distinctive and roughness of the reef nat further act to reduce widespread source of beach material is from the size of waves. In this case reefs act as an carbonate sources (coral, foraminifera, excellent natural first line of defence which Halimeda algae, and shells). absorbs most of the force of variations in wave Fringing coral reefs are not static structures; conditions. For this reason the preservation of they grow at quite rapid rates in geological coral reefs and coral reef environments is terms (ie. in the order of millimetres per year). critical to maintaining a natural coastal pro- Most of the reef structures (and the low-lying tection system around Pacific island countries. islands) formed their present shape when sea level rose after the last ice age. Various studies Water Levels and Currents on Fringing Reefs have shown (Hopley, 1982) that the thickness of the Holocene deposits over the last eight to The effect of fringing reefs on waves as they ten thousand years can be up to at least 15 m. travel over the reef also has a secondary effect The rapid growth of such reefs means that they that is important but has received little are productive. attention until recently (Gourlay, 1990). This secondary effect is the substantial increase in Wave action during storms is able to dislodge water level that can occur on the reef flat due material off the reef and transport it over the to the breaking waves pumping water on to the reef. Coral cays and coral islands are typically reef at a much greater rate than the water can formed by this natural replenishment of run off the reef (SOPAC/SPREP, 1993). beaches. The rate of production of beach build- ing materials on a coral reef greatly exceeds Indications are that the increase in water level the rates of carbonate beach production on due to the wave action is at a maximum when more temperate coastlines where coral reefs the still water level is at the surface level of the cannot exist. On atolls where there are quiet reef. Under these conditions the increase in lagoons, carbonate production can also be very the still water level at a beach with a fringing high in areas not subject to severe wave attack. reef of the order of 300 m wide or wider may be For instance in the case of Funafuti and equal to 50% of the incident wave height on the Rarotonga (Muri Lagoon), the calcareous algae reef edge. As the tide level over the reef Halimeda is a significant source of material for increases, the percentage increase in still water beach replenishment. In other lagoons such as level decreases. When the water depth over most of the Kiribati atolls, foraminifera are a the reef at its seaward edge is 3 m, the increase major contributor to the sediment supply in water level at the beach will only be about (SOPAC/SPREP, 1993). 10% of the deep water incident wave height. This localised increase in water level on the Carbonate beach material commonly becomes reef will in turn generate currents over the reef consolidated and is present along many and along the beach front, which may contri- shorelines as beach rock and conglomerate. bute to the rate at which sand is transported Beach rock is an intertidal cemented sandstone along a beach. The effect of "wave pumping" of which marks the present or former shoreline reef lagoon currents has also been well and slopes at the same angle as the beach. documented in the case of Muri Lagoon on Conglomerate is composed of coarser coral Rarotonga (Holden, 1992b). rubble and sand and can be very hard. It forms horizontal platforms and is often present on atolls as shore-parallel or shore-normal bands.

15 A major concern on small, limestone islands The common occurrence of mangroves and (atolls, reef islands and elevated islands) is the lower wave energy levels may also account for limited volume of beach material and its the frequently made assertion that extensive relatively low rate of natural replenishment in stands of mangroves along the shoreline comparison to present and anticipated rates of reduces wave energy and thus the potential for beach mining for use as construction aggreg- coastal erosion (Howorth et al, 1993). ates. For example, on , Tonga many However, the role of mangroves in reducing the beaches are subject to mining where the potential for coastal erosion may be more natural replenishment rate is believed to be indirect than direct. only 20·50% of the present extraction rate In any case, the maintenance of current (Tappin, 1993). In other words, sand extract- mangrove stands is considered to be beneficial ion is occurring at a rate two to five times as to the stability of shorelines as they help to rapid as it is being replaced. Obviously this bind the substrate sediment and act as a practise is not sustainable and much larger natural form of coastal protection (Hamilton alternate sources of material in moderate and Snedake, 1984). In addition, reforestation lagoon water depths have been located and of shoreline areas which are susceptible to delineated (Tappin and Sallenger, 1991; Lewis erosion is being considered as a viable coastal et aI, 1991). protection method which would be low cost and The understanding of natural sources of beach have minimal environmental impact. material and carbonate sediment budgets in many Pacific island nations is fundamental to Acknowledgments the management of coastal resources (Burne, Portions of this paper are based upon an earlier 1991). Despite this little quantitative review of Coastal Protection in the South information is available on the sources and Pacific as contained in SOPAC and SPREP rates of production of carbonate sand, the Report to the South Pacific Forum. That report dynamics of transport mechanisms along and was primarily derived from a review by Gerry across reefs and in lagoons, and the ultimate Byrne with contributions from the present fate of the sediment. author on coastal processes. The editorial assistance of Alan Sherwood is greatly Mangroves appreciated. Mangroves are widespread in tropical and The primary research for this review was subtropical waters and play an important role conducted while the author held the position of in geomorphic and sedimentation processes in Coastal Geologist with SOPAC from 1990-1992. coastal systems. In comparison to the Indian Funding for that position was provided by the Ocean and the Southeast-Asian region, Government of Canada. mangroves do not cover large areas on all islands in the Pacific Ocean: from west to east References across the Pacific there is a marked decrease in the number of mangrove species and a general Barstow, S. and Deo, R. 1993. A wave energy decline in mangrove forest stature. Mangroves resource climatology for the South Pacific. are absent from many small low islands and Proceedings of the European Wave Energy from most of Polynesia (Woodroffe, 1987). Symposium, Edinburgh, Scotland. Therefore, the potential role of mangroves. in Bayliss-Smith, T.P. 1988. The role of coastal systems in the Pacific varies spatially. hurricanes in the development of reef Although mangrove species will grow in a islands, Ontong Java Atoll, Solomon variety of sediments, including coral sand, they Islands. Geographical Journal 154: 377-391. attain full development on fme-grained, soft Burne, R'V, 1991. Carbonate sediment budgets organic muds deposited in estuarine or deltaic and coastal management in South Pacific locations. Because they are vulnerable to wave island nations. In: Workshop on Coastal action at all stages of their life history, they are Processes in the South Pacific Island absent from exposed stretches of shoreline and Nations, Lae, Papua New Guinea, 1-8 can occur on the open coast only in very low October 1987. SOPAC Technical Bulletin 7: energy environments (Davies, 1972). pp 45·53. Cloud, P.E. 1958. Nature and origin of atolls. Proceedings 8th Pacific Science Congress 3A: 1009-24.

16 Davies, J.L. 1972. Geographical Variation in McLean, RF. 1991. Weather and climate Coastal Development. Oliver and Boyd: interactions with coastal environmental Edinburgh. 204 p. systems in the South Pacific. In Proceedings 'of the Conference: South Pacific Environ- Gillie, RD. 1991: Beach profile surveys on ments: Interactions with Weather and Betio and Bairiki and along the Nippon Climate. Organised by Environmental Causeway, South Tarawa, Republic of Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, Kiribati, January, 1991. SOPAC New Zealand, pages 49-55. Preliminary Report 37: 22 pages. NIWAR, 1993. South Pacific Climate Monitor. Gillie, RD. 1993. Coastal erosion problems in Prepared by National Institute of Water and the Gilbert Islands Group, Republic of Atmospheric Research Ltd., Wellington, Kiribati. SOPAC Technical Report 167. New Zealand. Gourlay, M.R 1990. Waves, set-up and Rearic, D.M. 1990. Survey of currents on reefs - cay formation and damage to the northeastern coast of Upolu, stability. Proceedings of the Engineering in Western Samoa. SOPAC Technical Report Coral Reef Regions Conference, Townsville, 104. Australia: p. 249-~64. SOPAC/SPREP. 1993. Coastal protection in the Hamilton, L.S. and Snedake, S.C. (eds) 1984. South Pacific. Joint report prepared for the Handbook for mangrove area management. South Pacific Forum. South Pacific Applied UNEP/East·West Centre, Honolulu. Geoscience Commission, Suva, Fiji and Harper, J.R 1989. Evaluation of beach profile South Pacific Regional Environment data from Betio and Bairiki, Republic of Programme, Apia, Western Samoa. Kiribati. CCOP/ SOPAC Technical Report 94: 136 pages. Surf Report 1994. Monthly summary and forecast of world wide surfing conditions. Holden, B.J. 1992. Coastal damage inspection Vol. 15(1),p. 7. southwest Viti Levu, Fiji after Cyclone Sina. SOPAC Technical Report 148. Tappin, D.R 1993. Beach sand resources of Tonga. British Geological Survey, Technical Holden, B.J. 1992. Circulation and flushing in Report WC/93/31: 39 p. Ngatangiaa Harbour and Muri Lagoon, Tappin, D.R and Sallenger, AH., 1991. Rarotonga, Cook Islands. SOPAC Technical Coastal morphology and sediment study of Report 142: 52 p. Tongatapu, Kingdom of Tonga. In: Work- Hopley, D. 1982. Geomorphology of the Great shop on Coastal Processes in the South Barrier Reef Wiley-Interscience. Pacific Island Nations. SOPACTechnical 7: p. 131-144. Howorth, R 1991: Beach profile monitoring Bulletin programmes in Kiribati and Tuvalu Woodroffe, C.D. 1984. The impact of Cyclone (abstract). In: Workshop on Coastal Issac on the coast of Tonga. Pacific Science, Processes in the South Pacific Island vol 37(3), 181·210. Nations, Lae, Papua New Guinea, 1-8 Woodroffe, C.D. 1987. Pacific Island October 1987. SOPAC Technical Bulletin 7: 201. mangroves: distribution and environmental settings. Pacific Science, vol. 41(1-4). Howorth, R and Shorten, G. 1992. Report of the Second SOPAC Workshop on Coastal Processes in Island Nations of the South and Central Pacific. SOPAC Training Report 49: 16 p.; 3 app. Lewis, K.B., Smith, RB. and Pow, J.8., 1991: Future sand supplies of Tongatapu: viability of offshore mining. SOPAC Technical Reoort 134: 38 p.

17 Coastal Erosion as a Planned for and Preventable Occurrence

Peter Asher In this company and gathering, it might be As this is a Pacific region meeting; all of us easier to describe what I'm not, rather than here are familiar with coral reefs, wave action what I am. It does seem that facing me are a upon the shore, sea against the land, etc: lot of friends from around the Pacific who currents, cyclones, storms and what they do. already have their own opinions. I'm not a All our countries have 'coastal erosion' troubles government person and certainly not an of varying severity somewhere. Some of us expert! I am self employed; a contractor, an have been involved in their correction or adviser, a project manager and now it seems a prevention, and we ought to be able to identify resource person. I do have a small well the general types and sit.uations as mew's qualified and experienced company called influence apart, they will have pretty much Coastal Works, which has been involved in the similar or recognisable aspects. This being so, South Pacific for many years, in most with the aid of the volumes of published countries, generally on the outer islands rather material and wealth of experience available, we than the capital islands. We don't have a large should be able to establish some useful staff or infrastructure, and normally keep our guidelines or criteria to assist countries to expatriate input to a minimum, preferring to actually do something about their problems. use and train local people. While we should try and deal with existing coastal erosion problems and devise methods My background is in civil engineering of all and systems to remedy and repair damage types, and 25 years ago I combined this with occurred and occurring. It is also important my obsession for underwater activity. We and possible to plan to prevent further construct wharves, channels, harbours, break- instances either of a large scale or even down waters, usually in the remotest localities and to village beach level. many of the complaints the most difficult conditions; and also carry out of land damage caused by some action either the associated investigations, surveys, natural or man inspired, could have been estimates reports and feasibility studies, etc, to foreseen and prevented with education, enable implementation. knowledge, and understanding of effect and Our ability to work underwater often gains us consequence. the invitation to expand and complete the On a large scale; a reef wide causeway or above water components, as per foundations breakwater or wharf is bound to affect the structures, pilings for decks. We've been adjacent coastline. Prior to and during constr- employed in the Indian Ocean, in the Maldives uction the 'coastal erosion' component can be on 15 outer islands at 31 sites and in 12 South incorporated or installed and prevent the onset Pacific countries on around 60 outer islands of damage. We are already monitoring examp- and 175 sites. In the course of our travels and les of these. On a village level foot access to returns to countries we've become known and the reef which usually is along a well worn trusted, and because of our familiarity with the track, pushes high ground down hill with every conditions and varied work, have inevitably pedestrian. This can be spread, can be been asked for advice on; or solutions to; local improved, and can be incorporated into other 'coastal erosion' problems. Since 1972 I have facilities such as a boat unloading ramp or recorded these problems and naturally noted steps, all to minimise the slow motion mini- successes and failures, and find yearly more avalanche which is eventually giving the waves and more unresolved instances; or those that a starting point for attack and future erosion. are going unrecognised or unattended also not many, or any, that are real successes. We have environmental and ecological impact studies during planning for work but often the My particular interest is in the use of the 'coastal erosion' factor is glossed over until too already available research, facts, knowledge late and then solved with the "Aspirin" of the and experience to provide solutions and remed- coast gabions or rock revetments. At this stage ies in even the most remote localities, and the remedy is usually seen as dispro- where possible plan in advance to eliminate the portionately expensive in the context of the problems before they start especially to educate project. As with untreated rust, "coastal at any level to raise awareness of the problems. erosion" doesn't stop and a delay in treating it can be extremely serious no matter what scale.

18 I think we could eliminate many future Tokelau has had a shore problem for years problems with planning. Planning also means exacerbated, as in Rarotonga, up to about 1983 control. Control over the outside invention by beach mining for building sand. The NZ which, well intentioned or arrogant, can circ- military are traditionally used to mount an umvent any localised concern over environ- exercise and construct the panacea -- gabions. mental disruption - coastal erosion being one of Material to fill these coming from the island these. For example; the Japanese construction where they need all the coral rock left in place. company who built the Bairiki Betio causeway The design feature is that from the manu- in Tarawa, Kiribati built a fisheries complex on facturing manual adapted by a well meaning the island of Vaitupu in Tuvalu. This was I but ill experienced officer, and so on. believe against the wishes of a great proportion If it hasn't happened yet; it is preventable. If it of the people of Tuvalu and Vaitupu and has happened the technology is already avai- without any studies of the likely effect on the lable to be directed at most sites immediately. shores of Vaitupu, of the proposed deep water channel and the parallel breakwaters running As a private person and as a practitioner out at right angles to the beach. company, I feel that not enough attention is given to actualities, and too much attention is Three months after completion the break- given the subject without actually getting down waters had collapsed, the shores severely to site action - for example the Rarotongan eroded and the fisheries complex virtually CPU and COPEDS. unused. The erosion was to be contained by coral armour rock revetment over a 100 metre Coastal erosion is in danger of become a topic, length. a field, an interest, a discussion paper and certainly a career. To the person living on a Not enough thought, not enough experience, tiny atoll island whose church is being and certainly no planning for this predictable undermined, or whose pulaka or babai pits are happening. Warnings of this inevitable ruined it is a serious daily problem. To a large happening went unheard. In American Samoa heavily populated island, perhaps with res- on the island of Tau at the village of Tau they ources threatened, it is equally dangerous and lost a 40 metre wide section of the village over correspondingly important. a half mile length. A road and houses were lost. Despite this a million-dollar church was I am probably more of an advocate for the built on the sand escarpment above the newly smaller isolated outer islands who usually miss eroded section and the people still mine the out on the funds and projects and assistance. beach for sand and plate coral to fill the Often because they are too difficult to get to, foundations of houses under construction. As too uncomfortable to spend time in, and their for protection from the next cyclone, local problems are minor in comparison with those reaction is that no one knows what to do; the on capital islands. authorities don't care and they keep the As I am intending to continue working within concrete water tank cyclone shelters furnished. the South Pacific - probably never to surface at The Maldives are not our problem but all the a similar gathering. I appreciate the opport- houses are of coral there and they have always unity to make a plea for an integrated taken this from their fringing coral reefs. In approach which utilises the available exper- 1966 Jacque Cousteau told them to stop this or ience and knowledge to both, educate and work they would destroy all their natural protection. on the prevention of coastal erosion problems They carried on and still do so and most and perhaps even solve or minimise a few of recently found that storm waves are finding them. their way to the centres of some atolls and with the added scare of the sea level rise world wide, As I am usually at the site my perspective is are facing almost submergence or water- fairly subjective and I would hope that this logging. meeting will be the beginning of a more specific approach and the region's people become the beneficiary's of the outcome. Perhaps SPREP's role will achieve this and we can look towards a focusing on actualities rather than vague paper solutions.

19 Stabilisation of Island Shores

Dr. Richard Silvester

Abstract Crenulate shaped bays sculptured by waves between successive headlands are significant physiographic features on coastlines around the world. Many have remained in their current plan form for thousands of years. They have much to teach man in the task of stabilising beaches, as they reach a static equilibrium state when littoral drift becomes zero. This shape is now predictable so that stability can be tested.

Introduction Sandy beaches stand out as white strips between the blue of the ocean and the green of the hinterland, devoid of all plants and a true buffer between a live sea and immovable vegetation. They are beautifully curved with waves breaking simultaneously around their peripheries. Their parabolic shape is oriented to the persistent swell waves in a way that predicts the direction of movement of any excess sand that might find itself in the bay. On mainland coasts successive bays on a relatively straight coastline will have similar orientations, since the wave incidence will be sensibly the same for many kilometres. Each will have a tangential downcoast segment, joining a curved portion which becomes almost circular in the lee of the upward headland as depicted in Figure 1. The coastal curved zone has been likened to a logarithmic spiral, but Fig. 2: Wave refraction. and diffraction patterns this does not fit the more straight section of the in a static equilibrium bay bay. Bays are still present when sediment is by-passing through, when they are termed to This action inhibits littoral drift and also be in dynamic equilibrium. In this state they implies that each wave arrives at the same are not so indented, but when littoral drift time completely around the bay. Observation ceases they will erode back to some limit, the of this phenomenon is a good indication that shape of which can now be predicted with stability has been reached. The only variable certainty. in the process is the angle 0 of the control line The two conditions of stable and unstable are to the downcoast tangent, which, as stated indicated in Figure 1. As seen in this figure a before equals the angle to the wave crest line at control line joins the headlands, whose length the upcoast control point. Data for bay is shown as b (later to be termed Ro), angled 0 characteristics have been obtained from model to the downcoast tangent of the bay as well as tests (Eo, 1971) plus prototype bays, the crests of the waves. The indentation "a" is particularly those on islands and peninsulars, measured normal from the control line to a because they are in static equilibrium due to tangent parallel to it. The parallel deepwater not having rivers feed them with sediment. orthogonals refract and diffract to the shore, arriving there normal to it (Figure 2). Bay Characteristics It is being accepted that the ~ recorded. Tho ot her variables in predicting the parabolic between the control line and the down coast shape are indicated in Figure :3, where it is tangent of the existing beach is for stable conditions, when in fact the bay may not be in seen that con: rol line length is Ro at angle ~ to static equilibrium. This part of the bay will be the wave crr~stline. Other radii are designated the first to reach this condition and hence little I{ at ang-Ie U to t ho wave crestline. Many data error is involved. points values of H/l{o were plotted against ~ over a rang-e of U. rcsult ing in a suitable graph Equation (1) has been verified on model and for desig-n purposes. prototype bays, over a range of ~ values. The waterline predictions match extremely well for Whon the pn~dic{(~d shape is plotted on the the bulk of the peripheries. The greatest plan of' an exist ing bay and it falls shoreward of difference is for larger (1, or in the lee of the its watcrl ino it IS accepted as unstable. upcoast headland, particularly for prototype 1100\'(~v(:r.the final limit of erosion is found, bays. One reason for this is the transport of behind wh ich a II infrast ructuro should be kept. sand into this enclosure during storms, when 1n fact, it shou lrl be retained beyond the water waves arrive from many directions. Because of line that could exist in a storm condition, equal the large diffraction suffered by subsequent to the wirlt h of the berm in bays nearby, or the swell waves, with greatly reduced height, bay itself' if' shown by an aerial photograph. It removal of this accretion is difficult so that true is seen that this actual erosion limit is better to equilibrium is not readily reached. observe than a constant set-back line around the whole bay periphery, as is normally A swifter test for stability is to determine the accepted. indentation "a", and find a/RD. Should the point fall on the curve the bay is stable, but if below it then instability. This is because the shoreline will retreat until the curve is reached. Points should never fall above this line. The angle between the wavecrest line and

R is 8c (value of 8 at greatest indentation) which is given by:

8c = 6a + 1.0413 ---(2) The bay could be roughly drawn in plan just with knowledge of aIHo, by commencing downcoast at angle Ii to the control line. The beach then becomes asymptotic to a tangent parallel to the control line at distance "a" from it. The curvature would be increased into the lee of the up headland. This approach is useful whilst many synthetic headland positions are being tested in a stabilisation programme, Fig. 3: Definition sketch. of a new parabolic known as "headland control". Once the final approach to bay shape locations are decided the correct equilibrium shape can be determined. The curves obtained from plotting R/Ro against ~~over a range of 8 have been computerised to Islands Bays give an equation: Although it has been stated that bays on islands are more likely to be in static R/Ro = Co + Cj (~V8)+ C2 GV8)2 ---(1) equilibrium, because rivers are not large enough to feed sediment to the coast, it should of which the coefficients C vary witb B. To not be inferred that they therefore cannot assist in design a table is provided in Silvester erode. Two influences by man will be discussed and Hsu (W98) from which values of Co ' Cj , here, but there are many more that can cause C2 and RlHo are given for a range of ~ from 20° localised erosion. to 80° in increments of 2° These are for increments of 15° for 8 from aoo to 90° and of aoo from 900 to 180°. Once 13 is determined, R/Ro is found for any e, from which R is determined once Ro is known.

21 When the waterline of a bay has not altered in A prime example of this action is illustrated for decades man becomes very brave and wants to lwafune harbour, Japan (Fig. 4). The static encroach on this very stable beach. He bay shape is shown dashed for 1965, when the constructs buildings or promenade walks with breakwater ended at A. However, when it was associated sea walls. This reduces the volume extended to B accretion commenced as the of beach available to the storm waves in the shoreline tended towards the salient shape for construction of an offshore bar, which limits BD, also indicated by a dashed line. It is seen this transient erosion phase. Thus waves that by 1988 the waterline had not reached this attack the wall and overtop it, with great equilibrium state. The further extension of the dismay of the designers. Even in the breakwater to C can only exacerbate the subsequent restoration of the beach this situation. Many similar mistakes have been "protected" section has difficulty in forming a made on smaller scales, but the principles are berm in front of it because of continued wave the same. reflection from the wall. All seawalls, no matter of what shape or material, will remove Conclusion beaches from in front of them and also The emphasis given by the writer to stable bay downcoast for a considerable distance. This is shapes deserves no apology as it is believed by an axiom that all coastal managers must him to be the breakthrough that has been accept. needed by the coastal engineering fraternity. Another well known mistake made with bays It is a case of watching Nature and seeing how that are in static equilibrium, is the extension She creates eternity. On the coast this involves of the upcoast headland by breakwaters, a sculpturing process by persistent swell waves ostensibly to provide calmer water for that results in bays between headlands that navigation. This produces a new diffraction remain stable for decades or for hundreds of point and hence new shapes of wave crests in years, so long as the wave climate remains the wave shadow. With knowledge of a new steady. control line and angle, the stable bay tending The shorelines of small ocean islands are only to form will involve silting in the harbour different to those on mainlands by the volume region and erosion further downcoast due to of sand available to form beaches. Due to this the provision of this material. paucity, greater safeguards are needed in order to retain this valuable asset in places where it is required for tourist or other purposes. Alternative coastal defence measures of sea- walls, groynes and offshore breakwaters used elsewhere are anathema to island situations. The alternative of beach renourishment, by extracting sand from offshore or from within reefs, can be effective. However, it should never be adopted unless some headlands are installed to keep it in place to form stable bays.

References Ho, S.K. 1971. Crenulata shaped bays. Asian lnst. Tech., Master Eng. Thesis, No. 346. Pullan, R. (Ed) 1983. Guide to the Australian Coast. Readers Digest, Sydney, Australia. Silvester, R. 1974. Coastal Engineering. Volume 2. Elsevier, Amsterdam. Silvester, R. and Hsu, J.R.C. 1993. Coastal Stabilisation: Innovative Concepts. Prentice Hall, USA.

22 Coastal Engineering in the Pacific

Gerry Byrne In both cases they obstruct the nat-ural Introduction drainage paths for water on the reef flat and The purpose of this discussion is to highlight can cause a build up in water levels. Obviously some of the factors peculiar to tropical islands both these activities are socially and that have an important bearing on coastal economically desirable in certain locations. engineering. In my view the factors are Any design, however, has to consider all the sufficiently important that solutions to coastal possible consequences. problems that might work well on temperate The fact that blocking drainage paths for water coastlines have to be reviewed very carefully on the reef flat causes an increase in energy on before they are applied to tropical coastlines. It the coast, gives a clue to possible solutions to is also possible that there are solutions to problems in certain circumstances. Rather problems that can take advantage of the than protecting shorelines with large unique features of tropical coasts to give revetments, it might be possible in some places appropriate, cost effective protection. to reduce the wave energy by creating more Because of the continuing development press- efficient drainage paths for the water and to ure on coastal lands in most Pacific countries reduce the wave heights. and because of the need to protect existing Density assets in the vulnerable coastal zone, properly engineered structures are going to continue to Most beaches, at least on the carbonate coasts, be required. A large number of coastal prot- are derived from a mixture of coral detritus, ection solutions have been tried in the Pacific foraminifera and Halimeda. The relative and many of them have had only limited proportions of each of these varies from island success. It would be useful to document the to island and even from beach to beach. How- positive and negative features of solutions that ever, as a general rule the sands of biogenic have been tried in each country. In that way a origin are in the form of skeletal structures database of options, can be built up based on that are far less dense than sands of terri- local experience. genous origin. The stability of a sand beach is a function of the square of the sand density. Particular Features of Tropical Coasts This means that the carbonate sediments are Wave Heights much more mobile than would be the case for quartz sands of similar size. The behaviour of The most significant coastal difference between carbonate beaches is therefore much more the Pacific island nations and other countries sensitive to any changes than might be anti- in more temperate areas is the fringing reef. cipated using experience and formulae that that surrounds most of the shorelines. have been developed in more temperate Although this reef can vary in width from a few climates. tens of metres to over a kilometre, it has the very great benefit of limiting the wave height Sand Thickness to a little more than half of the water depth A number of experiments have demonstrated that exists at the time. The energy transmitted that an important factor in beach stability is by waves to the shore is proportional to the the ease with which the water in the wave cube of the wave height. Therefore the ability runup can drain through the sand. Some of the reef to limit this wave height IS the most beaches have built up quite quickly when the critical factor in the relative stability of tropical water table under the beach has been shorelines. artificially covered. Many carbonate beaches Because of the dramatic increase in wave have very poor drainage characteristics energy with increased depth, any factor that because of the presence of beach rock. increases the depth of water over the reef can While beach rock is a very important factor in have a marked effect on the coastal processes. stabilising coastlines, a consequence is that Two common activities occur that can have this there is often only a thin veneer of mobile sand side effect. They are the construction of cause- and this sand has only a limited capacity to ways between islands and the construction of absorb water. protected harbours around existing river mouths.

23 Age of Beaches Conclusion All of the tropical beaches are of holocene The Pacific islands have particular character- origin and have only formed since the sea level istics along their coasts 1 hat different iat.o them stabilised about 6000 years ago, and quite often from coastlines in more tornpcrat« climates. only since the reef has grown up to its present This means that technologies devrdoped in level. In some cases this might be only 1-2000 temperate climates for coastal p rot.oct.ion need years ago. The carbonate beaches are being to be applied with cau t ion in the Pacific. supplied by biogenic debris from the reef flat. There is an opport unity to develop approp riar.o The whole process that is occurring at any site technologies that tah advanta~e of the needs to be understood before the real long particular coastal characteristics. Tlwse of term behaviour of the beach in any course need to be prop(~rly tested and circumstance can be predicted. engineered. Coastal Protection Structures There is also the opportunity to 1(';'lrn from previous experiences in the Pacific by system- Many conventional types of coastal protection atic documentation of C

24 Annex 4: Country Papers

AMERICAN SAMOA:

Coastal Protection in American Samoa

American Samoa Coastal Management Program (ASCMP), Economic Development Planning Office.

Introduction Coastal Issues and Problems in American Samoa General Description Coastal Erosion, Sandm.ining, Landfilling American Samoa is a group of seven islands (5 and Littering volcanic islands and two coral atolls), located in tho South Pacific. The land area of the islands Shoreline erosion has been a major problem in is approximately 7G square miles. The five American Samoa, at least since the end of volcanic islands. which are the major inhabited World War II. There is limited nat land and islands of American Samoa, are Tutuila, most of that is in the form of narrow coastal Auriu'u , Ofu, Olosega and Ta'u. Tutuila, the plains at the base of steep mountains. As a largest island, is also the centre of government result, almost all villages are built along the and business. Aunu'u, a satellite of Tutuila, coast, close to or impinging upon the shoreline. lies one mile off the southeast coast ofTutuila. Altering and changing the use or the natural The three islands of Ofu. Oloscga and Ta'u, shoreline may have caused the shoreline collectively referred to as the Manu'a Islands, problems. am 6G miles east of Tutuila. This is evident by the removal of reef flat ASCMP-Brief History material for construction fill, the filling of reef The American Samoa Coastal Management Hats to increase village land, and the Program was established in the Territory in development of low elevations of coastal plains. l!)80, under the stewardship of the National The US Army Corp Study 1989 - Shoreline Oceanic Atmospheric Association/Ocean Coast- Inventory of American Samoa - reported that al Resources Management Office of the U.S. there was a strong correlation between man's Federal Government. In 19DO, the American development of the foreshore and immediate Samoa Fono passed legislation on coastal backshore areas, and the occurrence of shore- management binding the Territory and its line erosion. It was reported in th is study that people to conform and abide by regulations and nearshore development has resulted in shore policies regarding the coastal zone. erosion, but in numerous cases serious erosion The legislation establishes the coastal zone could be linked to disturbance of the foreshore management areas as the entire island of or the reef flat. On the other hand, no serious Tutuila, the Manu'a Island group, Aunu'u erosion was observed in undeveloped areas. island, Rose island, and Swains Island, Terri- Boat channels or even shallow bulldozed paths tory of American Samoa. and all coastal waters across the reef flats were an obvious cause or' and submerged lands for a distance of :3 erosion. Such channels provide a pathway for nautical miles seaward in all directions there- rip currents releasing the wave setup on the from, are declared within the coastal manage- reef flat during periods of intense wave action ment area and subject to coastal zone manage- (ie. this was apparent in the north coast ment policies of the Territory of American villages of Tutuila Island). Samoa. Thus, the most apparent cause of erosion, and that resulting in the most severe erosion, was the removal of material from the reef flat, either by bulldozing the surface layers of excavation of borrow pits. Examples of areas affected by borrow pits are Point, Fagaalu Bay, the Ava Point area in Pago Pago harbour, and Alofau, all on Tutuila Island. The resultant causes of erosion are twofold. The Role and Functions of the American First, a sand producing reef is taken out of Samoa Coastal Management Program in production, thereby reducing the input of new alleviating Coastal Issues and Problems sand to the area. Second, the borrow pits are The American Samoa Coastal Management limitless sinks, interrupting onshore-offshore Program developed a means to screen all or alongshore sand transport. developments in the area through the land use Another cause of erosion is the removal of sand permit process and Project Notification Review from the foreshore, or sandmining. Sand is System (PNRS), which was mandated in the carted away in burlap bags, baskets, and pick- 1990 legislation. The land use permit process up trucks. was put into action in 1988. So far, the Land Use and PNRS systems have become a way to A third, and less obvious, cause of erosion review developments in the Territory, includ- might be the deterioration of the reef due to ing landfilling and sandmining along the coast. agricultural and urban development onshore and subsequent siltation on the reef. This Land Use Permit process and PNRS would also reduce the amount of new sand By law, everyone must have in their possession provided for the littoral processes. all approved permits before starting any work All land fill areas are subject to erosion as the on land or along the coast. The system in place natural balance has been interrupted. Such has been effective and rewarding as it offers a areas are extensive in American Samoa and unique situation to mitigate against locating in almost without exception require shore areas prone to cause hazards. The heart of the protection measures. land use permit system is the Project Notification Review System (pNRS). The foreshore configuration in American Samoa seems sensitive to human beings' The PNRS involves several American Samoa actions. Trash dumping or littering along the governmental agencies, each with its own coast is a disgraceful scene in American Samoa, technical expertise and authority over various this inhibits the littoral processes. economic, social and environmental planning concerns. There are few, if any, large nearshore sand deposits on some reef flats, but again the Members of the PNRS include the following: quantity of sand is limited. Deposits, if any, • American Samoa Environmental seaward of the reef flat are in relatively deep Protection Agency water, and most likely not a significant source of sand to the foreshore. As a result of the • Department of Marine and Wildlife limited sand quantities, the beaches are Resources evidently in a delicate balance, and an inter- • Public Health Division ruption of that balance has a proportionately greater negative effect. • Department of Public Works The US Army Corp Shoreline Inventory of • American Samoa Power Authority American Samoa (1989) reports that about • Economic Development Planning Office 25,630 feet of shoreline (of the 63,560 feet of (EDPO) shoreline studied) are listed in critical condition. To date, 2,670 feet are authorised • Department of Parks and Recreation for revetment improvements, and 14,590 feet • TEMCO are under investigation or under study for shore protection. That leaves 8,030 feet of These agencies will review a land use shoreline classified in critical erosion not yet application and inform the applicant of any addressed for protective action. Protective environmental concerns which may arise. The action ranges from relatively minor toe stabil- applicant is required to participate in the isation to construction of new revetments. PNRS process. Before a proposal to develop gets to the PNRS, the applicant must have completed the land use and building permit application (LUPA) which is available at EDPO. The land use permit application contains a host of requirements that the applicant must complete for EDPO to make a determination on the case (whether it is a major or minor case).

26 A site plan, a vicinity map and land ownership (f) Slope Erosion papers must be submitted with the completed Objective LUPA The LUPA requests detailed information on what the nature, size, location, Reduce soil erosion and type of the project you are applying for. What t.his regulation means is that clearing, Before the case goes before the PNRS a site grading, or construction on slopes greater than visit is conducted for the proposed purpose, it is 40% shall be avoided and will be permitted only usually at this stage that the members of the if no feasible, environmentally preferable PNRS visually assess the location, scale, and alternatives to the proposed activity exist. type of project and the likely impacts. At the (i) Pala Lagoon PNRS, all the participating agencies will-have Objective prepared a report on the projects listed in an agenda which will outline concerns and Enhance and restore the water quality, highlight their regulations. A decision will be fish and wildlife, and recreation values of rendered on the case, and/or tabled at the Pala Lagoon PNRS meeting dependi.ng on the nature of the Policy LUP A and scale of the' project. The following use priorities shall be The following policies are used by the established for Pala Lagoon and its American Samoa Coastal Management to guide adjacent wetlands and beaches: development in an orderly fashion so as to prevent coastal problems. The following is a (1) Nonpolluting, nondestructive uses review of the policies and regulations which and activities, such as fishing, swimm- highlight protection and preservation of the ing, shelling, mariculture, boating coastal zone in American Samoa. (including facilities and access), and necessary restoration measures shall Coastal Monagement Regulations receive highest priority. The American Samoa Coastal Management Program has in place several mitigative (2) Those uses and activities which would regulations in its mandate, such as in section interfere with the natural characteristics 2fi0209 or as follows: and values of the lagoon and are not necessary for restoration or recreation (c) Shoreline Development shall receive lowest priority. Objective (3) The villages adjacent to the lagoon Assure that lands adjacent to the sea are shall receive high priority for hookup to developed in a way least damaging to the government sewer system. coastal resources and that. reduces the risk of damage resulting from coastal The Future - Efforts of ASCMP hazards. Efforts to Combat Coastal Erosion What this regulation means is that if you have Sand mining was chosen as the primary project a proposal to build a house, fill, clear or for ASCMP to combat shoreline erosion. Var- sandmine along the shoreline (coast), your case ious agencies in American Samoa have juris- will be denied. The only projects allowed along diction to prohibit. removal of sand. However, the shoreline are for a public, cultural and there is often r~mfusion or overlap in enforcing water dependent uses (eg. park, clam farming, regulations to prevent sandmining. The first burial grounds, etc). step in alleviating the enforcement and proh- (d) Coastal Hazards ibit.ion of sandmining is t.o gather the various agencies t.ogether to iron out the concerns and OlJjecll:[)(' come to a consensus. A.SCMP will hold a meet- Lteduce hazards to life and property from ing for the Directors of the: flooding. slides and shoreline erosion. • Department of Parks and Recreation Basically what this means is that development • Department of Public Safety in this area will only be permitted if there is a public need, you have no other alternative and • Department of Public Works you will need to support your LUPA with an • Department of Marine and Wildlife engineering design. etc. Resources • Samoan Affairs

• Attorney General's Office

27 Coastal Protection in the Pacific islands

The intent is to educate them on the need to ASCMP has funded public awareness camp- act now, outline actions, and find out their aigns for 1994. Daily public service announce- opinions, as well as clarifying their respective ments are broadcasted on radio and TV. In roles and jurisdiction over enforcing and general, the public service announcements monitoring sand mining. highlight the rise in sand mining and the various problems sand mining is causing the A technical working group with these agencies Territory >- e.g. reef and fish habitat loss, and will convene next month to develop a public littoral loss. awareness campaign to educate the public on the effects of sand mining on the coasts of American Samoa. The main target audience of these public awareness campaigns will be the pulenu'u. Another measure the group will be target is to recruit the pulenu'u to enforce and monitor sand mining within all the villages. The village pulenu'u will also be encouraged to assist the technical working group to draft a village ordinance on sand mining.

28 COOK ISLANDS: Coastal Protection Problems and Solutions - Rarotonga, Cook Islands

On Rarotonga there are two main types of This phenomena then induced both privat.e coastal area. people and successive Governments who were wat.ching their properties disappear to attempt The first is the cyclone prone coast, situated various methods of so called "coastal mainly on the northern side which has a protection", which most commonly took the narrow red' width and shallow lagoon and a form of dumping various sized rocks and all shoreline consisting of coral rubble and sand manner of objects on the beach in front of their embankments. This is where the main town, properties. This approach merely increased port. airport, and major infrastructure are the erosion rate on both their own and located. adjoining properties and in some instances The second has wider reefs, deeper lagoons and added more pollutants to the lagoon to sandy beach shorelines and this is where the accelerate the reduction of sediment supply, main tourist accommodation and tourist With the advent of a tourist based economy and recreational activity is situated. an increased dependence on our natural Coastal problems on Rarotonga are fairly environment, these practices clearly had to island wide and fall into two main categories. stop. The country was advertising wide sandy beaches and clear lagoons, not rock rubble • On the cyclone prone coast there is a strewn shorelines and dead lagoons. limited area of sandy beach shoreline with mostly coral rubble shores ranging As there became an awareness that our in height from 2 m to 6 m above mean economy, our receding shorelines, and our water level. The problems in this area environment, were all linked together, the are mainly from sea surge during Cook Islands Government started taking steps cyclones which overtops the shore crest to try to retrieve the situation. causing severe damage to assets The first step was legislative, and involved the backshore including buildings, roads, passing of a Conservation Act which brought and other infrastructure. into effect a Conservation Service and made • On the sandy beach shoreline the provision for Coastal Management. Planning problem is more one of chronic erosion and Controls. Just as importantly, this Cons- with coastal retreat and loss of sandy ervation Service was also given the respons- beaches. Most, if not all, of this is a ibilities of creating educational programs to direct result. of man's activities both past make the general public aware of the problems and present .. These include sand mining the country faced. of the beaches, attempts at various types Two other important and necessary steps of coastal protection, (rock revetments, which were taken were the investigation and groynes, breakwaters, concrete seawalls, planning of sewage treatment and land usage coconut log walls) and gradual pollution practices including the use of agricultural of the lagoon by land usage activities chemicals, chemical fertilisers and other which have increased pollutant runoffs sources of lagoo.: pollution. via the rivers and streams. There has also been an increase in habitation on However, while these were important the coastal strip with a consequent management and planning steps which would increase of pollutants such as sewage have long term effects, there was still the nutrients entering the lagoon through problem of finding an acceptable means of the water lens which flows underground coast.al protection, both for sandy beach areas into the lagoon right around the island. and for the cyclone prone coastlines. As the sand sediments that make up t.he Thus we needed to somehow find a balance shoreline are of biological origin and losses are between our eroding sandy beach shorelines, taking place all the time, any pollution impact the tourist industry, the need for protection reduces production of t.hese sediments and against hurricane force seas, and the there is not. enough produced t.o replace the requirement to maintain the coast.al environ- losses causing t.he beach to degrade and ment. erode.

29 The conventional response to these problems These new systems meet all tho above listed had been to construct hard structures such as requirements and protect against sea damage. concrete sea walls, rock boulder revetments, and also maintains and actively helps to groynes, and rock breakwaters. These struct- recover important coastal environs and where ures were usually designed with sufficient bulk applicable turns coastal protection into attract- and height to withstand and overpower incom- ive recreational promenades. ing waves and thus "hopefully" protect the land As a consequence of these developments our properties behind them. Government is presently utilising this techn- However, these structures are expensive and ology to regain valuable recreational beaches require considerable effort to construct, and to design protection against major hurri- maintain, and repair after cyclones and cane force seas for six kilometres on the tropical· storms. It was also being recognised northern coastline. world wide, that in terms of providing effective While these new systems have world wide protection against coastal retreat and application we believe they are of special destruction that these solid structures perform interest to small Pacific island countries poorly. Besides being a detraction from the because of their ability to create long term, natural scenery these solid wall defence environmentally sound protection and to structures frequently increase coastal damage mitigate the effects of possible sea level rise. by enhancing erosion, degrade the environ- ment, breakdown under increased pressure, Limitation of material resources are also a and can eventually help destroy the very areas problem in these countries and the new system they are designed to protect. meets the need to both gain optimum use of those resources and to allow coastal protection Therefore the conventional approach did not fit design which will enhance and increase these our needs, was not a satisfactory way of material resources and not degrade them. combating our problem, and was not environmentally acceptable. Thus one installation of the system in the Cook Islands which used 190 cubic metres of What our country required was coastal protect- material resource (sand and aggregate) not ion that was long term, cost effective, and as only stopped beach erosion and afforded coastal maintenance free as possible. It needed to protection but over a t.wo year period rebuilt. a preserve and if possible rebuild our beaches. It wide sandy beach and induced a gain to the needed to be as low as possible in height, allow shoreline of 6,000 cubic metres of beach lagoon and ocean views and also allow normal material. water flows to prevent lagoon degradation and stagnation. It needed to be aesthetic, allow Another inst.allat.ion for hurricane force seas recreational use of the shoreline and above all requires only 508 cubic metres of mat.erial should enhance the coastal environment and resource (sand and aggregate) and costs 30% not degrade it. less than a rock wall to do the same job which required 2,680 cubic metres of mat.erial However, while it was obvious that we needed resource (rock, sand, aggregate). such coastal protection, it was found that when it came to Hurricane force seas we had very To sum up, we believe that effect.ive coastal little factual data on the sea states during prot.ection is not just a matt.er of hard these events to work on. This was particularly engineered struct.ures but. that it should consist true regarding water levels and wave heights of a blend of careful assessment of the actual in the lagoon. Therefore another requirement problem, coastal management planning, proper was a means of obtaining accurate data on the st.udies of coast.al processes, careful environ- sea states and the potential damage that would ment.al assessment., and where possible a mani- be incurred if, or when a major cyclone hit the pulation of t.he exist.ing coast.al processes t.o island. achieve t.he desired result. Utilising the latest computer techniques and It. has been our experience that this is also t.he working closely with a large research univers- most cost effect.ive approach. ity, coastal scientists, and coastal laboratories, this company has now developed entirely new systems of coastal protection technology which utilise the physics of wave energy and natur- ally occurring coastal processes.

30 FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA

Coastal Protection in the Federated States of Micronesia

Dredging destroys coral reef habitat. Silt In trod uction produced during dredging can also affect The Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) is a nearby reef areas which results in the young developing nation which consists of four reduction of fish. Dredged areas are made un- island States (Chuuk, Kosrae, Pohnpei and suitable for tourism, snorkelling and scuba Yap) varymg SIzes from large high diving. It can cause changes in current patt- mountainous islands of volcanic origin to small erns, increasing shoreline erosion, damaging low coral atolls which are scattered across an underwater historical artefacts such as area of about l.G million square miles of the shipwrecks. Pacific. Sand is produced by nature at a generally fixed The population is approximately 110,000 and slow rate. Sand mining to obtain building people, heterogenous mixture of people with a materials, can cause erosion and loss of each. diversity in culture and traditions bound Historic and cultural sites can be destroyed together by history and common aspiration. during sand mining. The commonly classified Micronesian people, Filling destroys wetlands and reef flats. Wet- with their origins coming from Southeast Asia, lands are an especially valuable resource both Malaysia, and Polynesia have a diversity of directly and indirectly. Direct benefits include culture which is typified by the existence of fuel wood, timber, fishes and mangrove crabs. eight major indigenous (Kosraean, Pohnpeian, Yapese, Kapingamarangian, Nukuoro, Wetlands are important nursery areas for many mangrove and swamp trees species Ulithian, Woleaian, and Chuukese). English, which are sensitive to salinity. however, is the official language of the government and is taught in schools at all Resources extraction is impacted from the levels throughout the nation. following: Having said all the above, let me begin by Inshore Fishing illustrat.ing the coastal issues in the FSM, • Fish and shellfish are renewable identifying their impacts and perhaps some of resources. When these animals are the recommendations that were recognised harvested, they are replaced by the with assistance of the University of Hawaii Sea colonisation and growth of new areas. Grant Extension Services in their reports. There is, however, a maximum number that can be caught in a year and if more Impacts on FSM Coastal Areas than this number is caught, there will be Construction and infrastructure development fewer animals to catch in the future. are affeeted by: 1) road alignment, (2) land Destructive fishing methods, such as dearing; (3) dredging; (4) sand mining; (5) poisoning, dynamiting coral reefs harm filling of wetlands and reef flat. marine life and the environment. The purpose of roads is to improve access to an Harvesting Wetland Forest Resources area and with easier access there will be more • Mangrove wood is a renewable resource intensive use of the area which can conflict like fish. Degradation of mangrove res- with efforts to conserve resources in the area. ources is occurring through, clearing and Roads along the shoreline are subject to infilling to create new house sites and damage in rapidly eroding areas and may expand old ones, cutting of fi.rewood, silt- conflict with the tourism sites. ation from on-shore soil erosion arising Land clearing and earthmoving in the FSM has from road building, earthmoving and a tremendous impact on vegetation which pro- agricultural activities, use of mangroves tects the land from erosion. During rainstorms as landfills for household garbage and soil is carried off bare land. The siltation of other solid waste. rivers and coastal waters that results reduces Aside from reducing future wood harvests, water quality and kills the coral reef, which in extensive wood cutting can destroy habitat, turn, cannot support. the fish which subsist on damage fisheries, ruin the ability of the area to the reef. Erosion destroys the agriculture and attract tourism, and increase sedimentation on forestry land value and clearing may destroy the reef. important habitat, cultural and historic sites.

31 Population and economic growth contributes Recommendations untreated human and animal waste, solid Listed are some of the priority recommendation waste disposal and littering. Construction on for the FSM Resources Management Program. shore and spillage of oil products. • If roads are built through swamps, Untreated human and animal wastes entering sufficient culverts should be built to coastal waters contaminate drinking water, maintain hydrological balance in the bathing areas, and shellfish, causing illness to swamp. Road alignment should be set people who use these resources. Sewage red- enough inland to prevent future erosion, uces water quality, damages coral reefs and surf, and tidal impacts. reduces fisheries yields. Solid waste disposal and littering of plastics and other non- • Dredging operations for coral fill should be biodegradable materials are harmful to marine confined to the existing sit.es. Retaining life. Roadside dumps and litter are unsightly walls should enclose coral fill dredging and will hurt tourism development. Some ponds before operat.ions begin. Dredge kinds of household trash contain dangerous spill should not be discarded in t.he poisons that can escape into coastal waters mangrove swamps. killing marine life. • Sandmining should not. be allowed up- Construction of structures such as sea walls, current of any shoreline t.hat is act.ively causeways, and groynes, that interrupt natural eroding and all conversion of wet.lands processes (eg movement of sand), can affect the should be allowed only in identified shape of the shoreline in adjacent areas. suitable areas. Construction on the shore also destroys historic • In accordance t.o inshore fishing, a marine and cultural sites. sanctuary should be established at. Spilling of gasoline and lubricating oil is one of designated areas and can act. as a source of the concerns of the FSM Government with the seed fish to replenish t.he reefs around it.. increasing number of fishing vessels and other • A stock assessment. of not. only mangrove commercial vessels in the FSM water. They crabs but ot.her marine resources should be are considered very poisonous even in small completed and used t.o develop a quantities and can kill marine life. management plan. Up to date, erosion at the shoreline and coastal • A public education program on fisheries areas in the FSM is conspicuous. Erosion is conservation matters should be init.iated as not a human made problem but people make it well as passing legislation t.o enable MRD worse. Coastal construction, and dredging are or ot.her fishery Agencies to establish activities that can be affected by erosion. In fishing and forestry harvesting regulations most places in the FSM, the shoreline is a as needed. Legislation is needed t.o dynamic environment. Its shape is constantly implement. the wetland management plan. changing over time because of waves and winds. This process is not a problem until a • It is recommended that planned village person builds something on a changing shore- waste t.reatment and disposal syst.ems line or removes material. should be constructed. The ongoing wat.er seal t.oilet building program and sanitary waste disposal permit syst.em should be continued. • The clean up of road side dumps and their relocation t.o less visible places should be encouraged, and municipal dumps should be relocat.ed away from wetland areas t.o up land sit.es. • More effectively, an anti-litter campaign and a public education program about. disposal of toxic mat.erials should be initiated as well as a legislation and pollut.ion cont.rol. • A regular monitoring program should be init.iated t.o measure changes in beach profiles.

32 FIJI

Fiji has very distinctive coasts which comprise Also during this time (1970s on) tourism and one or a combination of two or more of these coastal urban infrastructure development has physical features: increased dramatically in Fiji. Reclamation sea walls, groins and jetties are being approved by • barrierllagoons, reefs, fringing reefs; politicians and planners and implemented by • natural beaches; developers. Some of these projects have also • mangroves; failed after a decade or so. • deltas; and, • cliffs/rock outcrop. Best examples of these major developments are the Regents of Fiji Resort and the Sheraton Our first major coastal engineering structure Hotel where seawalls and groins were was probably the rock boulders breakwater at constructed. The front of the sea wall was Laucala Bay constructed during WWII by the eroded causing parts of the wall to collapse and Royal New Zealand Air Force. The seawalls the groin stopped the down drift supply of sand extending around the Suva peninsula to the to the Regent Hotel which does not have a sea central city was second. And this was wall. This is the same for the Fijian Hotel constructed to stop the fill material used to where the management allowed sand mining of reclaim the Suva foreshore, extending through the spit, thereby removing the vegetation cover the Victoria Parade and central Suva city, from allowing erosion to easily take place. eroding. The sea wall had withstood its tests over a span of almost 30 years. This stability In summary, I would like to categorise two has rapidly changed over the last few years levels of coastal protection implementations in and I believe is caused by the change in wave Fiji: and current conditions due to various 1. the learned policy makers, planners and reclamation works around the Suva city developers level; and, foreshore. 2. the village community level. Ever since then our coasts have been littered with various protection systems including: At both levels of implementations irrespective if one is a villager, or a qualified planner / dev- • concrete seawalls; eloper, failure is a common result. Through • rip-rap revetments (volcanic rock/coral requests to identify causes of failure I can only boulders); put it to the following reasons: • groms; • jetties; and, 1. misconception that the coast is stable; and, • reclamation land. 2. do not understand the wave/current cond- Out of all these systems the two most itions that operate at a specific site. commonly used are concrete seawalls and rip- Therefore the foremost and the first need for rap revetments. To my mind these coastal Fiji and maybe my island nation counterparts protection systems began to be commonly used are as follows: in the 1970's onward in coastal villages and the first instance as protection against tidal waves 1. Educate the people so we can speak the or storm surges. These were self help projects same language in this regard; funded partly by donor countries and in part by 2. Information needed for data collection: the villages. Also designed and constructed by villagers. (a) maps of 1:10,000 scale for inventory work, and, On a closer look at some of the existing seawalls, anyone with keen eyes will notice (b) aerial photos of the relevant scale. straight away that they do not suit the purpose 3. Integrated Coastal Management - must be they were designed for because they are hardly set up as the coordinating board; and, above 0.75 m at normal high tides. Once the first village sea wall was built a competitive 4. Decision makers must not ignore or bypass edge of who builds the next one began to creep the technical advice and recomm-endations in irrespective of the real need. Over the past by experts. Ignorance of tech-nical / advice three years we have received numerous by decision makers. requests for advice on coastal erosion and collapsed sea walls and in various instances my findings were that the walls should not have been built in the first place.------33 KIRIBATI:

Coastal Erosion Problems

Kiribati is a country spread over three million The Kiribati Government is very concerned square kilometres of the central Pacific and the about the erosion problem, SOPAC was land is made up of 33 coral atolls of which 21 approached to undertake a study of coastal are inhabited with a total population of 72,298. erosion in the Gilbert group and also to make In Kiribati there are three groups of islands: recommendations on alternative methods of the Gilbert group - of which all 17 islands are protecting the coastal areas. inhabited; the Line group of 8 islands - three of which are inhabited; and the Phoenix group of Types of Foreshore Protection 8 islands - with one inhabited. Failed seawalls in Kiribati include the vertical On of the problems facing Kiribati is coastal face, coral rocks stacked one over the other, the erosion. South Tarawa, the national head- cemented coral rock wall vertical face, gab ion quarters of Kiribati, is the most affected. It is basket filled with rocks, and sandbags filled also a problem on the outer islands in the with sand cement. These problems are detailed Gilbert group but to a lesser extent. Coastal in Table 1 below. erosion in some areas has caused damages to The Government is now monitoring more roads, buildings and port facilities. The Gov- closely any development which may affect the ernment of Kiribati has tried in the past to stop coastal area and in special cases the erosion on South Tarawa and in the outer reclamation of new lands and building of new islands, but these efforts have been of little seawalls in the foreshore area. value or help as the seawalls do not last long enough to serve their purpose.

Table 1: Problems with curent coastal protection systems used in Kiribati. NAURU

Before I delve into the nature of Nauru's This is a major concern as the reef has always position in relation to the agenda concerning provided the Nauruan community in the past coastal protection, I would like to extend on and the present day a source of supplementing behalf of the Nauru Government our our livelihood. It is a traditional past time to appreciation to SPREP for providing member venture out to the reef and search for and countries the venue and the opportunity to air collect the edible periwinkles, sea cucumber, our views on issues relating to coastal and other delicacies and young boys initiated. in protection. Nauru places great importance to the art of snorkelling use the reef at high tide coastal protection and therefore that the to catch fish. deliberation in this first meeting and other The cause of this problem is manifold and could subsequent meetings will prove to be fruitful. be due to a number of factors, be it natural or Introduction man induced factors. In some cases, it could be due to the heavy metal and cadmium from the To understand the nature of Nauru's problem phosphate deposits and garbage wastes it is best to give a brief description of the dumped in mined out areas which enter the geological features of the island. Nauru is a marine environment through the process of raised coral atoll with a circumference of about leaching and surface run off. Or by phosphate 20 km and a maximum elevation between 65 to soil erosion, as phosphate dust lost during ship 70 metres. It has two physiographic regions loading and by ground water leaching of comprised of a coastal terrace up to 400 metres phosphate rock and dispersion through the wide that encircles the island and an elevated subterranean cavern system. interior. Studies which have been undertaken in the The coastal plain consists of a fring-ing reef past revealed that the island is underlain by a which extends 200 metres off-shore with an discontinuous layer of fresh water up to 7 outer slope dipping 34 degrees into deeper metres thick, overlying a mixing zone of water, and a beach roughly 15 metres wide brackish water up to 60 metres thick, which in which marks their boundary. At the inner turn overlies seawater. Further studies edge of the coastal plain the land either slopes indicated that a substantial amount of ground upwards for about 35 metres or there is a line water flows through the Nauru ground water of high limestone cliffs. system which flows probably outwards to the The elevated central area represents about 85% sea and to the ponds in the north east. Several of the total land area. The coastal plain, caves at the inland edge of the coastal terrace however, is about 2-3 metres above sea level provide a water table close to the discharge end and on occasions where there is bad weather, of the flow system and that tidal effects on the especially during the westerlies, with wind ground water levels are substantial. speeds up to 60 to 70 mph, waves would over It could also be due to the sewage system which top the road or smash against residential deposited wastes out of the sea or even the houses. There are no known tropical cyclones outbreak of the starfish which has been blamed that have hit the island. on a number of occasions. The matter is quite complex and cannot be explained by a simple The Problem cause-effect relationship, alluring though this Mr Chairman, one of Nauru's coastal concerns solution may be, hence further research studies is in its reef. The reef in the Pacific region has are needed to address a range of related always been used as a source of food and raw ecological issues, of which I am sure Nauru is material and many thousands of years ago local not an exception in this case. fishermen explored and used it for various The other problem relates to sand erosion on purposes. It has been suggested that coral parts of our coastal shore. This may seem reefs harbour more kinds of fish than any other trivial but as one of the smallest nations in the marine environment. Unfortunately, latest world, Nauru cannot afford to lose a part of its studies undertaken by the Cousteau society a natural heritage which is a haven for tourists few years back, and to be confirmed by further (if ever there is one) and the locals. studies, indicated that the reef surrounding Nauru is dying.

35 Coastal Protection in the Pacific islands

Temporary solutions have been implemented in Nauru does not have a coastal protection recent years, like planting trees around the strategy. Over the years Nauru has been fringes, however, what is required are further fortunate in not experiencing terrible storms, studies to fmd out if the causes are either man such as .cyclones, that have devastated other made or from natural causes and if it would be neighbouring islands. However, with the feasible to alleviate such problems. unpredictable climatic change that is happen- ing worldwide, Nauru may not find itself as Nauru lacks the expertise to analyse the extent fortunate as it has been in the past and of its coastal problems. So far we have made therefore a coastal protection strategy to avoid approaches to the government of the Cook probable disasters from natural forces needs to Islands who seems to have a viable solution be implemented as early as possible. and the expertise and it would be interesting to hear from them how they cope with their own Climatic and sea level data have been made problems. The change in policy towards coastal available recently through the monitoring proteetion has been especially considered in the stations, and other meteorological organis- light of recent project construction done for ations which have been conducting a series of commercial purposes which are situated on the tests on the island. Unfortunately, these data coastal terrace. are not being put to positive use as there is no specific unit or organisation specialised in As I have mentioned earlier on, the westerlies analysing the data for implementing a strategy over the year have been the cause of a lot of for coastal protection. damage to roads, houses and other infrastructure. The newly constructed airport Admittedly Mr Chairman, coastal protection is runway which extended onto the reef, the a new area for Nauru, and I am certain this Menen Hotel complex, the offshore facilities of applies to other neighbouring islands as well. the Nauru Phosphate Corporation, resid-ential It is hoped that deliberations from this meeting building and roads are some of the facilities and other subsequent meetings will help shed which needed to be protected from tidal action, light on how other countries have dealt with erosion and the effects of heavy storms. The their own specific coastal problems and rehabilitation of the whole island is in due strategies they may have adopted. process and consideration of the coastal terrace which harbours most of the commercial, residential areas and other infrastructures is of paramount importance at this stage.

36 NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS

Good morning ladies and gentlemen, my name These shorelines occupy two distinct regions of is Peter Barlas and I am the Assistant the island. The western side of the island is Administrator of the Coastal Resources dominated by a barrier reef which encloses a Management Program for the Commonwealth shallow lagoon. The shoreline of the lagoon is of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI). I dominated by biogenetically derived sand would like to thank SPREP and the beaches. The eastern side is primarily rocky Government of New Zealand on behalf of the shorelines and steep sea cliffs, but harbours Governor of the CNMI, the Honorable Froilan some substantial high energy "pocket" beaches. C. Tenorio, and the Administrator of the CRM These areas afford the eastern boundary Program, Mr Manuel C. Sabian, for the considerable protection from storms and wave opportunity to attend this important meeting. energy and theoretically preclude coastal The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana protection strategies in most areas. The Islands includes sixteen distinct islands. western beaches, however, remain vulnerable However, the majority of the population resides and are a continuing source of concern for on the three southern islands of Saipan, Tinian island planners, engineers and resource and Rota. The northern islands are sparsely managers. inhabited or completely uninhabited (the island The contrast in the ambient wave climate of of Pagan has an active volcano). the two sides is dramatic with the seas I will concentrate on the island of Saipan since averaging 3 to 12 feet on the eastern end to 1 to it is the island I am most knowledgeable of and 3 feet (within the lagoon) on the western side. because it serves as the political and economic There are seasonal and annual variations in seat of the CNMI. I do not intend to obviate the wave climate along with short-term storm tho other islands or down play their events (tropical storms and typhoons) which importance, but the shoreline of Saipan is are the principal sources of erosion on the varied and it exemplifies many of the coastal western side. protection issues facing the CNMI. As I stated earlier, the regulatory environment First, allow me to elaborate briefly on the (especially CRM) has had an important role in regulatory environment in the CNMI and the guiding shoreline protection in the CNMI. The role of the Coastal Resources Management regulatory agencies involved in shoreline Office (CRM) in shoreline protection. CRM is protection strongly discourage "hard" shoreline the lead agency for the planning and perm- protection strategies and encourage "soft" itting of shoreline development in the CNMI. measures when coastal protection is deemed We operate as the coordinating agency for a necessary. The CRM regulations strongly dis- multi-disciplinary review of development proj- courage any structures (including shore prot- ects falling under the jurisdiction of the ection devices) within thirty-five (35) feet of the program. These jurisdictional limits include mean high water mark, except in the port and large and small scale development and more industrial areas. The port and industrial areas importantly, all forms of shoreline or coastal encompasses the port, harbour, wharfage areas protection. The policies and regulations of the and industrial section of Saipan. CRM Office have played an important role in Except for a few isolated sites, the port and guiding shoreline protection strategies utilised industrial areas, the CNMI has very few in the CNMI. I will explain this in more detail seawalls, bulkheads or shore protection devices later in the presentation. (most were installed during the occupied - war The shoreline of Saipan can be broken down time - period). into two principal types; • Beaches composed of sand or sand mixed with coral rubble or beach rock; and • Rocky shorelines including sea cliffs, cut bench platforms or beach rock.

37 This can be attributed to several important The Army Corps of Engineers were asked for factors; assistance and they came up wit.h a beach nourishment and revegetation plan which 1. Needs - the western (lagoon side) shore- included the transport.ation of "morning glory" line has experienced relatively low eros-ion plant to fortify the beach ridge. DPW rates (except for short-term storm events) implemented the plan (with Corp funding) and and the eastern side has highly developed CRM permitted and monit.ored tho project. natural barriers. The western shoreline Fortunat.ely, the beach accreted and the plan has also exhibited an acceptable "recovery" was a success. This is also a good example of rate after storm events and includes areas the "soft" shoreline protection measures t.he which are experiencing considerable CRM program encourages. accretion. (This may be attributed to the overall stable sediment budget of the Long-term coastal protection planning in t.he lagoon). CNMI basically involves an "Emergency Operation Plan" administ.ered by the Office of 2. Regulatory Control and General Develop- Civil Defence which offers an excellent. st.orm ment Trends - the regulatory environ-ment warning system and an effect.ive "plan of (setback policies and regulations) along action". However, coastal or shore protection with the "experience" of developers that measures are not addressed in this plan (gener- structures built close to the shoreline are ally these issues fall outside t.he scope of plan). highly vulnerable to the destructive forces of typhoons have aided in keeping The CRM program is currently undertaking a structures behind the dynamic or active Section 309 grant task to study coastal hazards zone of the beach. and identify strategies and land use planning policies t.o better address development in these 3. Typhoons and Wave Climate - the potent- hazard prone areas. The use of coastal ial destruction caused by typhoons along protection strategies will be included in this with the powerful wave climate of the study. eastern side have discouraged nearshore development. In conclusion, the Commonwealth has been fortunate and the destructive forces of nature 4. Availability of Alternative Aggregate which have ravaged Guam (Saipan's neighbour Resources - the availability of alternative to the south), including multiple typhoons and aggregate resources (sand and beach rock) earthquakes, have spared Saipan and the rest have precluded (at least on a large scale) of the CNMI during the last couple of years. the mining of beach sands and other We have also been fortunate that the use of coastal derived aggregates which help large scale coastal protection has been preserve the natural protection capabilities unnecessary, however, it is only a matter of of shoreline systems. time before the next major typhoon makes This is not to say CNMI has not experienced landfall in the CNMI. any problems with shoreline erosion or shore Long-term shore protection strategies (engin- protection. Three agencies including the eered structures) against storm events are not Coastal Resources Management Office and the always practical or cost-effective, but good land Department of Public Works on a local level use practices and coastal management are. It and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers on a is this approach that the CNMI will focus upon federal level cooperated on several coastal to maintain and protect its natural coastal protection projects on Saipan. protection systems. One good example was a beach renourishment and shoreline fortificat.ion project. on the island of Saipan. In 1990, t.yphoon "Koryn" ripped through Saipan causing considerable damage along t.he west.ern edge of t.he island. One of the most. critical event.s was t.he severe erosion of a stretch of beach along Beach Road. Beach Road is the principal highway in Saipan. The road runs along the western edge of the island and is setback between 25 to 300 metres from t.he immediate shoreline (beach). The areas between t.he road and beach are also some of the most important recreational areas in Saipan.

38 NIUE

This poisonous creeper, when used, kills Introduction all marine life, even the corals die. Niue has a population of 2,200, with a land Families who are using this creeper have area of some 100 square miles. The biggest very poor health and in some cases death coral island in the region if not in the whole has occurred, derived originally from world. Niue is yet to put in place a proper eating the fish caught by this method. coastal protection programme under the umbr- ella of the Environmental Programme. The Needs SPREP in Niue is only two years old, they have In looking at the theme of this meeting. I conducted an environment awareness work- realised that our coastal protection programme shop for the women's groups, youths and should concentrate on land users and the planters. prevention of sand loss from our few small sand beaches. The Problem Areas So we need: This short paper of mine will cover three areas as I see it: • to bring in the best engineers to assess our coast line and the layout of our 1. Hurricane prone coast. Our main infrastructure; infrastructure development located on the full stretch of the western coastline • we need to be educated about using the and along this are hotels, motels, lessons handed out by nature in the manner of cyclones, waves, etc; and, restaurant, main shopping centre, hospital, the wharf. • we need to analyse properly where we are The Government has placed the tourism going to build expensive complexes for our tourist industry. industry as priority number one in our economic development. In the last thirty In conclusion, I would like to say without doubt years the island has been devastated by that our coastal protection programme should five severe cyclones with the wind force focus on these: up to an average of 160 knots. The whole island suffered from the strong wind • Economic development; force and seawater spray, but only the • Asset protection; western coastlines had other concerns of the sea level rising and the waves. • Prevention; and, This workshop has educated me a lot. • Education. Our coastline protection programme as I see it now, is to protect the asset behind it. We need to understand the reef formation. We need to keep useful data on wind force, direction, etc. We need to know the wave formations, heights, and strength. 2. Losing the sand from our few small sand beaches. This has caused some great concern because we are losing sand but nobody knows why and how. So our need is to ask outside agencies who may have the ability to study how our sands are formed, how it gets to where it is and how to protect it from wasting away. .'3. Use of the poisonous "Niu Guinea" creepers [or catching [ish. This poisonous creeper was introduced into the island by the returning missionaries after their mission work in Papua New Guinea.

39 PAPUA NEW GUINEA

Location Climate in the region between 800 and 4500 meters above sea level can be described as Papua New Guinea (pNG) , lies between long- temperate. Daily temperatures ranges from itudes 141° and 1600E and latitudes 1° and 14°to 25°C. 12°S. PNG occupies the eastern half of the island of New Guinea, which is the world's The lowland and coastal regions (the region second largest island, after Greenland. The between 0 and 800 m. asl) have uniformly high Indonesian province of Irian Djaya occupies the temperatures, which daily vary between 25 and western half of the island. PNG borders Indo- 34°C. The climate here is typical of tropical nesia to the west, Solomon Islands to the east, regions, where it is characterised by two Federated States of Micronesia to the north seasons, the wet and the dry. and Australia to the south. Rainfall General Geography and Environment Rainfall patterns vary, both between and PNG is the largest of the many island nations within region(s) due to prevailing winds and in the south west Pacific region, excluding altitudinal influence. The dry season, which Australia and New Zealand. The nation, as prevails between March and October, is usually mentioned earlier, is made up of the eastern associated with south-easterly trade winds half of the island of New Guinea, plus the great while the wet season is associated with north- islands of the Bismark archipelago (New west monsoons. Comparatively, PNG is gener- Britain, New Ireland and Manus), the northern ally wet, but the amount of rainfall varies from most islands of the Solomon group (Bougain- region to region. Some parts of the country ville), as well as 600 traditional smaller islands. receive little rain all year round while in the It has a population of about 3.9 million, a wettest parts rainfall can be as high as 10,000 coastline of about 8,300 kilometres and land mm. The average for the country is between area of 465,000 square kilometres, while the 2,500 and 3,500 mm (Orsborne, 1993). Relative sea (including the Exclusive Economic Zone) humidity is uniformly high, about 70 to 90 covers some 2 million square kilometres. percent in the lowlands, decreasing to about 65 to 80 percent in the highlands. PNG's geography and environment is remark- ably diverse, ranging from high alpine peaks Biogeography that are periodically dusted with snow to Over 75 percent of the land area is covered by pristine tracts of rainforests and mangrove pristine tracts of rain forests. Plants and trees swamps in the lowlands, as well as extensive grow rapidly and luxuriantly due to high patches and/or network of coral reefs assoc- temperature and rainfall. Many trees grow to iated with coastal seas. The inlands of both the a height of 46 metres or more, their branches mainland and islands are rugged and mount- form canopies that provide habitats for birds ainous. There are also extensive areas of and other animal life. Many of the trees also gentle and flat terrain, particularly along the have huge buttresses and their branches coasts. support growth of ferns, vines and other The combined effects of topography, geology, parasitic plants. Different kinds of palms and climate and volcanic events resulted in the canes are also common in the forests. evolution of diverse habitats and associated Animal life is also as diverse as its landscape flora and fauna. PNG is very rich biologically, and vegetation. Many different species of in terms of the diversity of its environment, as animals, birds and insects are found here. well as its flora and fauna, which not many Wallabies, bandicoots, cuscuses, tree kangaroos places on earth can rival. and possums are some of the mammals found here. Some of the prominent birds include Climate different species of birds of Paradise, Goura PNG's climate is quite remarkable in that it pigeons, Cassowaries, Kingfishers, hornbills supports a range of environments that can be and Parrots. The New Guinea eagle is the described as being both tropical to temperate in largest of the flying birds in the country. nature. The high altitude regions of the interior, which rise to over 4,000 metres are mild to warm during days and nights are cool. In higher altitudes, frosts are common and snow occasionally falls on the highest peaks.

40 Reptiles include crocodiles, both marine and Reefs are found in coastal waters of the far freshwater turtles, lizards and snakes. A rich west and again commencing east of the Gulf of insect fauna also exist. Among the most Papua all the way to the eastern tip of the beautiful are the birdwing butterflies, of which southern mainland coast, as well as around the the Queen Alexandria's birdwing is the largest offshore islands of Milne Bay. The coastal zone butterfly in the world. of the Gulf of Papua is generally devoid of reefs due to high volume of freshwater and silt Papua New Guinea is undoubtedly rich biolog- discharge. Here extensive areas of mangroves ically. There are more than 700 species of and associated wetlands occur. There are some birds, 200 species of mammals, 900 species of 4,000 square kilometres of mangrove swamps higher plants, 1,500 species of forest trees as in PNG, most of being in the Gulf of Papua well as many other species of flora and fauna. (Agardi and Pernetta, 1993). In the aquatic environment, some 2,500 species of fish are found, (Allen, 1992). Relative to its Environmental and Conservation Policy size, PNG undoubtedly houses one of the and Legislation richest marine fauna on earth (Allen, 1992). PNG recognises the importance of proper Coastal Zone Habitats Found in PNG management and use of its natural resources and has in place well defined policies on For the purpose of this paper, coastal zone will environmental protection and conservation. be defined as all that area commencing at high This is evident from the fact that the tide water mark and extending seaward for 12 constitution declares the 4th national goal of nautical miles (about 20 km) offshore and PNG to be: landward for 500 m from the same point. "We declare our fourth goal to be for This definition would effectively include all the Papua New Guinea's natural resources main coastal habitat types found in PNG. and environment to be conserved and Marine and terrestrial habitats within the used for the collective benefit of us all, coastal zone of PNG are remarkably diverse. and to be replenished for the benefit of Major types of habitats include tracts of rain future generations". forests and mangrove swamps, sandy and The constitution also declares the following as rocky beaches and seabeds, seagrass beds and the principles that underpin this goal: coral reefs of various types, along with associated flora and fauna. 1. That wise use be made of the natural resources and environment in and on the Features of the coastal environment differ in land or seabed, in the sea, under the land some respects between the northern and and in the air, in the interest of our southern coasts. The northern coastal zone is development and in trust for future geologically younger and is characterised by a generations. narrow belt of continental shelf (usually only several hundred metres wide), after which the 2. Ensure conservation and replenishment, continental slope drops off steeply to thousands for our benefit and posterity, of the of metres deep. environment. and it.s sacred, scenic and hist.orical qualit.ies. Coral reefs are restricted to this narrow belt, on both the mainland and around the islands. 3. All necessary st.eps be t.aken t.o give Reefs are basically of two types, sheltered adequat.e prot.ect.iont.oall our valued birds, inshore reefs and outer barrier reefs. Their animals, fish, insect.s, plant.s and t.rees. distribution is strongly influenced by The Depart.ment. of Environment. and Conserv- freshwater runoff and resultant siltation. An at.ion (DEC) is t.he principal Government. area of approximately 40,000 square kilometres Agency ent.rust.ed wit.h t.he overall respons- of PNGs coastal waters is covered by coral reefs ibilit.y of prot.ect.ing and conserving PNGs (Crossland et al, 1989). environment. and nat.ural resources. Small patches of mangroves do occur on the north coasts, especially near mouths of major rivers. The southern coastal zone on the other hand is characterised by a wide continental shelf, extending up to 40 to 50 km offshore. The sea between the South coast of PNG and the conti- nent of Australia is quite shallow, probably not more than 200 m in average depth.

41 Key legislation administered by the For wildlife sanctuaries, all wildlife are Department are: protected, except for specified species that can still be harvested. 1. Environmental Planning Act, 1978 Wildlife Management areas, on the other hand 2. Environmental Contaminants Act, 1978 are declared to control the harvesting of 3. Conservation Areas Act, 1978 wildlife. They are established only on request from landJresource owners. DEC only assist by 4. National Parks Act, 1982 providing advice on the overall management. 5. International Trade (Fauna & Flora) Act, Rules and regulations are formulated by the 1980 people themselves and enforced by a committee, whose members are chosen from 6. Fauna (protection and Control) Act, 1976 among the resource owners. Rules and 7. Crocodile Trade (protection) Act, 1974 regulations formulated are legally binding. The Department in administering these Conservation Areas Act, 1978 legislation performs the following functions: This Act aims to have certain areas declared as • conducts environmental assessments of protected for the benefit of future generations. major projects including those involving Through this Act, any area or site of special mining and forestry projects; value to a group of people, be it a place of scenic beauty, building, breeding and nursery • ensures pollution control and regulation of grounds for animals, ship wrecks, historical hazardous substances; sites, or a place of traditional significance can • develops appropriate environmental be declared as protected area. Mangroves, policies; seagrass beds and coral reefs may be declared for these reasons. • conservation of flora and fauna; National Parks Act, 1982 • establishment of National Parks and Protected Areas; This Act covers a range of difference types of Parks and Protected Areas. They include • management of endangered species of National Parks, Provincial Parks, Marine flora and fauna; and, Parks, Nature reserves, historical sites, etc. • administration of PNG's international The main objective for protected areas declared obligations concerning environmental under this Act is to "provide for the preserv- Issues. ation of the environment and national cultural inheritance by conserving areas having Coastal Zone Management particular biological, topographical, geological, historical, scientific and social significance". A PNG, like many other developing countries, list of declared protected areas in coastal zones does not have specific legislation or policies for is shown in Table 1. the conservation and protection of the coastal zone. Nevertheless, there are well defined Environmental Planning Act, 1978 policies and legislation (listed earlier) which, Apart from the above legislation, this Act is except for minor deficiencies, adequately cater applicable for the management of coastal zones. for the management of the coastal zone. The environmental planning Act makes it Presently, coastal zones are managed by virtue mandatory for any major development project, of relevant provisions in existing legislation. be it mining, forestry, fisheries, manufacturing, Fauna (Protection and Control) Act, 1966 etc to provide environmental plans, showing how destructive effects on the environment will Under the Fauna (protection and Control Act, be prevented or minimised. This plan then an area of the coastal zone can be declared for comes under DEC's scrutiny. If the plan is to the purpose of; the satisfaction of DEC, approval is then i) protecting endangered species; granted for work to commence. If on the other ii) establishing wildlife sanctuaries; and, hand, the plan is found to be unsatisfactory, iii) establishing wildlife management areas. approval will not be granted. In this way, the Government through DEC is able to control In the case of endangered species, the Act aims and manage and prevent destructive impacts of to protect certain species of wildlife that are activities within coastal zone as well as other considered to be endangered. It does, however, areas. allow for certain of these species to be harvested during traditional hunting methods for customary andJor non commercial purposes. 42

Environmental Contaminants Act, 1978 References The Environmental Contaminants Act is also Agardi, T.M. and J.E. Pernetta. 1993. A one of the pieces of legislation being used to preliminary assessment of biodiversity and manage the coastal zone. Under this Act, the conservation for coastal and marine department sets standards and levels of each ecosystems in Papua New Guinea. In particular contaminant that is allowed into the Beehler, B.M. (Ed) Papua New Guinea environment. Since most of man's activities Conservation Needs Assessment, Volume 2. occur within the coastal zone, much of these Government of Papua New Guinea, contaminants find their way into the marine as Department of Environment and well as surrounding terrestrial environment. Conservation, Port Moresby. Routine monitoring is undertaken to ensure Allen, G.R. and Swainston, R. 1992. Reef fishes that a particular contaminant does not exceed of New Guinea - A field guide for diverse, the level allowed. anglers and naturalists. Christensen Apart from those declared, a recent study has Research Institute, Madang. Papua New identified well over thirty sites in both the Guinea. marine and terrestrial sectors of the coastal Crossland, J., M. Morrisson and S. Sala. 1989. zone as being of significant protection and Final Report.: Pacific Island Marine conservation value. Resources Project. Design: Social Soundness and PNG component.. URIIICMRD, Kingst.on. Osborne, P.L. 1993. Biodiversity and Conservat.ion of Freshwater wetlands in Papua New Guinea. In Beehler, M.B. (ed). Papua New Guinea Conservation Need assessment, Volume 2. Government. of Papua New Guinea, Depart.ment. of Environment. and Conservat.ion, Port. Moresby.

44 TONGA:

Status of Coastal Protection In Tonga

The Kingdom of Tonga consists of 3 main Coastal Protection Project groups of islands: Tongatapu group; Ha'apai group; and the Vava'u group. The centre of As a result of the 1982 Cyclone Isaac that development takes place in Tongatapu and that caused extensive damage to the western end of is where this paper will be concentrating on Nuku'alofa, a coastal protection project was concerning the status of coastal development. implemented in the coastal area fronting Nuku'alofa. This area is about 2.7 km long Tongatapu is tilting to the NNW, with running west-east and was built by the elevation ranging from 65 m in the SSE to 5 m Germans and the Japanese. It is constructed down to sea level at the north facing shoreline. of limestone boulders of different sizes ranging The coastal features of Tongatapu include from 1 tonne at the base to 0.5 tonne in the fringing reefs, pocket beaches, mangroves, second layer and decreasing in sizes to the top cliffs, and mud flats. These features naturally layer and has a gradient of 1:5 seaward. protect Tongatapu's shoreline. The other coastal protection project was in the The nature of coastal protection in Tonga can Hihifo (western) area. This area is very low be categorised in two parts: lying and it is exposed to wind driven seas from • Protection against natural hazards, eg the northeasterlies in the cyclone season. erosion and storm surges during cyclone Beach sand was being used as a means of periods; and, protection and this areas has been reported to be damaged again. There is no other known • Protection against human intrusions, eg project for coastal protection that has the same settlement and mining of beach sand. magnitude to that of the above two projects. By considering Tongatapu and the two types of In Fanga'uta Lagoon where mangroves are coastal protection above, we can divide the extensive, a lot of mangroves have been cleared country in three areas, each with its own and land reclamation occurring for building natural and man-made problems. private houses. This is noticed to have effects 1. The western end and the eastern side on the adjoining properties and areas, as well in the areas facing north have coastal as in other distant areas. problems caused by natural phenomena In order to help reduce or prove to the public like erosion and storm surges. the side effects of beach sand mining, the 2. The south-south-eastern part has Geology and Hydrogeology section of the coastal problems caused by human act- Ministry of Lands, Survey and Natural ivity like beach sand mining. Resources is carrying out beach profiling, and detail mapping of coastal areas immediately 3. The Fanga'uta Lagoon where mang- after a cyclone has passed through and before roves are concentrated has coastal prob- and after the mining of beach sand. lems caused by both human intrusion and natural phenomena. In summary we think that the following steps should be taken: These coastal problems are present due to the coastal development in low lying areas, beach 1. Legislation. sand mining for various uses and human 2. Education villages and communities. settlement. These approaches tend to accelerate the rate of coastal destruction. 3. Low aerial photography (1:2500) of selected coastal areas to assist in mapping coastal Even though the problem areas can be changes. identified and the need to stop and or dis- courage such activities that cause detrimental 4. Watch Dog Programme and frequent effect to our coastal areas is recognised, there monitoring of areas, especially where has yet to be any positive measures taken. human induced problems are being created. The Ministry of Lands, Survey and Natural Resources has unsuccessfuly attempted in 5. Maintenance of a good of data base. recent years to place a Bill to Parliament on Land Use, Natural Resources and Environ- mental Planning, which includes a section for planning of coastal protection. 45 TUVALU Because of the limited land area and the fact Introduction that the islands are generally narrow with Tuvalu is an independent state within the little top soil, erosion is not desirable British Commonwealth and one of the smallest particularly on beaches fronting villages and nations in the world. It is made up of 9 islands pulaka and taro pits. Construction of houses, with a maximum elevation of less than 5 and infrastructure in areas close to the metres and much of its 26 sq km of land is shoreline have become a major concern to the below 3 metres in elevation. Tuvalu is among Government. To protect such areas, sea walls the small number of island states considered to have been constructed. be at most risk from any rise in sea level. A firm of consulting engineers (Fawcalt and Given the limited land area for a total Partner) reported its finding in 1882. The population of 10,000 people to provide a report stated that the protection required was healthy life is not a simple matter. Population dependent on wave height. An analysis of densities are very high, and with the infertile wind and wave conditions concluded that the nature of the coral sand soils present a range of design conditions should be the wave which challenges for the people to provide the basic occurred on average per year. The same report necessities of life: food, fresh water and good formed the basis of funding by the EEC which efficient sanitation facilities. was estimated to be A$800,OOO. The Government's principal aim with regard to The same report also recommended the criteria the environment is to ensure that Tuvalu's in determining the weight of armour and shape social and economic activity and development of revetment. If damaged by such events as strategies are environmentally sound. Tow- cyclones, it could be readily and economically ards this end the Government has adopted a repaired. The choice between concrete block policy to seek assistance from development and coral rock depended on wave height partners to improve the management of the exposure. domestic environment. Conclusion Coastal Zone Management The coastal protection work in Tuvalu is at Coastal erosion and accretion takes place as a present constrained due to a lack of funds. We consequence of natural processes and is often look forward to recommendations and assist- accelerated by human interference. The ance from people outside Tuvalu, especially its islands are subjected to the continuous effects development partners and the advice rendered of ocean formed waves caused by tidal action by the regional organisations which deal with and vary in direction and strength dependent coastal protection, to show us the way. on the state of the tide. The action of the waves and currents shapes the shoreline over a period of time as material is either eroded or deposited.

46 Current Trends and Future Prospects

VANUATU

Vanuatu is an island state consisting of some SOPAC 80 islands and these islands are always in danger during the cyclone season, that is SOPAC has carried out a study on the areas between the months of December and March. where heavy sand mining has taken place and The worst problems which are now affecting I believe the results are with our geological nearly all of our islands are manmade, they are department. However, even with these stud~es sandmining, quarries, logging, etc. taking place people are still ignoring the advise given to them either by the Geology Depart- During the past years, the people of Vanuatu ment or the Environment Unit. The fear for have experienced cyclones and the damage these areas is that if cyclones continue to hit caused by cyclones, especially to the coastal Vanuatu then this will mean that there will be areas and areas of heavy logging. no more beaches left in those areas. The majority of the people in my country live Port Vila only has one seawall at the water- by the coasts and not up in the high mountains front but even with this seawall the sea surges where it is safe. This is because these people always manage to go beyond the seawall up to live on fish and it is also easier for them to the shopping areas close by. The Department travel from their island to another to visit of Land Surveys have all the aerial photo- relatives by means of sailing canoes, another of graphs of these areas and some of these photo- tho reasons was because in those days they did graphs have shown a great change in the beach not get or receive any cyclones as destructive formation around Port Vila area and this to me as the ones which have just struck in 1987, is an important issue which needs to be looked 1B8~), 1990, 1991 and the latest at the at more closely by our decision making people beginning of this year, 1994. to try and think up a solution quickly before all The dangers, however, came as early as the the shores are washed away. 19GOs and H)70s when the people were Even though our problem is not as bad as our introduced to forming small industries for other neighbouring Pacific island states, I making concrete blocks, through to big busi- would like to see that something is going to be ness industries for extracting sand and coral done about this and some sort of coastal from their coasts. An exchange of vatu was the protection gets underway. form of payment or compensation for the loss of their sand and coral. I still think that an awareness program should be put out by all the Pacific island countries to This, however, was adopted very quickly by the advise their people on the present activities people because with vatu in their hand they which are taking place. With an awareness just do not care about letting their bit of sand program I think that these activities will slowly or coral go to the big businesses. They had no die out. knowledge of the effect or damages caused to their coasts. I have given talks where I have warned the people about the outcome for their beaches in My village is one of the target areas for sand the future. With the help of our country's and coral mining by big businesses in and environment unit awareness programs there around Port Vila. are already warnings by the local chiefs to their people about preserving their beaches and coral and to think of their future generations. There is not yet a law which allows the government departments responsible to carry out necessary actions against the local people who allow sand and coral mining in their areas. But after this first coastal protection meeting, I will be able to submit a report to my government on the important issues discussed in this meeting.

47 WESTERN SAMOA:

Coastal Protection in Western Samoa

Because of the abundance of volcanic boulders Introduction in Samoa, these are usually preferred over This paper has been prepared for the First corals. Examples of this type of construction Coastal Protection Meeting held in Apia from are found at Lufilufi. 21-23 February 1994 by SPREP in consultation Infilling may occur behind such walls, in which with SOPAC. The paper discusses the status of case it generally utilises any loose material coastal protection in Western Samoa by identifying the categories of protection works available and may also include logs and other either already in place or under construction, organic matter. Because coral and sand are close to hand they are often used, but the and assesses each category in terms of coastal engineering, environmental impact and from volume of material required generally dictates the use of truckloads of soil and boulders. the point of view of appropriate scientific method. Into this category must be added certain The paper has been prepared jointly by the government projects such as the Vaiala Beach seawall, itself a supposed prototype for a Environment and Conservation Division of the government project to fund and oversee village Department of Lands, Surveys and construction of seawalls. The wall is of a Environment; the Apia Observatory; and the "garden wall" design being essentially a dry Civil Engineering Division of the Public Works stone wall with subsequent grouting and the Department. plastering of a smooth cap. The wall lacks Inventory of Coastal Protection Works adequate foundations. Its design was not based on any assessment of wave conditions, Local "non-engineered" works etc. It is not known whether any village proj- A significant proportion of the coastline in ects were subsequently funded using this Western Samoa has been modified by design. reclamation and associated coastal protection Old engineered structures works. In 1991, in the course of carrying out a coastal mapping survey for the Fisheries There have been a number of "engineered" Division, FAO adviser Leon Zann estimated structures built in the past to act as coastal that approximately two thirds of the coastline protection. These range from a semi-vertical between Apia and the airport at Faleolo had seawall opposite the Tusitala Hotel and a been incrementally reclaimed over the years. revetment opposite Aggie Grey's Hotel, to a series of small groynes off the tip of Mulinuu The population of Western Samoa is pre- Peninsula at the Observatory, and various dominantly coastal and with the nearly six-fold placements of large rock such as at the site of increase in population since the arrival of the the old Hideaway Hotel at Mulivai. These first missionaries, there are now localised works can be characterised by being project shortages of coastal land resulting in pressure specific and therefore not addressing coastal to reclaim. In addition, many of the coastal protection in any wider sense, except perhaps lowlands of Western Samoa are swampy and for the Mulinuu groynes. While some of them there has long been a practice of reclaiming for were no doubt genuine attempts at coastal fale sites to get away from the mosquitos as engineering, others would appear to be more well as to get better exposure to cool sea "educated guesswork" than proper coastal breezes. engineering. The most common form of coastal protection All these works have been designed by overseas on the seaward face of these reclamations is consultants and placed by overseas contractors. careful placement of rock (generally less than Coastal roading protection works 0.5 m diameter) into dry stone walls slightly inclined from the vertical. Traditionally these Recent roading projects following Western have been constructed as rectangular rock Samoa's two big cyclones of 1990 and 1992, fences of approximately 20 metres length, have incorporated a considerable amount of comprising a double wall with a cavity in coastal engineering, as a high proportion of the between. The cavity is filled with waste main roads are located right on the coast, often material and topped with soil. in quite exposed places.

48 Particular attention was paid to coastal protect and assist natural coastal protection protection in the design of the projects which systems such as beaches and mangroves to was carried out by consulting engineers maintain themselves in as healthy and Kinhill, Reidel and Byrne. These works resilient a condition as possible. represent Western Samoa's state of the art in Needless to say this is not an easy task when terms of coastal engineering and can be alternatives - and especially low-to-no-cost described as being of two basic types: alternatives, are not available. The majority of 1. Hard protection in the form of beaches in Western Samoa are eroding rather revetments designed to cope with the wave than accreting. energy calculated for each application - basically as a function of distance from the Assessment of Categories of Protection reef. Variations in revetment slope and Local non-engineered structures the size of arm-ouring boulders were the principal engi-neering responses to energy In environmental terms the effects of these variations. The revetment design includes structures has been two-fold: attention to foundations at the toe of the 1. The loss of important intertidal habitat, revetment, base materials for the revet- particularly mangrove habitat, has been ment including use of geotextiles to notable and has contributed significantly prevent scouring of foundations, and to the catastrophic decline in the lagoon features methods of tying the top edge of fishery - especially in the north-west the revetment into the road pavement so lagoon of Upolu which is dominated by the as to prevent scouring and undermining of heavily reclaimed ApialFalealo coastline. the structure by water draining back to the This lagoon in particular has been assessed sea after overtopping the revet-ment. to be one of the most degraded in the South 2. Soft protection, basically being beach Pacific. If the protection walls fail, the replenishment or creation using a range of materials of which the reclamat.ion are material from lagoon sand to scoria. Soft constructed are exposed to erosion and protection works may be on their own or in contribute further to the degradation of the conjunction with other forms of hard lagoon, the fill being usually inclusive of protection. silts and soils which are damaging to lagoon ecology. Japanese seawall! port protection works The principal environment.al issue here is t.hat Japanese contractors are currently of community' educat.ion and understanding of constructing a seawall around the Apia the effect.s of such incremental action on their waterfront under a bilateral Japanese aid own well being, both during cyelones and project. Essentially the wall is in fact a ot.herwise due t.o the damage to fisheries, relatively steep revet~e.n~ ~ith perhaps its particularly on subsistence fishing. The draft most significant feature being that providing Environment. Impact. Assessment (EIA) proc- for protection of the main structure from water edures and associated coastal guidelines should returning to the sea after overtopping. This help to address the sit.uation by providing consists of reinforced concrete backing the top information to families and villages proposing part of the revetment (which is raised above to reclaim and assisting them to more ground level) and a reinforced concrete apron sustainable and less damaging alternatives. incorporating drains leading through the centre of the structure back to the sea. 2. These st.ructures are also not able to Western Samoan involvement in either design withstand cyclone waves, as demonstrated or construction has been minimal. It replaces in cyclones Ofa and Val, and represent a and overlies an old "wall" of loosely dumped certain amount of false security on the part boulders. of those living on the reclamations. Int.erestingly, it was these areas of Natural coastal protection reclamat.ion which fared worst (compared In a country where the extraction of sand off with unmodified coast) in the cyclones. beaches is widespread and is cumulatively likely to amount to a considerable volume. it is important to recognise the important role that natural beaches play in coastal protection. ~specially when the cost of engineered coastal protection works is so high, a most cost- effectiv(~ and essential part of any national or local coastal protection strategy should be to

49 On the other hand, these traditional walls have actions have increased the erred or the often been quite successful in the less stressful natural forces acting on them, such as conditions prevailing in between the sand removal. The issue of public fortunately infrequent major cyclones. It can awareness and involvement in planning of also be safely assumed that local pressure for these works is thus a significant. one. such small scale reclamation and associated Coastal reading protection u.orh« coastal protection will continue, particularly as the memories of cyclone waves becomes more While no formal environmental assessment. of distant. these projects has been undertaken, it would seem that the impacts have been acceptable. Where such protection exists, or where further The Division of Environment and Conservation protection is justified, it is probably appropriate (DEC) knows of no significant. adverse effects of that such traditional structures are employed construction, and only relatively minor rather than being sponsored by government problems in the performance of the protection coastal protection projects. This is because all works. coastal protection structures require periodic maintenance and repair, and government The one environmental issue which arises in responsibility for maintenance of considerable conjunction with t.hese projects relates to t.he lengths of wall much of it relatively lack of formal EIA, and in particular, the lack inaccessible - will be less efficient and effective of public involvement in such a process. A than if it remained the responsibility of the common feature of successful project design in individual families concerned. Western Samoa is the degree to which local needs are met and new ideas introduced and The issue of false security is of some consid- accepted/supported by the local communities. erable concern in relation to the wider use of In many places the renourished and/or created the Vaiala seawall for village projects. Its beaches are being mined. design is clearly not up to the expectations likely to be placed on it. The wall was It is possible that an appropriate ElA outcome predictably breached and sections washed could have berm negotiated with village away during . This project has authorities· perhaps for the overdesign of such suffered from both the lack of adequate beaches to cope with the inevit.able small scale attention to scientific and technical aspects of demand for sand, but with village commitment design, and also to the process of information to the enforcement of a long-term prohibition and community involvement on the part of the on the removal of large and/or commercial local communities and village authorities quantities of sand. As it is there is no hoping to participate. These groups should be understanding between the government and aware of the actual capabilities of the wall and the villages and sand removal proceeds, be in a position to judge the suitability of this progressively putting t.he roads at. risk, and method of coastal protection for the village calling into question the appropriateness of soft infrastructure and developments that may be protection systergs .• ~.bile it may yet prove associated with, and relying on it. that soft protection is not viable under Samoan conditions in t.he long term, it may equally Historical engineered structures relate to a failure in the process of project These structures comprise a relatively diverse planning. group of protection works. They are charact- The EIA process is designed to address these erised by two particular features: very problems of process and community 1. As a consequence of their single project, involvement. It. is hoped that the current draft single purpose design, they have not been EIA Regulation will be able to assist. with such effective in dealing with wider coastal matters of project design in future. It could erosion/management issues. While no also be retrospectively applied to these projects, serious problems have arisen as a Japanese seawall consequence, nonetheless for example, the Tusitala seawall was outflanked as was the The seawall is currently under construction. It Hideaway rock placement. has been designed as a resu It of complex computer modelling in Japan which has limited 2. The structures have also not. been the ability of Samoan engineering expertise to appreciated or properly underst.ood by the have input to the design and construction agencies or organisations responsible for process. It represents a considerable t.hem, or by local people. The lack of improvement, however, on the previously maint.enance and repair of the structures existing loose boulder wall now covered by the has led to all of them failing, either in part structure. or completely. In some instances local 50 Current Trends and Future Prospects

The process of project planning for this project The environmental result is that many beaches occurred without input from or reference to, of Western Samoan are undergoing long-term the Environment and Conservation Division, or erosion either directly resulting from or EIA procedures. In retrospect a number of exacerbated by sand mining, with consequent interesting development opportunities were effects on greater storm wave erosion of roads missed as a consequence: and other significant village and government infrastructure, and deterioration of the 1. Significant issues for the public and local potential tourism product. village authorities were not addressed, in particular the implications of partial sea- There is a particular problem in Western walling up the Mulinuu Peninsula, both in Samoa in that beaches, while declared to be terms of effects on natural sedimentation Government land in the Constitution, are also and erosion, and the effects of probable considered by villages to be customary land. It storm waves outflanking the individual is, therefore, not a problem to be solved by sections and threatening the security of unilateral government action and will, as a people and installations located up the consequence, take a long time to work through. peninsula. Public information and education programmes have begun to spread the message that It would also have been beneficial if the process healthy, resilient beaches are the best protector had addressed the objective of coastal of valuable land. Government administration protection for the areas involved at the outset of sand mining - particularly the commercial before choosing the seawall option as the only end of the scale also requires revamping, along approach. It may be that seawalling is not the with an effective liaison mechanism with best option for Mulinuu in particular. In villages and accompanying advice and addition, opportunities to integrate the seawall assistance. project with other plans for the town area such as a park/recreational area on the "reclaimed Currently government programmes are being area" (e.g. creation of pocket beaches) were drawn up to better manage the sand mining missed. Instead this project seems always to problem. This includes the training of key staff have been a project for the provision of a in beach monitoring techniques such as beach seawall. profiling and the building up of a data base. Research projects are also underway to assess 2. Construction impact minimisation does not sediment budgets in key areas of demand, seem to have been a consideration in this along with photo interpretation and core project as far as can be judged. Revetment interpretation from drilling programmes. It is rock was dumped into the sea along with a planned to initiate meetings with village considerable amount of soil picked up in representatives to establish a two tier beach the buckets of the loaders. The sand management system with government environmental damage of this action is being responsible for licensing large scale only lessened by the fact that the town mining and villages managing small scale area waterfront is already heavily extraction. Government expertise and inform- degraded, particularly by topsoil washed ation would be available to assist village down from the town's damaged catch-ment authorities. areas.

Natural coastal protection systems Western Samoa Coastal Protection Needs Healthy natural beaches are one of the most effective and cost-efficient ways of coping with Traditional and cultural coastal erosion. Unfortunately most beaches in • need for sand for family and village Western Samoa are not in a particularly projects; healthy condition, due almost entirely to the widespread practice of sand mining. This • need for fish for daily needs and especially occurs on a range of scales from individuals [aalavelave which may dictate the use of taking a sack or barrow load, through village reef-damaging practices such as projects of several pickup truck loads, to dynamiting and use of wide-spectrum commercial demand for hundreds of large truck poisons: loads. • need for coastal fale locations free of mosquitos and with cool sea breezes (especially for persons of status) - reclamation and coastal protection required;

51 • protection of historically/culturally - ready funding for national prior-ities; important sites; and - national ICZM assistance tuned to the • need for socially/culturally appropriate Pacific Way; and solutions. - assistance with advice to govern-ment Economic decision-makers at the high-est levels. • need for reclamation for coastal zone Conclusions development in certain places; In Western Samoa the requiremen I. is asset • need for on-going protection for existing protection rather than coastal land protection. essential infrastructure such as roads, The geography of Western Samoa has largely ports, and commercial centres; dictated that population is almost entirely • need for protection for new coastal coastal, giving rise to the location of most major development (hotels, roads, etc); national assets in the coastal zone. • need for sand for construction of new The national needs may therefore be developments; and summarised as: • need for appropriate development which 1. Historical and cultural . there is an doesn't impact negatively on the coastal overriding need for education concerning zone requiring retrospective protection. the coastal zone, both of the general public and decision makers. This needs to be Education and Information accompanied by the progressive • need for community understanding of withdrawal of government support for wider issues involved in coastal protection; historic landfilling and sand mining. This and will be a slow process and will require, in some cases, replacement commercial • need for decision-makers to understand the technical nature of coastal development, activities to substitute incomes derived particularly coastal protection problems, from sand mining for example, and adoption of less environmentally and the need for technical advice. damaging practices such as destructive Environmental fishing and reclamation for [ales • need to control beach mining; 2. Present - there is an importan t. need to • need to control reef destruction and protect significant assets already in place. degradation; This includes the capital, Apia, a large proportion of the nation's roads, a large • need to control damaging catchment number of coastal villages, and some of the practices; better tourist facilities. Equally important • need to control littoral habitat destruction - is the need for programmes to protect, especially mangrove loss; restore and enhance natural coastal processes and the resilience of natural • need for appropriate project design and coastal systems (particularly coral reefs, implementation which deals with mangroves and beaches). This must government approval, community include appropriate forms of Integrated involvement and commitment, and Coastal Zone Management (ICZM). solutions which meet local expectations; 3. Future - Western Samoa will continue to and I develop in the coastal zone. There is an • need for appropriate mechanism to co- on-going need for planning and co- ordinate village resource planning and ordination of this development so that it is management efforts. complementary with coastal processes. Regional There is a need for appropriate planning and management of customary lands and • need for integrated assistance including: authorities, taking into account national - access to technical scientific and and district priorities. There is also a need practical advice at short notice; to properly integrate development planning and to implement such planning - access to other relevant regional (eg ICZM, EIA, National Environmental experience; Management Strategy, National Economic - basic information and education Development Plans). materials, programmes and train-ing; In particular: • Government guidelines and appropriate forms of public information should be • It is critical that in-country as well as prepared to assist villages and families in appropriate external technical (engin- managing their coastline and, where eering and scientific) advice be taken at appropriate, planning for adequate coast-al the outset and throughout the design stage protection works. of coastal protection projects. • Priority should be given to the develop- • Public involvement in planning and ment of an appropriate system of beach decision-making is most important for sand management featuring co-ordin-ation coastal protection projects. This should between villages and government. ideally occur as part of a formal EIA process which should be mandatory for these projects. OBSERVERS STATEMENTS

UNESCO

Trevor Sankey, UNESCO Apia, explained that UNESCO also has some funding to support UNCED, UNESCO and the Intergovernmental Pacific participants to relevant UNESCO and Oceanographic Commission (lOC) have put a IOC meetings including the IOC WESTPAC major focus on understanding coastal processes Scientific Symposium "Sustainability of the including coastal erosion and on applying this Marine Environment and Integrated Scientific knowledge to coastal zone management, and Approach to Coastal Area Management", Bali, the sustainable development of small islands. Indonesia, 22-26 November 1H94, and the This has built on longstanding work to International Conference on Coastal Change, coordinate scientific exchanges internationally Bordeaux, France 1H95. and regionally. UNESCO, in cooperation with USP, is setting In the Pacific, while UNESCO has no direct up a study of science education at all levels. activities in coastal protection, part of its role is This follows a request from Directors and to support groups tackling management Secretaries of Education and will consider problems such as the present meeting. integrating science teaching with teaching on UNESCO is working with regional practical issues, including coastal zone use. organisations to hold workshops this year on "Pacific water sector planning, research and training" and on "Solving problems in sustainable mangrove use."

54 Part 2:

Second Coastal Protection Meeting

Held on 16-20 May 1994 in Suva, Fiji.

55 Part 2:

Summary Report of the Meeting

Country reports on the issues and needs relating to coastal protection in their areas Introduction were presented. In addition, four papers were presented by the distinguished experts. A field The 24th South Pacific Forum, held in Nauru trip was held around the Apia area to examine (10-11 August, 1993), It ••• reiterated its concern various systems of coastal protection currently to ensure the early provision of effective coastal being practiced. The meeting developed six protection systems in the region." It requested, summary statements and identified eight It ••• SPREP, in consultation with SOPAC, to general needs categories for effective coastal convene at an early date such workshops as protection in the region. The summary report may be required of regional officials and of the meeting was circulated. distinguished experts in the field to assess the needs of the region; examine various systems of coastal protection, both existing and in the Second Coastal Protection Meeting process of development; and prepare a detailed report, with recommendations for consideration The Second Coastal Protection Meeting at the 1994 meeting of the Forum. It (1993 was held in Suva, Fiji, 16·20 May 1994. The Forum Communique). meeting was attended by 43 regional officials, In convening the two meetings SPREP and experts and observers representing 17 SOPAC invited their respective member countries and territories. countries and territories to attend. This was Once again the areas of expertise of the done in the interest of strengthening regional participants covered the range of disciplines cooperation and in broadening the range of represented at the first meeting. Those experience and expertise at the meetings. countries and territories were: American The financial assistance of the Australian and Samoa, Australia, Cook Islands, Fiji, Federated New Zealand governments provided to support States of Micronesia, Guam, Kiribati, Marshall the meetings is gratefully acknowledged. Islands, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu and Western Samoa. Sailimalo Pati First Coastal Protection Meeting Liu, the Chairman for the First Meeting was nominated by consensus to chair the Second The First Coastal Protection Meeting was Meeting so as to provide continuity between held in Apia, Western Samoa, 21-23 February the meetings. Western Samoa was therefore 1994, and attended by 29 regional officials and elected to chair the meeting. SPREP and experts. These included coastal managers, SOPAC representatives, with assistance from environmental officers, geoscientists and the four invited experts, were rapporteurs of engmeers. the meeting. American Samoa, Cook Islands, Federated The meeting was opened by the Honourable States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Northern Minister for Lands, Mineral Resources and Mariana Islands, Nauru, Niue, Papua New Energy, Ratu Timoci W. Vesikula. Guinea, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu and Western Each country representative reported to the Samoa were represented. Sailimalo Pati Liu, meeting experiences and problems concerning Environment Planning Officer, Western the eight coastal protection needs identified Samoa, was elected to chair the meeting and during the first meeting. From the ensuing SPREP and SOPAC representatives to be rap- discussion recommendations for action were porteurs. proposed and the content of the report to the Forum determined.

57 Particular examples of man-made coastal The meetings agreed that man-made protection structures in the region were protection structures are often "asset presented and discussed by member country protection" rather than "coastal protection" participants as well as the resource people. A since such structures can lead to degradation of number of presentations on coastal protection the coast. and coastal protection systems were made by The meetings agreed that environmental the resource people and observers. A half-day impacts should be studied and assessed prior to field trip was held to observe coastal protection development activity in the coastal zone. systems and issues in the Suva area. The proceedings of both the first and second The meetings agreed that there already meetings are being complied and will be exists within the Forum Countries, and other available before the 25th South Pacific Forum. island countries and territories represented at the meetings, a limited pool of expertise in the The participants concluded and agreed that area of coastal protection and that every effort they should each return to their own country at both national and regional level be made to and strongly promote the agreed report to the develop, strengthen and utilise this pool of Forum Officials Committee (see Annex 3). This expertise. was in recognition of the fact that if strong endorsement was given to that report by the The meetings agreed that aid donor support 1994 South Pacific Forum then finance to carry has, and will continue to be, vital to economic out the work required might be forthcoming. development in the coastal zones of the region. Donor support is vital and must be sought for The SPREP and SOPAC secretariats were the provision of effective management and asked by the meeting to facilitate the protection of the coastal zones in the future. submission of the report to the Forum Officials Committee. The meetings agreed that substantial costs would be incurred in order to satisfy the needs The meeting further agreed that the identified. The meetings suggested that in Chairman, Sailimalo Pati Lin, present the order to assist with the provision of sufficient report at the Forum Officials Committee funding for coastal protection programmes, meeting in Brisbane, Australia. appropriate economic or financial instruments should be sought. Summary Statements The meetings agreed that in order to ensure the early provision of effective coastal Six summary statements were developed protection systems in the region the many during the first meeting. These statements needs were grouped together into eight major were reviewed, refined and added to during the categories. second meeting. The statements were:

The meetings recognised that the need for Needs and Priorities effective coastal protection systems in the region was due to increased use of, and The eight general areas of need defined at the pressure on the coastal zone for infrastructure, First Meeting, were further illustrated by commercial, residential and recr-eational uses. member country presentations at the Second The meetings agreed that healthy coral reefs Meeting. They were ranked in order of and undisturbed beaches and mangroves are importance by the participants on a country Nature's form of protecting a coastline and are basis. Whilst all eight areas of needs were the best and most effective coastal protection regarded as important there are clearly systems. However, with increased use and differences in priorities between high islands pressure on the coastal zone, and due to the and atolls. All countries agreed that rectifying lack of proper management the meeting noted the deficiency in mapping and data collection that man-made protection structures now was of high priority. needed to be considered in certain situations. The meetings agreed that effective man- made protection structures in the region required consideration of the broad context and long-term planning rather than just a "quick- fix" site-specific response to a problem at a particular time.

58 The eight general areas of needs are for: Need 2: • Mapping and data collection to better un- derstand physical and biological processes Integrated Management of Coastal in coastal zones; Zones • Integrated management of coastal zones; The early provision of effective coastal • Education and public awareness; protection can best be achieved through • Regulatory regimes; integrated management of coastal zones, often referred to as Integrated Coastal Zone • Consideration of social and cultural prac- Management (ICZM). ICZM is a comprehen- tices; sive, multi-sectoral, integrated approach to the • Assessment of coastal sand and gravel re- planning and management of coastal areas. It sources; encompasses a process of assessment, planning and management for the sustainable • Consideration of economic issues; and, development, multiple use and conservation of • Coastal engineering. coastal areas, resources and ecosystems. Included in this category are needs for: Need 1: • The development of greater coordination and cooperation at the national level, between regional organisations and also Mapping and Data Collection to Better between island governments on coastal Understand Physical and Biological related issues and problems. Processes in Coastal Zones. • The development of the capacity to It is increasingly important in the coastal zone coordinate short-term, issue-targeted to survey physical and biological processes and projects to immediately address coastal in particular the effects of geological and other management problems that require natural hazards. For improved management it attention on time scales too short for is essential to establish baseline conditions standard funding and programme devel- against which the effects of development can be opment cycles. monitored and where necessary to plan • The development of approaches to ICZM effective coastal protection. appropriate to the region, including the Included in this category are needs for: establishment of national ICZM programmes, especially to address long- • A data directory that identifies, type, term coastal protection. location and form of all existing data. • The development of ICZM training for • Ready access to historical data for the national planners and managers whose region, especially that collected by the responsibilities impact on coastal zones. colonial governments and during the Second World War. • Raised awareness of ICZM programmes within the general public. • Geoscientific, oceanographic, biological and environmental studies at the appropriate • Minimisation or mitigation of the impacts site-specific, national and regional levels. of coastal hazards in both the long-term and short-term through effective ICZM. • Sediment budget studies at the site-specific level. Need 3: • Monitoring of coastal zones. • Well documented case studies from through-out the region, especially on Education and Public Awareness human induced changes. Responsible actions by individuals at all levels of • The establishment of an information society can be of great assistance in achieving effec- system based on common data standards to tive coastal protection. Public education and aware- meet the demands of coastal users. ness are essential for the effective implementation of • Coastal resource maps at suitable scales. management policies and compliance with regula- Wherever possible these should be tions. available in digital format.

59 Included in this category are the needs for: Need 5: • Informing and influencing the landowners, landusers and those with jurisdiction over Consideration of Social and Cultural marine areas. Practices • Developing public awareness materials in the most appropriate languages. Effective coastal protection needs to take into consideration social and cultural factors, • Documenting lessons learnt and case especially traditional values. studies. This category includes the need to: • Exchanging data and information at the national and regional levels. • Have consideration of differing practices (including ownership), traditional and • Providing materials for national school modern, in the coastal protection context. curricula. • Take into consideration any possible • Providing public awareness programmes conflict between traditional and current for radio and television. practices. • Making resources and data from national • Consider expectations of protection agencies and regional organisations more projects. readily available for use by educators. • Providing education and awareness. of Need 6: decision and policy makers. • Providing education at the community level, including women's groups, religious Assessment of Coastal Sand and Gravel groups, youth groups and non-government Resources organisations, and for decision and policy makers. Often unsustainable mining of coastal derived sand and gravel, particularly from beach • Keeping the decision and policy makers mining, is occurring for construction, fill and aware of the importance of integrated cultural purposes. This practice must be management of coastal zones. discouraged, and in some instances prevented, whilst at the same time realistic and practical Need 4: alternatives identified. Included in this category are the needs for: Regulatory Regimes • Studies to identify all significant sand and gravel resources. Many diverse regulatory regimes relating to • Economic evaluation of cotions to beach the coastal zone exist in the region which mining of sand and gravel. relate to coastal protection. • Examination of options for the control This category includes the need to: and/or regulation of beach mining. • Review, up-date and promulgate • An urgent economic and environmental as- regulatory practices and procedures sessment of the implications of continued relevant to coastal protection in the region beach mining. and which are consistent with integrated management of the coastal zones; • Education and awareness programmes to discourage unsustainable mining of coastal • Include the requirement for environmental sand and gravel. impact studies and assessment procedures in regulatory regimes. • A survey of expected needs for sand and gravel for construction and other purposes.

60 Need 7: • The conservation, protection, rehabilitation and management of natural environments to be supported. Consideration of Economic Issues • Resistance to solutions that are technically inappropriate, culturally unsuitable, The aim of effective coastal development is to expensive to maintain and fmancially provide for the use of existing and future draining on national budgets. coastal development and resource uses on a cost effective and sustainable financial and • All engineered projects in the coastal zone environmental basis. to be independently technically reviewed by local experts before implementation. Included in this category are the needs for: • Full resource evaluations. Recommendations • Cost-benefit analysis, including project-life costs, infrastructure costs, and costs of environmental impacts. The fmal day of the meeting was spent discussing the draft recommendations proposed • Risk assessment analyses. during the preceding four days. The meeting • Long-term coastal management plans to agreed on the following recommendations to be reduce costs and to reduce the need for included in the report to be forwarded to the expensive engineered coastal protection Forum Officials Committee meeting in structures. Brisbane. • Social and cultural values to be factored It was recommended that: into economic evaluations. Recommendation 1 Need 8: The following draft resolutions be submitted to the Forum Officials Committee. The Coastal Engineering Committee is invited to consider them for submission to the Forum for inclusion in its Man-made or engineered structures are a communique and in discussions with the consequence of continued reclamation and Forum's dialogue partners. protection of assets in and adjacent to the 1.1 The Forum recognise the considerable coastal zone. A large number of alternatives economic importance of sound manage- have been tried and many have been less than ment of activities in the coastal zone. successful. Most have been expensive and have tended to have detrimental effects on 1.2 The Forum endorses the development and adjacent areas. Any proposed system should be strengthening of national capacity for critically evaluated in the region in the light of management of the coastal zone in island local physical processes, previous experiences member countries in cooperation with and cost. Appropriate innovation should be SPREP and SOPAC, building on the pool of encouraged. expertise already existing within the region, Included in this category are the needs for: 1.3 The Forum calls on those members with • Engineered structures in the Pacific region extensive expertise and resources for the to be subject to environmental impact geological and biological understanding, studies and assessment, and meet the management and integrated resource highest international standards. assessment of tropical coastal systems to • Technical training. strengthen and enhance the capacity of the other members. • Recognised standards of practice to be ur- gently developed for the Pacific region, 1.4 The Forum endorses strengthening of the consistent with world-best practice. SOPAC Coastal Program related to mapping, data collection, information • Effective traditional and customary management and training activities of the methods to be utilised wherever organisation. appropriate. 1.5 The Forum endorses the strengthening of Recommendation 2 the SPREP Coastal Management and Planning Programme, including the That the Forum request the SPREP and SOPAC establishment of an Integrated Coastal annual meetings to authorise their respective secre- Zone Management Project. tariats to draw up and implement an action plan in respect of the resolutions in Recommendation 1 and 1.6 The Forum endorses the establishment of report back to the next Forum. guidelines for sound engineering practice in coastal zones of the Pacific island region. 1.7 The Forum endorses the need for detailed engineering assessment, including economic evaluations, of new coastal protection systems. 1.8 The Forum supports the establishment and strengthening by member governments and regional organisations of integrated information systems with consistent data standards. 1.9 The Forum promotes the exchange of relevant coastal management data, in particular historical data, between member governments. 1.lOThe Forum supports the establishment of a mechanism with non-Forum countries to obtain easy access to relevant data for the purposes of coastal management. 1.11The Forum encourages the development and strengthening of national education and public awareness programmes relevant to coastal management. 1.12The Forum encourages mutual sharing of education materials between members, utilising the resources of regional agencies where appropriate. 1.13The Forum strongly encourages member countries to continue to develop and implement regulatory regimes to facilitate coastal management. 1.14The Forum encourages its member govern- ments to place urgency on developing and strengthening national environmental impact studies and assessment procedures. 1.15The Forum calls on its development partners to give priority to resourcing coastal management.

62

Annex 2: Programme for the Second Coastal Protection Meeting

Monday 16 May to Tuesday 17 May • Welcome by the Director of SOPAC on behalf of SOPAC and SPREP • Opening of the meeting by Fiji's Honourable Minister for Lands, Mineral Resources and Energy, Ratu Timoci W. Vesikula • Election of Chairperson • Adoption of Agenda and Working Procedures • Introduction of Participants • Background and Report on the First Coastal Protection Meeting • Country papers and discussion on: • Mapping and data collection to better understand physical processes in coastal envi- ronments • Integrated coastal zone management • Education and public awareness • Regulatory regimes • Coastal engineering • Social and cultural practices • Alternatives to coastal sand and gravel mining • Consideration of economic values Wednesday 18 May to Thursday (midday) 19 May • Country papers presenting detailed case studies of one or more engineered coastal pro- tection systems within the country • Presentations by invited experts • Presentations by other participants Thursday (afternoon) 19 May • Half-day field trip / drafting group to prepare draft meeting report Friday 20 May • Plenary session to discuss draft meeting report • Discussion on future actions and finalisation of meeting recommendations • Closing of the meeting Annex 3: Report submitted to the 1994 Forum Officials Committee

COASTAL PROTECTION IN THE PACIFIC ISLAND REGION

Report Submitted to the 1994 Forum Officials Committee

Prepared by

PARTICIPANTS AT THE COASTAL PROTECTION MEETINGS

Apia, Western Samoa 21 - 23 February 1994 & Suva, Fiji 16 - 20 May 1994

Submitted via SPREP and SOPAC

Sponsored by the Governments of Australia and New Zealand

Executive Summary

In response to the 1993 Forum Communique relating to the early provision of effective coastal protection in the region, SPREP, in collaboration with SOPAC, held two Coastal Protection Meetings, the first in Apia in February and the second in Suva in May. These meetings brought together geoscientists, engineers, coastal managers and environmental officers from seventeen countries and territories. 2. These meetings recognised and agreed on nine broad and wide ranging summary statements relevant to the provision of effective coastal protection in the region. 3. The meetings recognised there were many needs and issues relating to the provision of effective coastal protection systems and grouped these into eight general categories, namely: • Mapping and data collection to better understand physical and biological processes in coastal zones; • Integrated management of coastal zones; • Education and public awareness; • Regulatory regimes: • Consideration of social and cultural practices; • Assessment of coastal sand and gravel resources; • Consideration of economic issues; • Coastal engineering.

67 4. The meetings also formulated two recommendations for consideration and possible endorsement by the 1994 South Pacific Forum, which would lead towards the early provision of effective coastal protection in the region.

Recommendation 1 5. The following draft resolutions are submitted to the Forum Officials Committee. The Committee is invited to consider them for submission to the Forum for inclusion in its communique and for discussions with dialogue partners: • The Forum recognise the considerable economic importance of sound management of activities in the coastal zone. • The Forum endorses the development and strengthening of national capacity for management of the coastal zone in island member countries in cooperation with SPREP and SOPAC, building on the pool of expertise already existing within the region. • The Forum calls on those members with extensive expertise and resources for the geological and biological understanding, management and integrated resource assessment of tropical .coastal systems to strengthen and enhance the capacity of the other members. • The Forum endorses strengthening of the SOPAC Coastal Program related to mapping, data collection, information management and training activities of the organisation. • The Forum endorses the strengthening of the SPREP Coastal Management and Planning Programme, including the establishment of an Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project. • The Forum endorses the establishment of guidelines for sound engineering practice in coastal zones of the Pacific island region. • The Forum endorses the need for detailed engineering assessment, including economic evaluations, of new coastal protection systems. • The Forum supports the establishment and strengthening by member governments and regional organisations of integrated information systems with consistent data standards. • The Forum promotes the exchange of relevant coastal management data, in particular historical data, between member governments. • The Forum supports the establishment of a mechanism with non-Forum countries to obtain easy access to relevant data for the purposes of coastal management. • The Forum encourages the development and strengthening of national education and public awareness programmes relevant to coastal management. . • The Forum encourages mutual sharing of education materials between members, utilising the resources of regional agencies where appropriate. • The Forum strongly encourages member countries to continue to develop and implement regulatory regimes to facilitate coastal management. • The Forum encourages its member governments to place urgency on developing and strengthening national environmental impact studies and assessment procedures. • The Forum calls on its development partners to give priority to resourcing coastal management.

Recommendation 2 6. That the Forum request the SPREP and SOPAC annual meetings to authorise their respective secretariats to draw up and implement an action plan in respect of the resolutions in Recommendation 1 and report back to the next Forum. Introduction and Background

7. Protection of the coastal area of Pacific Island Nations is fundamental to sustained economic development. Concern about protection from coastal erosion was expressed by Pacific Island leaders at the 1m)2 South Pacific Forum Meeting held in Honiara, Solomon Islands. 8. Heads of Government then noted the need for effective coastal protection in the region and requested that SOPAC and SPREP together: • Firstly, investigate various coastal protection systems being developed or that are already in place that might be beneficial throughout the region; and • Secondly, convene jointly such meetings as may be necessary for that purpose, and report back to the Forum countries as soon as possible. 9. As a first step, and before the 1993 Forum Meeting, a review report was prepared which was intended as a background paper for a subsequent workshop, or workshops. 10. The 24th South Pacific Forum, held in Nauru (10-11 August, 1993), "...reiterated its concern to ensure the early provision of effective coastal protection systems in the region." It requested, "...SPREP, in consultation with SOPAC, to convene at an early date such workshops as may be required of regional officials and distinguished experts in the field to assess the needs of the region; examine various systems of coastal protection, both existing and in the process of development; and prepare a detailed report, with recommendations for consideration at the 1994 meeting of the Forum." (1993 Forum Communique). 11. In convening the two meetings SPREP and SOPAC invited their respective member countries and territories to attend. This was done in the interest of strengthening regional cooperation and in broadening the range of experience and expertise at the meetings. 12. The financial assistance of the Australian and New Zealand governments provided to support the meetings is gratefully acknowledged. First Coastal Protection Meeting 13. The First Coastal Protection Meeting was held in Apia, Western Samoa, 21-23 February 1994, and attended by 29 regional officials and experts. These included coastal managers, environmental officers, geoscientists and engineers. The following countries and territories were represented: American Samoa, Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Northern Mariana Islands, Nauru, Niue, Papua New Guinea, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu and Western Samoa. Sailimalo Pati Liu, Environment Planning Officer, Western Samoa, was elected to chair the meeting and SPREP and SOPAC representatives to be rapporteurs. 14. Country reports on the issues and needs relating to coastal protection in their areas were presented. In addition, four papers were presented by the distinguished experts. A field trip was held around the Apia area to examine various systems of coastal protection currently being practiced. The meeting developed six summary statements and identified eight general needs categories for effective coastal protection in the region. The summary report of the meeting has been circulated. Second Coastal Protection Meeting 15. The Second Coastal Protection Meeting was held in Suva, Fiji, 16-20 May 1994. The meeting was attended by 43 regional officials, experts and observers representing 17 countries and territories. Once again the areas of expertise of t.he participants covered the range of disciplines represented at the first meeting. Those countries and territories were: American Samoa, Australia, Cook Islands, Fiji, Federated States of Micronesia, Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu and Western Samoa. Sailirnalo Pati Liu, the Chairman for the First Meeting was nominated by consensus to chair the Second Meeting so as to provide continuity between the meetings. Western Samoa was therefore elected to chair the meeting. SPREP and SOPAC representatives, with assistance from the four invited experts, were rapporteurs of the meeting. 16. Each country representative reported to the meeting experiences and problems concerning the eight coastal protection needs identified during the first meeting. From the ensuing discussion recommendations for action were proposed and the content of this report to the Forum determined. Particular examples of man made coastal protection structures in the region were presented and discussed by member country participants as well as the resource people. A number of presentations on coastal protection and coastal protection systems were made by the resource people and observers. A half-day fIeld trip was held to observe coastal protection systems and issues in the Suva area. The summary report of the meeting has been circulated.

Summary Statements

17. The meetings recognised that the need for effective coastal protection systems in the region was due to increased use of, and pressure on the coastal zone for infrastructure, commercial, residential and recreational uses. 18. The meetings agreed that healthy coral reefs and undisturbed beaches and mangroves are Nature's form of protecting a coastline and are the best and most effective coastal protection systems. However, with increased use and pressure on the coastal zone, and due to the lack of proper management the meeting noted that man-made protection structures now needed to be considered in certain situations. 19. The meetings agreed that effective man-made protection structures in the region required consideration of the broad context and long-term planning rather than just a "quick-fix" site-specific response to a problem at a particular time. 20. The meetings agreed that man-made protection structures are often "asset protection" rather than "coastal protection" since such structures can lead to degradation of the coast. 21. The meetings agreed that environmental impacts should be studied and assessed prior to development activity in the coastal zone. 22. The meetings agreed that there already exists within the Forum Countries, and other island countries and territories represented at the meetings, a limited pool of expertise in the area of coastal protection and that every effort at both national and regional level be made to develop, strengthen and utilise this pool of expertise. 23. The meetings agreed that aid donor support has, and will continue to be, vital to economic development in the coastal zones of the region. Donor support is vital and must be sought for the provision of effective management and protection of the coastal zones in the future. 24. The meetings agreed that substantial costs would be incurred in order to satisfy the needs identified. The meetings suggested that in order to assist with the provision of sufficient funding for coastal protection programmes, appropriate economic or financial instruments should be sought. 25. The meetings agreed that in order to ensure the early provision of effective coastal protection systems in the region the many needs were grouped together into eight major categories. Needs and Priorities 26. The eight general areas of need defmed at the First Meeting, were further illustrated by member country presentations at the Second Meeting. They were ranked in order of importance by the participants on a country basis. Whilst all eight areas of needs were regarded as important there are clearly differences in priorities between high islands and atolls. All countries agreed that rectifying the deficiency in mapping and data collection was of high priority.

70 27. The eight general areas of needs are for: • Mapping and data collection to better understand physical and' biological processes in coastal zones; • Integrated management of coastal zones; • Education and public awareness; • Regulatory regimes; • Consideration of social and cultural practices; • Assessment of coastal sand and gravel resources; • Consideration of economic issues; • Coastal engineering.

Need 1: Mapping and Data Collection to Better Understand Physical and Biological Processes in Coastal Zones. 28. It is increasingly important in the coastal zone to survey physical and biological processes and in particular the effects of geological and other natural hazards. For improved management it· is essential to establish baseline conditions against which the effects of development can be monitored and where necessary to plan effective coastal protection. 29. Included in this category are needs for: • A data directory that identifies, type, location and form of all existing data. • Ready access to historical data for the region, especially that collected by the colonial governments and during the Second World War. • Geoscientific, oceanographic, biological and environmental studies at the appropriate site- specific, national and regional levels. . • Sediment budget studies at the site-specific level. • Monitoring of coastal zones. • Well documented case studies from throughout the region, especially on human induced changes. • The establishment of an information system based on common data standards to meet the demands of coastal users. • Coastal resource maps at suitable scales. Wherever possible these should be available in digital format.

Need 2: Integrated Management of Coastal Zones 30. The early provision of effective coastal protection can best be achieved through integrated management of coastal zones, often referred to as Integrated Coastal Zone Management (lCZM). ICZM is a comprehensive, multi-sectoral, integrated approach to the planning and management of coastal areas. It encompasses a process of assessment, planning and management for the sustainable development, multiple use and conservation of coastal areas, resources and ecosystems. 31. Included in this category are needs for: • The development of greater coordination and cooperation at the national level, between regional organisations and also between island governments on coastal related issues and problems. • The development of the capacity to coordinate short-term, issue-targeted projects to immediately address coastal management problems that require attention on time scales too short for standard funding and programme development cycles. • The development of approaches to ICZM appropriate to the region, including the establishment of national ICZM programmes, especially to address long-term coastal protection. • The development of ICZM training for national planners and managers whose responsibilities impact on coastal zones. • Raised awareness of ICZM programmes within the general public. • Minimisation or mitigation of the impacts of coastal hazards in both the long-term and short- term through effective ICZM.

Need 3: Education and Public Awareness 32. Responsible actions by individuals at all levels of society can be of great assistance in achieving effective coastal protection. Public education and awareness are essential for the effective implementation of management policies and compliance with regulations. 33. Included in this category are the needs for: • Informing and influencing the landowners, landusers and those with jurisdiction over marine areas. • Developing public awareness materials in the most appropriate languages. • Documenting lessons learnt and case studies. • Exchanging data and information at the national and regional levels. • Providing materials for national school curricula. • Providing public awareness programmes for radio and television. • Making resources and data from national agencies and regional organisations more readily available for use by educators. • Providing education and awareness of decision and policy makers. • Providing education at the community level, including women's groups, religious groups, youth groups and non-government organisations, and for decision and policy makers. • Keeping the decision and policy makers aware of the importance of integrated management of coastal zones.

Need 4: Regulatory Regimes 34. Many diverse regulatory regimes relating to the coastal zone exist in the region which relate to coastal protection. 35. This category includes the need to: • Review, up-date and promulgate regulatory practices and procedures relevant to coastal protection in the region and which are consistent with integrated management of the coastal zones; • Include the requirement for environmental impact studies and assessment procedures in regulatory regimes.

Need 5: Consideration of Social and Cultural Practices 36. Effective coastal protection needs to take into consideration social and cultural factors, especially traditional values. 37. This category includes the need to: • Have consideration of differing practices (including ownership), traditional and modern, in the coastal protection context. • Take into consideration any possible conflict between traditional and current practices. • Consider expectations of protection projects. Need 6: Assessment of Coastal Sand and Gravel Resources 38. Often unsustainable mining of coastal derived sand and gravel, particularly from beach mining, is occurring for construction, fill and cultural purposes. This practice must be discouraged, and in some instances prevented, whilst at the same time realistic and practical alternatives identified. 39. Included in this category are the needs for: • Studies to identify all significant sand and gravel resources. • Economic evaluation of options to beach mining of sand and gravel. • Examination of options for the control and/or regulation of beach mining. • An urgent economic and environmental assessment of the implications of continued beach mining. • Education and awareness programmes to discourage unsustainable mining of coastal sand and gravel. • A survey of expected needs for sand and gravel for construction and other purposes.

Need 7: Consideration of Economic Issues 40. The aim of effective coastal development is to provide for the use of existing and future coastal development and resource uses on a cost effective and sustainable financial and environmental basis. 41. Included in this category are the needs for: • Full resource evaluations. • Cost-benefit analysis, including project-life costs, infrastructure costs, and costs of environmental impacts. • Risk assessment analyses. • Long-term coastal management plans to reduce costs and to reduce the need for expensive engineered coastal protection structures. • Social and cultural values to be factored into economic evaluations.

Need 8: Coastal Engineering 42. Man-made or engineered structures are a consequence of continued reclamation and protection of assets in and adjacent to the coastal zone. A large number of alternatives have been tried and many have been less than successful. Most have been expensive and have tended to have detrimental effects on adjacent areas. Any proposed system should be critically evaluated in the region in the light of local physical processes, previous experiences and cost. Appropriate innovation should be encouraged. 43. Included in this category are the needs for: • Engineered structures in the Pacific region to be subject to environmental impact studies and assessment, and meet the highest international standards. • Technical training. • Recognised standards of practice to be urgently developed for the Pacific region, consistent with world-best practice. • Effective traditional and customary methods to be utilised wherever appropriate. • The conservation, protection, rehabilitation and management of natural environments to be supported. • Resistance to solutions that are technically inappropriate, culturally unsuitable, expensive to maintain and financially draining on national budgets. • All engineered projects in the coastal zone to be independently technically reviewed by local experts before implementation. Annex 4: Opening Address

Ratu Timoci W. Vesikula, Honourable Minister for Lands, Minerals Resources & Energy Distinguished guests, ladies and gentlemen, I At the last South Pacific Forum Meeting held am honoured that Mr. Philipp Muller, Director on Nauru in August of last year our island of SOPAC, the South Pacific Applied leaders "...reiterated concern to ensure the Geoscience Commission, has invited me to be early provision of effective coastal protection here with you this morning at this Opening of systems in the region and directed SPREP, in the Second Coastal Protection Meeting being consultation with SOPAC, to convene at an organised by SOPAC in conjunction with early date such workshops as may be required SPREP, the South Pacific Regional of regional officials and distinguished experts Environment Programme. It is a particular in the field to assess the needs of the region; pleasure that this important meeting is being examine various systems of coastal protection, held here in Suva as Fiji is currently holding both existing and in the process of the Chairmanship of SOPAC. development; and prepare a detailed report, with recommendations for eonsideration at the To all participants let me extend to you a warm 1994 meeting of the Forum". (Forum welcome on behalf of the Government of the Communique). Republic of Fiji. For many of you this will not be your first visit to these shores, but for As you will all be aware this is the second of anyone who is here for the first time may I two such meetings. The first was held in Apia, trust you will enjoy our hospitality during your Western Samoa from 21-23 February and stay. attended by 29 regional officials and experts. Many of those who attended are also here For most of our small island countries in the today. Pacific, vital commercial and national assets and essential infrastructure are located in the Let me at this time acknowledge our deep coastal zone. In our region some of our appreciation to the Governments of both countries comprise nothing else but a coastal Australia and New Zealand for providing the zone and this is where most of our people in the financial assistance in order for these meetings Pacific have to live. to be held. They are costly exercises so we must ensure that it is money well spent. Concern about protection from coastal erosion was expressed by our leaders at the 1992 South For this meeting SOPAC and SPREP have Pacific Forum Meeting held in Honiara, prepared a background report together with Solomon Islands. the summary report of the first Meeting. I would like to add my Government's strong Heads of Government then noted the need for support to many of the statements in these effective coastal protection in the region and documents. . requested that SOPAC and SPREP together: There is no doubt that the need for effective • Firstly, investigate various coastal coastal protection systems in the region is due protection systems being developed or that to increased use of, and pressure on the coastal are already in place that might be zone for infrastructure, commercial, residential beneficial throughout the region, and and recreational uses. • Seeondly, convene jointly such workshops The beach is Nature's form of protecting a as may be necessary for that purpose, and eoastline. It is the best and most effeetive report back to the Forum countries as soon coastal protection system. With increased use as possible. and pressure on the coastal zone, alternatives As a first step, and before the 1993 Forum to natural beaches are now necessary in many Meeting, a review report was prepared which places, but this should still be a last resort. was intended as a background paper for Effective coastal protection systems in the subsequent workshop, or workshops. region require consideration in the broadest context and over the longer time frame rather than just a "best solution" site specific response to a problem at a particular time. The concept of integrated coastal zone management IS clearly crucial towards this end. In order to ensure prOVISiOnof the most In order t.o strengt.hen your case I would effective coastal protection systems in the suggest that you might. consider put.t.ing on region the first meeting recognised many needs your agenda for this meet.ing an addit.ional which were grouped, but not prioritised, into item to discuss; that is whether at least one of eight major categories. These included: you senior government. experts be present in Brisbane to table and defend the report and • Mapping and data collection to better recommendations of these meetings. I am sure understand physical processes in coastal that both SOPAC and SPREP support. for this environments; would be forthcoming if agreed to. • Integrated coastal zone management; Your single and collective tasks at this meeting • Education and public awareness; are not going to be easy to accomplish. However, in preparing for coming here I trust • Regulatory regimes; that the work done in compiling your country • Coastal engineering; paper will be of great value. The first meeting agreed t.hat your member country • Economic values; presentations to the second meeting should • Social and cultural practices; attempt to illustrate and rank the importance of each of the eight needs categories in your • Alternatives to coastal sand and gravel country. mining. The regional organisations such as SOPAC and The meeting agreed that substantial costs SPREP need to receive strong direction and would be incurred in order to satisfy the needs support from the highest level for their coastal identified. The alternative is that expensive programmes particularly where physical and inappropriate protection will continue to impacts are being considered. These be a drain on all of us. Recognising that aid programmes and t.he advice and assistance donor support is diminishing, the meeting they can provide on effective coastal protection suggested that in order to provide sufficient to member countries is vital. This is an funding, consideration should be given to a opport.unity to get that support, and I urge you levy being made on all major development to capitalise on this opportunity for t.he obvious projects in the coastal zone by foreign benefits to each and everyone of us. investors. It. is the "user pays" concept - I would be interested to see if this meeting still Without further delay I now have much goes along with this concept. pleasure in declaring open t.his Second Coastal Protection Meeting. It. is important that this regional gathering of experts report clearly and concisely to this Thank you. year's Forum Meeting to be held in Brisbane in August. The directive from the last Heads of Governments meeting demands it. Therefore, by the end of this meeting I would strongly urge you to have completed a summary document of your recommendat.ions which you can all return home with and discuss with your governments in order t.hat. Heads of Government go well briefed on this matter to Brisbane. Annex 5: Country Reports and Case Studies

AMERICAN SAMOA:

Overview of Coastal Protection Needs

Needs: Overview 1. There is a need to update maps for the The primary emphasis for American Samoa on Territory, ie accommodating new the issue of coastal protection is to take developments and changes which have extreme care of the management of its coastal occurred topographically since 1990. features and to prevent further loss of valuable beach and land areas. In doing so, several 2. The National Flood Rate maps and the studies need to be conducted such as a cost and NFIP systems need stringent regulations benefit analysis before choosing systems for specifying regulations on development in controlling erosion or protecting the shoreline flood prone areas. and a feasibility study of the chosen solution is The NFIP is oriented towards hardening also required. The American Samoa the shoreline or flood area for protection. Government and its people should be cognisant Altern-ative systems need to be included in of cultural practices, engineered solutions, the NFIP guidelines. There is also a need economic actions and their impacts on the to conduct a study on the successes and shoreline. failures of the NFIP. This paper provides an overview of American 3. Two studies were completed by the US Samoa's activities in accordance with the needs Army Corp of Engineers, "Shoreline determined by the First Coastal Protection Inventory of American Samoa" (1980, Meeting. 1989) which provides a pictorial and short narrative description of shoreline areas in Mapping and Data Collection the Territory. Topographic maps were completed after an The narrative gives a brief description of aerial photography project in 1990. The entire the locality, and shoreline features but, Territory was photographed on a scale of does not provide an account of coastal 1":7,000' and 1":12,000'. Topographic maps erosion problems and their causes, nor were produced on a scale of 1":200' and does it provide recommended solutions. 1":24,000'. The American Samoa Government's We need a more detailed study which Economic Development Planning Office would provide the foli.wing outcome: (EDPO) also has a set of National Flood Rate sediment budgets, identify-ing the maps for the Territory which were produced in processes at the site; causes of coastal 1990. These maps delineate flood hazard protection systems; the trend of the areas, and provide guidance on base elevation shoreline changes over the short and long regulations for development in American term; and the likely effects of solutions on Samoa. The system is complimented by the the immediate area and secondary effects National Flood Insurance Program. on adjacent areas. The National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) • Integrated Coastal Zone Management is a federal program enabling property owners to acquire protection against losses from The American Samoa Coastal Management flooding (ie stream and coastal flooding). This Program (ASCMP) been established in 1980 insurance is designed to provide an insurance but was legalised under Public Law No. 21-36 alternative to disaster assistance to meet the in 1990. This law binds the Territory and its escalating costs of repairing damage to people to conform and abide by regulations and buildings and their contents caused by floods. policies regarding the coastal zone. The general purpose of ASCMP is to provide The Territory has been delineated into flood effective resource management by protecting, hazard zones through the Flood Insurance Rate maintaining, restoring, and enhancing the maps. These provide EDPO with information resources of the coastal zone. on flood prone areas and their degree of vulnerability.

76 The 1990 legislation establishes the coastal 3. Stringent enforcement of setback zone management area as the entire island of requirements from the shoreline needs to Tutuila, the Manu'a Island group, Aunu'u be strengthened, as we continue to witness Island, Rose Island, and Swains Island, after the fact cases of development along Territory of American Samoa, and all coastal the shoreline. Public awareness and waters and submerged lands for a distance of education campaigns on this matter should three nautical miles seaward in all directions be conducted through television programs, therefrom, are declared within the coastal radio and newspaper broadcasts. management area and subject to coastal zone • Education and Public Awareness management policies of the Territory of American Samoa. Education and public awareness campaigns exist for advertising the CZM program in The American Samoa Coastal Management American Samoa. Notably the Land Use Program has the following obligations and Permit system, the Project Notification Review responsibilities in its mandate and jurisdiction: System and special projects. Grant 306: This grant provides funding for In addition our agency, in co-operation with personnel, and maintaining the land use the Department of Parks and Recreation, have permit system, project notification review recently completed a joint television venture on system, special projects (ie solid waste the issue of sandrnining. collection centres, Utulei Beach project and Ottoville Rainforest project), enforcement of The campaign involved a television commercial the land use permit system, public awareness and program on the problems of sandrnining. and education, and general operations of the This is one attempt at addressing one coastal ASCMP. problem. However, some attention should be focussed on why coastal erosion occurs. There Grant 309: This grant provides funding for is a need to display the effects of coastal erosion coastal enhancement of coastal hazards, and some of the solutions (ie hardening the wetlands, and marine debris projects in shoreline and the effects of this action to other American Samoa. The three enhancement coastal areas). Several other aspects of coastal projects provide leeway to integrate at the erosion need to be addressed by the American Territorial level with the local community. Coastal Management Program and other Grant 6217:This grant dedicates funds for non- government agencies. point source pollution campaigns, maintenance There is a need to get to the grass-roots level or and enforcement of regulations. local people as well as the politicians in order Needs: to educate everyone on coastal erosion 1. Coastal management needs to concentrate problems and their solutions. This is absent in on coastal erosion areas in the Territory American Samoa. There is also a need to and identifying the best management document lessons learnt in construction of practices to restore the beaches, and/or engineering solutions in American Samoa as protect assets. The coastal hazards section most may not apply or be compatible to the of 309 focuses on mitigating against local people's needs or environment. There is a natural hazards which include hurricanes, lack of understanding or knowledge on island tsunamis, floods, earthquakes and on how to construct proper engineering landslides in the Territory. This project structures. A shore protection manual in should be amended to include coastal Samoan and English should be developed and erosion as a coastal hazard. distributed through training workshops or public awareness campaigns on television so 2. The pro's and con's of coastal engineering that the information is available for everyone's solutions, beach re-nourishment and use. social/cultural practices should be studied. There is a need to address the lessening Needs: shoreline of hardening in American Samoa. 1. Public awareness campaigns are needed on Thus, a study should be conducted on the the causes of coastal erosion problems and pro's and con's of hardening versus beach engineering solutions to these problems. re-nourishment. With this, one must These need to be broadcast in Samoan, as carefully weigh the question of asset well as English, either through television, protection versus a nourished beach, the radio, newspaper and workshop pro's and con's of both need to be presentations in the villages. Everyone researched in depth. should be targeted for these public awareness campaigns.

77 • Regulatory Regimes • Social and Cultural Practices The American Samoa Coastal Management One of the prevalent cultural and social Program has two specific sections in its 26.0209 practices in American Samoa in utilising the regulations which focus on coastal problems, shoreline is sandmining. Most of the village such as shoreline development and coastal people who have shoreline frontage see the hazards. Both these regulations discourage shore area as one's physical, spiritual and use of the shoreline for development, however, cultural possession. Sandmining is a culturally permitted activities include public, cultural and acceptable practice and in accordance with traditional uses along the shoreline (Apppendix traditional uses. Sand is mined and used 1). primarily for fa 'alavelave or a family occasion such as weddings, funerals, or matai title The Department of Parks and Recreation are ceremonies where sand is used to pave charged with the responsibility of entrances to houses or a malae/field. administering a newly formed sandmining permitting system. This system was recently Although sandmining is a recognised cultural established in March of this year and is yet to practice there is a need to clarify the issue of be enforced by law. ownership of the shoreline area in American Samoa. This matter needs to be discussed and The system requires anyone who wants to resolved with village councils or decision sandmine to apply for a permit from the makers to ascertain support and conformance Department of Parks and Recreation. to the new permit system. Permitted uses for sandmining have been identified by this agency for traditional and In addition, there is a need for the Department cultural uses only. A maximum limit of 10 of Parks and Recreation or the American bags (rice sacks) per permit is allowed. The Samoa Government to commission a study Department of Parks and Recreation also identifying areas permissible for sandmining. supervises on site all sandmining permits when A feasibility study on this topic is granted. Thus, the permittee is provided with recommended. a location where to sandmine. A $500 fine is Along the same lines, in designing engineering imposed on anyone who is sandmining illegally solutions which may prohibit this cultural or has violated permit conditions. practice and in turn transfer this practice to Needs: other areas requires some attention. The village people need to be consulted when 1. There is a need to bind or legalise this new engineering solutions or sandmining system through legislation. Items of this regulations are drafted for feedback, legislation should include the authority of endorsement and compliance. the agency, the permit system / require- ments, taking use limitations and Needs: enforcement (fines) procedures. 1. There is a need to monitor the coastline 2. For CZM regulations, there is a need to areas which are sandmi.ved, and create a improve enforcement on the causes of database system on how much is extracted coastal erosion. Stricter regulations are per beach per year. A study of the effects needed, and if possible, fines need to be should be presented to the village instituted. Monitoring and enforcement community, to share the impacts of such will be required. an activity. 3. Public awareness and education campaigns 2. To construct engineering structures, the are needed to inform the public of the village community needs to be involved at benefits of this regulation. There is a need the conceptual stage of planning rather to market the idea of regulation as a than at the completion stage. Their means or solution to protect the public's insight and knowledge would be beneficial safety and provide for the well being of the to a person designing a solution to a community. coastal problem. Current Trends and Future Prospects

• Alternatives to coastal derived sand Thus, extensive segments of the Tutuila and gravel shoreline are fronted by engineered structures designed to protect adjacent land. Where rigid Gravel or cinder material has been substituted structures are constructed on beaches, they for sand in all concrete buildings in American essentially prevent the shoreline from Samoa. This is regulated through the Uniform migrating in response to extreme events. Building Code (1990). However, sand is still being carted away from the shore for The American Samoa Government and people fa 'alavelave. There have not been any studies need to realise that structures may stabilise to determine or identify alternatives to sand or the shoreline position and protect adjacent gravel on island. There is a need to examine property but at the cost of an overall reduction and evaluate options to beach mining for sand. in the amount of recreational beach. This is clearly evident on Tutuila where the recent • Consideration of economic values (over the last several decades) proliferation of In considering solutions to coastal erosion seawalls and revetments has greatly reduced problems, the American Samoa Government the amount of shoreline. omits researching solutions other than With the exception of the windward (east) coast shoreline hardening. Beach re-nourishment is and isolated pocket beaches, a majority of not an option taken into account primarily as Tutuila beaches have at least a portion fronted shoreline protection is deemed needed for by a structure, thereby reducing the natural, protecting roads, homes, schools and other traditional (in a cultural sense), and assets along the shore. There is, however, a recreational appeal of the beach. The need to conduct a cost benefit analysis for any remaining natural beaches on Tutuila should viable options selected. These will require an be viewed as a valuable natural resource and analysis with the input from the community as protected accordingly. well as the politicians. Needs: • Coastal Engineering 1. There is a need for technical training of Approximately 20 percent of the natural Government staff on how to build shore Tutuila coast is fronted by beaches. Where protection systems correctly. This villages, buildings, or roads have been information should be transferred to the threatened by erosion, these beaches are village or grass-roots community through a bordered, by some type of engineering shore protection manual which will provide structure such as revetments (sloping information to the public. structure), sea walls (vertical structure), or loosely placed rip-rap. This has caused a 2. There is a need to look at other severe reduction in the amount of beach alternatives to shoreline protection as coastline available for traditional uses. advocated by the US Army Corp of Engineers. There is also a need to While engineered structures may stabilise the evaluate shore protection systems, in light position of the shoreline they often result in the of offering other options viable to the loss of "normal" beach shoreline. Although the people and environment. proliferation of shoreline engineered structures may be necessary to protect investments, it has led to a decline in the natural state of Tutuila beaches.

79 Case Study: Utulei Beach

south end of the hotel and under the groin. Introduction There is a smaller drainage channel between Utulei Beach, which is a heavily used public the hotel and the groin and two others near the beach in the village of Utulei, sits in the west Yacht Club. Vailoa Stream borders the south coast of the harbour and is about one mile from end of Utulei Beach. These systems play an the entrance. It is bounded to the north by the important role during frequent heavy rains. Rainmaker Hotel, to the west by Samoana High School and a coastal highway, and In the north section, the sand is fine which is in contrast to a very coarse sandy beach in the extends to the south through the Canoe Racing Association and Pago Pago Yacht Club ending south. This could mean that the southern beach sand is more active than the northern at Vailoa Stream. beach sand. Indicating possible sand The American Samoa Coastal Management movement from the south to the north. Program was concerned about the loss of 20 feet or more of land at Utulei Beach in the last Shore Protection System five years (as a result of storm damage caused A groin covering 24-inch diameter drainage by hurricanes Ofa and Val). A groin was pipe splits the beach in half. The main coastal commissioned and completed last year in road forms the western edge of this urban September for Utulei Beach. The project was park, giving the area a high degree of visibility. commissioned with the intent to deter further erosion and the possible loss of more beach Funding was provided for re-building the groin area. which was destroyed by the last hurricane. The project cost for the groin was capped at Description of the Beach US$40,000. The present beach is relatively narrow, The groin consists of a toe rock at the base, ranging from 25 feet to 40 feet, with a gradual with rocks approximately 200 to 400 pounds slope to the water of 0.12 percent. The underlaying the base. The toe rock is elevations at the edge of the sand and grass are approximately three tonnes at an elevation of from 3.0 feet above mean sea level near the minus three feet at mean sea level. The groin Yacht Club, to 4.7 feet above mean sea level is elevated four feet above mean sea level. The near the existing groin on the hotel side groin is backfilled with gravel, and layered (ASCMP Utulei Proposal 1991). with armour stones approximately 2000 to 4000 pounds which line and fit on a slope There are six drainage systems in the (Figure 1). surrounding area. To the north, there are two 24 inch diameter concrete drainage pipes in the Appendix 1: Problems with the Groin The beach is unstable in the vicinity of the Coastal Management Regulations groin in the northern section of Utulei Beach, The American Samoa Coastal Management because the latter interferes with the changing Program has in place several mitigative pattern of currents and circulation. regulations in its mandate, such as in Section In the southern end of the beach between the 26.0209 or as follows: two extremes in the north and south shows no significant erosion. This area has acted as a (c) Shoreline Development transition for the two dynamically unstable Objective sections. These erosion problems thus identified can be attributed to interference of a Assure that lands adjacent to the sea are man-made structure and normal circulation developed in a way least damaging to coastal pattern in the basin, or wave action and resources and that reduces the risk of damage drainage of flood water during storm resulting from coastal hazards. conditions. Policy Advantages In the area 200 feet horizontally inland from 1. The area provides storm protection for the mean high tide mark, uses, development, Utulei Beach as it is durable and offers and activities shall be rigorously reviewed to some resistance to wave damage. determine whether they: 2. The groin is aesthetically pleasing in that (1) are susceptible to damage from shoreline it tends to appear natural. erosion or other identified coastal hazards (ie tsunami, storm surge, etc); or 3. The groin has enabled a sidewalk corridor from the Rainmaker Hotel to the Yacht (2) diminish visual and/or physical access to Club. the shoreline (eg build a high rise on the ocean front); or Disadvantages (3) may result in degradation of coastal 1. The sandy beach area south of the rebuilt resources(ie sandmining). groin to the Yacht Club area is not damaged by erosion. There continues to be Those uses, developments or activities which troublesome erosion occurring at the ends may result in any of the above impacts shall of the groin, particularly on the southerly normally be denied. Exceptions may be end where the groin meets the sandy allowed if the proposed use, development, or beach. The groin has interfered with the activity: changing pattern of the currents and (1) serves a needed public purpose, including circulation. recreational (ie park, picnic grounds); or 2. Because of its rough surface, the wave (2) is water dependent or water related (ie runup and overtopping of the groin is less clam farming, etc); and, than that which occurs with smooth surfaces. As such, the unprotected areas (3) is compatible with adjacent landuses or have become more vulnerable to erosion traditional Samoan uses (ie cricket field, activity. burial ground, etc); and 3. The groin was designed as a more (4) has no feasible environmentally preferable horizontal or gradual slope, however, the alternative sites. completed one is more vertical. This regulation is designed to safeguard the public from constructing in areas along the shoreline. To keep in mind, most hurricanes produce a storm surge with waves up to 12 feet, building in these coastal areas is a high hazard, you could face the loss or 'severe damages to your house and property. This policy although very stringent provides the Territory a mitigative measure.

81 (d) Coastal Hazards Structures to protect existing development Objective against flooding and erosion shall only be permitted if: Reduce hazards to life and property from flooding, slides and shoreline erosion. (1) there is no significant risk to public health and safety; Policy (2) there are no feasible environmentally Proposed development in areas prone to stream preferable alternatives; and ocean flooding, slides and shoreline erosion shall only be permitted if: (3) habitats that may be affected are identified and their values evaluated ( ie loss of fish (1) there is public need; and habitats); (2) there are no feasible environmentally (4) adverse effects on nearby areas are preferable alternative locations; and minimized (ie causes erosion somewhere (3) the development is located and designed to else, or flooding problems); minimize risks to public safety (ie have (5) alterations of the natural shoreline are engineering plans, certification of safety minimized; and mitigative measures - safe construction, erosion control, etc). (6) adverse effects on habitats, streams, and drainage are minimized. The following standards shall apply to locations and design of development in areas prone to flooding, slides, and erosion: (1) uses that will not require protection through dikes, dams, and levees or other structures shall be preferred over uses that require such protection (ie building on hillside will need erosion control, this use will not be preferred); (2) uses that pose the least risk to loss of life and damage to property shall be preferred over uses that pose such risks (vegetated tree forest, vacant lots, etc); (3) development permitted in areas prone to flooding shall be designed to allow passage of water to the extent feasible (ie culverts, drains, etc).

82 COOK ISLANDS:

Coastal Protection in the Cook Islands

To ensue the early provision of effective coastal Introduction protection systems in the region the meeting This paper gives the Cook Islands perspective recognised needs which were grouped into on various issues identified by the first Coastal eight major issues: Meeting held in Apia earlier this year. It describes the Cook Island situation, and • Mapping and data collection to better understand physical processes in coastal provides recommendations. environment; Background • Integrated coastal zone management; The degrading nature of the coastlines of most of the islands in the South Pacific region have • Education and public awareness; been a major concern for leaders of the various • Regulatory regimes; governments. During the 24th South Pacific Forum, held in Nauru (10-11 August, 1993) the • Social and cultural practices; governments issued a communique regarding • Alternatives to coastal derived sand and the importance of looking into effective coastal gravel; protection systems now in existence and in the processes of being developed; and to ensure the • Consideration of economic values; and early provision of effective coastal protection • Coastal engineering. systems in the region. It is through these guiding issues that the Cook It requested SPREP, in consultation with Islands perspective is presented. SOPAC, to convene at an early date such workshops as may be required of regional Issues officials and distinguished experts in the field to assess the needs of the region; examine • Mapping and data collection to better various systems of coastal protection, both understand physical processes in the existing and in the process of development; and coastal environment prepare a detailed report, with The Situation recommendations for consideration at the 1994 Data collected over the years for mapping meeting of the Forum. purposes cover a wide range of areas. This Apia Meeting includes bathymetric data, geological data, soil The first meeting was held in Apia, Western and soil capability data, some vegetation data Samoa from 21-23 February 1994. That associated with land forms and soil types, meeting recognised that the need for effective marine biological data (Aitutaki and coastal protection systems in the region was Rarotonga) and most recently data on due to increased uses of, and pressure on the hurricane damaged areas and coral data for coastal zone for infrastructure, commercial, Rarotonga. The data were collected by way of residential and recreational uses. air photographs, navigational charts, and field surveys. The data enabled the formation of The meeting agreed that healthy coral reefs, baseline information from which coastal beaches and mangroves are nature's form of environment trends could be interpreted for protecting a coastline and are the best and the design of coastal management processes most effective coastal protection systems. and systems. However, with increased use and pressure on the coastal zone alternatives to the natural The SOPAC initiated coastal mapping training systems were now necessary in certain programme in 1986 saw the first coastal situations. morphology map of Rarotonga prepared. The map showed the various coastal morphologies, The meeting agreed that effective coastal beach and sand movements illustrated by protection systems in' the region required profiles and current flow directions. This consideration in the broadest context and over formed the baseline data for beach monitoring the longer time-frame rather than just a "best on the island. solution" site-specific response to a problem at a particular time.

83 For monitoring fixed positions, buildings were • Integrated coastal zone management used as bench marks. The monitoring process (ICZM) is undertaken by the Cook Islands The Situation Conservation Service (CICS) with the assistance of the Ministry of Works and the The establishment of the environment and Lands and Survey Office. sustainable development task force (ESDT) in the Cook Islands in 1992 was a first attempt by Other SOPAC work that contributed to the the Cook Islands government to bring together mapping of the coastal processes of Rarotonga a multi-sectoral team to address environmental include the work of Lewis et al (1980) on the issues. As its principal objective, the ESDT origin of channel-fill sands and gravels on the was to guide the preparation of a National algal dominated reef terrace of Rarotonga; Environmental Management Strategy (NEMS) rhodoliths and coralliths of Muri Lagoon, that aims to address the environmental issues Rarotonga (Stoddart et al, 1985); sea bed in the Cook Islands and provide a framework studies in near shore areas of Rarotonga for sustainable development.. (Gauss, 1982); coastal morphology of Rarotonga (Richmond, 1990); and others. The NEMS provided a forum for national discussion and an avenue for dialogue and More information on coastal processes around discussion with island councils as well as Rarotonga is available in a number of traditional leaders. Early 1993 saw the documents including; the reports of Coastal completion and endorsement of the NEMS that Environmental International Ltd. on the supported amongst other things an integrated coastal protection unit; the Kirk report on Muri coastal zone management programme. lagoon (1982); as well as cyclone information and records published and kept by the weather With funding from SPREP, t.his programme is office. currently under way identifying the different issues that are considered important for each Information on tidal changes and wave surveys island. The islands covered under t.his have been collected by SOPAC; and also there programme are: Rarotonga, Aitutaki, are a vast number of air photos available which MaukelMangaia, Manihiki, and Penryhn. were taken over many years, The focus of the programme is to put into place With the establishment of a Geographical a mechanism which will co-ordinate the work Information System (GIS) network comprised of the various government sectors that affect of the following departments: the Ministry of the environment. This includes outer island Works; Lands and Survey Office; Ministry of councils. The mechanism covers guidelines (eg. Agriculture; and the Ministry of Energy; the impact questionnaires), policy decisions, and information mentioned is being formatted to be bylaws and regulations. used as overlays and for other types of uses. From an educational view point this is most Recommendations important. It is important to note here that ICZM should Recommendations not be imposed on existing systems, but it should enhance these syst.ems. In the outer The importance of the GIS system must be islands, it is important to build on traditional noted here. It is an important tool for storage practices as they are already acceptable to the and the use of information. Also equally people and ICZM would invit.e the important is the storage of information in hard strengthening of such practices. copy and the safe keeping and protection of the hard copies from fire. • Education and Public Awareness The collection of more data using simple The Situation methods that can easily be repeated is Current formal education systems do not recommended such as beach profiling, simple specifically provide educational materials for coral monitoring, etc. This is particularly coastal protection. With the assistance of Mr. important in the outer islands where technical Don Dorrell in 1989 the CICS prepared a knowledge is very limited. pamphlet showing the importance of beaches, The use of college students to collect and the formation and dest.ruction of sands information through on-going school projects is within the coastal systems. The information recommended. was distributed to schools as information for teachers as well as the newspaper for public information. The material was further used by the curriculum development unit as fillers in the science curricula for the secondary schools.

84 The CICS, with the financial assistance of the The mechanism is t.hat, prior to any work done· Asian South Pacific Bureau of Adult Education in the foreshore, the consent of the (ASPBAE), and with the assistance of the Conservation Council must bp sought. This Ministry of Youth have undertaken a pilot may be done through an application to the marine education programme with the senior Council. The Council either approves or schools and youth groups of Mangaia and declines applications or it provides some Mauke. The programme is now ready for alternatives. The mechanism creates dialogue implementation throughout the rest of the between the Council and the applicant. Cook Islands. The programme focuses on The purpose of the coastal zone part of the Act marine life and promotes a healthy marine is to regulate coastal activities to avoid environment. destructive practices on the foreshore. A sequel to this programme, with the funding The enforcement of this Act is difficult. This is assistance of the Canadian Government, is a mainly attributed to the way Cook Islands marine education programme, being developed people do things and close kinship ties amongst by the CICS which will be used for schools as its people. They were under the impression well as community groups. This has been that the government was taking their land initiated with the establishment of a rights away from them. coordinating committee to advise the Conservation Service on various issues. Recommendations The education department curriculum It is recommended that the enforcement of this development unit have also followed suit to the legislation continue and the monitoring of its programme but focusing on curriculum success and failure be carried out for review development for schools using CICS materials purposes. and resources. • Social and cultural practices Awareness through media has been extensive The Situation in the Cook Islands through the promotion of the principal that a healthy lagoon leads to a One of the objectives of the Conservation good beach, and a good beach is the best Council in considering applications regarding protection. activities in the coastal zone is t.o take into account social and cultural practices of local Recomrnendations people. Although social and cultural factors There is a need to measure and assess the are import.ant in considering effective coastal success of current public awareness protection, it. must. be born in mind that programmes. effective coastal protection is necessary because of the many properties that are under threat, It is recommended that local technical including public facilities. information be made available to the Department of Education for the preparation of However, mention in the local newspaper has formal teaching education materials. The use been noted regarding concrete structures from of college students in the data collection a t.ourism point of view. Tourist.s escaping from process is a good way of providing educational their concrete jungle come here and stare into activities for schools. concrete devises inst.ead of sand and ocean. The development of community education is In terms of historic features, ports were located important and this should be supported by in natural passages where the early settlers government. landed. These ports did not require an engineered structure of any kind. Materials • Regulatory regimes used for building coastal protection systems The Situation. derived from culturally sensit.ive areas, such as burial grounds, land monument.s, maraes or Coastal protection activities in the Cook sacred sit.es, will require certain protocols t.obe Islands and in particular, Rarotonga and followed. Ait.utaki, are regulated under the Conservat.ion Act HJ86/87. This legislation cam into force in This may include an oromeiua or minister of 1987. The legislation was brought into being the church to bless the rocks used in the as a result of government's concern for the coastal protection system. In the Cook Island degrading nature of its most. important tourism culture, a blessing ceremony of an invention or asset, the coastal area. A copy of the relevant a new work is always regarded as good luck. sections of the Act arc attached (Appendix 1).

85 With the recent launching of the newest the Conservation Act in 1987, people are still invention of the Coastal Environmental taking sand from the beaches in an International Ltd., called the "Super Max", unconventional way. people have begun to realise the importance of Outer islands such as the Makatea islands of scenic and engineering devises designed to the southern Cook group are now crushing make the foreshore a pleasant promenade. In makatea and coral for construction and roading the past it has been common practice for purposes. landowners to just dump rock boulders on their beach front without any consideration of what Efforts are being made for the crushing of the structure may look like. bottles and broken glass for use as cement aggregate. This is designed to reduce glass and It is widely accepted that people prefer a "good broken glass which are becoming a major waste looking" coastal protection devise and will pay management issue. for it if they can. It would also be fair to state that if coastal protection systems encourage the Under the national environmental manage- building up of beaches and enhance marine life ment strategy, the possibility of mining major habitats they will be acceptable, provided that outfalls around Rarotonga is included in one of publicity to that effect is clear and extensive. its programmes that has now received some Recommendations attention from the Ministry of Works. This involves the study of outfalls, components, It is recommended that in the designing and their suitability as construction aggregate, construction of coastal protection system units amount and economic viability. Other aspects serious regard must be given to cultural and of the project involve the testing of other social aspects. volcanic materials as a substitute. • Alternatives to coastal derived sand Recommendation and gravel Continuous research work in this area would The Situation improve the possibilities for an alternative sources to sand to be found for concrete The use of beach sand for construction construction, thereby reducing coastal erosion purposes has been a feature of buildings in the and beach damage. islands for centuries. Various graded materials from gravel, sand and cobbles including coral Investigation into the viability of mmmg rubble have been used for one reason or passage outfalls should be looked at with another. This includes roading, building of consideration also taken with regards to its lime houses, concrete foundations, and the impact on the environment. making of concrete blocks. In some cases beach • Consideration of Economic values rocks were mined for the building of churches. The Situation In the last twenty years the use of sand has increased. It is estimated that from one mile of Coastal areas support the Cook Islands' tourist beach on the southern side of Rarotonga over industry, in particular on l{arotonga and the last 10 years some 27,600 cubic meters of Aitutaki. There are 17 tourist accommodation sand or the equivalent of 3,400 truckloads of units on Rarotonga along the 30 kilometre ring sand was removed. Considering the island is road, two major tourist accommodation units only 24 miles around, this has had a very great are on Aitutaki with four other smaller places effect on the coastline and the coastal operated by families. environment. The visitor counts to the Cook Islands have Other uses of sand have been observed during increased from 50,000 in 1992 to 53,000 in the government's power upgrading project in 1993. With a local population of about 10,800 1991. It is estimated that over 3,000 cubic (58% of the total population) tourists are by far meters of sand was used as top cover for cables the main population component. prior to earth cover. Most of this sand came To illustrate the economic importance of the from borrow pits. coastal strip on Rarotonga itself the whole town Alternatives have not yet been found but the area, which includes the commercial centres preference of some home owners to build and Government of the Cook Islands, is located houses using imported timber materials has on the foreshore. Associated with the ring reduced the use of sand materials. roads of Rarotonga are the main communication cables, water supply pipes and Borrow pits inland from the coastline are now electrical cables, and in a lot of places the road the common places where sand is mined for is on the beach side. construction. Despite the coming into effect of

86 After hurricane Sally in 1987, the insurance The CPU system is now scheduled for companies withdrew all covers on wave surge placement in other areas of coastline damage, a move which had significant where beach erosion is serious. The implications on the commercial sector, project at the Rarotongan was aid funded including government. by the New Zealand Overseas Development Assistance Programme and The withdrawal of insurance cover on coastal was extensively monitored by the properties meant that some people have University of Canterbury. The major undertaken drastic measures to protect their component of the building materials is properties. This move has resulted in concrete cement. walls as well as rock structures being constructed which have since proven to be 3. There are about 60 other protective more destructive then advantageous not only to structures built around the coastline of the property concerned but also to the Rarotonga. They range from walls (wood, properties adjacent to it. rocks and boulders, concrete) sloping and vertical; revetments of all sizes; to gabions Recommendations and groins. All of these devises have It is recommended that the efforts to design proven to be ineffective. A description of and construct structures to withstand their ineffectiveness is provided in hurricane damaging waves and normal high "Conservation Service - Policy and Intent" seas be supported by Government. And in that (Annex 3). support, Government must putinro.pJace a set Recoriimen.aat~ons of stringent policies that include environmental impact assessment guidelines. It is recommended that Government continue to adhere to its coastal protection policy. • Coastal engineering The Situation Concluding Remarks The Government has a coastal protection policy The intention here is not to repeat the points which is self explanatory (see Appendix 2) within the report but to provide some ranking of the importance at present given to the issues Within the last 30 years the government has listed above (High, Medium and Low). built ports through blasting of channels and dredging activities to improve its ship 1. Mappingand datacollection High unloading and loading conditions in the outer 2. Integratedcoastalzonemanagement High islands. Of its nine inhabited islands (excluding Rarotonga) with channels blasted, 3. Educationandpublicawareness Medium only two received some kind of engineered 4. Regulatoryregimes High structure designed to protect it. 5. Socialand culturalvalues Low On Rarotonga, there are four types of engineered structures found which are 6. Alternativesto coastalsandand gravel High constructed through the efforts of Government 7. Considerationof economicvalues High and these are: 8. Coastalengineering High 1. Conventional rock mounted breakwater at the main sea port of Avatiu. The breakwater was designed by the New Zealand Ministry of Works for the purpose of protecting the harbour. During Cyclone Sally in 1987 both breakwaters were destroyed and one has since been rebuilt. It is recognised that this seawall may fail during a major event. 2. Coastal Protection Unit (CPU) was developed in the Cook Islands for the purpose of rebuilding beaches. The first installation was at the Rarotongan Hotel which had a severe erosion problem. This installation has now been in place for three years and has been very successful and cost effective in both halting erosion and rebuilding the beach.

87 Appendices (d) Carry out the construction or erection of any structure within the foreshore. Appendix 1:Conservation Act 1986/87- Extract 34. Protection of coastal waters . No person shall, except with the prior written Interpretation: In this Act, unless the context consent of the Council.- otherwise requires - (a) Remove any silt, sand, gravel, cobble, "Coastal zone" - means all those areas boulders or coral from the coast.al waters; comprising coastal waters and the or foreshore; (b) Carry out any excavation, dredging, "Coastal waters" means all that area having clearing, paving, grading, ploughing, or as its inner boundary the mean low water other activity within t.he coastal wat.ers; or mark, and as its outer boundary, the outer limit of the territorial sea, and includes (c) Place any fill or material of any t.ype every lagoon and the bed of such sea or within the coast.al waters; or lagoon; (d) Carry out the construction or erection of "Cook Islands Waters" means the waters of the any structure in, on, across or under the territorial sea of the Cook Islands as coastal wat.ers. defined in Section 3 of the Territorial Sea 35. Director may require or take remedial and Exclusive Economic Zone Act 1977 and action - where t.he Director is of the the internal waters of the Cook Islands as opinion that any person has acted in defined in Section 4 of the Act and includes contravention of Sections 33 or :34 or not in the waters of any river, stream, or lake; accordance wit.h the written consent of the "Foreshore" means - Council, the Director may - (a) all that area between the mean low water (a) require the person to desist from so acting mark and line connecting those points and take such remedial action as the landward and measured at right angles to Director may determine; or a distance of 50 metres from the mean low (b) where that person refuses to take such water mark; and remedial action as may be determined by (b) every stream river and lake together with the Director, take such remedial action as the bed of any stream river and lake and may be necessary in the circumstances. includes that area extending landward and 36. Penalties: measured at right angles to a distance of 5 metres from the bank of any such stream, (1) Every person commits an offence river and lake; and shall be liable on conviction to a fine not exceeding $5,000 who acts in Part VI: Coastal Zones contravention of any of the provisions of 33. Protection of foreshore - No person this Part. shall, except with the prior consent in (2) The High Court may, in addition to writing of the Council· any penalty provided for by this Part, (a) Remove any silt, sand, gravel, cobble, order the offender to repair or restore boulders or coral from the foreshore, under the supervision of the Director any provided that such consent shall not be damage done by him as a consequence of granted unless the Council is of the his having acted in contravention of this opinion that such removal will result in the Part, and, if the Conservation Service shall restoration or preservation of the natural have undertaken work pursuant to section configuration and features of the foreshore 35 (b), the Court may in its discretion. or the natural flow of water; or order the offender to pay to the Conservation Fund all or part of the (b) Carry out any excavation, dredging, expenses incurred by the Service in so clearing, paving, grading, ploughing or doing and the amount so awarded shall be other activity within the foreshore which deemed to be a judgment debt due to the may result in the alteration of the natural Service from the offender and may be configuration of the foreshore; or enforced in any manner in which a (c) Place any fill or material of any type judgment or order of the Court for the within the foreshore; or payment of a civil debt may be enforced.

88 Appendix 2:Policy Paper Contrary to popular conceptions, however, such structures are expensive and require Coastal Protection - Northern Coast considerable effort to construct, maintain and repair after cyclones and other tropical storms. Rarotonga - Cook Islands It is also now recognised world-wide, that in Introduction terms of providing effective protection against coastal retreat and destruction, these solid The coastal zone endowed with various life structures perform poorly. supporting ecosystems is a vital resource base to all island states of the Pacific region. The Besides often being a detraction from the reefs and lagoons have been, for centuries, natural scenery, these solid shoreline defence prime sources of food; in recent years, the structures frequently increase coastal damage coastal zone has increasingly assumed a by enhancing erosion, and destroying existing significant economic role, especially for the sandy beaches. Furthermore, wave heights smaller island states which must depend on over the structure (normally referred to as tourism development to fuel economic growth. "wave overtopping height") are increased, thereby intensifying back-shore scour and For most Pacific islands, the coastal zone is creating the necessity for ever bigger and also being subjected to increasing demands to higher structures. The latter phenomena, for support rapidly growing populations. example, was witnessed in Niue during However, the heavy concentration of Cyclone Ofa when waves hit the straight-faced population and subsistence/economic activities cliff, ran up some 26 metres and demolished a in this zone is often responsible for much of the hotel. plundering of coastal resources, the destruction of breeding grounds and beach areas, the In short, solid wall defence structures can pollution of lagoons and harbours, the loss of seriously degrade the environment, breakdown some marine species and ecosystems, and the under increased pressure, and eventually help fouling of nearshore waters and reefs. destroy the very areas they are designed to protect. When arable land is extremely limited, urban growth and expanded economic activities Rarotonga inevitably results in the construction of hotels, Like many of the smaller Pacific island states, houses and infrastructure in areas close to the the Cook Island's vital commercial and national shoreline making them highly coastal zone is assets and essential infrastructure are mainly not only a source of sustenance for the vast located within its coastal zone. In the case of majority of island communities, it also contains Rarotonga, most of these assets are situated on within its boundaries a significant proportion the low lying northern coastline where the land of an island nation's investments in levels range between two and five metres above physicallinfrastructural assets. mean sea level. Viewed in this light, a comprehensive This northern coastline has recently seen an programme of coastal zone management to extensive programme of foreshore development reduce and, ultimately, to eliminate pollution and beauti-fication works along the urban sea of coastal waters and plundering of coastal front between the two harbours of Avatiu and resources, and to protect and properly manage Avarua and a major town planning exercise is our shorelines is a must if we are to ensure the underway for redevelopment of the Avarua long-term livelihood of our people. Civic Centre which forms a focal point of the This policy paper is intended to address the urban area and its coast. This urban coast is latter, that is, the coastal protec:tion and thus the commercial and Government centre of shoreline management aspects of coastal zone the Cook Islands as well as one of its principle management programme. showpieces. Conventional Coastal Protection Systems Other vital infrastructure located on the northern coast includes the Rarotongan The conventional response to coastal protection International Airport, JUHI - Triad - and requirements is to construct hard structures Mobile bulk fuel depots, a coastal fringe road, such as concrete sea walls, rock boulder and underneath which run the main services of concrete block revetments and sea walls. water mains, plus electric power and telephone These structures are usually designed with cables. Also located on this coastline are sufficient bulk and height to withstand and Parliament buildings, an airport bypass road overpower incoming waves and thus, hopefully, and seawall, and oil and fuel pipelines protect the land/properties behind them. servicing the bulk fuel depots.

89 While the northern coastline has over the past 3. The system should assist our efforts to 25 years been adversely affected by hurricane preserve our recreational beaches for the sea states which have caused appreciable benefits of future generations and the damage to roads, property, fuel supply lines, tourist industry; and should not be of a and other infrastructure, it is recognised that type which will erode and degrade these none of these cyclones were particularly large, beaches and make them unusable; and nor were they an especially rare event. 4. It should not diminish the scenic value of It is also recognised that during this period the Cook our natural shorelines and should not Islands had been extremely lucky with several near degrade the coastal environment. misses of cyclones which had devastated other Pacific Meeting the above objectives means satisfying islands and it is only a matter of time before the Cook acceptable engineering requirements as well as Islands is again struck by another such significant complying with certain political, economic, and social event. considerations and should be based on the following A study analysis of past cyclone conditions suggested criteria: that if or when very extreme sea conditions caused by 1. It should be cost effective long term, and as an event of the Cyclone Val type and magnitude were to hit Rarotonga the damage to all the north coast maintenance - free as possible; infrastructure, main town urban area, and the airport 2. It should be as low as possible in height, would be devastating. It is obvious that the Cook allow lagoon and ocean views while at the Islands could not afford a disaster of this magnitude, same time greatly reducing wave height which is compounded by the fact that insurance is not and wave velocity; available for sea-surge damage resulting from wave 3. The protection should enhance the and water impact. environment, not degrade it; However, while it is obvious that we need coastal 4. It should allow normal water flow to protection against these events it is known that prevent lagoon degradation and traditional coastal protection systems (such as those stagnation, and be capable of calming referred to in Section 2 above) rarely provide hurricane-force seas when necessary; satisfactory, long-lasting protection. They are also a detraction from the natural shoreline scenery and 5. It should be aesthetic, not an "eyesore"; could conceivably negate efforts to promote our 6. Especially in the main town foreshore it tourism industry which is currently our leading should produce useable foreshore economic sector. recreation areas and a marine promenade. Coastal Protection Planning It should not form an impassable barrier; Taking into account all the foregoing, and taking 7. Where necessary, it should protect and special account of the major town planning and help to rebuild existing beaches; and not be redevelopment of the Avarua Civic Centre, the tourist the cause of eroding and degrading them. driven economy, and the recent main town foreshore redevelopment and beautification works, coastal protection systems that would fulfil most of our needs should be designed with the following objectives in mind: 1. It should provide effective protection for all vital infrastructure and domestic, commercial, and national assets on the designated area of the north coast from hurricane force seas, from whatever direction they may arrive; 2. For engineering design purposes, design waves with return periods in the order of 100 years should be used (ie. an event with a 1% risk of occurrence in a given year);

90 Appendix 3:Coastal Zone Policy preventative measures should be taken to reduce the harmful consequences of Conservation Service - Policy and Intent natural and man-made disasters or 1. The Conservation Service recognises that emergencies. coastal zone areas play an important role 6. So the Conserv-ation Service intends that in protecting the ecology and the public the coastal areas and beaches shall be health, safety, and welfare of the citizens managed by imposing strict control of the Cook Islands. That in recent years standards to minimise damage to the the coastal areas and beaches have been natural environment, private property and subjected to increasing growth pressures, life. Priority for this policy will be given to and that unless these pressures are the community as a whole rather than controlled, the very features which make individual sites. coastal areas and beaches economically, aesthetically, and ecologically rich will be Coastal Protection Devices destroyed. (Extract from Coastal Research Division, US 2. The Conservation Service further recogn- Army Corps of Engineers) ises that coastal areas and beaches form Seawalls the first line of defence for the mainland against storms and hurricanes and provide Seawalls only protect land immediately behind valuable protection for public and private them, and offer no protection to adjacent areas property. Man-made works and structures up and down the coast or to the fronting beach. in protective areas may increase risks to In fact, because seawalls normally have life and property and higher costs to the vertical faces, wave reflections are maximized, public coastal areas. Beaches often protect wave heights and overtopping may increase, lagoons, salt marshes and other marine and scour in front of the structure is more environments against storm surges, absorb likely, In addition, if downdrift beaches were the forces of oceanic activity on their previously nourished by land erosion now seaward sides and protect calmer waters protected, they may erode even more quickly. and stable shores to their landward sides, Groins and are dynamic geologic and biologic systems with topography that is altered by A groin cannot protect a shoreline from direct waves, storm surges, and littoral currents. wave attack. When first built, the sand trapped on a groin updrift side is no longer 3. The Conservation Service further available to replenish downdrift beaches, recognises that coastal areas and beaches resulting in erosion. When a groin fills to are among the Cook Islands most valuable capacity, material passes around or over it to resources and have very high recreational the downdrift shore, at a slower rate than and aesthetic value which should be before the groin was built. If downdrift erosion preserved and enhanced. Coastal areas is unaccept-able (it usually is), an alternative is provide a unique habitat for birds, wildlife, to build more than one groin and fill the area marine life, and plant life and protect between with sand. waters that are vital to the food chain. However, if a groin extends seawards past 4. The Conservation Service further where waves break (breaker zone) sediment recognises that the purpose of proper moving around the structure may be forced too coastal management is to look beyond each far offshore to return to the downdrift beach. individual site to the whole community. Internationally, wide sloping beaches are Revetments recognised as the best and cheapest Like seawalls, revetments protect only the land defence against coastal erosion. Where immediately behind them, and provide no possible, the first priority of coastal protection to adjacent areas. Erosion may planning should be to preserve or replace continue on adjacent shores and may be the natural beaches rather that build hard accelerated near the revetment by wave protective devices like seawalls and reflection from the structure, although not as existing beaches (see Coastal Protection seriously as with vertical-faced seawalls. Also Devices extract below). A downdrift shore may also have faster erosion 5. The Conservation Service further if supplied with material eroded from the now recognises that there is a huge national protected area. cost for post disaster redevelopment in coastal areas, and that continuuous

91 Case Study:

Protection Against Beach Erosion and Salt Water Inundation at the Rarotongan Hotel, Rarotonga, Cook Islands

Presented by Mr Don Dorrell, Coastal Protection Consultant, Coastal Environment International Ltd, Rarotonga, Cook Islands. 4. A letter from the Chairman of the Board of Introduction Directors of the Rarotongan Hotel in This case study covers a period of some 18 response to an editorial in "Construction years commencing in 1976 and is site specific to Australia. " the Rarotongan Hotel coastline and an area covering 400 metres adjacent. The discussion Extracts from: includes the use of overhead projection, video, slide film, and colour photographic review to Protection Against Beach Erosion and demonstrate: Salt Water Inundation Hazards at the "Rarotongan" Hotel, Rarotonga, Cook • The value of regular data collection and Islands. Final Report and Performance mapping of the area to enable accurate Monitoring 3: February 1992- February assessment; 1993 • The unsuccessful attempts to stop erosion A Report to Ministry of External Relations and using groynes, rock revetments, rock Trade, New Zealand Government and the breakwaters and beach renourishment, Ministry of Planning and Economic plus the way in which the engineered Development, Government of the Cook Islands. structures increased erosion in the area. Prepared by Associate Professor R.M. Kirk. March 1993. • The final successful rehabilitation of the beach with the use of newly developed Executive Summary Coastal Protection Units (CPU). This report is the third and final in a series concerned with an assessment and monitoring Back Ground to the Problem and Project survey being made of a beach erosion and Monitoring inundation control scheme installed at the As three comprehensive reports plus a "Rarotongan" Hotel site, Rarotonga, Cook photographic review on the background and Islands in May 1991. This report covers the monitoring of the site are in the hands of period February 1992 to February 1993 and SOPAC it is not intended to repeat these as presents an overall evaluation of the scheme member countries can obtain copies of these if performance to date. required. The scheme employs new, proprietary technology and has been funded by NZODA. CPU Scheme Performance As stated previously, this subject is also fully The first survey and assessment were made in described in the monitoring and assessment late August and early September W81. The survey reports carried out by Professor R. Kirk results are reported in Kirk (1991). of Canterbury University, New Zealand. The early indications from the first survey As these are too comprehensive to repeat for were that the scheme had been very successful this presentation the following summaries are in halting erosion, and indeed reversing it to provided in the following sections: accretion. Persistent erosion of the hotel foreshore was replaced by shoreline growth, 1. The Executive Summary from the "Final some 1200 cubic meters of sand being trapped performance and monitoring report" (Kirk in the first 3.5 months after scheme 1993). installation. The scheme also satisfactorily 2. The conclusion from the "Final protected against storm wave runup and performance and monitoring report" (Kirk overtopping. In the past these caused quite 1993). frequent salt water inundation of parts of the hotel complex. 3. The summary of a photographic report to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, New Zealand Government.

92 The second monitoring survey and assessment Over the scheme "life" (21.5 months) a little was made between February 12-18, 1992; some less than 4,000 cubic meters of sand have been 8 months after scheme installation. The trapped and another 1,000 cubic meters on results are reported in Kirk (1992). neighbouring areas. Results show that early trapping was fastest on neighbouring areas Weather and sea -state conditions in the period and now is faster in the scheme area landward between the first two resurveys was quite of the blocks. The technology thus not only variable. This period included waves from confers benefit on the neighbours (rather than Cyclone "Val" which caused strong beach referring erosion to them), it does so early. erosion and extensive damage to conventional placed stone seawalls further west at the Typical design accumulation rates that might "Edgewater" Motel. There was also extensive apply to use of similar 100 m long shore- damage to the buildings and injury to some parallel sections of CPU elsewhere are guests. Though less exposed to these waves accumulation at 4-5 cubic meters per day. the scheme at the "Rarotongan" sustained no Alternatively, rates can be expressed as about net beach erosion. negligible over topping and 20-21 cubic meters of sand per CPU block per inundation. year, or 40-60 kg of sand per block per tidal cycle. The second resurvey showed that the structures catch sand moving in both directions It has not been possible to carry out benefit- along the shore (io.: westward transport under cost analysis but,it is already clear that to the south east trade winds), as well as the provide the volume of sand accumulated to larger net westward transport. t:: date from other (UrlilPd) sources would cost more than the scheme has. This does not A further +~J47 cubic meters of sand were include savings in damages to the hotel. gained in the G months of the second monitoring period. This occurred at rates The technology is now regarded as proven and about one third as fast as those that obtained it is clear the scheme is a considerable success. for the first 8.5 months. Success apportions equally to good construction and to very effective design. No scheme is ever Results of repeated grain-size sampling also complete proof against the sea. However, in show that the CPU's cause the beach sand to addition to completely nullifying hazard from become significantly coarser, a result that is lesser events, the scheme will mitigate larger highly desirable since the beach can better ones. absorb the water flung ashore in storm wave runup. Monitoring should now pass to Survey Department, Cook Islands Government. The structures catch driftwood in storms and this is both a nuisance and can cause scour Conclusions around the CPU's. These matters can be First and foremost, the scheme has been a handled as part of routine maintenance and resounding success on any of the measures are not serious problems for the scheme. available. It is very clear that it has been well The third resurvey was carried in February designed for the situation, skilfully executed 1993, a year having elapsed since the second and very well maintained. Even though only resurvey. Total scheme "life" (from installation 21.5 months have elapsed since scheme date) at the time of the latest survey was thus commencement it is reasonable to state that 21..'5months. Only one significant high energy the technology has proven itself. While no event occurred in this period (on 4 May 1992) technology is a panacea for coastal hazard when the beach was overtopped into the management problems it should be apparent swimming pool area. that there are many other sites on island shores where this technology may have a Sand accumulation over the last year was a beneficial application. further +1,742 cubic meters behind the CPU's and 1,991 cubic meters over the whole scheme The qualification that must attach to this is area. Average accumulation rates were + 10.25 that no technology is proof against any and cubic meters per meter length of structure and every storm event. Inevitably it must occur + 17.42 cubic meters per CPU block. that there will be events that can overtop the rebuilt beach at the site. However, the longer There is no indication that sand accumulation the time that passes before the occurrence of is slackening though the locus of greatest such an event (and hence the more sand that accumulation is shifting westward over time, will have accumulated), the less damaging will as expected. be the effects of the event.

93 Documentation and assessment of the erosion The protection scheme employed new and inundation control scheme at the proprietary technology developed by Mr. Don "Rarotongan" Hotel site now spanning 21.5 Dorrell of Coastal Environmental International months of the scheme "lifetime" is now Ltd. This installation of CPU (Coastal complete. It includes three complete re- Protection Units - patented) was the first in the measurements of the beach profiles, as well as world to utilise this technology. extensive observations, photography and video Prior to the CPU installation the coastline was coverage made under a considerable range of subject to severe constant erosion and several sea-state conditions. previous attempts at protection using groins, All of this material reveals that the scheme breakwaters, rock revetments, a rock sill and continues to be highly successful in trapping sand renourishment had all failed. The sand sand and in mitigating runup and overtopping beach had been lost and one of the hotel by broken waves. The scheme has trapped a accommodation blocks was constantly being little short of 4,000 cubic meters of sand behind inundated with sea water and was about to be the CPU's and about another 1,000 cubic undermined. When the CPU system was meters have lodged in adjacent areas. There is installed all rock groins, breakwaters, and no indication of slowing or cessation in the rate revetments were removed. of sand buildup. The CPU technology utilises the physics of Recommendations wave energy, and naturally occurring coastal This report completes the monitoring provided processes to protect and recover important coastal environs by developing (growing) a for in the NZODA contract under which the scheme has been carried out. One fmal wide sloping beach which is both recreational and is itself excellent "coastal protection". recommendation is offered: Thus as the CPU's, are in time, designed to be 1. Monitoring of the scheme should now be buried by beach advancement then the beach passed to Survey Department, Government itself becomes coastal protection. of the Cook Islands, so that it can be Constant monitoring has shown that the periodically updated as part of their scheme has few negative environmental ongoing work with measuring and impacts and unlike most other forms of coastal documenting coastal change on Rarotonga. protection has not transferred erosion to Extracts from: adjoining coastlines but has actively conferred benefit to neighbouring beaches as well. Coastal Protection and Beach Apart from the savings to the hotel in sea Development "Rarotongan" Hotel, damage and the obvious recreational Rarotonga, Cook Islands. A advantages, the dollar value of the sand Photographic Report to the Ministry of collected in just 20 months exceeded the cost of Foreign Affairs and Trade, New Zealand installing the scheme. Government and the Department of the Prime Minister, Cook Islands The protection scheme was advanced by the Government. Prime Minister of the Cook Islands, Sir Coastal Protection and Beach Development by Geoffrey Henry; designed, built and installed Natural Self- Renourishment by Don Dorrell; funded by the NZ Government's aDA; had the technical backing This photographic review covers a two year of a large University research group in New period and is subsequent to the three Zealand; the technical and engineering comprehensive assessment and monitoring resources in three countries; and the active reports carried out by associate Professor Kirk participation of both the New Zealand and of Canterbury University. Cook Islands Governments.

94 Asher asked if the CPUs could be relocated once an Summary of Discussions area had recovered. Dorrell replied that they could be, but it would depend on the causes of the original [Note: Mr Don Dorrell also presented erosion. information during the meeting on his newly What was the wear factor on the CPUs? No designed COPED (Coastal Protection & Energy measurable wear has been observed so far. Dissipation) and COPED "Max" coastal protection systems, but the information was not Massel noted that breakwaters have to be tuned to the provided for inclusion in the above case study wave frequency, he asked what testing had been done for publication] , on the COPEDs? Dorrell replied that such tests still needed to be done, but they were expected to occur What is the indicative cost for a 2 m wave height? soon. Dorrell responded that the CPU was A$SOO per metre; but the costs for the COPED Max - 3 m x 3 m Dorrell was asked what happens either end of the - depends; he noted it contains 10 m3 of concrete, CPUs at the Rarotongan Hotel? He responded that with concrete costing about NZ$300 per m3 in the there had been an accumulation of sand at both ends. Cook Islands. The 1 m x 2 m COPED contains 0.8 He was then asked how he determined the line of the m3 of concrete. CPUs? He replied that the design was to have' an end result with the slope 10 m in front of the units, ie 10 Dorrell further noted that from his estimates, the cost m out from the eroded shoreline. of a breakwater would be 30 percent less than the equivalent.rock breakwater. He was asked where the 67,000 m3 of sand came . from. Dorrell responded that it came from the reef Guam noted that the costs seemed very high and that flats. He was then asked if there had been any economically they would not be feasible for Guam. noticeable changes in the lagoon anywhere? Nothing She further noted that they were not very aesthetically has shown up. pleasing and that would be a problem for Guam which relies very heavily on tourism. 95 Fiji Case Study:

Coastal Protection System at Yanuca Island, Cuvu, Fiji.

Prepared by Satish Prasad, Mineral Resources Department, Fiji. Coconut palms and native trees were removed Abstract from the spit to plant elsewhere on Yanuca as A vertical sea wall has been used as a part of the landscaping programme. The plant coastal protection system to protect the roots would have helped hold the sediments beach at Yanuca Island, Cuvu, Fiji, from together, baffle wave action, and prevent erosion. The wall was constructed erosion. The clearing of vegetation from the without any proper studies to determine spit is still continuing despite the seriousness the causes of coastal erosion and design of the erosion problem. parameters. It is ineffective in controlling the erosion and requires Coastal Protection System regular maintenance. Beach The coastal protection system used at Yanuca replenishment would be a preferred form is a vertical timber wall with large limestone of coastal protection system at Yanuca. boulders placed seaward of the wall. The wall was constructed in 1982 and is made of pine Introduction poles approximately 2.4 m long and 100 mm diameter. The poles are placed side by side in A vertical sea wall has been constructed at a trench dug approximately 1 m deep along the northwest coast of Yanuca Island, Cuvu, to eroding coastline, and are tied to one another protect the beach from erosion. The beach is a by iron wires. Black polythene is attached to popular recreational spot for tourists who visit the back of the wall which is backfilled with The Fijian Resort located on the island. In sand. The wall height is designed to reach recent years the beach has experienced serious approximately the high-water mark. The erosion problems causing major concern to the Fijian has not been able to provide an estimate resort's management. Sand was eroded from on the cost of the construction of the wall. the beach as early as 1979, but the erosion seems to have been more pronounced over the The wall was constructed without any study last eight years. The Fijian Resort apparently being undertaken to identify the main cause or spends thousands of dollars per year to causes of the erosion. There was no monitoring maintain the vertical wall and the eroding of the beach profile or interpretation of aerial beach. photos to determine the dynamic nature of the coastal environment. The expected water-level Causes of Erosion changes caused by storm or wind setup were not considered in the design of the protection In addition to natural causes (wave climate, system. sediment supply, and changes in sea level), the erosion at Yanuca has been accelerated by The Effectiveness of the System human activities including mining of sand and clearing of vegetation from the sand spit It has been found that the wall is ineffective (prasad, 1992, 1993). Sand has been mined and that erosion is still continuing. Where since construction of the resort. The resort boulders have not been placed, the vertical wall management apparently sold large volumes of reflects incident wave energy and causes scour sand to hotel developers in Nadi, Fiji. The at the base of the structure (Burne, 1991; Fijian periodically removes sand from the spit Holden, 1992; SOPAC, 1994). This causes the to backfill the vertical wall. The hotel also uses wall to collapse and affects the re- the sand from the spit to build sand bunkers at establishment of the beach. The reflecting its golf course. A front-end loader is hired wave energy causes sediment to remain in periodically for this purpose. suspension at all times, thus allowing the sediments to be transported either offshore or Mining of the sand has altered the equilibrium alongshore. (stable) state of the beach system. A stable beach exists only when sediment losses are balanced by sediment gains.

96 During storms and heavy swells, overtopping References by sea water and breaching and collapsing of Burne, R. V. 1991. Carbonate sediment the wall usually' occurs (Prasad, 1992, 1993; budgets and coastal management in South Holden, If)f)2). resulting in the removal of sand Pacific island nations. In: Workshop on from behind the wall. The wall requires Coastal Processes in the South Pacific regular maintenance. It is backfilled with sand Island Nations, Lae, Papua New Guinea, about once a month at a cost of approximately 1-8 October 1987. SOPAC Technical F$400. The effectiveness of the system has not Bulletin 7: 45 - 53. been monitored and modified accordingly by the management of the resort. Holden, B. J. 1992. Coastal damage inspection Southwest V,:ti Levu, Fiji after Cyclone Advantages of the System Sina. SOPAC Technical Report 148. The wall is relatively easy to construct and has Prasad, S. 1992. Coastal geological study of a neat appearance when not breached or Yanuca and Cuvu Harbour, Fiji. collapsed. Unpublished B App Sc Honours Thesis. Lodged in the libraries of Queensland Disadvantages of the System University Of Technology, Brisbane and Mineral Resources Department, Fiji. The wall is totally inefIective, allows loss of fines through the space between the poles Prasad, S. 1993. Coastal erosion investigations where polythene is torn or removed, and at Yanuca Island and Cuou Harbour, Fiji. requires regular maintenance. In addition, it Mineral Resources Department Note is unsightly when breached or collapsed BP69/6. (unpublished). especially in front of a tourist resort. SOPAC 1994. Coastal Protection in the South Discussion Pacific. SOPAC Technical Report 190. At Yanuca, where the aim is to maintain a beach for amenities. beach replenishment would be a preferred form of coastal protection, rather than a vertical sea wall. It is not possible to re-establish an eroded beach in front of a vertical wall. A large volume of sand with comparable grain size and composition characteristics is available from the mainland opposite the head of Cuvu Harbour (Prasad, 1992). This sand could be trucked to Yanuca and placed on the eroding beach. However, a study wou ld be required to determine the volume and placement site of sand. Prior to hotel development at Yanuca, a coastal processes study and interpretation of sequential aerial photos should have been undertaken. These studies would have delineated buffer zones or setbacks and prevented construction of engineered structures in the dynamic coastal environment. Before construction of the coastal protection system, the main cause or causes of the erosion should have been identified. Design wave and water-level estimates should have been determined. After construction of the system, the relative success or failure should have been monitored and the design adjusted accordingly.

97 FeDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA:

Overview of Coastal Protection

I would like to acknowledge the appreciation of • Education and Public Awareness the Federated Sates of Micronesia (FSM) In order to reach the public at large, FSM sees Government to the Australian International the importance of education and public Development Assistance Bureau (AIDAB) for awareness to achieve effective coastal funding and enabling the Pacific countries and protection. There are definitely needs in the territories to participate in this Second Coastal FSM to educate and pressure landowners and a Protection Meeting. need to generate awareness of the needs and I would also again thank both SPREP and benefits of ICZM in the general public as well SOPAC for their time, financial support and as decision makers. technical support, not only in relation to our Education and public awareness programmes coastal management and protection issues but and tools, such as teaching materials for also in relation to other relevant projects. national school curricula, radio and media Because coastal protection and management is programmes are very important as they can a fairly new issue being undertaken in the lead to active participation at the grass-roots Federated States of Micronesia, it is the level. Political leaders and traditional leaders standpoint of the FSM Government not to need to be made aware of the serious coastal prioritise the needs but to incorporate them protection problems that usually arise from into two categories as the most urgent needs such decisions. which require immediate actions and the less • Mapping and Data Collection urgent needs that require later actions. The first four needs identified fall under the most As stated in the First Coastal Protection urgent category while the other four are less Meeting, FSM sees that "it is increasingly urgent, although we recognise them all as imminent in the coastal environment to survey priorities. physical processes and in particular the effects of geological and other natural hazards and to Overview of Coastal Protection: establish baseline conditions against which the effects of development can be monitored and • Integrated Coastal Zone Management where necessary effective coastal protection During the World Coast Conference in The planned. Well documented case studies Netherlands last November, Integrated Coastal throughout the region, especially on human Zone Management was recognised as the most induced changes, should be acknowledged as appropriate process to address current and well as the needs for sediment budget studies long term coastal management issues, at the regional level, monitoring of the including habitat loss, degradation of water coastline and coastal maps of the coastal quality, depletion of coastal resources, physical environment. adaptation to sea level rise and other impacts of global climate change. • Regulatory Regimes As pointed out in the First Coastal Protection FSM has recognised a tremendous sense' of Meeting, FSM is comprised of four states with urgency to immediately implement its own four "somehow" different governments. The National Integrated Coastal Zone Management states vary in size, appearance and topography. programme because of the pressure which is Plans for coastal management are adopted into accelerating the decline of habitat and natural legislation in Kosrae State and soon to be in resource loss, including mangroves wetlands, Yap State. Each state needs to adapt or modify corals as well as fisheries and other coastal legislation according to their own needs. There marine resources. Under the same package, is a need to review and update regulatory FSM also recognises the needs to develop ICZM practices and procedures relevant to coastal training for national planners and managers protection in the FSM because. of the four whose responsibilities impact on coastal areas. diverse regulatory regimes, including legislation, that exist.

98 • Social and Cultural Practices Indeed each respective State Government has often, when faced with either purchasing Because of the diversity in the FSM, site- expensive or limited land from private owners specific cultural and social issues, appropriate for airports or dock facilities, have opted for technology needs to be considered, due to creating new land by converting aquatic coastal protection being costly because of habitat such as mangrove and reef tracts which remoteness, as well as costly maintenance, are "free" or less costly into dry land. This thus we need to asses whether it can be done needs to be discouraged while realistic and locally. We see a definite need to identify practical alternatives are identified. Therefore appropriate technology and planning and we recognised the need for studies in management policies to ensure minimal impact identifying alternative sources of sand and on the social and cultural use of the coast gravel, economic evaluations of beach mining because technical solutions may not be options and its control. Above all, education acceptable both socially and culturally. and awareness to discourage sand mining as • Consideration of Economic Values alternatives are made available, is encouraged. Because of the recent boost in the FSM tourism FSM recognises that problems in the region at economy which is also based on the beauty of times are site specific but FSM would like to re the coastline, economic values of coastal -enforce the recommendation that a dossier of protection should be considered. This supports past experience in coastal protection, whether the idea that there is a "link" between the successful or failures be compiled in a report economy and coastal problems in our islands as and distributed. This would prevent costly for instance, tourism is based on the existence duplication and/or be a lesson for other of beaches and beautiful mangrove swamps countries. along the coast. Our coast, including beaches and mangroves are long-term assets which Conclusion must be preserved, hence, we see a certain FSM would also like to put on record its need for long term coastal development plans support of a hard copy and soft copy of to reduce costs and the need for expensive information and data to be stored in the engineered coastal protection structures. relevant office or agency as well as in another • Coastal Engineering archive somewhere for safe keeping. Because man-made or engineered structures FSM would also like to put on record its are results of continued reclamation and support of Fiji and Guam's statement about protection of assets in and adjacent to the making an EIA and EIS regional requirements coastal area, as pointed out in the first and standard for any form of development in meeting, needs for technical training and the coastal area and that EIA's be at the cost of resistance to inappropriate engineered the developers. solutions are recognised. Any proposed system FSM would also like to support the idea of the should be critically evaluated in the FSM and sharing of relevant data and information in the appropriate innovation should be encouraged region. Hence, if Guam has done a survey as well. Engineered processes along the report on something in the coastal zone that it coastline should be planned as long-term be made available to the region to avoid solutions and the negative impacts of such duplicating mistakes and efforts. So one can should be made known. build or learn from available data instead of re- • Alternatives to Coastal Derived Sand inventing the wheel. and Gravel FSM would also like to strongly recommend For each of the four states in the FSM, that for any form of coastal structure to be materials for roads, navigational projects such built or put in the coastal area, it must meet a as docks, ports and harbours, which are standard criteria. constructed on the shoreline, are obtained through excavation and dredging of coral reefs, shallows lagoons, mangrove flats, etc. Overlying carbonate substrates.

99 Case Study:

Nan Madol - An Indigenous Engineering Structure on Pohnpei

Nan Madol - Micronesia's most historic site, is During its prime, a thousand or more people located near the Madolenihmw harbour, occupied the artificial islands. Nan Madol was eastern side of Pohnpei on a fringing reef. The not actually a town, however, but more of a site consists of ninety-three man-made islets, centre for the residences of elite royalty and mostly rectangular in shape. They range in their retainers. It is generally divided into two size from about 350 to 8,400 square meters. sections: Madol: Pah: or lower area in the The entire site covers nearly 150 acres, about a western half, was the administrative centre, fifth of a square mile, in shallow water a foot Madol Powe, the upper town in the east was deep at low tide. the ritual and religious centre. The original name of Nan Madol was "Soun Nan-leng", the Radiocarbon-dating of material from one of the Reef of Heaven. The Pohnpeian word "Madol" Nan Madol islets indicates that the area was refers to spaces between structures, in this under construction in the year 1200 AD. case, canals. Thus, the romantic Venice of the Recent diggings and excavations below the Pacific. tidal level, however, indicate occupation in the area as early as 200 B.C. As deeper and more The reason for abandonment of Nan Madol can extensive excavations continue, this date will only be speculated. Pohnpeian oral history undoubtedly recede further into antiquity. offer no real clue. Paul Hambruch writing in 1910 said the adoption of new rituals and The origin of the huge basalt slabs that customs brought by American missionaries in comprise most of the structures at Nan Madol the 1850's caused the abandonment. One of is unknown. The quarries are not located the first missionaries on Pohnpei, Luther within the immediate vicinity of the ruins, Gulick, however, wrote that Nan Madol was however. One corner stone on the islet of already vacated when he arrived in 1852. Nandauwas is estimated to weigh fifty tons. More likely than religion, the reason for A two ton sakau pounding stone has been departure was depopulation caused by contact located, and one-ton slabs are commonplace. It with outsiders who spread foreign diseases. is believed that the slabs were transported to Another reason was social. As high chiefs Nan Madol by rafts and could have come from began to lose their absolute power, commoners the opposite side of Pohnpei. They were raised became more independent. The tribute needed into place on inclined palm tree trunks. The to sustain such a settlement without natural generally hexagonal slabs are natural and not resources was no longer forthcoming. The high shaped by human hands. The criss-cross chiefs fled from the islets to firm, productive formations of the unworked basalt columns and agricultural land, where they remain today. blocks in the outer wall are filled with coral This indigenous coastal structure is very rubble available in the immediate vicinity, and unique and it was used until today as a form of reach to a height of fifty feet on Pohnwi islet. coastal protection, although history depicts The construction indicates an organised effort that its walls were constructed with the top by thousands of workers over centuries. stones overhanging. preventing scaling by Pohnpeian oral history tells of a warrior, invaders and devastation by natural Isokelekel, who came from Kosrae with 3.3.3 devastation while creating an observation men and overthrew the ruling dynasty in point. battle at Nan Madol. He was installed as King, the first Nahnmwarkim in about 1628. Following Isokelekel, five succeeding Nahnrnwarki is occupied Nan Madol, the last in about 1725. After that year, the area was occupied only inter.nittently by royalty. GUAM:

Overview of Coastal Protection

Prepared by the Department of Agriculture, Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources, Government of Guam • Mapping and Data Collection Reports such as this are helpful in determining the extent of damage that our shorelines could Currently, the Bureau of Planning (BOP) and suffer during a storm. This type of information the Department of Land Management have would be helpful when development is proposed implemented the use of a Geographic along the beachside. Unfortunately, these Information System (GIS). We are still reports are not currently added to an electronic developing our GIS database and would like to database that is accessible to other government eventually include more detailed information agencies or private companies. They are kept regarding our coastal areas. Hopefully at the in a library at the BOP where they are Third Meeting we will be able to provide a accessible to government agencies and the positive update. public. Hopefully, the information in these After a storm or typhoon staff from our officego reports will be incorporated into our GIS, and out and do shoreline damage assessments. One will become more readily accessible for the excellent example of such a report was done in appropriate GovGuam agencies. November 1991 after Super-typhoon Yuri • Integrated Coastal Zone Management passed south of Guam. Yuri had exceptionally large seas, reaching an estimated height of 23 The Guam Coastal Management Program, feet. What made this super-typhoon unique, under the direction of the BOP, is actually a was that the impact of the large waves was network of several GovGuam agencies that intensified by the coincidence of the passage of work together to manage our coastal zone. This the storm and storm related low barometric network of agencies include the Department of pressures with a high tide. South-eastern Agriculture (DOA), the Guam Environmental exposures were subject to a storm surge that Protection Agency (GEPA), the Department of may have equalled or exceeded any other in this Parks and Recreation (DPR), the Department of century. Land Management (DLM) and the Department of Public Works (DPW). Assessments were done at several locations around the island to provide a well-rounded • Regulatory Regimes representation of the impacts the shorelines In 1974, The Guam Territorial Seashore suffered due to the typhoon. The report also Protection Act was promulgated. The people of included estimates of the quantity of sand that Guam had declared that "the Guam Territorial was removed on the beaches and the distance Seashore Reserve is a distinct and valuable inland that the sand was deposited. In natural resource belonging to all the people of addition, our staff also noted the amount of Guam." This act allows the Government to vegetation that had been removed along the scrutinise development proposed within the shoreline. Seashore Reserve (land and submerged land In a number of areas, roads were undermined extending from 10 meters inland and seaward and asphalt pavement uplifted and sheeted to the 10 fathom contour) (Guam Code inland. It appeared that the road damage could Annotated, Title 21). have been prevented in many cases by Developers must apply for a Seashore constructing some type of perpendicular Cl-earance permit from the DLM. The abutment on each side of the asphalt pavement te prevent undermining. Development Review Committee, which is comprised of several GovGuam agencies including DOA., BOP, and GEPA, reviews the projects and makes recommendations to the Territorial Seashore Protection Commission (TSPC). The TSPC is comprised of a diverse group of persons from the private sector and the government sector that either disapprove or approve the permits, not necessarily based on the recommendations made by the DRC.

101 Again, by requrrmg developers to apply for depending upon the state of the tide, the such a permit, the Government is able to assess barometric pressure, and the direction of wind the potential impacts that each project could and waves, permitting larger waves to reach have on our coastal resources. Also, it the shore across the island's protective fringing increases the probability that any development reef and cause considerable damage for the which occurs in the seashore reserve will be duration of the storm. The Government of consistent with the objectives of the Guam Guam has had only limited success in Territorial Seashore Protection Act. protecting these particular stretches of highways from erosion damage. Continuing • Coastal Engineering erosion is threatening the integrity of the In May 1992, the Army Corps of Engineers repaired highways. Without proper highway (ACOE) issued a Reconnaissance Report and protection measures, the erosion will continue Environmental Assessment for Road Erosion. to plague the project area. In this report, needed shoreline protection In general, most of the areas of concern will be alongside roads vulnerable to storm damage is stabilised using rock revetment. Rock proposed. revetment was the chosen method because it The specific road sites studied for that report was determined the most economical and include: the road to the Cabras Island Power practical alternative for highway erosion Plant; a stretch of approximately two miles protection in this area. More specifically a beginning at the Inarajan Pool and ending at permeable, seaward sloping revetment (2:1) the Agfayan River bridge; a 1100 foot stretch will be constructed because of its excellent north of the Agat Small Boat Harbor; a stretch capacity for dissipating wave energy. located by Toguan Bay; and a portion of the The proposed revetments would include a East Agana Shoreline. single layer of stones ranging in size from 1200 Each of these areas are subject to severe wave to 4800 pounds, a second underlayer using action during storms and typhoons which stones from 100 to 200 pounds, and underneath periodically hit the island. When these areas these two layers a plastic cloth filter will be put are under the influence of a storm or typhoon, in. The plastic cloth would be used to prevent the water elevation may be abnormally high leaching of subgrade material.

Case Study:

Detailed Study of an Engineered Coastal Protection System

A portion of the East Agana Shoreline has construct a vertical seawall. This design is recently been protected from erosion by the similar to the plans implemented on the construction of a seawall by the Guam DPW. southern portion of the East Agana shoreline, The ACOE's proposal did not include this the only difference being that the new plans portion of East Agana. Due to the lack of called for dredging and backfilling. available engineered plans for this site, the There are several disadvantages of urgent need to stabilise the shoreline, and constructing seawalls. The greatest economic feasibility a seawall was built instead disadvantage is that this is a "quick fix" of the rock revetment proposed by the ACOE solution to a long term problem. The seawall for such sites. The seawall is approximately built may not be able to endure another five feet in height and runs along the entire typhoon and may create a greater problem if it length of the shoreline. Because the rocks fails. Because the wall is vertical and grouted, have not been completely cemented, the it may not be as effective in dissipating wave seawall may partially function to dissipate energy as a sloping revetment without any wave energy. cement grouting. Recently, the DPW has submitted plans for the Another disadvantage is that undermining will East Agana shoreline site that the ACOE had probably occur and eventually, the wall will be studied and included in their Reconnaissance more visible and aesthetically less pleasing. Report (Figure 1). However, the DPW has Also, it will probably cost GovGuarn even more decided not to use the rock revetment plan to implement an alternative solution, like recommended by ACOE and instead designed a sloped revetment, if this quick fix solution fails. seawall (Figure 2). Again, due to economic feasibility and aesthetics, the DPW decided to

102 Although there are several disadvantages of The privately owned north end of the island using seawalls as a prevention measure it is has been developed as a resort, and has been the best that can be done at this time. Also, renovated following extensive damage first by the walls are functioning to prevent some soil Typhoon Russ (1990) and then by Typhoon erosion and at the same time they help reduce Yuri (1991). The location of Cocos Island and flooding. its direct exposure to wind and waves makes it very susceptible to typhoons passing over or Revetments are currently in place at various near Guam, particularly those travelling south locations throughout Guam. They have been of Guam from the southeast to the northwest, effective at preventing everyday erosion and which is a typical storm track (Sea for the most part have endured rough weather Engineering, 1992). brought about by several storms and typhoons, Revetments may prove to be more effective In December 1990, Typhoon Russ passed over locally, than seawalls in preventing shoreline the southern end of Guam, with sustained erosion. wind speeds of 125 knots and a pressure drop to 97 millibars (2.9 inches Hg). Russ caused This project is a good example of poor planning major environmental and structural damage. on the part of the government. Unfortunately, In November 1991, Super-typhoon Yuri passed like many other government bodies, until a approximately 30 miles south of Guam, with small problem becomes a large problem for the sustained wind speeds reaching as high as 150 Government of Guam, long term planning and knots. Yuri generated very high waves which prevention will not occur. The Government of overtopped the north end of Cocos Island and Guam must start looking at long term planning caused extensive damage to the island, which includes prevention. resulting in an almost complete reconfiguration The Government is not the only party that of the shoreline. should look at long term planning, the private The virtual back-to-back occurrences of the two sector should also do long term planning. A typhoons completely changed the topography of classic example of poor planning by a private the north end of the island, with erosion by developer is the development of Cocos Island overtopping waves reducing the land elevation (two-thirds privately owned), which is located to approximately six feet. The reduction in on the barrier reef surrounding Cocos Lagoon, land elevation has greatly reduced the natural on the southern tip of Guam. ability of the island to dissipate storm wave energy on its shoreline, thus greatly increasing the likelihood of overtopping and inundation by future storm waves, resulting in the increased probability of further loss of island loss unless corrective measures are implemented (Sea Engineering, 1992). The developer proposed to restore the land Constructing seawalls as a "quick fix" solution elevation on the north end of the island to its to long term problems is evidence that long approximate pre-Russ condition by dredging term planning is lacking within the the lagoon to recover sand and coral rubble Government and private sector. We must which had been eroded from the island by the realise that changes do not occur overnight and past two typhoon storm waves and deposited in that it will be some time before all eight of the the lagoon. Part of the developers solution to "needs" categories can be addressed, in part or prevent further soil erosion was to extend the in whole. Second, the Government and private length of an existing seawall. Although a sector must work together in order for any long seawall existed before Typhoons Russ and term planning to be effective. Yuri, it did not do much to prevent soil erosion. The people of Guam are slowly becoming aware Based on this, extending the length of the of how valuable our natural resources are and seawall alone may not be effective in that it will take effort from the entire preventing soil erosion during a storm or community to make any type of planning work. typhoon. What we fear may happen is another We can only hope that this "awareness" will be severe storm or typhoon may again cause a major part of long term solutions to severe erosion on Cocos Island, maintenance preserving and protecting our island's dredging will again be requested to reclaim resources. sand and deposit it back on Cocos Island. In this case, engineered plans may not be References necessary. An effective erosion control Army Corps of Engineers. 1992. Section 14 measure, which is an aspect of their present Reconnaissance Report and Environmental renovation program in addition to the seawall, Assessment for Highway Erosion would be to revegetate the north end of Cocos Protection. Fort Shafter, Hawaii. Island. Department of Agriculture, Division of Aquatic The south end of the island, which is owned by and Wildlife Resources. 1991. Super- GovGuam, sustained less damage and erosion. typhoon Yuri: Shoreline Damage Aerial photos taken after Typhoons Russ and Evaluation. Yuri indicate that only small quantities of sand washed out into the lagoon. It probably Guam Code Annotated, Title 21. Government sustained less damage because this end is of Guam. heavily vegetated compared to the northern .Sea Engineering, Inc. 1992. Coastal end. The vegetation was able to stabilise the Engineering Analysis of Typhoon Wave sand and prevent most soil erosion. Vulnerability and Proposed Shore Protection at Cocos Island, Guam. Hawaii.

104 Summary of Discussions Guam was asked how the coastal protection structures have been affected by the recent earthquake? None of Fiji asked Guam why the original US Anny Corps of the seawalls were damaged, but sections of some cliffs Engineer's (USACE) design for a revetment was did fall into the sea. over-ruled in favour of a vertical seawall when they Dorrell asked if there was any significant flooding have regulatory regimes in place? Guam responded during the typhoons? Guam noted that there was only that it was only a recommendation, and that minor flooding on the immediate shoreline, affecting economically it was not feasible at the time. It will some hotels, but no major flooding. possibly fail during the next typhoon. It was noted that at this meeting we are dealing with The use of vegetation on Cocos Island was noted, and methods relevant to Pacific island countries, and that Guam was asked if there had been any other uses of the USACE experience is mainly continental and that vegetation for coastal protection? Guam responded their design manual doesn't take into account issues that Cocos Island was a natural example and that there such as reefs. Guam noted that that is one of the were no other specific or deliberate examples. She reasons why they use other consultants. also noted the problem of wind strength with vegetation during super-typhoons. KIRIBATI:

Coastal Protection

A permit is required when one wants to Abstract develop on the coastal area and this is The paper is an overview of coastal scrutinised by the Central Lands planning protection in Kiribati based upon the Board for South Tarawa. On the outer islands eight needs categories that were this is not true. identified in the last meeting. It will • Education and Public Awareness cover three topics being, the eight needs categories, the current problems At present we are using radio broadcasts and experienced in Kiribati, and lastly the the local newspaper tTe Uekera) to disseminate Government's planned responses to such information on coastal erosion and sand problems. management. The radio is a very good way of reaching a wide audience as I-Kiribati mainly use radios as a means of information. Te Needs Categories Uekera is mainly read by South Tarawa people. • Mapping and data collection Information used in these public awareness materials were developed after the planning There has been a number of data collection, seminar SOPAC had with Kiribati officials in projects carried out on South Tarawa especially identifying appropriate materials for a public in the Betio-Bairiki area in which beach awareness campaign in 1992. profiles have been set up to monitor the changes due to the causeway construction for There are no materials on coastal the past 11 years. Coastal mapping and other environments in the schools' curriculum studies on coastal processes have been done for development, but there are plans to incorporate Betio and Bairiki. Beach profiles have also environmental awareness into the Primary and been set up on outer islands in erosion prone Secondary level at a later stage. areas. Several workshops have been held on • Integrated Coastal Zone Management environmental issues, one was on environment in general and the latest was a media The role of the Environment Unit is to provide workshop which used information on coastal advice to all government departments in the erosion to compile a radio program. preparation of plans for development. At present there are no formal Coastal Zone • Regulation Regimes Management plans, however, there is a high Under Cap 35, the Foreshore and Land priority for their preparation. The PWD being Reclamation Ordinance the Minister may the implementing agency for Government designate certain foreshores which prohibits projects is the only body that monitors the persons from extracting sand, gravel or other projects. like substance without first obtaining a license. Under the Betio draft Structure and Under Cap 40, Harbours Ordinance, removal of Management Plan there is a section on the material from any harbour limits is also establishment of a Foreshore Protection Area. prohibited. I quote," the objective of this zone is to With the increasing understanding of the minimise the impact on the foreshore including damage of beach mining to the coastline, both natural and man-made processes". The government is taking action to designate areas for protection are above and below the certain areas of South Tarawa to lessen coastal high water mark. erosion. The minimum setback from the plots adjoining Government has been reluctant at this stage to the foreshore shall be a minimum setback of allow construction of new seawalls, or fixed five metres from the high water mark on the structures adjacent to a lagoon or ocean foreshore boundary. With the assistance of without first obtaining advice from the coastal mapping and information gathered Ministry of Environment and Natural Resource from beach profiles, setbacks for different areas on effects it would have to the coastline. will be refined.

106 • Social and Cultural Practises Current Problems In Kiribati, people have a mentality, that they Kiribati faces a major problem wit.h t.he own the foreshore, adjacent to their piece of traditional mentalit.y t.hat. t.he foreshore land, in that way they are free to erect coastal adjacent to the landowner is owned by t.he protection structures once they experience landowner. In order t.o overcome this t.he erosion or if they want to reclaim more land. Government would need to have more This also occurs with the removal of coastal consultation and awareness programmes for materials for construction purposes. People the public t.o describe new plans and pay landowners for the coastal materials they regulations. Government should st.ress the have removed when in actual fact they should effect.s of each activity on the coast and how it pay Government. would affect the coastline. • Alternatives to coastal derived sand Removal of sand and gravel from designat.ed and gravel areas has become a problem in t.hat. it. is unmanaged. People tend to remove material With the rapid population growth and wit.hout obt.aining a license as t.here is no fee development in South Tarawa, demand for included in the license. In other areas, landfill and construction materials for the especially causeway areas, extraction is done at limited land sources has increased. night even t.hough not.ices have been put up in Construction materials on South Tarawa are the area prohibit.ing extraction of material. currently derived from one of these sources, The problem in t.his case is t.hat the areas have small scale beach mining on various beaches, not been designat.ed, therefore enforcement. is mud flats at Bonriki, and Government owned difficult.. foreshores namely causeway areas. It is difficult. for the Government to prohibit With the continuing pressure on existing land extraction from foreshores even t.hough it owns for urban and agricultural development, there it., as it should have an alt.ernat.ive site ready is a need to identify alternative sand and for public use. gravel resources. Further work is required to investigate the possibility of using lagoon sands There are difficulties experienced with the as an alternative. int.roduct.ion of EIA's in the country as in some cases environment advice is overlooked and • Coastal Engineering thought to be a hindrance to project PWD gives technical advice on the different development. Once this idea is corrected there coastal protection structures to be implemented would be progress and bett.er project in the country, these being Government development co-ordination. projects. Traditional knowledge on coastal Lack of inter-ministry co-ordination hinders engineering has existed and the most typical inform-ation sharing which results in poor form is the vertical coral seawall. For very integrated coastal zone management. large projects such as the one on the port development, advice and assistance is required Most local designs fail as the original design from overseas. was rejected due to its high costs, so the second best. is implemented. • Consideration of economic values. Offshore mining is an expensive operation Planned Government Responses which will increase costs of material but in the Production of NEMS long run it is cheaper compared to construction and maintenance of shoreline protection The National Environmental Management structures. From the history of these shoreline Strategy (NEMS) is a long term perspective of protection st.ruct.ures, they are temporary and a range of strategies and programmes through do not solve t.he problem eit.her because the which Kiribati may achieve sustainable erosion is long t.erm or the design experiences development.. One of the objectives of this failure soon aft.er completion. environmental sub-sector is t.o develop and implement coastal zone planning and management. in order to have a coordinated approach to coastal zone management..

107 Commitment to Governments policy of In the area of non formal education and raising Sustainable Development public awareness of environmental issues, The second is through Governments policy of more effort is needed in conducting and sustainable development. Government places a following up on workshops and the use of greater emphasis on environmental protection NGO's and island councils in awareness raising for sustainable development. Maintenance of programmes, given their extensive contacts its unique environment through protection and with communities. judicious utilisation of its scarce resources is Establishment of extraction areas extremely important for sustainable development. With the assistance of SOPAC, certain areas need to be identified for extracting material for Education Awareness the general public. This is also necessary in The third is through education awareness. To order to minimise illegal extraction from realise Governments objective on sustainable designated areas. This needs to be done in the development, it is desirable to create near future as more projects are requiring fill environmental awareness through appropriate for large reclamation areas such as the Betio education in schools and media. Efforts will port. also be made so that all development activities Establishment of designated [oreshores are in harmony with environmental policies. Government is in the process of designating Education system will be undergoing a certain foreshores to assist with coastal erosion restructuring process involving a review of the and to ensure that its beach profiles in certain curriculum with the intention of increasing the areas for long term studies are not destroyed content of environmental science. A number of which assist in giving long term studies of the workshops will be held in line with SPREP's areas. regional project on Environmental Education Programme with the target participants being Conclusion teachers. To sum up the Government is aware of the existing problems in Kiribati and has opted for integrated coastal zone management to overcome most of its problems.

Case Study:

Vertical Face Coral Seawalls

The seawall is the most common traditional The rate of failure for this structure is quite way of protecting and reclaiming land area. high and so they have added ce.nent in order to This type of structure has been proved to be allow more binding between the rocks. But unsuccessful but it is the cheapest method the this is only for those who can afford the extra locals can afford. bags of cement. The cost of the cemented vertical seawall is $200-$400 a metre. Coral rocks are stacked one over the other and rock sizes could range from 5 kg to 20 kg. This The disadvantages of this structure are: that it costs about $100-$200 per metre which is is not suitable for exposed areas; causes beach relatively cheap. erosion; and lastly the foundations are not deep enough to withstand scour problems. The advantages are: it protects land area only: it is cheap; it can be built on land by manual labour.

108 Summary of Discussions

The comment was made that they are an effective system in protecting private land as people can fix them. Good techniques have been developed for interlocking them. One problem with government funded projects is that nobody takes responsibility for repairing them. This system is also used for constructing fish traps on the reef flat. Fiji asked that if they are individually built walls, what about the adjacent areas? Kiribati responded that erosion does occur at the ends and so neighbours also tend to build a wall. It was noted that the structures are similar to traditional walls built in Western Samoa.

109 MARSHALL ISLANDS:

Coastal Protection: Status and Needs

2. The enoironmerual imoacts of major Background development projects are often The Republic of the Marshall Islands consists inadequately considered of 29 atolls and five individual coral islands. Like the FSM, the Republic of the Marshall Perhaps as a result of the rapid monetization of the Marshallese economy there is continuing Islands gained nominal independence in 1986 interest in major development. A variety of under a Compact of Free Association with the projects have been proposed by the government United States of America. The national and by foreign investors ranging from large government is parliamentary. resort schemes to toxic waste incinerators. If Populationnumbered43,380 in the 1988census. The intensive, extensive or technically complex population is extremely urbanized with about 60 projects are to be undertaken, the government percentof the populationconcentratedin two centers, must have the capacity to adequately access Majuro and Ebeye. Majuro is the administrativeand and require appropriate mitigation of potential commercialcenterof the country. environmental impacts. Ebeye is a 100 acre islet on Kwajalein atoll. 3. RMI possesses some pristine and unique The United States Army operates a large environments that deserve special missile testing facility at the atoll (USAKA). protection Ebeye residents include those displaced from A survey of mostly uninhabited atolls in the islets leased for USAKA and migrants seeking northern Marshalls Islands revealed employment at USAKA. Testing of important nesting habitat for sea birds and thermonuclear weapons by the United States marine turtles. Two atolls, Bokaak and Bikar, from 1946 to 1958 has caused long term were judged to be ecologically unique. population displacement from three atolls, Bikini, Rongelap and Enewetak and may 4. While the potential impacts of global contribute somewhat to urbanization. This climate change are extreme, formulating paper focuses on the urban centers. appropriated policy responses is very difficult Local issues Because it is an atoll state the RMI is The RMI Country Report to the United Nations especially vulnerable to sea level rise and Conference on Environment and Development associated increases in typhoons. However, outlines various important environmental because of the level of uncertainty and the issues. Based on this and other sources, four extended time horizon over which sea level rise major issues are identified. is projected it is difficult tv determine what should be done now, if anything, to address 1. Extreme urbanization has resulted in this threat. In addition, because so many other severe localized environmental degradation environmental and social issues are of more Because RMI is an atoll nation, land area is immediate concern even if policies could be limited and it is easy to achieve the high formulated it would be difficult to implement population densities found in the two urban them. The threat from typhoons is always centers. These areas have probably exceeded severe on low coral islands and atolls and the basic ecological carrying capacity. increased frequency attributed to global climate change would increase this threat. Populations are sustained by the provision of infrastructure and imported goods. Some of the environmental effects of urbanization include poor lagoon water quality and resulting degradation of coral reefs, solid waste disposal and litter problems, intensive development in potentially hazardous shoreline areas and localized over exploitation of renewable resources.

110 National Needs Posters and radio spots describing the effects of marine debris have been produced for school • Mapping and Data Collection teachers. Training workshops of marine As in other areas in Micronesia, US Sea Grant science, sponsored by PIN, are anticipated. in cooperation with the US Army Corps of The PIN agent travels to the outer atolls to Engineers (USACE) has produced coastal explain to the local councils the implications of resource atlases and inventories for the RMI. the coastal protection legislation and suggests An atlas was produced for Kwajalein as part of responses at the local level and writes a an impact assessment of the "mid-atoll biweekly column in the Marshall Islands corridor" used by the US military for missile Journal about coastal issues. testing. Atlases and inventories have also been The need to increase public awareness about produced for Majuro and Arno atolls. the relationships between land use, natural Several sets of maps produced since World War hazards, engineering responses to erosion and Two are available. A comprehensive mapping long-term coastal planning is paramount. effort for all the atolls was undertaken by the Specific issues include: US Defence Mapping Agency in 1946, producing 1:25000 topographic maps. Site • different types of coastal protection and maps from various construction-related analyses of the practicality and effects of surveys, aerial photos of several atolls, and each on the atoll environment; various maps produced in the 1950's and 1970's • the effects of sand mining and the exist. The US National Oceanographic and relationship between the physical and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) intends to biological environments of the atoll; provide aerial photography for several atolls in mid-1994. Beach profiles for several locations • workshops for landowners and traditional in Majuro atoll were initiated in 1993 and a leaders to seek solutions to the obstacles to sand deposit survey for Majuro was the enforcement of regulations pertaining undertaken by SOPAC in April 1994. to coastal protection and the resolution of traditional and modern definitions of the While considerable information exists, the coastal zone; primary need is to collate it into a standardised scale and make it available in a manner • the assistance of church groups in appropriate for decisions related to disseminating information; and development. Digitising the maps and • the identification and use of techniques of including them in a GIS system to eliminate communication that are effective in differences of scale is anticipated. Bathymetric transmitting technical information to the maps of the main atolls need to be updated to Marshallese psyche. reflect the changes in the last 50 years. Sediment transport and sediment budget • Regulatory Regimes studies need to be undertaken to provide Three government funded statutory authorities coastal erosion and sand production related are responsible for environmental protection information. and management. These are the • Education and Public Awareness Environmental Protection Authority (RMIEPA), the Marshall Islands Marine The Asian Development Bank's (ADB) team of Resources Authority (MIMRA) and the Historic consultants and the Pacific Island Network Preservation Office in the Ministry of Internal (PIN) agent to the RMI have started efforts Affairs (lIPO). towards the implementation of the directives of the Coast Conservation Act. Efforts on two RMIEPA was established in 1984 under the fronts - consensus building with public National Environmental Protection Act. This education and the development of a regulatory authority was given broad powers to fulfil the structure - have been initiated. following objectives: Meetings with key government personnel have 1. study the impact of human activities on led to a workshop, held in Majuro, focusing on natural resources; issues to be addressed by the Act and seeking 2. prevent environmental degradation; to gather concerns about traditional land usage or rights and the Act's scope. A community 3. regulate activities to ensure safe, healthful lecture was held at the College of Marshall and aesthetically and culturally pleasing Islands to inform the public about issues such surround-ings; and, as sea level rise and shoreline erosion and their 4. preserve important cultural and historical relevance to the implementation of the Act. resources. 111 The EPA conducts programs to monitor and • Social and Cultural Practices regulate water quality, pesticides, solid and A rapid increase in the population may be hazardous wastes, toilets, village considered to be the main factor affecting environmental health and earth moving. coastal management in the RMI. The pressure Implementing regulations have been imposed by the population growth and use of promulgated for most of these programs, modern technology often reduces the including detailed requirements for environ- effectiveness of traditional responses to coastal mental impact assessment for public and protection and management. In order to private development projects. expedite the permitting process for The Coast Conservation Act of 1988 is the main development, traditional methods or practices legislation that addresses coastal protection of building or protection or use of the coastal issues. It directs the EPA to conduct detailed zone are exempt from permitting requirements. inventories of the coastal zone and produce Development using modern techniques and coastal management plans. Regulations have materials such as backhoes, blasting, been drafted for the sustainable use of the reinforcing bars, concrete, etc, are subject to coastal zone. Nevertheless, the infrastructure assessment and permitting. A clearance to enforce the regulations has to be created. As concerning archaeological issues is also in other parts of the Pacific, the regulatory required by the Historic Preservation Office. approach can come into conflict with the Since all land is privately owned, landowners traditional land tenure system. have almost absolute control over the usage, MIMRA was established in 1988 by statute. Its exploitation and protection of the coastal zone functions include marine resource management with the exception of areas such as the airport, of coastal areas and the Exclusive Economic docks and causeways. Social expectations of Zone, licensing of fishing and seabed coastal protection are that structural solutions exploitation and negotiation of fishing agree- retain land. The preference is to live as near to ments on behalf and with the approval of the the shore as is practical, even where the island Cabinet. Efforts to pass an ordinance that is wide. addresses coastal and resource use issues at Differences exist among the atolls in the the local council level for all atolls are in customs of ownership of the nearshore area, progress. the beach is considered to be privately owned The HPO was established pursuant to the or community owned. Marshall Islands Historic Preservation Act Cultural sensitivities such as the value of which regulates activities that affect historic cemeteries need to be considered when sites and indigenous culture. instituting setbacks or land use regulations. Additional resource conservation related Coral rubble is used to cover areas around legislation includes: residential housing. 1. the Marine Resources Act and Marine The role of women as landowners needs to be Resources (trochus) Act which regulate explored in the context of coastal protection. exploitation of certain species; Cultural practices related to the management of protected areas in the coastal zone need to be 2. the Endangered Species Act which documented and integrated into any plans for regulated or prohibits exploitation of such areas. The coastal zone in the RMI has designated endangered species; and tremendous potential in the development of 3. the Marshall Islands Tourism Act which tourism that combines World War II artefacts establishes a Marshall Islands Visitors and scuba diving. Authority (MIVA). • Alternatives to Coastal Derived Sand Specific needs include the development of a and Gravel regulatory structure for trade of "live rock", the Production from coral reefs is the only source of demarcation of certain coastal areas as marine sand in the atolls of the RMI. Sand is taken protected areas and the acceptance of the from beaches by landowners, by government regulatory process by the government and agencies and is dredged from lagoonal private sector through public awareness of the nearshore areas using dragline, suction importance of environmental impact assess- dredges and clamshell operations. Armour ment. rock is produced by blasting reef rock on the lagoon and ocean side of the atoll.

112 Road construction, shoreline protection and • Coastal Engineering building are the main uses for sand and gravel. Engineered coastal structures in the RMI Surveys to identify sand deposits on the include docks, seawalls of concrete and coral windward side of Majuro atoll have been rock, armoured rock revetments, gabions and undertaken by SOPAC in April 1994. causeways that have been constructed during The annual demand for sand in Majuro needs and since World War II. Some atolls such as to be established from private and government Maloelap and Wotje have vertical and sloping records and to be conciliated with the amounts concrete seawalls constructed during World at sites where a sustainable supply exists. A War II. Others such as Kwajelein and Majuro floating platform with a dragline dredge and have more recent construction. barges to transport sand would be required to The prohibitive cost of construction of concrete exploit such sites. The total resources for sand based shoreline protection structures such as in nearshore areas also needs to be assessed tetrapods means that gabions and armour rock and the possibility of using large boulders from revetments are the preferred choices for the slopes needs to be explored. Reducing the protection. Gabions cost approximately US$80- demand for sand in construction activities may 100 per cubic meter. Residences built along be achieved by encouraging the use of coconut the lagoon shore have vertical seawalls timber for residential and school building retaining the land. Seawalls do not appear to construction. be a viable option on the lagoon side of Majuro • Consideration of Economic Values atoll because of the increased erosion associated with them. Options such as using The small amount of land in the RMI means large, scrapped heavy machinery (bulldozers, that its economic value is very high. Most of diesel engines), that have been cleansed of the atolls are not wide, ego Majuro atoll has an chemicals, as offshore breakwaters needs to be average width of approximately 400 m. examined carefully. Therefore the coastal zone includes most of the land area, especially that used for residential • Integrated Coastal Zone Management purposes. It also provides protection from A Co-operative Agreement (CA) between the storm generated waves. RMIEPA and the US Dept. of State sponsored In the RMI, coastal protection means Global Change Program is expected to result in protection of the assets inland because of the the development of a geographic information morphology of the islands. The economic value system tailored to the resource and coastal of the coastal zone can be estimated by management needs of the Marshall Islands. considering factors such as: the avoided costs A Coastal Management Office (CMO), is also of engineered shoreline protection measures; expected to be organised within the RMIEP A to the costs of damage repair in post storm co-ordinate efforts towards the implementation conditions; the value of reef fisheries; the value of the Coast Conservation Act and of sand, reef rock, gravel, coconut timber environmental regulations, and to serve as the available for construction or road repair; the central station for the GIS system. The GIS economies of ports, harbours, tourism system called MARIS (Marshall Atoll Resource industries; and the social value for recreational Information System) will include information and reproductive use. about all the atolls of the RMI. Terminals will The national level and atoll level surveys are be installed at various agencies such as: Lands indispensable in providing an inventory of and Survey, Historic Protection Office, Public structures and area types in order to estimate Works and Marine Resources, where the the total value of the coastal zone. Policy databases will be periodically updated. makers need to be informed about the costs of A workshop sponsored by the Pacific Island adapting to accelerated sea level rise and the Network and the Office of Global Programs to relationship between surveys and the address land tenure, traditional rights and estimation of costs. Economic information and integrated management of the coastal zone is analyses that have been performed by scheduled to be held in August 1994 in international institutions such as the World Honolulu. Bank and Asian Development Bank can be used to estimate the value of the coastal zone. In the RMI the value of the coastal zone is in essence directly related to the cost of survival.

113 While short-term projects have focused on issues such as coastal pollution and sewage disposal there is a need to carry out detailed coastal inventories at a national and atoll level and develop coastal management plans based on those surveys. Other specific issues that need to be addressed are: • since the coastal zone is very vulnerable to storm hazards there is a need to define hazard zones and setbacks based on 17 year and 100 year storm event characteristics; • the representation of the RMIEPA's coastal management program at the national planning board level in order to include environmental and protection considerations at that level; • advanced training of personnel to manage the coastal programs, since the nature of coastal management requires a considerable investment in science and policy; and, • .bottom-up enhancement of awareness of the value of the coastal zone.

114 \IAURU:

Overview of Coastal Protection Systems

Introduction Local Issues The First Coastal Protection Meeting in Apia in • Understanding Coastal Systems and February this year discussed issues and Processes problems of coastal protection. It was convened Nauru, like many count.ries in the Pacific, has in reply to the South Pacific Forum's a very limited understanding of coastal Communique to look into the provision of processes. The lack of understanding in this effective coastal protection systems and to area will lead to potentially destructive identify what actions are required to be outcomes to the coastal systems when addressed at the next Forum meeting. interfering with the coast. Without the proper The Forum leaders are aware that there are understanding of coastal systems, we are left coastal problems affecting their islands and with trial and error for short-term solutions to have shown their commitment by requesting coastal protection. these meetings in order that these problems As is common throughout the region, Nauru's can be identified, discussed and more coastal protection view was protection for what importantly rectified. is on the coast, that is, the habitats, roads, Nauru has many coastal protection problems facilities and other man-made structures, such as, sand erosion, water pollution, reef whilst not giving much thought for the natural damage, receding coastlines, beach pollution, coastline and the damage that may be caused beach degradation, dying reef life, fish to our natural heritage. poisoning, on-shore facilities damage, storm Mapping and aerial photographs of Nauru's damage to habitats, coastal road damage and coasts have only been done in recent years and erosion, seawall and revetment damage during therefore lacks the advantage of direct storms and property damage during storms comparison between "then" and "now". Our just to name a few. Lands and Survey Office have old maps which From the feedback received from the First show topographic aerial views but have not Coastal Protection Meeting it is obvious that done any survey profiling of the coastal areas these problems affect all the countries in the of concern. region. Data collection to understand the physical Nauru, in its endeavour to save on-shore processes in coastal environments is also facilities, habitats and precious coastal land lacking. There is data available from manuals has in the past resorted to the most cost released by institutions which cover scientific effective coastal protection system in the form data on coastal processes although these are of the rock cement seawall and boulder site specific for other areas and which may be revetment barrier. The side effects to these inappropriate for Nauru's situation. Studies on structures has been the destruction of the Nauru need to be done to better understand natural processes of the coastal system. The the processes on our own coasts. detrimental effects are inevitable and must be With the help of Mr Don Dorrell from the Cook weighed against the benefits gained in saving Islands who was in Nauru very recently, we the on-shore structures. have begun to collect data on the physical It is imperative that alternative coastal processes of our coastal environment. Don has protect.ion syst.ems are developed which will also outlined areas of potential and obvious not cause the destruction of t.he beauty and coastal destruction and has helped us to rarit.y of our coastlines which is of real value in understand how those particular areas are in terms of economic and social factors and is also the state they are by explaining the coastal our natural heritage. processes affecting the area. Survey profiles at many problem sites are now underway and The first meeting, after much deliberat.ion on a with the efforts of Mr Dorrell and others, we wide range of issues »nd concerns, considered are finally able to compile relevant data that that development. oi {he draft act.ion plan for will enable us to better understand our coastal presentation at the second coastal protection zones. meeting should address specific priority needs based on the following items: 115 • Education and Public Awareness In other cases coastal habitats and structures were used as "status symbols" and costs and Currently there is very little education and resources for maintenance were often public awareness for coastal protection. In this overlooked. respect we consider this category very important to Nauru's case. The need to develop an integrated coastal zone management (lCZM) approach should be On Nauru there is very limited land and people considered. Appropriateness of engineering have been building closer and closer to the textbooks do not apply in many situations in beach-fronts. When the heavy storms come the coastal zones of the Pacific region. and the large waves scour their beach-fronts and the waves go tumbling up to their • Regulatory Regimes doorsteps, they automatically build a seawall or There are currently no regimes regulating revetment to protect their houses. Once the coastal protection systems on Nauru. In this seawall is built, it will affect the natural respect there is a need for emphasis on processes of that coast and the inevitable result developing coastal planning and management will be sand erosion or worse. When these guidelines so that set-back strategies may be walls break down, other bigger ones will be applied, that is, structures be set back from the built and the problems will escalate. shoreline taking into account the life of the There is a need for technical training. Nauru structure and the dynamics of the shoreline. needs access to experts and information to This will allow the shoreline to fluctuate teach people who can disseminate this naturally, avoid damage to buildings and other knowledge to the general public so that the facilities and also very important these best possible solutions can be used, instead of strategies will avoid the need to construct the drastic spur of the moment actions which coastal protection systems which can cause are widely practiced throughout the island. destruction to the natural processes of the coast. Education about coastal problems is needed at all levels. We need to start dealing with these Coastal protect.ion being a new area, problems at schools, to teach the youth coastal particularly for Nauru, there is apparent lack processes as part of their curriculum. We need of legislation to cover the overall spectrum of to pass information through community coastal protection. Nauru needs stringent leaders, non-government organisations and regulations for any development works on the through the national Government and to the coastal zones and pollution emission on the reef general public through public awareness and beaches. With better understanding of the programmes. The lack of teaching materials coastal processes ?\\d how to protect it, such as videos, manuals, etc, will be one area to legislation can be considered. address. • Social and Cultural Practices Documentation of case studies is needed. The In Nauru it is a common practice for people to public needs to be aware that other solutions collect bags full of coral beach rubble to for their problems are available. They also beaut.ify their gardens ana around their need to be informed that coastal destruction dwellings. This practice does not have any can be avoided by obtaining the proper major effect on the beaches but if done on a information on the physical processes of the large scale in one area it could also have a area and working out the best possible solution detrimental effect to t.he beach and the to the problem. An instant seawall made from coastline. rocks and cement isn't always the best answer. Some construction companies mine beach areas • Integrated Coastal Zone Management for sand which is causing severe lack of sand (ICZM) and eventually erosion at some areas. This Development of coastal protection systems practice is not controlled and ways have to be needs to consider whether appropriate found to control or stop this practice. technology has been considered in terms of Pollution is also a factor which is degrading the structures, costs, maintenance and compat- beaches. Without strict policing of prone areas ibility with traditional practices. More often the continued emission of pollution and than not, coastal structures were situated as dumping of litter around the coast will have an they are due to lack of land and for close adverse effect on the reef ecosystem and proximity with essential business areas or degrading the beaches. coastal ports and facilities.

116 Land reclamation and traditional practices Nauru is a very small island and 80 percent of such as sand extraction for building purposes its land is mined-out phosphate land of which and seawall construction needs to be is uninhabitable. Thus the economic value of considered as it may be necessary to put land is very high making it imperative that the forward regulatory measures to avoid man- coast fringe is protected from erosion and induced coastal destruction. receding coastlines. • Alternatives to Coastal Derived • Coastal Engineering Aggregate Resources There exists coastal engineering practices on To avoid further depletion of sand and gravel Nauru with respect to protecting on-shore there is a need to look into best alternatives facilities. The most common are the coral appropriate for construction purposes. boulder revetment barrier and the concrete/rock seawall. The largest construction company on Nauru (the Nauru Phosphate Corporation) uses only The revetment structures are made from large crushed coral pinnacles (crushed into many 1-2 tonne coral pinnacle boulders topped off different grades suitable for different purposes) with smaller rocks ranging from 10-1,000 kg. from the phosphate mines as an aggregate mix These are laid haphazardly upon each other to in concrete construction works. form an angular revetment with a seaward slope ranging from 14 degrees to 70 degrees at This alternative is very reliable, is virtually different sites. These revetments are an unlimited and is available to the general public effective short-term protection but are prone to at a cost. To cut costs some of the other damage and eventual collapse when hit by companies are still using beach sand. giant waves brought on during severe storms. • Economic Issues The vertical seawall is also made from coral Coastal protection on Nauru in the context of rocks mixed with cement to hold them protecting structures on the shoreline has been together. Once again this seems to be a short- the construction of seawalls and revetment term protective system for on-shore facilities systems. These structures are easy to build, but are continually being maintained after the are relatively quick to build, materials are in heavy storms. abundance from the mines and little cement is These coastal protection systems in most cases required to build these coastal structures. have proven to be having an adverse effect on Seawalls and revetments are thus cheap short- the beaches and shoreline. term solutions to problems of damage caused to on-shore facilities during bad weather. There is a need to have different engineered structures appropriate for different coastal The question of whether it is economical is situations. Construction and design skills data, open for debate although it is accepted that existing guidelines and adverse effects on the seawalls and revetments are the only solutions natural coastline should be taken into Nauru has at this time. Other economical consideration in exammmg the coastal solutions must be considered in future protection systems to be used. developments for coastal protection. Coastal protection to save our natural heritage, our beaches, our reefs, and the coastlines needs to be examined as the importance of these assets will be multiplied many times when Nauru's Iodin source of revenue (phosphate) is exhausted and other sources of revenue (particularly tourism) are developed. The economic factor in protecting the coasts is of paramount inportance and should be considered al« the lines of :'..l.ture plans for development 'OUrIst faciuties along the coastline.

117 NIUE:

Country Report on Coastal Protection

Background • Education and Public Awareness From my discussion with the Department of We would like to conduct this sort of Community Affairs, the Department of programme for the public and decision makers. Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry and with Hopefully the recommendations from these the Acting Premier Honourable T. Coe, gave Meetings will convey this message well to our leaders in Australia this year. me this understanding of Niue's needs: 1. Mapping and data collection to better • Social and Cultural Practices understand physical process in coastal I am pleased to inform that the usc of the protection; poisonous creeper for fishing has been curbed 2. Consideration of economic values; due to the Schools and Agriculture Awareness Program of this dangerous practice. The locals 3. Coastal engineering; love seashells and stone sea slugs. To collect them, they were using tomahawk, claw 4. Education and public awareness; and hammers, or crowbars, again with a very small 5. Social and cultural practices. population and fish meat readily available, the public stopped using this method of collecting National Needs sea food. • Mapping and data collection Concluding Comments Whatever mapping and data collection we have I am very pleased to announce that the is yet to be properly collated and stored in an Minister of Works and Agriculture, Fisheries appropriate department. This lack of data and Forestry assures me that Niue will based information was evidently noticed in the definitely join SOPAC this year. widening construction of the two landing channels. Time and availability of funds for He also asked me to inform you of his concern mapping and data collection are lacking, hence that SOPAC and SPREP were not working the shortfall in our coastal construction. together to plan out work programmes for each year to avoid duplication. • Consideration of economic values Our developed infrastructure is located along the entire western coastline of Niue which is a cyclone prone area. The Government has lately re-located some of its departments inland. Our tourist accommodation operators need some sound engineering advise on location and positioning of buildings in so far as the reefs and shelves formation, wind force and directions and the real monster waves. The tourists love the sea and we need to stay close to it.

118 PALAU:

Country Paper

There have been a number of contributions to Introduction the process of identifying, instituting and The Republic of Palau is a group of islands in managing potential protected areas in Palau. Micronesia lying between two and eight Prominent in this work has been Demei degrees North latitude and 131 and 135 Otobed, Chief Conservationist of the Division of degrees East longitude. Surrounded by the Conservation and Entomology, and Noah Pacific Ocean. it is relatively isolated from Idechong, Chief of the Division of Marine larger land masses. The Philippines is 550 Resources, both of the Ministry of Resources miles to the west. Papua New Guinea is 410 and Development; and more recently Chuck miles TO the south. and Guam is 816 miles to Cook, Director of the Micronesia Program of the northeast. The Nature Conservancy. Palau is an oceanic country. The total land However, the list of those scientists both near area is about 190 square miles (490 km). In and far who have made significant contrast, the area of fishable waters (including contributions to the development of a system of mangrove, lagoon and inner and outer reefs) protected areas for Palau is very long indeed has been estimated to be over 600 square miles and no attempt will be made to identify all (1,600 km). The mangrove areas, lagoon and here. inner reef alone are about 500 square miles (1,300 km) (Division of Marine Resources, Rapid ecological assessment (REA) 1991). The diversity of marine species in this The most valuable work undertaken to date to area of the western Pacific is among the identify the most important ecological highest in the world (Myers, 1989). areas/sites in Palau has been the recent (1992) Traditionally, fishing and other natural Rapid Ecological Assessment (REA) and the resource gathering activities have been a way subsequent drafting of synthesis reports. The of life for Palauans. synthesis was undertaken expressly to help Palau is composed of 16 states. Ten stat.es guide the environmental and developmental occupy the largest island . The aspects of the ongoing Palau master plan. capital cit.y of is located just south of t.he The synt.hesis report.s were prepared by The island of Babeldaob. Two island states lie t.o Nature Conservancy (Pacific Region) and the south ( and ), one t.o the CORrAL (a Hawaiian consultancy) for the north () and two lie about 350 miles Ministry of Resources and Development of the southwest ( and , t.he ROP. The report was funded by the Office of Southwest Islands). Only nine of t.he more Territorial and International Affairs of the US than 200 Islands that make up t.his Depart.ment of the Interior, with financial Micronesian archipelago are populat.ed. Most. contributions from many of the institutions are tiny, uninhabited uplifted coralline participating in the study. limestone Islets, the Rock Islands, located between Koror and Peleliu. The synthesis is in two parts. Part 1 (1992) of the REA is a Natural and Cultural Resources Tot.al population IS estimated to be 14,000 wit.h Survey of the Southwest Islands of Palau. Part t.he majority populat.mg t.he sout.hern 2 (1994) is a Marine and Coastal Are(J~"Survey Babeldaob and in Koror. of the Main Palau Islands; the additional field work required for the synthesis report was Protected areas undertaken in 1992. The Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Preserve is the only legally established area for the protection of the natural environment. in Palau. There are other tradit.ional controls such as buls (taboos) both seasonal and permanent. on grouper aggregation and spawning areas, and on the use of fishing nets on reef flats. In all cases, but. varying with the State, these controls are only as good as their enforcement.

119 Contributors to the studies came from a wide 3. Areas of unique species, communities, or range of sources: the Bureau of Natural ecosystems. Resources and Development of the Palau 4. Areas supporting several of many Ministry of Resources and Development, The important ecosystems. Nature Conservancy, Kyushu University, South Pacific Regional Environment Prog- 5. Important ecological areas supporting ramme, University of Guam, University of several to many rare or important species. Hawaii (Sea Grant PIN Program), University 6. Other important ecological areas already of Georgia (part 2), US Fish and Wildlife established by traditional, state or national Service, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution laws or controls. (part 2), and CORIAL. 7. Important ecological areas that are The REA involved a literature review of reports threatened with development, habitat and maps; flying new aerial colour dest.ruction, or over-harvesting of key photography and interpretation of all islands resources. and reefs in Palau (1992); resource use interviews; and field work. In total, 184 The first six crit.eria are indisputable. And of marine sites were surveyed throughout the course the first emphasis in a selection process nation. for areas for ecological protection would be on those areas in which there may be special The principal objectives stated for the concentrations of critical or peak habit.at, or of extensive field studies in the report were to: unique species, communit.ies or ecosystems • describe and document the principal (Criteria 1,2,3). If an area met. Criteria 5 ecosystems, communities, and key species; predominantly but. also had some area of Criteria 1 then that area would rank higher on • review current status of Palau's t.he scale of importance than another area ecosystems, communities, and key species; which met. Criteria 5 alone. • document trends, including possible This would seem to be how the REA process threats; has worked in defining areas which warrant • identify the most important ecological special protection or cont.rols to promote areas worthy of conservation and sustainable use, although this is not clearly management; and stated in the report. A special combination of many criteria led to the identification uf two • provide base-line resource data for use by special areas in the REA which were environmental managers, and resource designated as "conservation areas". The areas planners and developers. selected by the REA are described in Figure 1 It was unfortunate that the intention to as the Rock Islands Conservation Area and the undertake a terrestrial survey at the same time Ngeremeduu Conservation Area. as the 1992 field work did not prove possible, The use of the seventh criteria is not so clear and therefore cannot be inco iorated in this cut, and would be regarded as suspect by some report. The terrestrial survt y IS now scheduled land use planners. For biologists and for the 1994 summer, and will focus on ecologists, all species, habitats and ecosystems vegetation and upland habitats. To that are important in one way or another. The extent, the comments and recommendations whole of Palau is a'mportant. ecological area, given below must be considered incomplete, as but of course no 01; , is suggesting that the there will undoubtedly be a need to include whole of Palmi be made a protected area. further ter »strial areas in the list of proposed Criteria 1 ,,11 . ilu .' r be used on its own protected SL$. therefore; just because an area is proposed for development. does not make it a candidate for REA Site Selection Criteria ecological protection in a protected areas The REA identified the following sites for systc,n proposed protected areas. The seven selection The REA has go Criteria 1 in this way. Rather criteria used to identify specific ecological areas it has been used to indicate that where site of and general habitats for conservation and high ecological significance meeting Criteria 1- preservation were: 5 also faces damage or destruction through 1. Critical habitat for rare species. development action, then the fact that. the site also meets Criteria 1 heightens t.he urgency 2. Peak habitat for other important species. wit.h which action should be taken to protect the threatened area.

120

Categories of Protected Areas 2. National Heritage Preserve - people not permitted inside without permit; the intent The REA proposed these categories of protected is to preserve an area in a pristine areas: primitive condition. 1. National Park - contains a combination of 3. National Heritage Reserve people highly significant cultural, historical, permitted, but some conditions may apply. natural, or ecological resources of national or international significance. 4. Special Management Area - requires a manage-ment plan and institutional 2. Ecological Reserve . area containing resources for monitoring and management. unique or important combinations of terrestrial, freshwater, estuarine, or The development-related definition given for a marine habitats and species. Special Management Area (SMA) in the REA attempts to do the work of the EIA process by 3. Forest Preserue - area supporting unique or another path; as such it is not considered important forest or upland habitat and appropriate. species of plants and wildlife. The SMA embraces a broad range of sites or 4. Marine Preserve . area supporting unique areas. For example, this could include tourist or important marine habitat species of sites, watershed management areas, wetlands, plants and animals. aquaculture promotion areas such as trochus 5 Coastal Conservation Area . shoreline or sanctuaries, and other general areas such as beach area supporting significant public parks, rest shelters and the like. The areas require proper management, each case ecological habitat for vegetation and treated on its own merits with its own plan of wildlife. management. 6. Fishery Conservation Area - habitat for fishery species of recreational, subsistence, REA Proposed Protected Areas or commerce significance warranting Table 1 reproduces information collated from special protection or controls to promote the REA document, Tables 1 (Section 1.1.1.) sustainable use and prohibit habitat and 16 (Section 9.1.1.). destruction and over- harvesting. State Input to Protected Area Proposals 7. Tourism Site - visitor destination sites within pristine marine or terrestrial The REA process incorporated a series of 29 ecosystems warranting special protection interviews conducted in eight of the 16 states of or controls to promote sustainable use. Palau over the period August - September 1992, involving both men and women. These 8. Special Management Area - area proposed states were: Angaur, Kayangel, , for transportation resort, residential, golf Ngcherelong, , , course, or utilities development where , and Peleliu. In addition officers important ecosystems or species may be of the Divisions of the BNRD added their own threatened unless properly planned and extensive local knowledge. managed. However, even in the space of a couple of years, The eight categories proposed for the REA circumstances can change and new priorities follow the internationally recognised categories pertain. Consequently it was considered wise of protected areas developed by the IUCN. to check with as many states as possible within These categories should be adhered to for the time limitations of the preparation of this official designation, but for common usage, report on current protected area priorities. they are complex, confusing, and give the general public little idea of what the A small exercise was initiated through State terminology means in terms of usage. Government Offices. The information supplied on the specific areas which people would like to It is proposed for general purposes to adopt the see given protection against environmental terminology of the Natural Heritage Reserves damage was entered on maps, together with System Act and adopt the following categories: those additional areas indicated in the REA. 1. National Heritage Area - equivalent in Information on cultural and historical sites was excluded as this is being handled by the most aspects to the British form of Division of Cultural Affairs. National Park, taken case by case in terms of permitted development and of activity by people. For example the NHA could well include villages and other settlements.

122

These maps, plus a list of the proposed The essential features of the State comments protected areas, will be distributed to the on protected area needs are the protection of: States through the Council of Chiefs, with the • special fish spawning areas; request that these areas are discussed in each State which wants to participate, corrected or • other marine and coastal resources added to as seen fit, and this information then including mangroves and seagrass beds; passed back to the Bureau of Natural and, Resources and Development in the National • water sources. Government for incorporation by the Division of Conservation and Entomology in the next It is also of interest to note the seasonal buls draft of the REA. placed on fishing in major passes in the barrier reef but also the permanent buls against the The information supplied by the ten states use of fishing nets on some coastal reefs. which responded to the request is summarised in Table 2. There are also a few anomalies evident in State perceptions of the value of their natural A comparison of Tables 1 and 2 indicates quite resource. For example, the people of Melekeok a close agreement, with the addition of a few have indicated no interest i.: the preservation terrestrial areas, some of which would no doubt of their mangroves on their side of Ngemai Bay be examined during the REA terrestrial survey but the people of attach great later this year. Many of the States took for importance to the mangrove area on their side granted that fish aggregation function of of Ngemai. The reconstruction of the old passes should be protected. abandoned Japanese causeway linking Melekeok and Ngiwal will undoubtedly adversely affect the mangroves on both sides.

Table 2: Inputs from States for REA.. (Source: REA, 1992)

Proposed protected areas for the Master The Toachel Ngkesol NHA which is designated Plan in the REA as a major fishery conservation area, has been extended southwards slightly on Natural Heritage Areas the western boundary to include Ebiil Pass. The REA proposed two areas as Conservation This was considered by a number of Palauans Areas, Ngeremeduu and the Rock Islands. In to be a very important pass with a long- addition, a major fishery conservation area was standing Bul. It was considered much more proposed for the Northern Lagoon. Special important, for example, than Ngamegai Pass. comment has also been made both in the REA While all the passes would be protected under and in other reports about Velasco Reef, the class action proposed below, it may be some Ngerdok Lake and Helen Reef Atoll. These considerable time before such action can be areas have been classified here as seven instigated and/or completed. (This is discussed Natural Heritage further in the next section). Areas, with the proposed Ngeremeduu area In the meantime, the recommendation would split into two areas, one comprising the be to seek a request from the States in close terrestrial element and the other the marine consultation with the traditional chiefs to use element. These seven areas are considered of the Natural Heritage Systems Act to have major national and/or international Toachel Ngkesol and the other proposed NHA importance. designated as protected areas. The adjusted boundary for Toachel Ngkesol would include These seven NHA are described in Table 3. three major passes all of which have buls on Their proposed boundaries are indicated in them. general in Figure 1. These areas are discussed in considerable detail in the two REA reports, The Ngeremeduu Bay Conservation Area NHA 1-6 in Part 2 and NHA 7 in Part 1. proposed in the REA included a large section of barrier reef. While the reasons for linking Minor adjustments have been proposed for the Ngeremeduu with the barrier reef section from boundaries of areas designated in the REA and Metuker to Klaeremasch area are not disputed, this requires some explanation. it is suggested there would be merit in separating the land elements of Ngeremeduu Bay from the proposed barrier reef marine conservation area on the grounds of prospects of implementation. The name of Toachel Mlengui NHA has been The protection of the reef passes is vital to propose for this area, after arguably the most protect the vitality and future prosperity of the important pass on the west coast of Babeldaob. fishing industry; protection supports a number It may well prove easier to implement the of traditional buls imposed to protect passes Toachel Mlengui NHA before the Ngeremeduu against fishing during the spawning season. Bay, because of the extensive private land This is discussed at some length in the NMDP ownership in the latter. Marine Resource Report. It is also proposed to extend the northern The protection of mangrove areas recognises boundary of Toachel Mlengui NHA to include their crucial importance also in coastal marine the Erengoll-Iengel Passes, and the extensive ecosystems, and the vital protective role they sea grass beds of Btaot. play in the marine food chain. Most States appear to strongly support the protection of The REA proposed area around Ngeremeduu their mangrove resources against degradation. Bay is strongly supported. Perhaps of all the proposed NHA it is most at risk if various At the same time, the protection of mangroves development proposals proceed. will in no way cut off access for local people cutting timber for their houses on a single tree The protection of Lake Ngerdok and watershed selection basis (ie. no clear felling or other is also strongly supported. The boundary killing of patches of mangroves). The drawn on the map is indicative only. The mangroves will continue to be a source of a intention of the Lake Ngerdok NHA is to fully number of medicines, dyes, artefact material, protect the lake and its upper watershed, etc. together with the catchment of its outflow, the Ngordorch River. This is not well depicted on Palau does not have many sand beaches, but the map prepared for the report. those that do occur are often absolute gems from the aesthetic viewpoint. Consequently The boundary of the Rock Islands given in the they will increasingly become tourist REA differs somewhat from that proposed here drawcards. At the same time, sand beaches are for the Rock Islands NHA. The main difference vital for nesting turtles. There is no conflict is the excision of Peleliu from the area; there between tourists and turtles of course, may be political reasons for including Peleliu providing the latter are left alone, not but not from other aspects. Rock Islands slaughtered at their most vulnerable time should be a strong candidate for world heritage when nesting on the beach and not plundering listing, and while that process is onerous, once the nests for eggs. listed it attracts continuing funding. This is discussed further below. Also excluded are the islands of Koror, Miungs, Ngemeuangel, and Ngerengchol because of the current and planned urbanisation in the area. Malakal harbour lies within the Rock Islands NHA. The Helen Reef NHA could only function if the Research Station which has been proposed for many years is established. Proposed ecological areas for Class Protection The following Class protection actions are strongly urged. That is, instead of attempting to have each individual site declared a protected area, action is taken against the class as a whole: 1. All reef passes; 2. All mangrove areas; 3. All sand beaches. From the REA and the responses received to a range of enquires, strong opposition to the class protection of reef passes and mangrove areas will not be opposed, providing peoples rights are clearly spelled out in the process.

127 Forests Watersheds and wetlands Mercherchar Island Ngerdorch River Ngardmau upland savanna Ngeremeduu Wetlands Ngeruktabel Island Ngerikiil River Peleliu upland forests Ngerimel River Ngerkall Pond and watershed Mangroves Ngermeskang River mangrove fringe Simizu Wetland mangroves Specific Proposed Special Management Northern Babeldaob Peninsula mangroves Areas Peleliu mangroves All other watersheds Passes Ngardmau waterfall and watershed Ebii Pass Ngelukes (Ngchesar) Erengoll - Iengel Passes Ngemelis - Peleliu Dive sites Kloul Euchel Pass Ngerchelchuus Mountain Meteul Toachel pass Taoch Ngerdorch (Ngchesar) Ngamegai Pass Trochus sanctuaries Ngedbaet Pass Ngemelachel Pass Processes for establishment of new Ngetgnod Pass protected areas Telebadel re Ngarael The key to the development of NHA and other Telebadel re Ngkesol protected areas under the Natural Heritage Toachel Belau Reserves System Act will be the extent of the Toachel Iou assistance which the National Government can Toachel Mid provide to the States to designate sites for Toachel Mlengui Pass preservation reservation, or as special Toachel Ngel management areas. Toachel Suul Tochlir Arngebard This assistance will hinge on the National Government's Bureau of Natural Resources Reefs and Development whose staff are already Bkul a Omruchel Reef stretched to the limit with a wide range of Dechor - Ngriklreker Reef flat (Ngardmau) responsibilities and few financial or technical Lukes Reef shoal resources. The Division of Conservation and Mercherong Reef Entomology is actively, trying to provide that Metuker Reef assistance. Mutiaur Reef For state land, the lead-up process to actually Mutkebesang Reef receiving a formal request from the State Mutremdiu - Uchelbeluu Reef Governor will necessarily involve lengthy Ngedebus Reef negotiations within the state between State Ngemelis Reef Legislature and State Chiefs, and then Ngermongimb Reef (Aimeliik) subsequently between the national and state Ngetbaet - Metenelteuchel Reef (Melekeok) governments (mutual consent). Few states Ngilt - Uluchel Reef () would have the resources to manage any Olnegewaol Reef protected area effectively (with the exception of Peleliu Reef Koror), but the continued monitoring of a Usas Reef Protected area by a State should be expected Seagrass Beds along with the power delegated to them to enforce regulations under the national Act Denges Passage and seagrass beds (when these are prepared) through the cross- Koror Reef flats seagrass beds authorisation principle discussed previously in Malakal - Ngederrak seagrass beds Section 3.1. Ngardmau sea-grass beds Ngerechelong & Ngaraard seagrass beds Ngiwal seagrass beds Northern Babeldaob Peninsula sea grass beds ' Peleliu seagrass Sar Passage and seagrass beds

128 For private land the picture is of course much Eventually, other areas around the Bay will more complicated and would expectably not become protected areas until such time when only involve protracted negotiations on the entire Ngeremeduu Bay NHA will be benefits, rights, and usage, but also involve established. The process developed and training of youth from the land-owning group polished at Ngeremeduu will serve as a model to serve as rangers on their own land which for the establishment of other protected areas has been set apart for protected area purposes. elsewhere in Palau. In other words, the management of such For the establishment of some of the other protected areas would be entirely in the hands NHA proposed in this report, such as Velasco of the land-owners first and of the state second. Reef the Northern Lagoon and Lake Ngerdolk The role of the national government would be strong State support is expected. to oversight the management to ensure that it reached minimal national standards, to provide The creation of the Rock Islands NHA will advise and technical assistance on request. require careful demarcation of national and state responsibilities; but there is no doubt this For the NHA while their proposal may be NHA has high importance, especially in light of conceptually acceptable, the establishment of the expected, great influx of tourists to the area these as protected areas under the Act will over the next ten years or so. However, the obviously be a lengthy process at least until the intrinsic value of the rock islands is such that principle of NHA is clearly established in the its designation as an NHA should be seen minds of the people. For this, a concerted merely as a step towards full recognition as a public education campaign will need to be World Heritage Area with all the benefits that mounted and sustained. will bring including continuity of funding. The In the meantime, the approach being taken by process for gaining WHA status is not simple, the Division of Conservation and Entomology and entails a lot of work. Both SPREP, TNC towards the eventual establishment of the and the Queensland Government in Australia entire Ngeremeduu Bay as a protected area is could provide direct assistance in the light of practical and is supported. This approach is to experience in that area with Monrova Lagoon take an area of public land over which their is in Solomon Islands and with the North no tenure dispute at the southern end of Queensland rainforests. Ngeremeduu Bay towards the BNRD Forest Demonstration Farm at Nekkeng, have this made a protected area under the NHA Act, develop a proper management plan and manage it carefully from Nekkeng, thereby demonstrating to nearby private landowners the advantages of a protected area classification. This is the classic extension approach, well tried and practical.

129 PAPUA NEW GUINEA:

An Overview of Coastal Protection

Various types of coastal habitats occur within Introduction PNG's coastal zone. They include tracts of rain Background and mangrove forests, sandy, rocky and cliffed Papua New Guinea (pNG) is the biggest island beaches, sandy, rocky and muddy seabeds, nation in the South Pacific region, both in seagrass beds and coral reefs of various terms of land/sea area and population size. categories. The biological resources of coastal Politically, PNG constitutes the eastern half of zone are rich in terms of both species the island of New Guinea plus the great islands composition and abundance. of the Bismark archipelago, ie New Britain, Features of the coastal environment, differ to New Ireland and Manus and the northern most some extent between the northern and islands of the Solomons group (Bougainville). southern coasts. The northern coasts is Apart from these, there are 600 additional geologically younger and is characterised by a smaller islands, most of which are inhabited. very narrow continental shelf (usually only up It has a population of about 3.9 million, land to several hundred metres wide), after which area of 465,000 sq. kms and a coastline of 8,300 the shelf drops off steeply to great depths, kilometres long, while the sea (including 200 thousands of metres deep in places. Coral reefs mile EEZ) covers an area of 2 million sq. kms. are restricted to this narrow belt on the mainland and associated with islands as both PNG's geography is remarkably diverse, barrier and fringing reefs. Their distribution ranging from high altitude alpine peaks to is, however, strongly inf1uenced by river pristine tracts of rain forests and mangrove discharge and resulting siltation. Crossland et swamps in the lowlands as well as extensive al (1989) estimated the area covered by coral patches and networks of coral reefs in coastal reefs to be about 40,000 sq. kms. seas of both the islands and the mainland. The inland of both the mainland and islands is The distribution of mangrove vegetation is rugged and mountainous. There are also quite limited and restricted mainly to mouths extensive areas of gently slopping and flat of major rivers such as the Ramu, Sepik and Markham. Beaches in the north and offshore areas, particularly near the coasts. islands consist mainly of sandy and rocky Generally, the weather pattern is typically (cliffed) beaches. tropical, characterised by two seasons, wet The southern coastline, on the other hand is (rainy) and dry (sunny) periods. geologically older. The continental shelf here is PNG is situated between 2 and 100S of the much wider, up to 40 . 60 kms offshore in equator, yet the climatic conditions found here places. The western half of the coastline is are quite remarkable. The high altitude largely devoid of coral reef mainly due to a regions of the interior, which rises to about high volume of freshwater and silt discharged four thousand metres are mild to warm during by some major rivers. Here extensive areas of days and nights are cool. Frosts are common mangrove forests and associated wetlands and above 3000 m and snow periodically falls on deltas occur. higher peaks. Temperatures between 800 and Agardi and Pernetta (1993) estimated 4,000 4500 m above sea level usually range between square kilometres of mangroves and associated 14 and 250C. In the lowlands and coastal wetlands for PNG as a whole, most of it being region, temperature is uniformly high, where in the Gulf of Papua. Reefs are found only in daily temperatures vary from 25 to 340C. the coastal waters of the far west near Daru and again commencing due east of the Gulf of Coastal Zone Habitats Papua and all the way to the islands of Milne For the purpose of this paper, coastal zone will Bay, off the eastern tip of mainland New be defined as the region where land and water Guinea. Beach types vary from sand/mud in (sea) inter-act and its immediate surroundings the west to sand/rocky toward the east. in both seaward and landward directions. It includes fringing reefs, beaches, mangrove forests as well as soils and other vegetation.

130 Issues of Coastal Zone Protection A lot of information and maps that are currently available on the coastal environment The problem of coastal protection is are mainly on resources and landuse. PNG increasingly becoming a major concern for however, does have some capability to collect many island nations, including PNG, in view of such data, especially through the use of the impending pressures that will be brought satellite imagery facilities available at the PNG to bear by the imminent rise in sea level, University of Technology and aerial increased pressure on coastal zones due to the photography. The problem we have is the high increase in population, and other development. costs of such projects and lack of experience in Thus the problem is essentially a global such work. Because of the size of the country, problem for every coastal state, but more so for the area to be covered is relatively large, which small island nations. The central issue at obviously would be very expensive. Therefore stake is protection of lives and property from it is beyond PNG's ability to fund and impending threats associated with population implement such studies without outside help. pressures and climatic conditions. • Integrated Coastal Zone Management In PNG, the problem of beach erosion is widespread, but localised. However, given the For the long term, it is envisaged that the best fact that PNG is made up of over 600 islands approach to addressing the problem of and the huge area it covers, the problem could shoreline degradation and other related be quite significant. To date no studies have problems would be through the process of been undertaken to assess and ascertain the ICZM. Over the last couple of years we have extent of beach erosion, therefore very little been gradually trying to adopt the concept of can be said. Integrated Coastal Zone Management as the way to go in managing coastal environments However, there have been quite a number of and resources. In PNG, different users of the projects that have been undertaken to coastal zone are managed by a number of construct sea walls and protective measures sectors (authorities) independ-ently. Forestry, through out the country, especially in urban mining, fisheries, conservation and urban centres. Such actions are taken basically to development and other users of the coastal protect properties. As is being realised here zone are managed by different agencies. Thus and elsewhere, these structures often do more management of the coastal zone took a sectoral damage than good to the health of beaches, approach, which often lead to un stainable uses. simply because their designs and constructions did not take into account the prevailing natural The trend now is to adopt the concept of ICZM coastal processes. Information concerning and a number of forums have so far been coastal processes is largely lacking at present. convened to provide for multisectoral decision making process in the utilisation of the coastal In PNG, coastal erosion is the result of both zone, so as to ensure the integrity and man-induced and natural causes. Some of the sustain ability of coastal resources, including causes include: erosion control. • storm as well as normal wind driven Huber (1993) in a paper presented at an ICZM waves; meeting noted that the following were • destruction of natural barriers such as important considerations in ICZM: reefs and mangroves; • management should be based on the • erection of structures that may affect understanding of natural coastal processes; natural coastal processes; • management where possible should be • degradation of environment from heavy based on ecological boundaries; public use of coastal environment and • it should try to accommodate different resources. users of coastal zone but restrict • Mapping and Data Collection detrimental activities; To date not much has been done about • management should encompass where mapping coastlines and collecting data appropriate entire coastal zone in a given pertaining to coastal processes. As a result, not area; much is known about coastal processes, • socio-economic importance of resources including the extent of damage to coastlines should also be considered; caused by erosion, but it is obvious that the problem could be quite significant. • all human activities taking place in the area should be considered;

131 • management should be interactive and Of these the first two Acts are tho main pieces dynamic, able to change in response to of legislation which DEC uses to protect. circumstances, new information and control and manage developments ill the experiences; and coastal zone. The Department. ill administering these acts. performs the • ICZM is about managing people and their following functions; activities, not about managing environment and development. • conducts environmental assossmont of major development projects including, but • Education and Public Awareness not limited to. construction. fishing. A well informed public is essential for the manufacturing, forestry, milling and management of the coastal zone. People should agricultural projects: be well aware of the consequences of their • ensure pollution control and regulation of actions if they are to meaningfully contribute hazardous substances: to protecting shorelines. We have an ongoing awareness and educational program aimed to • develop appropriate environmental educate people about the importance of policies; protecting coastal environments, especially • conservation of nora and fauna; mangroves and coral reefs. • establishment of National parks and This program basically tries to highlight the protected areas; important roles played by coral reefs and mangroves in maintaining and sustaining the • management of endangered species of nora important resource organisms for long term and fauna; and uses. All detrimental uses, such as dynamite • administration of PNG's international fishing and large scale removal of mangroves obligations pertaining to environmental are discouraged. A lot of these information Issues. emphasise the need for habitat protection. Concerns relating to shoreline protection are Environmental Planning Act 1978 also highlighted. Apart from other legislation, this Act has direct In spite of this program, a lot of destructive impact on any major development activities activities are still going on. There is as yet that may take place in coastal zone. The act limited awareness in the minds of the public makes it mandatory for an environmental plan about the dangers of man's activities on the to be submitted for any major project, be it coastal shoreline. More vigorous educational mining, construction, manufacturing, forestry, programs are needed if we are to successfully etc. Environmental plans, should show how educate our people. destructive effects of that particular activity on the environment will be prevented or Much of this information is disseminated minimised. The plan then comes under DEC's through video shows as well as visiting and scrutiny. If the plan is satisfactory, approval is talking to various communities including then granted for work to pro 'peel. If on the schools. other hand, the plan is found to be defective, • Regulatory Regimes approval will not be granted. In this way, DEC is able to monitor and control destructive effect The Department of Environment and of developmental activities on the coastline. Conservation (DEC) is the principal Govern- ment agency entrusted with the overall Environmental Contaminant Act 1978 responsibility of protecting and conserving The Environmental Contaminant Act of 1978 is PNG's environment and natural resources. In also one piece of legislation which the order to perform this function, several key Department may use in order to control pieces of legislation were enacted, which the negative environmental activities of the coastal DEC administers. These are: zone. Under this Act, the government sets standard of any particular contaminant that is • Environmental Planning Act 1978 allowed into the environment. Routine • Environmental Contaminants Act 1978 monitoring is undertaken to ensure that a particular contaminant does not exeeed the • Conservation Areas Act 1978 level allowed. • National Parks Act 1982 • International Trade (Flora & Fauna) 1980 • Fauna (Protection and Control) Act 1976

132 Conscricit ion AI'e(ls Ac/ 1978 • Alternatives to Coastal Derived Sand The Act enables the Government to declare and Gravel certain areas as protected for certain uses or Unlike many other smaller island nations, reasons. Through this Act. any area or site of PNG has adequate sources for sand and gravel special value to a group of people or place, be it other then the coast. In fact most sand and a place of scenic beauty. building, historical or gravel are derived from river beds, sand and traditional significance, can be declared rock deposits on land as well as from quarries. protected. Mangrove forests, coral reefs, barrier islands. sea grass beds and sandy or Some coastal communities, especially in eroding beaches can also be declared as smaller islands where such resources are not prot ecrcrl for the purpose of coastal protection. easily accessible do, however, resort to taking such materials from coasts. At present, National Parl:s Act 1982 extraction of such materials is minimal, but This Act covers a range of different types of would become a problem as population parks and protected areas. They include increases. Even then, there are still many national parks. provincial parks, marine parks, places within the country where such materials nature reserves. historical sites, etc. The main could be obtained, although it may be costly. objective for any area declared under this Act • Consideration of Economic Values is to "Provide for the preservation of the environment and national cultural inheritance The economic value of a healthy coastline by conserving areas having particular, cannot be over emphasised. A healthy biological, topographical, geological, historical, coastline is a prerequisite to economic scientific and social significance." development .and protection of assets, properties, lives and even the very survival an Besides these four Acts. the other Acts do not island or nation for that matter. Since the have direct impact on coastal protection, but do coast is where many of the assets are located, compliment the above Acts in one way or there is a growing concern for their protection. another. In the past many development activities were Other Government agencies that deal with undertaken without due consideration, which coastal protection in one way or another are have resulted in aggravated erosion in some fisheries, mines and petroleum, works, and centres. transport departments as well as national To protect properties, a number of measures disaster and emergency services. have been taken by individuals, private and • Social and Cultural Practices Government authorities. Such measures included: The coastal zone in PNG is being used for a variety of social and cultural purposes. The • construction of seawalls (ie erection of hard zone has in recent times come under increasing structures); demand by the public to be used for sports, • depositing of rocks and boulders and even recreation, fishing, source of food and materials bags of sand to act as breakwaters to for construction, and so on. reduce wave energy acting on the Most coastal areas are customarily owned and shoreline; controlled. People residing in the area • rehabilitation of coasts by replanting normally claim ownership of the coastline as mangroves and protecting coral reefs from well as all reefs, mangroves and almost any activities that damage them. other resources found there. This claim of ownership in a way was the main mechanism • Coastal Engineering used to control activities on the coast. Coastal engineering works are varied and of However, as population increases and the may forms. As far as shoreline protection is demand for resources also increases, this form concerned, the most popular engineering of management is becoming obsolete. solution so far is the construction of seawalls. Therefore new ways had to be found to control Seawalls are constructed mainly of bricks. activities in coastal areas for the benefit of Other forms of protective engineering involve everyone. Further more, some traditional piling of rocks, boulders, and other hard forms of coastal protection may not be very materials on beach fronts. effective in controlling shoreline erosion caused by storm waves and other natural disasters due to changes taking place in climatic conditions.

133 Other forms of engineering works that have References direct impact on shoreline include construction Agardi, T.M and J.E Parrnetta. 1993. A of wharfs, navigational activities like dredging, preliminary assessment of biodiversity and and construction of industrial structures such conservation for coastal and marine as ship/boat building and repair facilities. ecosystems in Papua New Guinea. In: Beehler, B.M (Ed) Papua New Guinea Conclusion Conservation Needs assessments, Volume Even though not much is known about the 2. Government of Papua New Guinea, problem of shoreline erosion, the problem is Department of Environment and quite significant, considering the size of the Conservation, Port Moresby. country. The problem is widespread but Huber, M.E. 1993. Toward Sustainable localised, except for smaller offshore islands Development And Management Of Coastal exposed to the full force of wind driven waves. Resources in Papua New Guinea: A The country will need outside help in the form Discussion Paper. Motupore Island of expertise and funds to assess the extent of Research Station, University of Papua the problem and devise ways to control this New Guinea. (Unpublished). problem. A lot of work is still required to educate people of the importance of protecting Crossland, J, M. Morrisson and S. Sala. 1989. beaches and other resources of the coast. PNG Final Report: Pacific Island Marine would need outside assistance to put in place Resources Project Design: Social effective programs and devise effective Soundness and PNG Component. strategies to manage shoreline. URIIICMRD. Kingston.

134 TONGA:

An overview of the coastal protection in Tonga

The eight general areas that were identified in • Integrated Coastal Zone Management the First Coastal Protection Meeting were: The Ministry of Lands, Survey and Natural 1. Mapping and data collection to better Resources and the Department of Fisheries will understand physical processes in coastal draft some action plans to be approved by environment; Cabinet. In the draft submission, a workshop of high level delegates from Government, non- 2. Integrated coastal zone management; government organisation, and from community 3. Education and public awareness; and village level will be proposed. We intend to seek SOPAC and SPREP assistance in 4. Regulatory regimes; convening this workshop. A steering comm- 5. Social and cultural practices; ittee will be formulated to execute the recommendations from this workshop. 6. Alternatives to coastal derived sand and gravel; • Education and Public Awareness 7. Consideration of economic values; The Environment Unit of the Ministry of Lands, Survey and Natural Resources is 8. Coastal engineering. having an Education and Public Awareness programme once a month on radio and in our National Rrequirements weekly newspaper. • Mapping and data collection Posters and essay writing are often done by Mapping exercises are being undertaken by the secondary school pupils. Ministry of Lands, Survey and Natural Resources at site specific areas only. The women's committee through the Prime Minister's Office and the non-government The first aerial photograph taken in Tonga was organisations (NGO) deals at the community in 1968, topographic maps of 1:25,000 scale level. were produced. In 1990 we have acquired Environment awareness week is often held colour aerial photographs (scale 1:10,000 and 1:8,000) of the whole of Tonga. where a panel of politicians, scientists, and economists discuss on the air specific topics on Coastal mapping mainly of beach sand was environment. done in 1984. Sediment budget. studies, including sand composition have been made for The curriculum for the Tonga National Form 7 Tongatapu, Ha'apai and Vava'u. is developing an educational programme where students have to do a project on the coastal Frequent beach profiling and monitoring are areas. undertaken especially when a cyclone has Singing competitions about the environment is occurred. also carried out at Primary School level. There is a need for low vertical aerial photography (1:2,500 scale) of selected areas to • Regulatory Regimes be followed by mapping. Perhaps some The Ministry of Lands, Survey and Natural physical oceanographic studies for effective Resources has the sole authority to deal with coastal protection systems especially in the land, in particular the coastal areas and the western side of Tongatapu. wetlands. Taking of beach sand from coastal areas without a permit from the Ministry of Lands is prohibited. Since 1981, "Land Use, Natural Resources and Environmental Planning Act" was drafted and put forward for approval in the Legislative Assembly but without success.

135 • Social and Cultural Practices 2. To use quarry fines (dust) from quarries as replacement for sand. The Ministry of Social and cultural practices in respect to Works and some private entrepreneurs coastal protection in Tonga are fairly simple. have been using these fines. but only to a Most, if not all of the coastal areas and certain extent, for construction purposes. wetlands are under the jurisdiction of the Minister of Lands. There is no customary land It is required that alternatives to coastal rights as we find in other Pacific islands, derived sand and gravel should be seriously although concerns are often raised by the looked at and to start some small scale mining public, especially when beach sand mining is at the earliest opportunity. being undertaken at their area and the cutting of mangroves. • Consideration of economic values In the Western side of Tongatapu, where it is • Alternatives to coastal derived sand low lying a thin strip of land, its economic and gravel values is high. There are two alternatives that we are looking Due to the low elevation of this area and the for: shape of the island, it is vulnerable to the 1. To mine the offshore sand deposit which north-easterly wind direction during the has been identified to the north of cyclone period. A few hectares of arable land Nuku'alofa. A project proposal has been and village houses have been heavily damaged. submitted, through our Central Planning Consideration of building a seawall at this Department, for Australia or Japan to particular site to protect this valuable asset undertaken an EIA on the proposed project should be taken. Although the economic values and hopefully to follow up with dredging of beaches for tourism, beach sand continues to equipment. Mining strategies and be taken because we do not have an alternative economics of mining this offshore sand for construction materials now. deposit are presently being looked at by SOPAC and the Ministry of Lands, Survey The seawall fronting Nuku'alofa was built and Natural Resources. because of the economic assets in this area.

Case Study:

A detailed case study of the seawall at Nuku'alofa, Tonga

The seawall fronting Nuku'alofa is almost 2.7 A trench of at least 0.5 m was dredged for the km long running from west to east. This first layer of coral blocks weighing up to 1.0 seawall was built by the Germans and the tonne. These were placed up to a height of Japanese. approximately 0.3 m above the reef flat. At this height the cover layer changed from single After Cyclone Isaac in 1982, which caused to double layer that continued up to a crest extensive damage to the northern coastline high of approximately 2.8 m above the reef flat. protection of Nuku'alofa, the Government Coral blocks weighing from 1.0 to 0.5 tonnes decided to rebuild the shoreline protection. and reducing in size with increasing height A Development Coordination Commission was was used in this section of the structure. set up to seek funding for the Nuku'alofa This was extended back in three to five layers Foreshore Project and in February 1983 a corresponding approximately to a 2.5 merest financing agreement was finalised with the width. Coral stones weighing 45 . lOO kg was Republic of Germany. used for the filter layer. Preliminary investigations followed and ground Behind the concrete retaining wall, the work was done by the Ministry of Works and structure was filled with small coral blocks the Germans and the structure was rebuilt as before the backfill was finished with the top follows: soil. This engineering coastal protection is yet to be tested by a strong wind force like that of Cyclone Isaac in 1982. Summary of Discussions Nauru asked Tonga how long the revetment seawall is for $:jm Deutschmark? Tonga noted it was a total of 2.7 km long - 1.2 km built by Germany and 1.5 km by .Iapan. Tonga noted that a lot of material has gone into the revetment. Tonga was asked if there had been any end- effect.. None has been noted. Dorrell asked how far it was from the wall to the outer edge of the reef flat? Tonga responded that it was about 200 m. A question was asked as to which direction cyclones tended to come') Tonga responded that the wall is vulnerable to cyclones. Guam not.ed that the slope was 1:5, but the USACE recommended a slope of 1:2 for Guam, and asked if Tonga had experienced any problems? Tonga noted that one of the original problems was overtopping by waves. Dorrell commented that the USACE have found that 1:2 is actually better as it resists the bore better t.han 1:5 due to t.he effect. of the reef. It was noted that. the design was a European one, but was also limited due to the size of rock available. Tonga was asked if there was any drainage behind t.he revetment? No.

137 TUVALU:

Country Report

Introduction This should direct and assist them in the design, construction, and management of the The problem of coastal erosion in Tuvalu has most suitable and effective coastal protection been around since the early 1970s. The islands system. Unfortunately for Tuvalu, this type of of Tuvalu, which seldom rise 4 m above mean work has been very minimal despite the fact sea level, have been and are still continually that coastal erosion in the country has been a subjected to the destructive forces of wave leading problem. actions. The vulnerable nature of these islands in terms of their sizes and forms has, among The Lands and Survey Department of the other factors, seen the prolonged existence of Ministry of Home Affairs had carried out some this problem in the country. work on mapping and beach profiling on three of the islands under a SOPAC programme. The Government of Tuvalu recognised the The information collected is believed to have urgency and need to address and find solutions not been used effectively towards the to this national problem. For a country with a improvement of coastal works in Tuvalu. total land area of approximately 25 square Views had been expressed for the need to kilometres and a population of just over 9000, closely study the characteristics of current Tuvaluans cannot afford to stand by and watch flows along the shores of some islands, their islands gradually diminishing into the especially those with seawalls. Some islanders unforgiving hands of nature. have witnessed severer cases of erosion on Attempts made by the Tuvalu Government in their islands since the construction of these the early 1970s saw the introduction, for the new seawalls. They believe that this had come first time, of a coastal protection project for the about because no careful study has been severely affected islands of the country. This conducted on the nature of coastal processes project used the system of gabion baskets, near their beaches. which unfortunately did not stand up to the This paper cannot overstress the need for the aggressive conditions of ocean waves. Thus, a proper mapping and collection of data to new system had to be quickly introduced in provide a better understanding of coastal 1982. Features of this system will be discussed processes in Tuvalu. SOPAC has recently in detail in the case study. made available a computer for the use of locals General Areas of Needs (in Tuvalu) on SOPAC related work. It is hoped that with this computer the extent of work on coastal Following is an overview of coastal protection mapping and data collection can be improved. within Tuvalu based on the eight categories of "needs" identified by the First Meeting in Apia, • Integrated Coastal Zone Management Western Samoa in February, 1994. Integrated Coastal Zone Management is an • Mapping and data collection area which has not received much attention in Tuvalu. There is an evident lack of co- There is no doubt that the mapping of our ordination within responsible government coastal areas and the collection of relevant data departments to formulate a proper Integrated are two of the most important aspects of any Coastal Zone Management programme for coastal protection project. The sensibility of Tuvalu. Talks about the establishment of a performing these tasks before, during, and Land Use Plan, which would have served a after the deployment of a coastal protection similar purpose, have never materialised. This system will provide planners, engineers, is a most unfortunate situation for a country environmentalists and other interested coastal that regards the protection of its coastal and technicians with invaluable information to land areas most essential. enhance their understanding of physical processes in our coastal environment. For a small country like Tuvalu where there is great concern for the lack of land areas available for future development, there is a genuine need for some sort of management programme to be devised and properly exercised.

138 • Education and Public Awareness • Social and Cultural Practices The success and effectiveness of some projects For eroded areas not yet covered by the coastal such as coastal protection depend largely on project, some landowners have attempted to the acceptance and appreciation by users of the build their own small systems of coastal benefits that can be derived from those protection. Most of them use coconut trunks to projects. In most cases the most effective way form retaining wall type barriers while others to achieve this is through the education and encourage the dumping of garbage and rubbish promotion of public awareness. on their land sea fronts in an attempt to create erosion buffer zones for their lands. In Tuvalu, people generally understand the need to have coastal protection systems along • Consideration of Economic Values our eroded shores. However, due to the The determination of economic values scarcity of building material resources on our associated with the benefits of our coastal islands, this understanding is always protection project in Tuvalu is a difficult and conflicting with our day to day needs and rare practice since about 98 percent of project requirements. Most construction works protected coastal areas is freehold land. The require the extraction and removal of sand and only two development projects that have coral materials from the very coastal areas we economic values directly related to coastal are trying to protect against erosion. protection are the Funafuti Deep Sea Wharf For a country with a cornered situation such as and our new Vaiaku Lagi Hotel. Tuvalu's, efforts must be directed at educating • Coastal Engineering people at all levels (schools, communities, government) on the need to provide The scope of coastal engineering is yet to take alternatives and compromises to their daily good shape in Tuvalu. The engineering aspects needs. These efforts can result in the full of coastal protection projects are usually derivation of benefits from the protection of our primarily handled by PWD. However, with the coastal areas. The EIA and NEMS workshops lack of specialist coastal engineers in the conducted last year in the country by SPREP country, overseas consultants are usually were classic examples of the type of efforts engaged when the need arises. required to get the people to appreciate reasons This is definitely one of the more important behind development projects. There is, areas that require government's attention. however, still a need to get the message across Local engineers should utilise training to the majority of the population. opportunities to broaden their coastal • Regulatory regimes engineering outlooks if coastal engineering in Tuvalu is to be improved. In Tuvalu, the authorities empowered by law to have control over Crown Land are the Island Conclusions Councils of the individual islands of Tuvalu. Looking at the above eight identified areas of Anyone wishing to extract coral materials from needs, it would be fair to state that Tuvalu is the shores has to obtain a licence from the still a long way behind the rest of the South island council, who usually have designated Pacific islands in their coastal protection coastal areas opened to the public for efforts. There is definitely a genuine need to extraction of materials. The Government, who look closer at the scope of coastal works in is the main developer in the country, does not Tuvalu. The absence of an Integrated Coastal require a council licence. This had lead to the Zone Management programme and the lack of exploitation of Funafuti, the capital, where 99 a proper data collection set-up are only two of percent of development projects take place. the numerous shortcomings that exist to prove The laws and regulations of Tuvalu in relation this point. to the protection of our environment are quite This paper cannot over-emphasise the fact that explicit. The reinforcement, however, of these at the present time Tuvalu definitely needs a laws by empowered authorities such as Island great deal of assistance in the area of coastal Councils are sometimes not carried out as protection. It is hoped that whatever future expected. regional programmes result from these workshops, an opportunity to benefit is given to Tuvalu.

139 Case Study

Introduction. The precast units are concrete cubes of 0.3 m dimensions with unit weights of 50 kg Basically, there had been two versions of the approximately. To employ an interlocking same system of coastal protection used in mechanism to enhance their performances Tuvalu. For this system, a seawall is against wave actions, the shapes of the units constructed parallel to the coast line, either were modified to include 4 slender legs right at the eroded beach front or detached at protruding 50 mm from the bottom of the unit. distances of about 5 to 7 m. These legs are to fit and lock into a trough at The first version, introduced in the early 1970s, the top of the units when laid. The concrete made use of gabion baskets. These baskets units are precast at a station and carted into the site for placement. were filled with coral rocks and stacked along the eroded beach fronts. They were used both Development and Costs on lagoon and ocean sides of the islands. However, it didn't take long for the gabion As mentioned above, the modification of the baskets to stand up against the corrosive gabion system to using concrete blocks came environment of the sea and the forces of the about as a result of the findings of a reported waves. study carried out by an overseas consulting firm, Fawcett & Partners, in 1982. In The failure of the gabion baskets saw the summary, the report stated that the protection introduction of a modified version, which was dependent on wave height and this could stemmed from a report written by an overseas be approximated to 0.78 of reef flat water consulting firm, Fawcett and Partners, in 1982. depths. This version is still currently being used in Tuvalu and this paper shall now attempt to The design considerations offered by the report discuss this in detail. include a once a year return period for the design wave, and the adoption of a system Description which if damaged by abnormal water levels and waves could be readily and economically The basic form of protection adopted consists of repaired. The fact that most of the work was to rubble-mounted seawalls armoured with be man-handled was also a key design factor. precast concrete units. The sloping face of The report also identified priority sites to begin these seawalls vary from 1:3 to 1:2 depending the project. on the ferocity of wave attacks on the shore front. For parts of seawalls which are The sizing of the concrete units to 0.027 (0.3 x constructed against the eroded beach fronts, a 0.3 x 0.3) cubic metres fulfilled the required filter cloth is laid in between the beach and the design criteria. The average weight of 50 kg a seawall. Filter cloth is also used where unit is a manageable lifting weight for an detached seawalls are backfilled. average worker. After cyclones when concrete blocks have been shifted and scattered by wave Local currents around islands cause forces, their reinstatement into the wall considerable amount of sand movement on the requires minimal time and costs. beaches to a depth of 300 mm. Where a wall starts on a beach (as opposed to detached The project was launched in 1987 and was walls), it is necessary to have the armour funded by the European Economic Community. material forming a buried toe to a depth of 450 The project was estimated to cost mm and width of about 2 m to prevent AUD$800,000. Due to some financial undermining. uncertainties, an audit of project accounts was commissioned in late 1992, during which time The coral rubble used for the core of the walls the project was suspended. Findings of this are collected and carted in from along parts of audit have now been made and the project is to un eroded shores, which usually are hurricane resume sometime this year. The remaining and cyclone formed banks. project funds are expected to last another two years. The work on the islands are coordinated by their Island Councils with the overall management carried out by the Public Works Department.

140 Advantages & Disadvantages Summary of Discussions The following are the advantages and Nauru asked how far it was from the edge of disadvantages of the above system in point the land to the outer edge of the reef flat? form: Tuvalu responded that it varies from 30 m to Advantages: several hundred metres. • cheap and easy to construct; Byrne noted that the design structure appears • no heavy equipment require; to be about one metre high, so it would be easily overtopped. As such, a modified cube • damaged seawalls can be readily and would not be the best shape. economically repaired. Asher commented that in some areas it appears Disadvantages: to be working, but asked about other areas? • labour intensive; Tuvalu responded that backfilling was required in some areas, and that beach replenishment • restricts the outgrowth of land; was perhaps needed in some areas. • the repetitive work on repairing the PNG asked if the structures move? Tuvalu seawalls after every storm. responded that they do get shifted during cyclones but are easily replaced afterwards. Tuvalu was asked where the low water mark was on the structure? At the base.

141 VANUATU:

Country Report

Individuals have also taken sand from the National Needs beaches for their own use but the amount is • Mapping and data collection minor compared to that of commercial mining. Mapping and data collection of the coastal The Quarry regulation was brought into effect areas around Vanuatu are collected by the in 1991 and since then two permits were issued Geological Department the Land Surveys for the sites. Department's Hydrographic Unit and the The permits allowed extraction of 3,000 cubic Environment Unit. meters per year which was licensed for a period Aerial photographs and topographical maps are of two years in which time inland quarry sites kept by the department of Lands and Survey. were to be identified for future sand extraction. SOPAC has also helped in drawing up maps of Both permits, however, have now been beach profiling and bathymetric surveys. cancelled because the operators did not comply Aerial photos have been updated since 1945 up with the regulations especially in the reporting to 1992. of the quantity of sand extracted. The Geological Department and ORSTOM also A few operators are now operating illegally have geological maps of Vanuatu. with the approval of some local land owners. Coastal erosion of the Island of Efate has been In 1993, the Efate Local Government Councils observed for a number of years by the Vanuatu Physical Planning Act came into force which Geological Department and in recent times has banned sand mining at Mele Bay. It is, become a major concern to the residents however, suspected that certain operators are property owners and the operator owners of the currently paying land owners large sums of Port Vila Golf course. money to resume beach mining operations illegally outside both the Quarry regulations Land loss estimates vary but signs of coastal and the Physical Planning Act. erosion are evident and these include erosion scarps at the beach edge, exposed tree roots, This illegal mining has been stopped by the fallen trees that litter portion of the beach, chiefs of the concerned mining areas, these short and steep beach faces, and undercut were requested by the chief to the Local building structures. Government Council which was then enforced to bring the sand mining to a complete stop. The Geological Department has also discovered that in 1984-85, the data has showed that at The ban on the beach mining in Mele Bay, the western edge of Mele Bay, the coastal zone however, is too late for the Port Vila Golf Club has been uplifting at rates of 1.28 to 2.13 house which was destroyed in March 1994 mm/yr during the Holocene. These rates are during Cyclone Usha, as a result of server comparable to the rate of estimated global sea erosion. level rise over the last 100 years and would • Integrated Coastal Zone Management indicate that this section of the Efate coast should not have been affected by rising sea There are no coastal zones or coastal protected level in recent times. areas in Vanuatu at present which are being managed by the responsible government The commercial mining of sand from the departments, but it is looked into by my beaches of Mele Bay has continued for about 10 Government as an important issue towards the years from two sites, one east of Suwango Point protection of our coasts around Vanuatu and the other at the eastern end of the Port especially with the rise of the sea level and Vila Golf Course, and the other west of climate changes which is now affecting SOIlV 1f Suwango Point near the junction road of the islands in the Pacific region. Klehms Hill and Devils Point. Recent data showed that the sand extracted from these sites by commercial mining concerns an average rate of between 450-500 cubic meters per month between the years of 1985 and 1988, although mining has not been continuos at either site. 142 • Education and Public Awareness caused by the commercial operators because most land owners are receiving big money for Both the Vanuatu Hydrographic Unit and the it. Environment Unit are working on Public Awareness Programs which go on air and some My Department's main concern is the need to are posters and booklets which are produced by closely monitor sand and gravel activities the Environment Unit which enables the public around the coasts of Vanuatu in the future and to read and understand about the bad side of at the same time look at other possible Logging and Sand mining. alternatives to sand and gravel for the operators operating in and around our coasts. Now that television has just been introduced to Vanuatu, there is great need for coastal • Existing Engineered Coastal protection public awareness programs to be Protection Systems included into the television programs, this will There are no engineered coastal protection surely attract more attention because a lot of systems in Vanuatu at present, therefore I people watch television. cannot give any details of its costing, Many villages where heavy mining has taken advantages and disadvantages etc, however, place have requested the need for officers from there is a seawall build in the waterfront area the' Environment and Hydrographic Units to go in Vila harbour, but this wall has been broken into their village to explain the dangers sand down by cyclones Uma and Betsy. mining could bring to their coasts in the future, Studies are being carried out in areas where and the problems have been clearly stated by wharfs have been badly damaged by cyclones the officers to the local people that continuos in order to repair the wharfs with some wave mining of sand can put their coasts and and coastal protection systems which will try to especially the people themselves in great safe both the wharf and the coast from eroding danger. away during rough sea caused by cyclonic Conservation Program mainly is being run on winds. air by the Environment Unit but with this Conclusion coastal problems arising there will soon be one program added to this Conservation Program. Vanuatu is a small island state with a stretch The Conservation Program is mainly focused of some eighty islands and these islands are on the protection of mangroves and logging. vulnerable to cyclones and earthquakes, but the global warming of the world which brings There is also a need for this public awareness about the changes in climate and the rise in program to be included into the schools curriculum. sea level will put our people and especially our low lying islands and coasts in danger every • Social and Cultural Practices year. Vanuatu is traditionally a Melanesian society. This Coastal Protection Meeting has given me Its also one where customs and traditions are a lot of information on how to tackle, manage different all throughout the country. and control activities around our coasts, because there is great fear that if nothing In Vanuatu we do not have traditional happens now, it might be too late to save our seawalls, but there are a lot of people living by coasts and the beautiful Champagne beaches the coasts and these people have different ways which we only have a limited amount of of carrying out activities on their coasts, but compared to other bigger countries in the none of the areas and villages around Vanuatu Pacific and the world at large. have been able to put up walls to protect their coasts from eroding, therefore as part of the I would therefore like to take this opportunity awareness program there will be a need for the on behalf of my government in thanking the people to build or create local traditional Australian International Development seawall that will try to protect their coasts Assistance Bureau (AIDAB) for funding this from eroding away. 2nd Coastal Protection Meeting and SPREP and SOPAC for their support in providing • Alternatives to Coastal derived Sand technical experts to enable countries like mine and Gravel see the importance of coastal protection and In Vanuatu more commercial operators are the important issues discussed to fmd solutions going further inland to get gravel because they to protecting our coasts for us and our future can locate areas of gravel inland, but as for generations to come. sand they will still excavate from the coasts regardless of warnings by the chiefs to their people about the destruction of their coasts 143 WESTERN SAMOA:

Protection Needs in Western Samoa

Introduction: Overview The sea level history for Western Samoa is The general geological structure of the Western unknown, however, Richmond concluded that Samoa islands is controlled by five volcanic there is no evidence to suggest that there was a episodes (Kear and Weed, 1959). Each episode higher sea level than that during the Holocene. produced extensive lava flows which flowed The coast appears to be undergoing widespread seaward from high volcanic cones in the erosion from a combination of factors such as direct wave attack, possible island sinking, centres of the two main islands. The Central shore adjustments, sand mining, poorly highlands of the two main islands are the designed seawalls and revetments, reclamation remnants of these volcanoes. The lava flows and destruction of the protective vegetation produced by each volcanic episode produced and habitats. All in all, the result of human distinctive land-slopes between the volcano and activities modified the coastal environment in the coast and distinctive types of coastline. Coastline types consist of fringing and barrier Western Samoa. This modification also relates to the event inshore in particular deforestation reefs, beaches, sand spits and gently sloping and erosion. volcanic hinterlands. There are a number of protected coastal areas Reefs encircle almost the entire coast of the in Western Samoa. The 0 Le Pupu Pue inhabited islands. Fringing reefs are also National Park in southern Upolu exists present. Streams and rivers affect the adjacent to the coast and extends well into the coastline of the islands by delivering large highlands. The Marine Reserves near Apia amounts of sediment to the coast and inhibiting town was established in 1979, and is the only coral growth with their fresh water flow and declared marine conservation area in Western increased turbidity. The sediment discharge of Samoa. Another island of south eastern Upolu rivers and streams around the islands are island has been proposed for a Marine Reserve uncertain. Incomplete records indicate that but as yet has to be approved and established. floods are the major contributor of sediment to the coast, but while some may be integrated The governments of New Zealand and into dispositional features most is transported Australia are assisting the Government of into deeper water offshore (Richmond, 1991). Western Samoa in the monitoring of sea level Swamps and mangrove communities located in and other aspects related to climate change, the low lying coastal region are common with the Japanese Government currently features in the islands, particularly in drcwned undertaking a major seawall project in the valleys and barrier impounded river and main Apia town coastal area. This paper stream mouths. Mangrove swamplands are discusses the needs identified in the First currently suffering destruction as a result of Coastal Protection Meeting and suggests land reclamation and rubbish disposal. Coastal appropriate applicable measures. processes (direction, strength and variability of Decision-Making Framework in Western nearshore currents) around Western Samoa Samoa Coastal Protection are well understood. Generally, the waves and currents are driven by the predominant Western Samoa processes two styles of easterly winds, however, the east-west government. The Westminister parliamentary circulation and transportation of sediments is system of the national Government and the complicated by other factors such as local traditional village-based authority, that is, the bathometry and exposure, the passage of storm Fono. The customary system of decision fronts and extended shifts in weather patterns. making predominates over the majority of (Kay, 1993). coastal lands and is effective semi-autonomous from national decision making. Therefore coastal resource management decisions are expressly made by the villagers.

144 It is at the village level therefore that any Even the data and/or information available are decisions to reduce future sea level rise impacts either obsolete or in discrete form. So we must will be made. It is a must that the national actually have this information in place, in a government should take these into useable form to enable the countries of the consideration when implementing coastal zone region to acquire the knowledge and management around the islands. Of course experience. The fact is that, we cannot act there are quite a number of acts of parliament without proper mapping and data collection pertaining to the management of coastal areas information. and government agencies and ad hoc SOPAC has been assisting the South Pacific committees to control the implementation of countries to collect and undertake a series of national coastal management policies. studies to obtain the required information However, the national government should have (data) for coastal protection programmes. It is an appropriate consultation approach with the suggested that SOPAC in collaboration with village-based authorities and should provide donor countries provide assistance and possibly adequate information to enable these extend this to other areas of coastal protection. authorities to base their decision on. Very • Integrated Coastal Zone Management often the information provided to landowners (ICZM) result in receptive attitude simply because of not providing the required and adequate The overall objective of ICZM would have to be information. a priority for Western Samoa, given that all the other general areas of need fall within the The other important aspect here, is the point of scope of ICZM. However, ICZM requires a contact. Usually, the village pulenuu (mayor) very special and specific approach in Western is the contact person in the village, and he then Samoa if it is to be useful. A pre- requisite for informs the village Councils during monthly effective coastal zone management is a firm meetings on the proposition. The village commitment to sustainable use of its resources, council decides on and reports to the concerned by both the government and users of the authority. This brings us to the aspect of an coastal zone, including the general public. adequate mechanism to integrate national Unfortunately, notwithstanding the opportun- government and village level authority. This is ities for effective development and implement- explicitly evident in most cases in Western ation. Samoa where lack of institutionalised procedures and practices are current There are important constraints hindering its impediments to the implementation of effective development and implementation. integrated coastal management. Firstly, the financial and human resource constraints of key central government agencies Coastal Protection Needs such as the Division of Environment and The ultimate goals for any coastal protection Conservation and secondly the poor linkage and management programmes are to enhance between national and village levels of decision- coastal resilience and reduce coastal making. That poor linkage will result in sub- vulnerability. To achieve these goals in the optimal policy implementation, etc, and local context, they have to be matched with the therefore the development of ICZM in Western subsistence economy customary land tenure Samoa will be slow and frustrating process. practices and the traditional cultural systems. Therefore the success of nationally conceived This means that Western coastal protection coastal zone management strategies for and management models may not be applicable Western Samoa is likely to be greatly enhanced unless specifically amended to suit Western through the sharing of coastal management Samoa's prevailing conditions. It is in this strategy development with village decision- perspective that this presentation will focus makers. with specific analysis of needs identified for the South Pacific region. • Education and Public Awareness • Mapping and Data Collection This is probably the single most critical aspect of ICZM and any localised approach to coastal As discussed earlier, the unavailability of raw protection must be effectively addressed, given and scientific data and. information become a that villages are essentially autonomous in serious problem area here in the region. managing their coastal resources. Before they can act appropriately, they must understand.

145 Division of Environment and Conservation • Alternatives to Coastal Sand and (DEC) has been continuously undertaking Gravel public campaigns on the importance of the This is one of the biggest threats to coastal coastal zone areas through newspaper, radio infrastructure and land . the unsustainable and television programmes, and series of mining of sand and gravel off beaches. village meetings. Alternatives will certainly relieve this pressure • Regulatory regimes and allow beaches to fulfil their roles in coastal protection. The DEC has recently reviewed and amended the existing legislation (Lands and In Western Samoa, alternative sources of sand Environment Act 1989) and related Acts to and gravel had been addressed, however, accommodate recent development of tremendously high production costs prevented environment and including coastal zone this from proceeding further. This meant that management programmes. An Environmental alternative sources have to be from the coastal Impact Assessment (EIA) regulation document areas provided that mapping, identification is also near [mal approval by Cabinet, and designation of specific sites to collect sand specifically detailing EIA procedures and and gravel. Guidelines have to be provided. requirements. Further regulations will be • Consideration of Economic Values developed as provided under the Principal Act. It is important to prioritise the activities tasks • Social and Cultural to ensure effective ICZM programmes. Costal This is critically very important in Western engineering is probably a response to coastal Samoa because it is the behaviour of people problems. Therefore, it is of vital importance to (understanding the consequences) which will consider the first seven needs before taking be required to change. It should also be noted coastal engineering aspects into consideration. that, the cooperation and commitment of the The consideration of traditional coastal people is likely only to come if what is required protection methods should be taken into of them fits culturally, socially and account against the engineering structures. economically into their way of life. Conclusion It must also be borne in mind that integration of management in the islands means coastal Effective implementation of any coastal protection, sea level rise, etc, are just part of protection systems in the region and within the picture. Much of the actions needed to each individual island country depend largely guard against sea level rise through ICZM is to on the availability of data and relevant do with helping the natural system back into a information, the commitment of national natural balance and health so that their governments and the participation of the local natural resilience can cope. Coastal manage- community. A cooperative approach should be ment must be focused on all connected of paramount importance in the development activities from catchment to reefs. and implementation of ICZM in the region. It is important for Pacific island countries to not be driven by donor trends and favoured funding topics. Money is currently being thrown to climate change sea level rise, whereas the immediate crisis is much different. For example, Samoa with some larger islands of the South Pacific has "probably the most degraded lagoons and reefs of the South Pacific." Therefore, to effectively implement ICZM, the involvement of the local community should happen at the very outset in designing ICZM programmes and by such mechanism the villages will be involved in data collection, especially anecdotal information, making the process of ICZM both relevant and real, resulting in village commitment to the outcome (management).

146 Case Study:

Coastal Protection Associated with Infrastructure Assets - Western Samoa Coastal Roading

Presented by Mr -Iolui Bell, Chief Civil Engineer, Public Works, Apia, Western Samoa A major problem faced by the South Pacific So if any of us have come to this meeting with nations in the near future is a growing a missionary zeal to save the Pacific from itself population and a shrinking or static area of with Integrated Coastal Zone Management or land to live on. The development of the coastal sand entrapment or major concrete sea zone is not an option . it is a necessity. The defences . forget it. Take a lesson from the story of Western Samoa's coastal roads Christian missionaries. Blend a sound provides an example of one way things can be message within the culture. done. In using this example it must be borne However, back to Samoa Coastal roading. in mind that Samoa is unique, as are the other Pacific nations, in geomorphology, in culture in Custom and culture have the majority of the land mass and m its present stage of population concentrated within the coastal development. This example should not be zone. To enhance communication and copied but should become a vehicle for ideas commerce both the major islands have a ring- and a classroom to learn from. road which for most of their length closely follows the coast. Most of this ring-road has Western Samoa has an ancient Polynesian been developed since the mid- 1950's. It was culture. They have traditionally lived with and upgraded in the mid-1970's and hammered by by the sea. Samoa is still very traditional in Cyclones Ofa and Val in the early 1990's. customs and values. Traditional values are under bombardment by other values beamed Even before Cyclone Ofa there were some out on video and television. In this I do not moves to improve part of the network at the think that it is different than any other South eastern end of Upolu. SMEC were also looking Pacific nation. It does mean that any solution at upgrading sections in Savaii, following on reached on the question of coastal protection by from work in the 1980's by the Western Samoa this meeting or any other agency must be Government in sealing the south coast road in sensitive to the other pressures being exerted Savaii. on the small Pacific countries and must be one Following Cyclone Ofa, IDA and ADB took a which all small countries can be part of and proud of. major interest in the restoration of the roading system. The Western Samoa Government itself I say proud deliberately. After 18 months has put in a considerable amount of its own trying to work in Samoa I have noted: money, particularly into Savaii. In these projects is a certain amount of shore protection 1. Samoans put a different value on money works of various designs with various success. than I, as a New Zealander, would. For me money is living, without it you can do Before looking in particular at these projects nothing and therefore it makes a good could I make a few points: measure for valuing conflicting projects. It 1. Although the instigation processes are now appears to me that to a Samoan money is a very blurred, to the best of my knowledge means of power and influence. Power and there was no environment assessments influence is the real measure of success. done on these projects. This does not mean And not necessarily power and influence that the environment was not considered. for yourself . it may be for aiga . which What I am saying is that there was no eventually comes back to you. formal process to ensure that all aspects 2. Power and influence and its importance are fully and publicly considered. make foreign (palagi) ideas difficult to sell 2. It may be that aid agencies should be unless those ideas enhance the Samoan approached to write Environmental Impact esteem. Assessments (EIAs) into these processes. I 3. The overriding value is still people. have a feeling that there would be Whether is for power and influence or acceptance. kindly concern. I suspect this may not be too much different in the other small Pacific nations.

147 3. Samoans have a tradition (I think) of Summary of Discussions reclamation. It generally starts with a rock wall marking off a small area of Fiji asked for clarification that the :{.:J krn lagoon behind which is placed rubbish and revetment cost USSGm') Yes. Tonga asked other spoil. where the funds came from') W. Samoa responded that it was totally -Iapancso aid. but 4. There was a constant pressure from the labour, machinery and the rocks wero supplied villages to take the road alignment further locally. into the sea. This people pressure rapidly translated in pressure from both the Tuvalu asked how much has belm completed to Minister of Works and the Prime Minister. date and how long has it taken') The response In many cases technical reasons were not was that it is 90 percent complete and taken regarded as valid arguments not to do it. about six months so far. It became obvious that the population Guam emphasised that with revetments and looked at the road as protection from the seawalls access to the beach should be taken sea for themselves and also as a way of into consideration when designing erosion increasing their land holdings. This may control measures. be a sensible approach. Nunn noted that the last few presentations 5. An infrastructure asset such as a road does haven't taken into consideration changing give an opportunity for doing significant parameters such as sea level rise and climate planning for long sections of coast line. It change (eg increased frequency of cyclones). also in some respects may diminish the and stated it was not enough to just use past asset of the foreshore for such things as information in designing artificial structures. tourism development. In many instances the traditions of reclamation will do Tuvalu asked what Western Samoa intends to outside the road. do about the possibility of the smaller rocks in the revetment becoming airborne during The Roading Projects have a variety of sea cyclones? The speaker commented that the protection works. The cost per square metre problem had been passed back to the Japanese, also varied greatly. In many instances the and in some areas they have concreted and protection works fit well within the coastal others they have grouted. With the increased environment. concrete, however, there are more reflected Western Samoa has the experience of ring- waves. He further commented that perhaps roads, some of which have protection and some the concrete grouting isn't too bad, but already which have none. there is a lot of wave reflection. The Japanese informed them that they have a model that It may have stumbled across one answer to the doesn't show there will be standing waves, but coastal protection problem. That answer may they have already occurred. This is a warning fit here and now for Samoa. Will it still be about relying too much on modelling; they are valid in 20 years time? Is there anything in useful but other testing is also required. the Samoan experience which can be taken forward? Tuvalu noted that the speaker said they didn't have any control over the project, how did this fA video presentation was then made of the coastal protection associated with the road happen? Western Samoa responded that it was works] the way the aid was provided. What was the cost per kilometre? Difficult to say, the cost was WST$30 - $,50 per m:3 for the rock in place.

148 Annex 5: Summary of the Discussions During Country Reports

Concern was expressed over the need for Introduction standards, such as scales that can be compared regionally. The need for funding requirements The meeting- ag-reed that it would be preferable to develop such standards was also raised. top rog-ress th rough each of the eight "needs" The concern was raised that data collection in rat her t han from country report to country the outer islands of countries were being ruport For each of the eight "needs" identified neglected, most programmes concentrated on during- the First Coastal Protection Meeting, the urban centres. each count rv representative presented the S(,('tion of thell' report pertaining to that issue. The question was asked if mapping is useful; is This was followed by an open discussion of it going far enough? Cook Islands noted that issues associated with that "need". from their experience coastal mapping and profiling by itself is not that informative. They The following is a summary of the discussions have found the need to have written reports to for each of the eight "needs" arising from the accompany the profiles, preferably with the First Coastal Protection Meeting in Apia, inclusion of photographs. West ern Samoa (see Part 1 of this proceedings volume). It was commented that countries will tend to defend their own work and work programmes, and the question was asked how Need 1: people/companies coming into countries feel about the availability or usefulness of maps? Byrne commented from his experience that Mapping and Data Collection to Better many countries have good maps and aerial Understand Physical Processes in photography which is relatively easy to obtain, Coastal Environments especially in Fiji. However, in other countries it can be more difficult, for example having to In response to a question, American Samoa write to the UK to obtain them. Mapping tends said their Flood Insurance Maps were to be good, but the user's problem is in trying essentially hazard maps. to get an answer as to why erosion is occurring. A comment was made that maps are just a Not enough is being done to look at the snap-shot 10 time. Should countries processes involved. concentrate on mapping, or should they look at PNG noted that they have resource maps, but the data's relevance to coastal protection? At none on coastal processes. There is a need to what frequency should the data be updated? identify what data needs to be collected for What form should the data take, eg digital? coastal protection purposes. Relevant data and maps are required for devising coastal protection systems. The comment was made that very few circulation studies have been made before and Australia noted that it was looking at after causeway construction in atolls, perhaps integrating satellite with other information this could be explained by the lack of personnel sources to arrive at a consistent set of in the region with oceanographic training and standards. Another delegate noted that this equipment to undertake studies. was very costly, and asked if Pacific island countries could afford similar information? It Dorrell noted that from his experiences the was noted that the data already exists to a information he needs includes reasonable large extent, what is needed are software and updating of data, especially a grid series of training. profiles tied to buildings. Changes can then be seen and the causes of erosion identified. He Cook Islands noted that they were developing a noted that human memory was not good GIS network between four of their enough, hard data was required. departments. Fiji noted that a number of databases were being developed independently Fiji asked the Marshall Islands if their EIA by different departments, and that data requirements were effective in producing the collection in the country needed to be necessary information? RMI responded by coordinated into a GIS system or an noting that EIA had yet to be brought into the environment database system. regulatory process.

149 Coastal Protection in the Pacific islands

Nauru's loss of data through fire in 1988 was Niue's talk raised the concern that very little recognised as a lesson to other countries on the data existed on sea-states within the region. need to store data sets in different locations. SOPAC noted the first phase of its wave energy The need to know where historical data is programme has been completed. stored is also very important. There was general agreement for the need to The possibility of using local knowledge, adopt a common standard for data collection especially local shipping knowledge, as sources and storage. Countries need to think about of preliminary coastal processes information what relevant data is needed: how should it be was suggested. It was also noted that as many stored; what processes are required to make currents and sediments are wind driven, that that data available: and what are the funding the extensive wind data collected in the region requirements? was a valuable source of information for Concern was expressed with the emphasis on assessing coastal processes. the collection of geological data which tends to The comment was made that some areas have be static, whereas the dynamic data is more considerable data and information, whereas relevant to coastal protection. others have very little. It was suggested that The suggestion was made that the EIAJEIS data were not useful unless they can be process should be looked at more closely as a interpreted, requiring on the ground data means of obtaining basic coastal processes collection and analysis. information for countries. An alternative position was expressed that The opinion was expressed that we should remotely obtained data can also be of encourage our leaders to seek access to considerable value. For example, aerial internationally collected data for the region, eg photography can be used to show historical the IOC's TOGA programme. It was felt that changes, can reduce the costs of ground countries have a right to the data collected surveys by locating appropriate study sites, within their EEZs; and that we shouldn't be and the resulting morphological data also satisfied with just "simplified" data and provides some history of the area concerned. inform ation. The question was raised concerning the It was further suggested that there was a need provision of data in a simplified form for use in for a data directory of just what is available; public awareness campaigns. The usefulness of the need to build up a strategic, selective data aerial photography and videos in working with set; and the need to update the data. leaders in policy development and planning was noted. Mr Gerry Byrne provided the summary list in Table 1 as the basic information needed by a This lead into a discussion on the accessibility consulting engineer establishing a project in and ownership of data, especially aerial survey the coastal zone: and remotely sensed data. It was suggested that copies of any data collected in countries All country representatives were asked during should be lodged in that country, no matter the meeting to rank the eight "needs" identified who collects it or pays for it to be collected. in the first meeting as either "High", "Medium" This also raised the need for a central or "Low" for their countries [note: Guam rated repository for such information. the needs from a regional perspective]. These do not necessarily represent national policy. Guam noted their wetland mapping These rankings are noted at the end of each programme and noted the meeting's "needs" section. concentration on the collection of physical data to the exclusion of the biological. It was agreed The need for mapping and data that any development in the coastal zone is collection to better understand going to be affected by both the physical as well physical processes in coastal as biological parameters, and therefore environments was rated "High" by all consideration needs to be given to this representatives at the second meeting. interdependence. The interrelationship of the biological and physical needs further study. For example. mangroves and coral reefs are biological entitles but their physical aspects were often ignored; sand production from reefs needs to be quantified for areas within the region, rather than using generalised figures derived from outside the region.

150 Table 1: Important Data for Coastal Work Guam and American Samoa were further asked that if the other Pacific countries were to adopt the US system. would they need considerable financial and technical support; and as getting all the regulatory regimes in place would take time, is there an intermediate stage that could be used? Guam couldn't say if it could operate effectively without the US, although they do have a number of experts on Guam that regularly argue against US recommendations. It was suggested that part of the success of the Guam and American Samoan programmes was perhaps due to the limited sizes of their coastlines; other countries, for example Fiji, have very complex coastlines. It was asked whether it was possible that there are already a number of programmes ongoing within Pacific island countries that could be called ICZM? The issue of defining what the "coastal zone" is was raised. It. was pointed out that in most Pacific islands it includes the whole island. The problem of defining or describing the concept of ICZM to a lay person, such as a politician or villager, is extremely difficult as it can be a complex concept to understand or explain. Getting tied down with definitional problems appears pointless, as a number of recent meetings and workshops, within the region and outside, have spent many hours debating such issues and the discussions have been of no practical value. It was suggested the meeting needed to concentrate on the practical aspects, Need 2: not get caught up redefining the wheel. It. was suggested by Fiji that the SPREP ICZM proposal development process had gone Integrated Coastal Zone Management through this and the meeting should adopt that proposal. Guam commented that for integrated management to succeed, there must be Fiji noted that it had problems with following appropriate regulatory regimes in place within up at the village level. It suggested that which to operate. objectives must be realistic and implementable. It was noted that both Guam and American The comment was made that ICZM is a Samoa appeared satisfied with their systems, "continentally" developed concept and that we partly due to US backing. They were asked if shouldn't get stuck with it. The counter was they have any underlying problems? They made by Fiji that one of SPREP's ICZM pointed out that if you have a system it can be proposal components was the development of made to work. One of their main problems ICZM approaches specifically relevant to the with US funds is that they come with "strings Pacific situation. attached", often trying to impose mainland A further comment was made that definitions systems onto the island situation. Another are not so important as what lies within the problem stems from the "top-down" nature of scheme. There is not much argument about the programmes. which at times allows the the philosophy behind ICZM. It. was noted that system to be circurnventsd. it is not controversial. but its implementation will require great care to ensure effectiveness.

151 It was noted that in "Integrated Coastal Zone The meeting heard that PNC US(~svideos. the Management", the integrated relates to the Solomon Islands is driven by' tourism. and "management". It was suggested that the Palau has used videos radio. leaflets and an wording of the need should be altered to Environment Day. in r hoir E&Pc\ programmes. "Integrated Management of Coastal Zones" to PNG was impressed t hat Tuvalu has avoid any confusion. environmental m\'arcncss built into their school curriculum, Western Samoa was asked which. of all the methods they use. has bonn the most effective. Western Samoa responded that it has been important to mocr wit h the \'i1lag(~ Fono as well as the village gO\'ernment rcp resent.ative whose job is liaison. but Isn't able to make decisions. They found t he newly established television broadcast s the next most effective method; followed by their weekly half-hour radio programme. A comment was made that the direct approach, where people can ask questions, is more effective than a remote one like radio and television, The need to get people to accept regulatory regimes was noted as important. The top-down approach more often th

152 For the long turrn it is I'airlv evident that we Need 4: must conccru rail' on the children: but of immediate conc('rn '" to get the message through to t h« politician" and decision-makers Regulatory Regimes in power now. Mnnv of the issues the meeting has discussed arr~ too urgent and need Dorrell asked Western Samoa if their Bill was addressing now. a new one or one being resubmitted? The response was that it was an amended act, but The comment \va" marie that all these issues the EIA was a new one. are interrelated and t hcro is a need to consider the overall issue. but the meeting needs to The Marshall Islands noted their problems concentrate on coastal protection. between the traditional and legislative systems. Many regulations are not enforced Guam commented t hal it is essential to get the due to the island's small size and because point across 10 policv makers. for example, in landowners ignore them. Guam they are vorv pro-development and often ignore technical advice. The comment was The comment was made that a theme was made that if governments want to do emerging from the talks that enforcement has something they will do i1 no matter how much been ineffective. It was suggested that perhaps they are "educated". it may be better to try and reinforce the traditional value systems. rather than develop The problem of where a coast is governed by a legislation where there is a conflict of interest, number of small decisions. the cumulative especially in small islands. A supporting effect of those decisions is often ignored. comment was made that it comes back to The comment was marie that the politicians are education. perhaps the most important group to convince Planning based on the participatory process is that the coastal zone is the most important the best way to have people accept new area for a country's survival, More detailed legislation. advice and information must be provided to the decision -makors. Fiji suggested that perhaps there is a feeling in villages that having a seawall is a symbol of development or evidence of government spending money in their area. Could it be possible to turn that perception around so that it is better not to have a seawall') It was noted that in some areas it may be more complex: a seawall may be an easy way for cash to come in, but it is also a way of "creating" land. Comment that even in countries where there is an absence of laws, or there is a problem of little or no enforcement, or prohibitive laws; .or who owns the coastal zone. and so on; it is essential to convince the politicians that an EIA must be done for all projects. FSM noted that there appears to be a common problem concerning the different jurisdictions over coastal responsibilities of agencies in countries; there needs to be integration or at least coordination between agencies A comment was made concerning umbrella legislation. For example, in American Samoa the laws are well enforced on the main island, but not on the outer islands. The US Army Corps of Engineers seem to be able to come in and do what they want. ElA for all development is okay, but there will still be problems in the outer islands. These are areas that have to want to do something, not just. through force. 153 It was noted that perhaps whether or not to Guam tried setting up reserves, but locals were regulate or educate could depend on the length against them saying it is against their culture. of coastlines - eg Guam and American Samoa There was a suggestion that the rotational have small coastlines, with easily enforced system used for controlling living resources regulations. Perhaps Pacific island countries could also be used for controlling non-living shouldn't be working towards a common resources. position, but recognise geographic difference. It was suggested that most problems now It was suggested that the use of EIA appear to stem from population increases. procedures in all countries should be a key recommendation of this meeting. It was Customary controls can be very effective for recognised as far as laws are concerned, that is enforcement; in the outer islands these are a national issue, not a regional one. often the only system recognised. The comment was made that one of the most difficult areas is how to enforce or control negative customary practices? The Chairman, in summarising the session, noted that one key issue appeared to be population and measures that can be adopted to control it; that traditional methods and practices associated with coastal protection are very important and we need to look at them in relation to current practices; and that the recreational or other uses of the coastal areas, such as tourism, need to be considered.

Need 5:

Social and Cultural Practices

The question was asked whether or not anyone had attempted to document the relevant traditional practices? Perhaps some practices can be supported, but it must be realised that many of these practices only worked with low population numbers. A study to look at what practices might still be effective in the current context should be considered. A comment was made that there are positive values of traditional and cultural methods and practices in coastal protection. Most presentations have been more on the negative practices, perhaps more concentration on the positive is needed? 154 Need 6: Interest. was expressed in finding out more on Cook Island's use of glass as aggregate for concrete in foundat.ions. Alternatives to Coastal Derived Sand The comment was made that all options and Gravel discussed so far have concentrated on those in- country. Consideration should be given to FSM commented in relation to the Marshall looking at regional options, such as shipping Islands' suggestion to consider the use of sand/gravel between countries. In response, coconut wood for construction, especially in the one previous study was noted where shipping outer islands, that a recent cyclone in the FSM costs for Christ.mas Island for a high priced destroyed all timber structures, and so FSM is sand were st.ill t.oo high to make it viable. still looking for construction alternatives. Fiji Asher noted that NZ has always been shipping noted that it had heard conflicting advice water back t.o Nauru and so there was a concerning the strength of traditional houses. suggestion of shipping clay instead, but the It was noted that they may be less strong, but costs were estimat.ed to be NZ$lm to ship the cost of rebuilding, and availability of 10,000 tonnes. supplies, make them a cheaper option than concrete. The relative costs of importing sand as against destroying the beaches needs to be considered. Tonga asked Guam if they had looked at For example, in Western Samoa it. was offshore sources of sand? Guam responded estimat.ed that it would cost WST$5m to that there hasn't been the need to look offshore replenish one area. due to inland sources. It. was noted t.hat wherever you are extracting It. was noted that there appeared to be a sand from a small island you will always have conflict between the comment.s previously a problem. There appear to other opt.ions but made concerning traditional uses and t.he not. enough information is known at present. problems associated with customary sand use. Alternatives need to looked at on a case by case A quest.ion was asked concerning how many basis. There is a need to look at opt.ions of countries have resource maps? There appears obt.aining sand from other countries in the t.o be a need t.o ident.ify alternat.ive sources region, but there is the potential for before t.here are more problems. The use of introducing contaminated sand, resulting in alternat.ive building materials should also additional environmental problems. The need perhaps be looked at. Additionally the offshore to note environment.al considerations must be sand resources need to be surveyed. emphasised. It. was agreed that there is a need for resource maps t.o be prepared for each Niue noted that. it now has a very rigid country. building code and so t.raditional houses cannot. be built any more. Timber and cement. costs are high as all t.he mat.erials must come from New Zealand. It. was suggest.ed that the amount of sand and gravel used in concrete are relatively small when compared to that used for road construction. The comment was made t.hat. there is a considerable difference between assessing alternative sources and actually using them. In reference to sand taken from beaches, it was noted that t.here is no such thing as "free sand", as you always end up wit.h erosion. Fiji was asked how much per year was taken with coastal dredging? About 100,000 to 120,000 tonnes per year, wit.h a landed cost. of F$6 - $7 per tonne. Why doesn't. Fiji use the Rewa River sand? The sand is dredged just for t.he silica content.

155 Need 7:

Need 8: Consideration of Economic Values

Coastal Engineering A comment was made that none of the presentations provided dollar values, only This section was based on the cmw studies emotional values. Questions were asked: How provided by each counrrv. A summary of the many countries have resource or ensuing discussions can be found at the end of environmental economists? If we lose a each case study paper. resource do we know the opportunity costs? It was suggested that other costs that are ignored are disaster rehabilitation costs. It was noted that it is important to direct politicians to protection costs. For example, in the Marshall Islands the responsible agencies are understaffed: so cost information is not readily available. There is a need to identify all costs involved in the coastal zone. It would be invaluable in convincing the politicians of the importance of the coastal zone. It was agreed that hard facts are needed, but there was question on how to put a monetary value on a natural resource? It was suggested that substantive literature exists on this; one method is substitutability· what are the costs of seeking alternative sites / resources. The comment was made that if proper resource inventories are made then they can assist in providing economic values. It was noted that when the discussion gets to engineering and costs, whether an option is viable or not depends considerably on the value of the assets that need to be protected. It was agreed that the politicians need to understand that surveys need to be done to enable values to be placed on coastal resources.

Annex 6: Papers Presented by Individuals

One Perspective on Coastal Protection

Mr Peter Asher, Coastal Works South Pacific, Napier, New Zealand Firstly for those who didn't hear my Some of the locally thought up solutions are description at the First Coastal Protection definitely site specific such as using old Meeting, I am not a Civil Engineer. I am more bulldozers and car bodies, etc, and even 44 of an outer island "mechanic". I am an gallon drums or beer bottles. advocate for the remote, isolated, small outer We work in the Maldives Islands a lot and island communities where we have spent most these are in the Indian Ocean and are totally of our lives over the last 25 years. Working geographically and geologically similar to our with and for the people on reef oriented South Pacific atolls, but are much older; do not projects. suffer big seas, and have an over-abundance of Because of this interest I'd make the point that thick white sand. a majority of the systems for Coastal Protection They are intensely interested in what is going that have been identified (successful or on in the South Pacific because they are now unsuccessful) are unlikely to be practicable on facing similar problems with coastal erosion. the average small outer island. They have traditionally used coral off their When we are resident on such an island fringing reefs, broken into lumps to build inevitably we are requested to assist (or solve) everything, houses, breakwaters, walls and problems that are not strictly within our brief. even high rise office blocks. Naturally, being New Zealanders we have the On a six storey building they erect an external blind belief that we probably can fix the skeleton at steel "I" beams and infill the space problem. with coral lumps - stuck together with plaster We often do so with attached conditions, for and then surface plastic over. They don't have example, a wrist watch has been underwater earthquakes. for a week and stopped - we spray with magical Lately they have noticed that the sea waves CRC, advise the owner to place it on his radio are reaching closer to their resorts. There are and after six weeks if it doesn't start up throw 115 resorts within one hour of the it away! Usually our attempt is accepted and International Airport. These are extravagant the results likewise. and expensive resorts an therefore assets to be Back to the present. We have many times protected. . adopted the role of Coastal Protection Jacques Cousteau in 1956 advised the Engineers (in the absence of the real thing) and Government of Maldives that if they continued develop site specific remedies based on our to use fringing reef coral for building they experience after that of the local people. would eventually lose the protection. This has We have planted tree branches in beaches to happened! accumulate sand (based on an experiment in In Tokelau, the NZ Army Engineers, on one of NZ) these work but need constant their frequent exercises, built gab ion basket maintenance, we also made plastic strip copies and reno mattress protection after cyclone of foliage to do the same thing. damage, but used coral from the nearby and In Avatele, Niue, to protect a small boat seaward reef to fill the baskets. harbour we designed, constructed and placed Our primary reason to be on an outer island is (drilled and lowered into the reef) metre square to build or maintain or otherwise work on their and high truncated concrete cones ("sharks ocean to shore access channels. teeth") in separated staggered rows- to break down the wave force but allow access to the We use the subject of a very extensive EIA harbour. survey from 1987 through to 1989 on the island of Niutao in Tuvalu and the findings were We built stable deflector sea bulkheads out of published and distributed along with a unused spilled bags of cement (usually "Guidelines for Constructing Reef Channels" available in sheds and Island Council manual which was adapted from our own warehouses). These are built to be overtopped Coastal Works Company instructions. and only deflect wave effort.

158 Current Trends and Future Prospects

Findings to our pleasure were more in favour Summary of Discussions then against properly. carefully constructed It was noted that one aspect touched upon was reef channels. The environment and ecology channel blasting; and the question asked if aspects were totally covered over the "Before - there are any guidelines to prevent damage? During - and After" aspects of such a project. The speaker responded that his involvement Bathymetry in the atoll reef islands for coastal with channel blasting started in the 1970s, at projects is quite often not complicated in which time very little was known, but since comparison with possibly lagoon islands or then there has been considerable improvement. large complicated high islands with offshore In 1989 a project he was on was independently shallows, etc. reviewed by a university through a study With profiles involving a beach, a reef flat, an before and after making a channel. algal ridge, surge channels at the reef edge, the Comprehensive guidelines were then developed first drop to underwater reef, the width of this based largely on his company's own manual. underwater reef to the point where it normally The general outcome was that a channel isn't drops off into deep water. Beyond the deep necessarily a bad thing as long as certain rules water drop-off there is not a lot of purpose in are followed, such as not taking the channel up depth searching or recording. to the beach. As a person at the "hands-on" implementation end at the coastal management programme, I prefer methods, systems and proposals for coastal protection and expect to keep pushing for appropriate solutions for the small, outer island remote situations.

159 Coastal Protection Systems for the Pacific Region

Mr Gerry Byrne, Kinhill Riedel & Byrne, Melbourne, Australia [This paper was derived from a review prepared by Mr Byrne and forms Clwpterl of SOI'AC/ SPREP (J993)} It is important to understand that rubble Introduction mound designs that are effective in protecting A wide variety of coastal protection methods land from erosion may not be effective in have been applied in the Pacific. This paper maintaining any beach along the length of describes these protection methods and shoreline being protected. comments on their technical effectiveness and Rubble mound materials economic appropriateness. Other types of protection methods that should be considered • Rock other than coral: in the future are also described and evaluated. Traditionally, rubble mound structures were constructed of hard durable rock such as basalt Rubble mound structures of conventional form and granite where the density of the rock . exceeded 2600 kg/m-'. This type of rock has A rubble mound structure is one where been used in the Pacific islands where it has protection to a coastal facility is provided by been available. Western Samoa and the Cook dumping large sized rock or pieces of concrete Islands have rock of this type and structures into a mound of rubble that has sufficient have mostly been built using hard basaltic structural form so that it will stand up to rock. However, the maximum size of rock that nominated design wave conditions. Before the can be won from these sources is about 3 1950s there was little formal design tonnes per rock. This means that the rock is methodology and typically rubble mound not generally sufficien tly large to construct structures were constructed of the largest rock breakwaters close to a reef edge facing the that could conveniently be handled and placed open sea. in the breakwater. • Coral boulders: Deformation or settlement was expected and the philosophy adopted was that if the The majority of Pacific islands do not have structure settled or deformed too much, hard volcanic rock that can be accessed and additional material was added to top up the quarried economically. Coral boulders of structure. When protection works were varying densities and sizes can be obtained and constructed in relatively shallow water and have been used as an alternative rubble mound rock was plentiful, such a construction strategy construction material. It appears that the US was quite effective. Corps of Engineers' Coastal Protection Manual for rubble mound design using Hudson's However, since that time protective structures formula generally results in the specification of have had to be constructed in deeper water and an oversized rock. rock has become a scarcer commodity. Also the facilities protected have become of higher value For small projects this conservative outcome and significant damage to rubble mound will be of little financial consequence. For structures (ie that reduces their effectiveness) larger projects it will usually be necessary to has become unacceptable. optimise the rock size either because large volumes of large rock are not available or Rubble mound structures such as revetments, because there are significant cost savings in breakwaters and groynes can now be designed using smaller rock. Optimisation can only be systematically based on the results of physical undertaken with physical model testing using model testing supported by experience of the model rock of similar density to that used for behaviour of such structures over the last forty construction in the field. years. Innovation in breakwater design is still necessary but any new design system needs to be thoroughly tested by appropriate physical model testing and if possible some full scale field tests.

160 • Concrete: The slope chosen for the revetment depends on a combination of factors such as available rock Before 1D(j() concrete was mainly used to build size, acceptable crest height of the revetment vertical walls or mass concrete gravity and acceptable overtopping characteristics. structures. As rubble mound structures were Gentler sloped revetments allow smaller sized required to be cons: ruct ur] in deeper and more rocks to be used, and reduce the extent of wave exposed waters to protect facilities, a large run-up and overtopping for a given crest level number of artificial armour units were of a revetment. However, the quantity of rock developed that were used in a similar manner used and the cost will generally increase. If to rock (ie placed ranrlomlv on a mound). Such sufficiently large size armour rock is available rubble mound units t ond to be expensive and it the steepest sloped revetment (Ll.5) will be the has generally been possible to avoid their use . most economical. A typical revetment section for Pacific island count rios by siting protective used to protect coastal roads in Western Samoa structures within the protection of the fringing is shown in Figure 2. reef to limit the design wave height. They have been used in Tuvalu and Apia (modified Most revetments are located some distance cubes) and in the Solomon Islands (dolos), but from the reef edge, which means that they are are generally an expensive opt ion. only subjected to relatively small wave heights. Protective structure» Under these circumstances it IS usually possible to safely construct the revetment from • Revetments: coral boulders at slopes as steep as 1:1.5. An On an open coast the method most commonly example of this form of revetment construction used for shoreline protection is a rock is for most of the length of the Nuku'alofa armoured revetment where the rock is placed foreshore at Tongatapu at a slope of 1:5. at a slope that tends to be in the range of 1:1.5 Where revetments are located in deeper water to 1:5. The rock is usually placed in two layers and protection from a fringing reef is limited, using machinery and tIwre is no systematic or not available, it is difficult to design and attempt to place the rock tightly or to an construct stable conventional rubble mound interlocking format. Some minor settlement of revetments from coral boulders because wave the revetment IS anticipated. Typical forces tend to be too large. Either basalt rock revetment designs are shown in Figure 1. of large size or concrete armour units need to be used. Fig. 2: Typical revetment for Savaii roads, Western Samoa.

Extensive use of basalt in recently completed to greater batter widths. It is worth noting revetment works protecting extensive lengths that after a storm event such as Cyclone Ofa, it of reconstructed coastal roads on Savaii in was possible to undertake temporary repairs to Western Samoa is a good example of this type the roads to make them passable within a few of construction. days. Usually, expensive concrete unit armoured revetments can only be justified For these revetments it should to be noted that within port areas where relatively expensive the protection provided is limited by available port facilities are being protected. rock sizes and economic considerations. This is particularly the case where the fringing reef is Revetment foreshore protection is usually narrow. The revetments on Savaii were detrimental to the retention of a beach in front designed with the assistance of physical of the protection and is therefore mostly used modelling so that their capacity to withstand to protect commercial areas or roads rather cyclone wave attack was known and if failure than facilities associated with tourism and occurs during a storm in excess of the design other general uses. storm, the failure mode is such that damage A significant requirement in the design of can most readily be repaired. revetments is the need to ensure that If the value of the road being protected in overtopping is limited. One of the major causes Western Samoa were sufficiently high, there of failure of revetments is the action of waves would have been justification in protecting it on the material immediately behind the completely with concrete armour units. For a revetment. The general mechanism is shown concrete armoured revetment to be effective in Figure 3. the height of most of the roads would have had to be increased to prevent overtopping. Raising the road level would add considerably to the cost and result in further land alienation owing

162 Fig. 3: Revetment failure mechanism.

Shore- connected breakwaters: A A very common form of breakwater failure is breakwater is a double sided protection the washing out of rocks from the rear structure where there is water on both sides of shoulder of the breakwater crest, which then the structure. Usually protected water is exposes smaller secondary armour and thereby provided on the lee side of a breakwater for allows progressive failure of the breakwater to shipping purposes. Breakwaters are normally occur. Typical breakwater sections are shown constructed to protect more than just the in Figure 4. shoreline or beach from storm damage and may Pacific island countries have few requirements be constructed in deep water rather than on a for substantia 1 breakwaters because in most fringing reef. If at all practical, breakwaters instances it nas been possible to site port should be constructed at least 50 m from the facilities in a manner that primary protection edge of a fringing reef so that the reef reduces is available from a barrier reef system. The the height of wave for which the breakwater ports at Suva, Port Moresby, Funafuti and at has to be constructed. Nuku'alofa are typical examples. Where The design approach is similar to that of breakwaters are required to protect harbours revetments except that a larger degree of from direct ocean swell attack, concrete unit overtopping is normally acceptable. The main armoured breakwaters have been used. An design function is to limit the size of waves example is the new breakwater at Apia, behind the breakwater rather than to prevent Elsewhere where rubble mound breakwaters water flowing over the breakwater crest. This have been required it has been possible to plan means more attention must be placed on the facilities so that the breakwater can be details associated with the design of the constructed on top of a fringing reef. In these breakwater crest to prevent armour units being cases coral boulders have been used most dislodged. commonly. Fig. 4: Typical breakwater cross-sections.

The conventional design manuals for Technology for the design of groyne fields has breakwaters do not consider breakwaters or improved substantially over the last ten years revetments sited on a fringing reef and the through the use of mathematical models to effect that the distance that the breakwater is predict the beach alignment within and set back from the reef edge has on the adjacent to groynes. Consequently they may be breakwater design. The effect can be very a viable tool for beach stabilisation on Pacific important in terms of both the wave forces islands. It is a prerequisite that the coastal acting on the breakwater and the water level processes be well understood ind quantifiable caused by wave pumping at the breakwater. to ensure that sand is available to fill the For a permanent structure the design process groyne compartment and that downstream should include physical modelling with random erosion is acceptable. sea waves so that wave forces, wave run-up One of the potential problems with groynes is and wave pumping are simulated correctly. loss of sand from within compartments, which • Groynes: on a fringing reef may result in the sand being washed off the reef into deep water and Groynes, which are structures constructed thereby lost from the beach system. Groynes approximately perpendicular to the shoreline should only be considered where the reef is to trap sand and hold sand within a beach wide and the seaward end of the groyne is set segment, have had very little use in Pacific well back from the reef edge. Alternatively, Island countries. This is probably a blessing in sand traps can be excavated in the reef flat to disguise as probably more than 50 percent of catch sand that moves out of the beach the groynes or groyne fields constructed in the compartment created by the groyne. This sand world have not performed as expected. can then be pumped back on to the beach as part of a regular maintenance procedure.

164 • Offshore breakwaters: There has been little formal use of rubble mound offshore breakwaters in Pacific island This form of protection usually consists of countries except, to our knowledge, on Onotoa, rubble mound structures built in relatively Kiribati. They are often not economical on short segments parallel to the shore at a shelving beach shorelines because the depth in distance of 100 to 200 m off the existing which they need to be constructed becomes shoreline. They are designed to act in a similar excessive. Costs become high because of the manner to a groyne except that they need not large amount of rock required and because of be a total barrier to sediment transport. They the difficulty of construction. However, tend to be socially more acceptable because offshore breakwaters are a form of construction they do not impede pedestrian or vehicular that should be economically competitive with traffic. Figure 5 shows a typical example. groynes where the offshore breakwater can be Depending on the length of the offshore constructed on a reef. They have been used on breakwater and the distance offshore the other Pacific island countries such as at coastline can be designed to form a salient or a Haleiwa, Oahu, Hawaii (US Army Corps of tombolo. This has been used successfully in Engineers, 1979). Spain and Israel to produce different beaches with different swimming conditions adjacent to each other. The general principle is shown in Figure 6. Other types of rubble mound structures These structures require the use of sound A number of different mediums and forms have smaller rock and it is imperative that the rock been used other than the conventional two is strong enough not to break apart when layered rubble mound structure. A range of moved by waves. The advantages of this style these structures is discussed below together of structures are that: with comments on appropriateness and costs. • small sized rock that may be locally Berm and deformable structures available can be used: The basic design philosophy behind rubble • the small rock requires smaller mound structures embodied in the use of machinery for its handling and placement; Hudson's Formula (US Army Corps of • they are more permeable and therefore Engineers) was that limited damage in the runup is reduced, which means that the crest range of a to 10 percent was acceptable. With elevation of the structure is lower; this amount of damage it was practical to undertake repair works that were relatively • if constructed on a reef nat they will inexpensive. This design philosophy requires almost certainly be less expensive than that rock or concrete units of sufficient concrete unit armouring. individual weight and structural strength be Disadvantages of these structures relate used so that they will not be moved a large mainly to the visual impression that because distance by waves. the breakwater has deformed, it has failed. Over the last fifteen years there has been a This is not the case: in essence the breakwater considerable amount of research and design is acting like a beach with very large grain effort put into using smaller armour rock but sizes. Other potential problems are the increasing the volume of rock placed in the requirements for increased volumes of rock and rubble mound. Typical examples of berm and longshore drift of the rock. If wave attack on a deformable structures are shown in Figure 7. berm or deformable structure is persistently angled at the structure, rock will tend to move The comparative dimensions of an equivalent along the structure and may lead to excessive standard two layer rubble mound are shown erosion of the berm. for comparison. These structures may use rock where individual sizes are 10 percent of that required for a conventional two layer rubble mound structure. Hand placed roch Possibly the most important constraints are similar to those pertaining to hand placed This is probably the most common method of shoreline protection in the Pacific where there walls. The foundations need to be secure and the rock has to be tightly packed into the is little mechanical equipment or large rock available. It has been used historically basket. If the foundations allow undermining, the basket will move and the rock within the throughout most Pacific island countries but is gradually being superseded by stronger basket will tend to move and abrade the plastic structures. The small scale walls that were coating or the galvanising of the basket. Once constructed tended to be demolished by large this insulation is broken the residual basket storm events. life in the salty coastal environment is very limited. One key to successful construction is The main causes of failure have been the lack therefore close supervision. of sound foundations and damage by overtopping. The seaward facing slope of hand Gabion structures should not be subjected to placed revetments tends to be st.rong because of large storm waves on a regular basis. They are the strong interlocking that is possible by best suited to mild wave climates such as occur careful placement. Unless these walls are within lagoons or as a last line of defence constructed on a bedrock base it is almost behind a beach. This restriction again arises certain that they will fail by undermining from the need to limit the movement of any when they are subject to wave attack. rock within the basket that may result in abrasion of the mesh. In severe wave climates While it is possible to construct a strong excessive rock movement will cause damage to seaward face, these structures tend to be the mesh and the gabion life is unlikely to nearly vertical with the result t.hat wave reach five years. overtopping can be high. These overtopping waves result in a flow of water over the wall However, in mild wave climates and for back which tends to scour out t.he backing to the beach protection they can have an extended wall. The wall is then unsupported and life. They are most useful when they are collapses. buried at the back of the beach and serve only as a last line of defence against storm erosion. Despite these limitations, hand placed walls Whilst buried the baskets are safe from rock can still be used provided the interlocking hand movement, corrosion of the mesh and placed rock extends over the crest of the wall vandalism. When they are exposed during a and provided the founding base is solid. major storm they will protect the land behind Hand placed rock has been used extensively in provided they have been well designed and Kiribati where causeways between islands constructed. If any damage occurs it can be have been formed. Damage is usually caused repaired before burying the baskets with sand by overtopping wave action. Hand placed rock again. has a better chance of survival where it Toe protection to gabion baskets is often protects a limited amount of private property. provided by gabion mattresses. The same When damage occurs during storms it can be design constraints apply as for baskets. repaired quickly before a progressive collapse occurs. Sandbag and filter cloth bag structures Gabions and similar structural forms A number of coastal protection methods have been used involving sand bags or bags made Gabion basket and mattress structures have from filter cloth materials. While these are been used extensively in the Pacific because strictly not rubble mounds they may they are able to make use of small size rock adequately be described under this category of and because there is no need for heavy protection measures. machinery during construction. Gabions consist of PVC coated wire baskets that are The two most common forms of protection have filled with small rocks. been stacked sand bags and Longard tubes. Both have had limited success except in very They have a definite application in coastal mild wave climates. A fundamental problem protection works but there are major with this protection method has been the constraints both to their application and to durability of the bags or tubes. Ultraviolet their construction. radiation will result in the rapid disintegration of filter cloth and sandbag materials unless they have been specifically formulated. Both forms of protection are very vulnerable to vandalism unless the tubes or bags are hardened by some protective coating. 167 On reef environments there will also tend to be Another recent example has been in Western natural abrasion of such structures from coral Samoa as part of the coastal road rehabilitation detritus, which is usually angular. and protection programme. During Cyclone The only application for these types of Ofa substantial beach sand areas were washed off the foreshore into shallow areas between structures is for temporary works. However, the reef edge and the road and across the road. coated bags or tubes tend to be expensive and it This beach had previously provided some will usually be more economical to construct protection to the road. Where there were such temporary works from hand placed rock or gabions. suitable sand deposits in the lagoon, an appropriate first line of protection was to Beach replenishment rebuild the beach. In this case erosion only tends to occur during major cyclone events. Where sufficient sand is available, beach The beach is relatively stable for normal wave replenishment is the preferred form of beach conditions. protection if the aim is to maintain a beach amenity. Beach replenishment involves Beach replenishment is often more effective in placing sand back on to an eroded beach. The conjunction with other beach stabilisation key interrelated factors determining the works such as offshore breakwaters and other applicability of beach replenishment are the sand retaining structures. In general some rate of erosion, the availability of sand for form of beach replenishment has to be replenishment, economic viability and considered where erosion protection is required environmental impact. in front of resort facilities.

Normally in the Pacific islands the rate of Bulkheads and vertical walls erosion is relatively low but there is also a In the first half of the twentieth century, a relatively small amount of sand available. common form of coastal protection world-wide Beach replenishment usually relies on the was the construction of vertical or near vertical availability of a large amount of sand and a walls and bulkheads separating the sea from large dredge to move the materials. the land. The lack of availability of a suitable source of A large proportion of vertical walls constructed sand close to the beach requiring protection along beach fronts or as promenades before often precludes replenishment. Sand sources 1960 have since failed or been replaced by need to have comparable grain size other structures. Failure typically occurred characteristics to the beach sand and for through a combination of toe scour and wave economical extraction need to be in water overtopping. A vertical wall increases depths of less than 15 m and preferably within turbulence at the toe of the wall as waves about 2 km of the beach to be replenished. break and thereby increase the tendency for The sand source needs to have a limited scouring. When a wave comes up against a percentage of fines otherwise there will be vertical wall a standing wave tends to form potential environmental problems in handling which has twice the height of the incident the tailwater from the dredging, and the fine wave. This increase in wave height allows sand fraction in the beach will erode with time. increased wave overtopping, which scours It is important that fines are not allowed to material from behind the wall. discharge during construction or by subsequent An example of a vertical wall that was not very erosion over live reef areas that could be effective was the wall along the Nuku'alofa smothered. foreshore, Tonga. During Cyclone Isaac in A project has just been completed on Onotoa 1983, overtopping was extensive, damage Atoll in Kiribati where beaches were formed on occurred to the road, and parts of the wall both sides of an existing vertically sided rock collapsed. This wall has since been replaced by causeway. The sand for the beaches was a sloped coral rubble revetment that overcomes excavated from the wide sand flats on the these problems. Other examples of vertical lagoon. The beach solution was chosen because walls in the Pacific are at Apia (Tusitala Hotel) of the limited supply of rock on the atoll. and in Fiji (Sheraton Hotel).

168 There is still a tendency to use vertical walls This style of concrete wall is difficult to because of their neat appearance. These types construct. If differential settlement occurs it of structures are not recommended if a beach is requires only very moderate waves to dislodge required to be maintained along the section of a unit and progressive failure will follow. In shoreline being protected. In addition it is addition, the smooth surface will augment any unlikely to be the most cost effective solution wave runup, so the wall needs to be relatively unless the vertical wall is to protect property high to prevent overtopping. and facilities of high value such as a quay wall This type of wall should only be used in lagoon function associated with a port development. environments where there is good quality control during construction and where a Concrete units smooth wall is required for visual appearance. There are probably more than one hundred Structurally interconnected small concrete different concrete units (random or pattern units placed) that have been used for shoreline protection and breakwaters. They are This wall type is in effect a variation on the described generically here with representative smooth sloped wall except that the concrete examples cited. This does not necessarily units are interconnected either through 'an imply a preference for the units referred to by interlocking feature and/or a steel cable (for name in this report. example the Terrafix Interlocking Concrete Block System - Figure 9) or by connecting to a Smooth sloped walls filter cloth (Flex-mat Concrete Block Mats). A smooth sloped wall is effectively a seawall The advantage of these wall systems is that that has been inclined to the vertical. By differential settlement can occur beneath the laying the wall back it becomes possible to units without any effect on the structural build the wall from smaller pieces of concrete integrity of the wall. The key to the such as paving slabs laid on a compacted base. effectiveness of such walls is the durability of This allows the wall to be built neatly from the interconnecting medium and the weight concrete pieces that can be handled by hand. A per square metre of the units relative to the typical example of this type of construction is incident wave height and period. the US 'Shiplap Block' shown in Figure 8 (US Army Corps of Engineers 1981a). Fig. 9: Typical interlocking concrete blocks. If the interconnection is by means of formed Small individual pattern-placed armour concrete shapes, the weight of each unit must units be such that it cannot move or rock, otherwise Pattern placement of small concrete armour the connecting lugs and eyes will easily be units has had limited application in Pacific broken. For steel or cable interconnections island countries, but is a protection method corrosion of the steel is the weak link in the that should be effective and economical in system. For concrete blocks attached to a filter many Pacific island situations. The aim of cloth the potential weak links are the staple designing armour units for pattern placement connection between the blocks and the filter is to improve inter-locking and thereby cloth and the durability of the filter cloth stability while at the same time maximising (strength and UV resistance). porosity to reduce wave runup. One of the first Again, application of interconnected small of these types of units used is the Seabee concrete unit walls needs to be limited to areas (Brown, nd), which was reported to have high where wave climates are mild, and usually this efficiency as well as high absorptive means in a lagoon or channel environment. characteristics that limit wave runup. A small Normally, if design waves exceed 1.5 m or the experiment using these units was set up on wave period exceeds six seconds this form of Onotoa, Kiribati but more testing is required. protection will be inappropriate. Following the Seabee, a number of other units with similar characteristics appeared. Concrete filled mattress protection systems are included within this grouping. These systems As a result of the high efficiency, it is possible tend to result in the construction of a rigid to use relatively small size units for a given revetment that will flex under its own weight if design wave. These units are easily formed settlement occurs. The main problem with this and placed and therefore amenable to hand construction form is the material underlying placement in the Pacific environment. The the mattress. If the mattress flexes as waves volume of concrete required IS low in pass over it, there will be a pumping action comparison to other types of concrete units, but that scours material away from under the the limitation in their use is the need for mattress. This localised scouring allows the careful design and construction practices. mattress to flex even further, and progressive Being pattern -placed, there is a need for structural failure of the mattress and the foundation preparation so that the units are set underlying material occurs. on an immobile foundation. These mattresses should only be considered Special design care is also required to ensure where wave periods are low and the mattress that crest units cannot readily be dislodged. thickness is sufficiently high to prevent the This may need specially shaped crest units or mattress flexing as each wave passes over it. sufficient flume model testing of the design to An example of this type of construction is the ensure that wave runup does not reach the protection to the Betio-Bairiki causeway in crest. Tarawa, Kiribati as shown in Figure 10.

170 Fig. 10: Causeway cross-section, Betio-Bairihi, Kiribati.

Large pattern-placed armour units These units-need to be placed into a shallow Large pattern-placed armour units are usually recess cut in the reef and pinned so that they only required in relatively deep water are not dislodged and cannot roll over. These applications where design waves are large. units could readily be placed during periods of Examples such as Tribars have had limited use low water with simple equipment such as an because of the difficulty of placing them excavator. Since the unit was new, it was accurately under water. Such units have only subjected to flume model testing before being been used extensively in situations where the incorporated in the construction. The protecting wall can be constructed in the dry breakwater, which had to be constructed behind a coffer dam. within 25 m of the reef edge, was subjected to the full cyclone design waves (of the order of 5 Large individual units do. have application in m) during in 1993 with negligible the Pacific in response to individual needs at damage. specific sites. One such unit has been used at 'Eua, Tonga, where there was a need to build a Beach protection using a new type of locally breakwater near to the reef edge but where developed unit (the CPU) has recently been there was no large rock available and where a constructed at Rarotonga on the Cook Islands. conventional concrete armoured breakwater It is a gravity unit that is porous and designed (such as dolos) would have been prohibitively to dissipate wave energy as the wave passes expensive. A unit (Figure 11) was designed through the unit. It is constructed in a similar with each unit being of unreinforced mass plan form to an offshore breakwater and is in concrete and weighing 7 tonnes. The formwork essence a new form of offshore breakwater. required was simple, minimal supervision was The developer of the unit has estimated that required and the units were produced about 80 percent of the incoming wave energy inexpensively. is dissipated within the unit. This energy reduction estimate has been produced by mathematical modelling.

171 Fig. 11: Composite armoured breakwater, 'Eua, Tonga.

Any sand carried by the wave as it passes Before any particular units such as these can through the unit is deposited on the lee side of be adopted for general use, a comprehensive the unit. This sand is then effectively trapped series of tests in a recognised laboratory need on the beach behind the offshore breakwater. to be undertaken. The main questions that need to be answered for both these units relate The protection constructed at Rarotonga has to the extent of wave dissipation and the been in place for over two years and has been stability of the units against sliding or rolling effective in its application of stabilising the over. Information is also required on costs of beach in front of the hotel. However, its fabrication of the units success needs to be considered in the context of the location of the offshore breakwater, set well Construction materials back from the reef edge and the fact that the units have not been physically flume tested for Many low-lying Pacific island countries such as a range of wave conditions. the Marshall Islands, Tuvalu, Kiribati and Tokelau have no sources of conventional hard In essence the design conditions (wave rock (basalt, granite, etc.) that is normally used characteristics and water levels) can be for the construction of coastal protection. On withstood by this offshore breakwater at the many other islands the sources of hard rock are Rarotonga application are not known. There is limited or the maximum size of sound rock that also no information available at this time on can be won is limited in volume and size of the commercial costs of constructing offshore individual rocks. This means that conventional breakwaters using these units. Since there is a rubble mound revetment and breakwater commitment by the manufacturer to market designs used in design manuals, such as the these units, it is suggested that a series of US Army Corps of Engineers' Coastal flume model tests need to be conducted to Protection Manual, are not directly applicable. indicate design parameters for which they can Hudson's Formula, which is the basis for be used. A later unit (the MAX) is also determining rock size in this manual, does not proposed for foreshore protection. apply well for low density rock such as coral boulders.

172 This means that permanent coastal defence The major issues that affect costs are: requires individual design and often require • the size of the project (and therefore the the use of coral boulders or concrete protection size of the machinery that can be units. For the design of permanent coastal mobilised); defences it is essential that the proposed design section is physically modelled unless it has • whether the project will be built by previously been modelled for very similar contractor or by a public authority; design conditions. • the experience of the contractor; Cost of coastal protection • the range of heavy equipment that is The construction of conventional effective available locally; coastal protection works is expensive, in the • the remoteness of the site; order of A$500 to $5000 per metre length, and can be a significant component of Pacific island • the distance to the material resources and national development budgets. Typically the the ease of access to them; coastal length of islands of Pacific island • whether over water construction is needed; countries are long in comparison to the land mass being protected. This means that • what expatriate supervision is required. conventional protection works often may not be As all these factors have a large influence on justifiable if the works are to be undertaken on the cost they need to be evaluated before the the basis of economic returns flowing from the design is commenced. In most cases they will project. determine the type of design finally chosen. It It is only possible to provide indicative relative is not possible to make priori statements that construction costs because of variations in one form of coastal protection is better than material availability. Also the standard of another in a particular situation until all the protection offered by different coastal defence above issues have been addressed. However, methods will vary so a direct comparison of as can be seen from the above costs, reinforced costs may not be meaningful. concrete is normally about ten times the cost of other materials for a given volume. Therefore Assuming that construction materials are its use is normally restricted to special available within 20 to 30 km of a site and that circumstances or to very exposed locations. the materials can be supplied by road and that any sand replenishment is available within 2 Before construction starts, a number of stages km, indicative costs for materials are in Table need to be undertaken. For a typical project in 1. These costs exclude the costs of the Pacific islands with a construction cost of establishment on site, contract overheads, A$2 to $5 million, the indicative costs for these profit and risk, foundations and bad weather stages are as in Table 2. provisions.

Table 1: Indicative costs for contruction materials.

It should be stressed that the costs quoted above are only indicative because of the large number of factors that influence any particular construction.

173 Table 2: Indicative costs for activities before Summary of Discussions construction commences. Guam requested copies of the overheads used {figures have been included in above paper). Western Samoa wanted to know if there is a relationship between height and slope? Byrne responded that 1.5:1 is the steepest, as above that failure occurs, however, less steep costs more for materials. Byrne was asked if a lot of data was required for modelling, and would it be possible to do in the region? He responded that modelling needs to be based on cyclones, but not much data exists. In designing you need to either choose for cyclones or not. With modelling it needs to be done out to the deep water; the most critical aspect is seabed shape between deep water and the site. Cook Islands asked if Byrne had ever considered designing something of wood in the atoll situation? He noted that they had in Australia, but not in the pacific situation. The problem with wood is that the slope tends to be vertical. Cook Islands pointed out that it is necessary to have a material that can be handled. Byrne agreed, but noted the need for the structure to withstand waves. It is best to use sand if you can get away with it. Fiji asked what engineers looked at when * These costs would be higher if other features such as designing structures: to break up the waves; harbours. roads, buildings or wharves are included. break up the energy? Byrne responded that References the best option is to do nothing, or move your Brown, C.T. nd. Seabee user manual. Tillotson buildings back; but where there must be Brown & Partners, Consulting Engineers protection, there are basically two options, onshore or offshore. If cffshore is possible then (Seabee Developments), Sydney. fine, but in most cases this is not possible and Construction Industry Research and also costs increase as depth increases. Information Association (CIRA), and Centre for Civil Engineering Research and Marshall Islands mentione f Yhat they are Codes (CUR). 1991. Manual on the use of looking at the option of using old bulldozers, rock in coastal and shoreline engineering. heavy engines, etc, as a means of both disposal AA Balkema Publishers, Rotterdam. and coastal protection, at least in the short- term. Byrne noted that if they are large objects Harper, J.R. 1988. Follow-up survey of the then this may be an option, but most large Batio-Bairiki causeway, Tarawa, Republic objects, such as heavy moving equipment, are of Kiribati. CCOP/SOPAC Technical made up of smaller components, so that once Report 86. the bolts rust the object breaks up. SOPAC/SPREP. 1993. Coastal Protection in the Byrne was asked to comment on geotextiles in South Pacific. Report prepared for the highly mobile structures. He responded that South Pacific Forum. 44p. you should use non-woven types as not suitable for marine conditions and use those that are US Army Corps of Engineers. 1979. Help thickest. The problem is that armour rock can yourself: A shore protection guide for move and grind through the material and so a Hawaii. layer is needed between. Beware of cheap US Army Corps of Engineers. 1981. Low cost materials. It is important that it is used shore protection: A guide for engineers properly, and also need to look at drainage. and contractors.

174 Basic Properties of Ocean Waves in Coastal and Reef Environments and Their Impact on Coastlines and Physical Degradation of Coral Reefs \ Dr Stanislaw. R. Massel, Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Australia

Intoduction The following Bulletin is from the Cooperative Research Centre for the Ecologically Sustainable Development of the Great Barrier Reef Project 3.3 - Guidelines for Infra- structure Developments in Coral Reef and Coastal Environments.

Bulletin No 1 - March 1994 Purpose This Bulletin presents an outline of a project which is preparing guidelines for infrastructure developments in coral reef and coastal environments, and which is being undertaken as part of the Cooperative Research Centre for the Ecologically Sustainable Development of the Great Barrier Reef. These guidelines are to provide a sound engineering and environmental basis for the design, construction and operation of facilities in offshore and coastal areas within the Great Barrier Reef region. This is particularly important in view of the increasing development pressures on the Reef region, and the need to provide for the protection, wise use, understanding and enjoyment of what is the largest system of coral reefs and associated life forms anywhere in the world.

175 Cooperative Research Centre 1. Regional Environmental Status The Cooperative Research Centre for the to develop the understanding of regional Ecologically Sustainable Development of the environmental status, events and Great Barrier Reef (CRC Reef) was established processes necessary to minimise and solve in July 1993 as part of the Commonwealth problems associated with increasing use Cooperative Research Centre Program. The and impacts on the Great Barrier Reef CRC Reef Research Centre brings together, in (GBR) Marine Park. The program will a cooperative venture: James Cook University look at the relative poise and "heath" of the of North Queensland (JCUNQ), the Australian reef biology through further understanding Institute of Marine Science (AIMS), the Great of the physics and chemistry of waters, Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority sediments and nutrients and their effects (GBRMPA), the Department of Primary on biota. Industries, Queensland (DPI), and the 2. Operations Association of Marine Park Tourism Operators (AMPTO). to find positive solutions to problems associated with increasing use of the GBR, The Reef Research Centre is undertaking an at scales relevant to tourism operators and integrated program of applied research and recreational fishers. This program will development, training and extension, which is address social issues, tourism activities aimed at increasing the opportunity for and needs associated with operations ecologically sustainable use of the Reef, within the Reef. through: 3. Engineering • enhancing the viability of Reef-based industries to develop and further apply sound and innovative engineering expertise and • expanding sustainable Reef-based principles to the resolution of problems economic activity, particularly tourism associated with the ecologically sustainable • providing an improved scientific basis for development of the GBR Marine Park. Reef management and regulatory decision This program will provide a sound making engineering and environmental basis for the design, construction and operation of The CRC research activities are all issues- facilities in the Park, and will establish an driven, and will complement existing research, integrated approach to infrastructure including that undertaken by industry and developments in reef and coastal other users. Issues are identified by industry environments. users such as the tourism and fishing industries, and by the environmental Program 3 - Engineering management agencies. The Engineering Program incorporates four The Centre has developed integrated programs integrated sub-programs, including Project in research, education and extension. 3.3- Guidelines for infrastructure Research activities have interlinked Developments, which is outlined below. The involvement of researcher - manager - industry other programs are: Project 3.1- Design personnel, and research outcomes will be Waves and Water Levels, to determine the comprehensible and of practical value to the cyclonic wave and water level climate of the user. GBR; Project 3.2 - Water Resources and Environmental Pollution, investigating the Research Programs hydrodynamics of groundwater supply and Three research programs are included, contamination, and its effects on reef islands; addressing key issues relating to the status and and Project 3.4 - Engineering Design, use of the Great Barrier Reef, as follows: implementing applied engineering research into a range of issues relating to the reef environment.

176 Project 3.3 - Guidelines for Infrastructure The Guidelines will present an integrated basis Developments for dealing with these environmental and The Guidelines for Infrastructure Dev- engineering factors for the various reef and elopments in Coral Reef and Coastal coastal structures. This will include: pontoons; Environments are to help industry and single point moorings; marinas; seawalls, managers increase the opportunity for bulkheads and revetments; protective and coral ecologically sustainable use of the Reef. In cay beaches; groynes; breakwaters; dredging, providing a sound engineering and dumping and filling operations; reclamation environmental basis for projects, these works; artificial reef/wreck construction; Guidelines will minimise the environmental mariculture; sewage discharge; tourist ship impacts of the developments. This work will passage. encompass offshore and coastal developments The Guidelines will form a comprehensive, within the Barrier Reef region, and will deal, standardised set of criteria to assist in the in particular, with offshore structures directly planning and assessment process. Existing associated with the Reef. guidelines will be incorporated as appropriate, The objective of Project 3.3 is to provide sound as will recent findings from physical engineering input to the existing guidelines for oceanography and marine engineering infrastructure development, which are based research. In development of the Guidelines, largely on environmental criteria. The new close consultation will be maintained with Guidelines will provide a basis on which other research programs within the CRC, with proponents can prepare and submit the agencies responsible for management of the applications for permits for infrastructure marine park, and with the tourism industry developments, as well as providing a basis for and other users of the park. approval or otherwise of the proposal by the Project Organisation Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. This will in turn facilitate developments having The research program for Project 3.3 - minimum detrimental impact on the physical, Guidelines, is being undertaken and biological, cultural and social values of the coordinated by the Australian Institute of Reef. Marine Science in association with the Department of Civil and Systems Engineering The Guidelines will provide the proponent with at the James Cook University of North a basis for understanding and applying sound Queensland. Support is being provided by staff engineering practice for coral reef regions, and from the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park will allow GBRMPA to apply these same Authority. Project linkages and working principles in assessing the environmental contacts will be maintained with other impacts and the safety of the project. In management agencies, environmental developing the Guidelines, it is recognised that agencies, industry, consultants and researchers some standardised coastal engineering active in reef and coastal regions. analyses and assumptions may not apply to coral reefs, because they exhibit unusual Consultation growth and geomorphological patterns. Coral If you require further information or would like reefs behave as living substrates which can to offer comments about this project, please respond to changes in wave action, currents, contact: storms, cyclones and other climatic variables. Project Leader: Dr Stan Massel, Furthermore, hydrodynamic design inputs Australian Institute of Marine Science, are difficult to determine accurately, the Cape Ferguson, PMB No 3, geotechnical properties of coral reef areas are Townsville, Q 4810, complex and research is needed to improve Australia. anchoring systems and to predict reliably the Tel: (61) (77) 789382. stability of structure foundations on reef flats. Fax: (61) (77) 72 5852. Structural designs must provide for the safety and comfort of tourists and resist severe cyclone conditions, and construction techniques such as marina excavation and de- watering, dredging and' disposal of dredge spoils must account for the proximity of coral reefs,

177 Summary of Discussions

Tonga asked if the growth rates of Porites corals was based on studies or an assumption. Massel responded that they were based on studies showing maximum growth of 1 cm on each side of a colony, resulting in a diameter increase of up to 2 em, A brief discussion occurred on the positioning of wave rider buoys near islands - windward versus the lee, and where they should be best positioned to record cyclonic conditions.

178 Sea Levels and Coastal Protection

Dr Patrick Nunn, Department of Geography, University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji Most Pacific Island coasts are under increasing Should sea level rise as the IPCC predict, the stress. For many of these, optimal solutions difficulties of inhabiting and protecting coasts are beyond the means of their inhabitants. in low-lying areas (such as those mentioned) This paper identifies three ways of protecting will become far greater. Relocation inland, such coasts in the future. which does not mean a lack of access to marine resources, will serve the purpose of reducing sea-level impacts as well as reducing the need for elaborate and expensive shoreline protection structures.

One way in which the Pacific island 2. Most island shorelines in the Pacific governments could effectively reduce islands will never be protected by the population pressure along the coast is to most appropriate artificial structures establish infrastructure and growth poles at because these are too expensive and points inland - where this is possible and the total length of shoreline is too appropriate. great. For example, on Tongatapu island in Tonga, a The only option in most areas is for local people growth pole could be established near the to erect their own shoreline protection airport in the Fua'amotu area. This would relieve pressure on the Nuku'alofa and structures using largely locally-available surrounding area, particularly if businesses materials. There is little information available and services could also be relocated. This about the efficacy of different artificial would not remove the need for coastal structures which use largely locally-available materials. protection in the Nuku'alofa area, but would alleviate the problems associated with An inventory of such artificial structures increasing population pressure and the throughout the Forum region should be made consequent need to reclaim marginal land and together with notes on how successful such protect shorelines therein. structures have been. Results of the study On Savai'i island in Western Samoa, the east- should be disseminated in English, French and coast shoreline is especially vulnerable to appropriate vernacular languages to rural erosion. Were a road to be established parallel communities throughout the Forum region to the coast some five miles inland (as it has together with advice on appropriate design of been in the north, north of Puapua), settlers artificial structures. might be attracted to this largely unused area. Land ownership is essentially similar to that 3. Many island shorelines will never be along the coast, so problems of relocation protected by the optimal-design associated with land tenure would be minimal. structures owing to a lack of funds. Relocation would reduce pressure on the shoreline and reduce the need for and To reduce shoreline erosion, the effectiveness of investment in shoreline protection structures. natural forms of protection should be The traditional dependence on marine optimised. resources is much less then it once was, so Many coral reefs in the Pacific are coming proximity to the ocean is no longer as under increasing stress. An unhealthy or necessary as it once was. dying reef will not afford as much physical A similar scheme on Upolu in Western Samoa protection to the shoreline as a healthy reef, has involved a road inland parallel to the north nor will it supply as much sediment on such a coast west of Apia. It has already attracted regular basis to the shoreline and nearshore numerous settlers escaping the overcrowding of lagoons. The health of Pacific island reefs the north-coast villages. should be improved; monitoring by local people and other reef-users should be encouraged.

179 Much mangrove fringing Pacific island coasts Summary of Discussions has been removed in the past few decades. Removal of mangrove makes coasts more SOPAC Deputy Director congratulated the vulnerable to marine erosion, increases speaker on his presentation, but registered his nearshore sediment mobility, and reduces the disagreement concerning the speakers sea level amounts of seafood available for coastal rise scenarios. He further noted that others dwellers. Mangrove clearance should be had interpreted the data differently. reduced, mangroves should be replanted and The speaker noted his comments as fair, but seeded in areas where they could grow. pointed out that the predictions were based on IPee figures; and the scenario for the region resulted from interpolations of reviewed studies emanating from NZ and Hawaii. Another delegate commented that perhaps the data should be more critically reviewed. It was further noted that even if sea level rose 2 mm a year, most engineered structures have a life- expectancy of about 25 years, so such a sea level rise would still generally be within the design criteria. In relation to point 1 in the above paper, it was noted that the use of local information needs to be carefully assessed as people don't always do as they say they will. Any information must be critically appraised.

180 Foundation Problems for Coastal Protection Structures in the Tropical West Pacific and the Role of Conceptual Stratigraphic and Sedimentological Models

Mr G. G. Shorten & S. Lang, School of Geology, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia 4. Monitor sediment movement patterns established around the coastal protection structure to assess effectiveness. We will argue here that, of all the above, the investigation of the foundations is the most important and, often, the most neglected factor. Coastal dynamics may change outside the control of the coastal protection structures due to influences of, say, climate change; as may sediment supply due to dams in the hinterland or the production capacity of a nearby coral reef. However, while it is a relatively easy matter to design an appropriately resilient superstructure, the very integrity of the coastal protection structures is dependent entirely on the characteristics of the foundations and their ability to withstand the stresses placed on them by environmental factors. What is more, it doesn't matter how finely tuned laboratory investigation procedures for the foundations are if inadequate investigation procedures and/or incorrectly applied models are used. Without the correct geological model for the foundation, further above-ground work on a coastal protection structure becomes a matter of re-arranging the deck chairs on the Titanic.

Scenarios for Foundation Failure Within the setting of a tropical coastal environment, five different types of foundation material on which coastal protection structures are likely to be founded, and the spectrum of Introduction failure conditions associated with each, will be examined: The main considerations in designing, building and maintaining coastal protection structures Foundation material types are to: A. siliciclastic sands 1. Establish the dynamics of the B. carbonate sands environment through wind and wave data collection, sediment monitoring, and model C. cay rock studies; D. carbonate reefs 2. Investigate the foundations available for E. organic silts coastal protection structures through mapping, seismic profiling test pits, Each of these foundation types harbours its drilling and modelling of palaeo- own particular mix of factors that may lead to environments; structural failure. The various failure scenarios accompanying these situations and 3. Design, model, and construct the the contributing factors to these failures, superstructure for coastal protection together with similar case histories are detailed structures appropriate to the data below. available from (1) and (2);

181 A. Siliciclastic sand foundations B. Carbonate sand foundations Siliciclastic sands are those that are composed Carbonate sands are ubiquitous in the tropical of quartz, with varying percentages of western Pacific, being derived from the feldspars, ferromagnesian minerals, and clay. products of coral reefs and lagoons and the In the Pacific island context they are most associated carbonate-producing organisms of likely to be derived from a volcanic hinterland that area. Carbonate sands may form only a and deposited in a variety of environments small fraction of deposits in the vicinity of including coastal plains, bayhead deltas, volcanic islands, or up to 100 percent in atoll strandlines, and river bars and channels. The states such as Tuvalu and the Gilbert Islands coastal plain of Guadalcanal in the Solomon of Kiribati. Sand-sized carbonates are Islands and the delta of the Rewa River in Fiji commonly removed from the high energy open are but two examples. ocean coastlines, and concentrated by winnowing on the moderate energy lagoon The main hazard to coastal protection coasts, or moved onshore as aeolian deposits by structures founded on siliciclastic sand deposits prevailing winds. is due to liquefaction, particularly of saturated, fine-grained, well-sorted (or poorly-graded) Because of the local, organic origin of carbonate sands) (see Fig. 1). Liquefaction results in a sediments, and the general lack of longshore temporary loss of shear strength of the sand, drift in the atoll environment, the supply side resulting in the sand-water mixture behaving of the sediment budget is often largely like a fluid. It will occur due to the dependent on the state of health of the development of high intergranular porewater adjoining reef-lagoon complex, and the wind pressures resulting either from the action of and wave conditions prevailing at the time. large plunging waves, or to sudden dynamic Some of the best carbonate beaches are loading of the deposit due to earthquake composed almost entirely of the tests of only a shaking, particularly in the case where relatively few species of forams. drainage of the deposit is impeded. Carbonate sands are unlikely to suffer Sand spouts and boils - indicators of liquefaction due to their often angular, platy liquefaction - were recorded in the Rewa delta and porous nature but, on the other hand, their during the 1953 Suva earthquake. In a severe inherent high porosities or void ratios, and earthquake in Niigata, Japan, in 1968, large structurally-weak nature (Fig. 2) can give rise areas of the sandy coastal plain suffered to problems such as low skin friction for piles liquefaction, resulting in the overturning of in specialised coastal structures. However, the entire, intact housing apartment blocks and uncertainty of supply due to biological controls the engulfment of cars up to their windscreens and meteorological factors such as the El Nifio- while the 'quicksand' conditions persisted. Southern Oscillation effect determines that erosion and, alternatively, excessive sedimentation, are the main hazards to coastal protection structures founded on carbonate sands. Both erosion and excessive sedimentation are C. Cay rock foundations currently producing problems in areas of South Closely related to the problems in the former Tarawa, Kiribati around the Nippon category is the phenomenon of variable Causeway, although the causeway itself is in cementation that occurs in calcareous no danger of being undermined. Undermining sediments, primarily due to the particular has occurred beneath a seawall founded in chemistry pertinent to materials composed of mixed carbonate-siliciclastic sands at the aragonite or calcite. The very variability of Sheraton Hotel near Nadi, Fiji. this process can generate foundation problems Natural attrition of carbonate sands on the in that the commonly applied engineering lagoon side of Fongafale in Tuvalu has set up concept of 'bedrock' does not hold true in seawalls and jetty structures there to more carbonate material. direct wave attack. Heron Island in Australia Cay rock, too, is ubiquitous throughout the is a well-documented example where periodical tropical western Pacific. In the context of erosion of a carbonate cay has led to the failure coastal protection structures in the Pacific of several coastal structures. Erosion of the island setting, modern cay rock is usually carbonate sand beach at the Fijian Hotel in found close to or above sea level, although Cuvu Harbour, Fiji has not only endangered similar problems can apply to variably- one of the most precious aesthetic natural cemented layers in carbonates deposited below resources of the resort, but has also led to the sea level. undermining of several buildings and to the failure of a coastal protection wall (Fig. 3). Although commonly found exposed in the beach area and often assumed to have formed Carbonate sands in deeper water settings have in this location, cay rock, or so-called 'beach provided hugely expensive problems for piled rock', is more likely to form due to groundwater foundations of offshore oil platforms . notably fluctuations within a substantial body of the North Rankin platform on Australia's carbonate sand such as at the centre of a cay or Northwest Shelf. on a wide, deep coastal deposit, and be exposed at the coastline by subsequent cay migration or coastal erosion. Extensive investigations at Nukulau cay near Suva (Shorten, 1990) showed that cay rock occurs from the highest part of the sand cay (several meters above msl) down to exposed inter-tidal outcrops, that many of the cemented layers had an aeolian origin, and that the distribution of cementation was highly variable in both the vertical and horizontal sense (Fig. 4). There are, nevertheless, well established mechanisms for the formation of cemented carbonates on the inter-tidal zone. The main risk to coastal structures lies in the possibly erroneous assumption that cay rock, seen exposed at one location on the coast, can be assumed to be present for the full length of the coastline to be protected and, furthermore, that uncemented layers will not occur beneath the cemented rock that can be eroded, undermining the solid cay rock. D. Carbonate reef foundations Although commonly perceived as a solid entity of cemented carbonate, the coral reef is a highly complex and variable structure whose internal arrangement is critically dependent on latitude, climate, pre-existing geomorphology, relative Holocene sea level changes and specific reef growth characteristics amongst many other factors.

183 While ostensibly similar in surface appearance, E. Organic silt foundations reef complexes in Fiji, Kiribati, Vanuatu or Australia will all differ in internal morphology Organic silts, often referred to as soft marine to the extent where a universal model is clays, are composed of very fine silt-sized almost impossible to apply. clastic material with varying amounts of clays, soft organic material, and bacterially-produced Often, beneath a thin veneer of cemented iron sulfide, together with various biogenic coralline algal crust lies a complex mixture of gases accompanying the breakdown of organic cemented carbonate framework, intermittent material. The organic silts commonly occur in algal crust development, uncemented deposits the thalweg of palaeochannels flooded by the of sand and shingle, and open cavity. Graham's last postglacial transgression, and in other (1994) investigations of the Tully section of the submarine areas having restricted circulation Great Barrier Reef in Australia indicated that and an abundant supply of biogenic material. the proportions of these components varied greatly, even within the same area. The These sediments are common in estuaries and proportion of open cavities in the area of reef restricted lagoons and embayments of volcanic studied by Graham varied between 10 and .70 islands, but there is probably a counterpart in percent (averaging around 25%) of the pure carbonate environments in the form of Holocene section investigated (Fig. 5). organo-calcareous oozes. The estuaries and bays of the southern and western coasts of Viti Coastal protection structures may be assumed Levu, Fiji are the most closely studied capable of bridging over such cavities, but examples in the western tropical Pacific perhaps the most critical situation arises where although similar deposits have been piles or dowels set in the reef fail to resist uplift investigated in detail in Singapore, Malaysia forces on the structure due to extreme wave or and Hong Kong. wind action. This lack of side friction on foundation piles due to the high intergranular void ratios mentioned earlier, and to cavity development, was one of the important factors in the failure of confidence in the North Rankin structure to perform in the face of predicted high lateral wind and wave loadings.

184 The principal hazards to coastal protection Current Conceptual Models structures founded on this material arise from the inherently low shear strength and Given the often large areas of coastline to be extremely high compressibility of the material. protected, the extreme variability of coastal Depending on the thickness and depth of the environments of deposition, and the costs of deposit and the load imposed by the coastal investigation, the cheapest and probably most structure, ultimate settlement can be in the effective method of predicting foundation order of metres, and may continue at a conditions is to carry out initial specific significant, though ever-decreasing, rate for investigations and set to work one or more tens of years (Fig. 6). If construction loading is experienced and imaginative geological brains, too rapid or if the deposit is subjected to utilising models that have been painstakingly earthquake loadings, the build-up of porewater developed over the last few decades. Problems pressure in the low permeability organic silts experienced along the way during construction can lower the effective strength of the material should be seen instead as opportunities to so that shear failure occurs in the foundations, further refine the conceptual geological models frequently at very low imposed stress levels to be input into re-design and construction. To (Fig. 7). this end, the geologist should be viewed as an integral and continuing part of the design and Numerous failures of coastal road and bridge construction team. embankments, wharf structures, and buildings on reclaimed coastal lands have been Some of the latest, more wide-ranging, and documented in Fiji, both under normal useful conceptual models pertinent to the conditions and under the extreme conditions tropical western Pacific are outlined here: that occurred during the 1953 Suva Conceptual models earthquake. The organic silts have been deposited throughout the Holocene eustatic sea 1. concept of Holocene post-glacial global level rise and, consequently, are commonly eustatic sea level rise concealed beneath a variety of modern settings 2. postulated Greenhouse-related sea level including prograding delta, bayhead beach, rise carbonate lagoon and reef, and bay mud as well as mangrove swamp environments. 3. sequence stratigraphy model 4. carbonate sequence stratigraphy model

185

5. carbonate sediment budget models 6. reef platform growth models 7. carbonate diagenesis models 8. estuarine facies model The details and inter-relationships between these models are discussed below. • Concept of Holocene post-glacial global eustatic sea level rise It is by now a widely accepted concept that, following the end of the last major period of glaciation some 12,000 years ago, there was a global eustatic (relative to a stable land mass) sea level rise in the order of 100 m or more. Whether the dramatic increase in ocean volume actually translated into a sea level rise, and the degree of that rise, both depend largely on the specific tectonic setting and isostatic response of the particular area of concern. A comparison of Holocene sea level records derived worldwide (pirazolli, 1988) shows the folly of considering anything other than a sea level curve specific to the local situation (Fig. 8). Across much of the tropical western Pacific, however, the full effect of the circa 100 m rise was felt. Modern coastlines must therefore generally be examined in light of sedimentary systems developed on transgressive shorelines, The current distribution of carbonate cay sand and on the prograding shorelines that have is dominantly a result of the long period of still- widely accompanied the much-subdued, stand at an all-time sea level high, and more eustatic sea level changes of the past 4-6,000 immediately the consequence of closely related years. Most scientists now intuitively apply long-term cycles in weather patterns such as this model of coastal genesis, but a majority not the EI Niiio - Southern Oscillation (ENSO) specifically educated or informed in the natural effect. Predictions abound of an increase of sciences do not share the concept. ocean volume as a result of warming of ocean waters consequent upon recently identified This model is particularly applicable to the increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide. While development of weak organic silt deposits in most scenarios envisage a loss of coastal land restricted, drowned valleys during the (Roy and Connell, 1990) a more recent model transgression, and their subsequent developed by Hopley (1992) predicts that an obfuscation during later progradation. The increasing sea level may well have a positive post-glacial sea level rise also has a major long-term effect on building useable land on bearing on the internal structure of coral reefs low lying tropical western Pacific islands. because of its dominant control on reef growth during the Holocene, while the major shedding Also significant is the degree of coral mortality of carbonate detritus to form related deposits that occurred in the wake of the unusually probably took place since the still-stand high water temperatures that accompanied the (Marshall and Jacobson, 1985). EI Niiio event of the 1980's (Glynn, 1991). This type of reef crises may have, in the past, played a part in the failure of reefs to keep pace with subsidence and consequently drown.

187 • Sequence stratigraphy model Concepts of sequence stratigraphy developed in the last decade chiefly for siliciclastic environments, greatly aid in the interpretation of seismic reflection records by considering packages of units and sequences observable on seismic records in terms of sea level change. This approach is particularly applicable to Holocene coastal history. Seismic stratigraphy, the interpretation in terms of geology of patterns of sound reflected from layers in the subsurface, provides a means, through the continuous seismic reflection profiling (CSP) technique, for the extrapolation of geological information over wide areas. Largely within the structure of seismic stratigraphy, Van Wagoner et aI. (1988) have developed the concept of sequence stratigraphy which they described as the study of rock relationships in a chronostratigraphic framework of repetitive, genetically-related strata bounded by surfaces of erosion or non- deposition. The fundamental units of sequence stratigraphy, sequences and their stratal components, are interpreted to form in response to the interaction between the rates of eustasy, subsidence and sediment supply. The surfaces bounding the sequences (primarily unconformity surfaces) have chronostratigraphic significance and provide a framework for correlating and mapping, largely through the use of CSP (Fig. 9). However, as Schlager (1992) points out, sea level fluctuation is but one of several ways (including variations in the rate of sediment supply) to generate sequences and systems tracts. What may appear as unconformities on While carbonate environments can be the relatively low-resolution CSP record may considered similarly in terms of sequence well represent condensed sections in actual stratigraphy, additional considerations arise fact. based on the special situation where changing • Carbonate sequence stratigraphy model environments accompanying sea level change alter the production of autochthonous Schlager (1992) suggests that carbonate sediment, and modifies the depositional platforms characteristically display an environment itself by affecting the growth of inherently different response to sea level the sediment-producing reef platforms. change from siliciclastic systems. Carbonate platforms tend to build elevated margins to sea Schlager (1992) points to evidence for anoxic or level at the shelf break protecting a lagoon high-temperature ocean events giving rise to behind it. He points out that when these rims drownmg of reefs, resulting in a drowning are overwhelmed by sea level rise, there is a unconformities, even where evidence for rapid jump in facies belts which interrupts the sea level rise is lacking. In seismic records, gradual shift in onlap. Elevated rims also these sequence boundanes may closely strongly tend to stack vertically so that lateral resemble lowstand unconformities in a migration of systems tracts in response to sea siliciclastic system. level is interrupted. Schlager believes that prograding leeward margins of reef platforms, dominated by offshore sediment transport and loose sediment accumulation, most closely approach the geometry of siliciclastic systems.

188 • Carbonat o sediment budget models Reef growth models for the Great Barrier Reef (Davies and Marshall, 1980; Marshall and Models clear lv defining the zones and rates of Davies, 1982; Davies, 1983) predict that reef product ion and direction of transport of growth during a transgression is first vertical carbonates in a red-lagoon complex need to be until it reaches sea level, and then to leeward instituted to help predict the modern-day as material shed from the windward margin is sediment budget of these environments, transported into the protected lagoon. This especially in response to the construction of model is supported by the author's experience coastal protect ion st ructu res. with Nukulau Reef. Sediment budget modelling for carbonates is However, these findings are directly fundamcntallv different from that related to contradicted by experience on Britomart Reef siliciclastic sediments (Burne, 1991). by Johnson et a1. (1984) and in the central- Carbonate sediments are typically created and northern GBR by Graham (19~)4), both of deposited close to their source. This concept whom found that progradation of the reef differs great ly from the model of stream- platform during sea level rise occurred to the supply, littoral drift and episodic reworking of windward side due to the preferred growth of siliciclastic sand reservoirs that is applied corals at this location. They found that the along the south eastern Australian coast. leeward side of the reef had accreted as a The difference in approach is highlighted by debris pile which reached sea level some 2,000 arguments surrounding the origin of lagoon- years prior to the windward margin. The side beach sands in Tarawa. Marshall & windward margin then appears to have Jacobson (1985) considered that sediment in advanced seaward over the foreslope of this sub-tidal sand sheets found in drillholes behind debris pile. the windward margin of the atoll was derived The drilling of Tarawa atoll by Marshall and from the windward margin. They suggested Jacobson (1985) indicated a pronounced that the sand sheet gradually built up during the Holocene into the modern supra-tidal cay vertical change from a coral to sediment deposits present today. assemblage as sea level approached its current position, but no corresponding change could be Byrne (19~H) also concluded that sand is deduced in Graham's (1994) work on the GBR. produced on the ocean-side reef flat and moves Much of this type of variation can be attributed predominantly westward with the prevailing to whether a particular reef lagged behind or winds. Moreover. he believed that sand kept pace with relative sea level change during deposits on the lagoon side originated from the last post-glacial marine transgression in sediment transported through channels the keep-up, catch-up and give-up reefs of between cays. On the other hand, Weber & Schlager (1981) and Neumann and Macintyre Woodhead (HJ72) viewed the accumulation of (1985), and from a consideration of the predominantly fine sediments in the substrate depth from which the reef growth southeastern corner of Tarawa lagoon as being initiated as in the Katch-up categories of primarily due to biological production in the Davies et a1. (1985). lagoon and subsequent physical and biological Wide differences in categories can surprisingly breakdown of skeletal carbonate. They come from closely-situated reefs due to attributed the high concentration of fines to the variations in substrate initiation depths or absence of current winnowing in the restricted coral growth factors, from tilting of bedrock lagoon environment. Similarly, in a study of foundation blocks during the Holocene, or two French Polynesian atolls, Adjas et al. proximity to currently active margins. In view (1990) showed that restricted lagoons contained of this variability, it is always wise to separate mostly endemic sediments, and were not the concept of the rate of coral growth alone simply passive collectors of sediments produced from that of vertical reef accretion, occurring from the peripheral reef t1ats and fore-reefs. by combination of coral growth, sediment • Reef platform growth models accumulation, and cementation. Adoption of the correct model for a particular reef is The degree to which uncemented carbonate essential if reasonable predictions of the sand and shingle. cemented carbonate relative proportions of competent or weak framework, algal mats, or simply cavities lie foundation components are to be made, beneath an area of concern on a given reef platform depends to a large extent on the precise way in which that reef accreted.

189 • Carbonate diagenesis models • Estuarine facies model Marshall and Jacobson (1985) found that cay The estuarine facies model of Dalrymple et al. rock and beach rock alike on Tarawa displayed (1992) provides a logical framework for typical marine-vadose cementation showing understanding the evolution of the quite well-developed meniscus cements and smoothly complex and variable facies that develop in rounded pore outlines. estuaries during a post-glacial marine transgression. They define the estuary as Ideas surrounding the formation of cemented extending from the barrier of a tidal inlet to carbonate sediments in the carbonate sand cay the bay-head delta, and see the system as a and beach environment are manifold. While balance between marine-dominated and river- cay rock is commonly found in seaward-dipping dominated processes, with a mixed-energy sheets at the water's edge, it is often exposed central basin under the influence of both. The here due to erosion and cay mobility. Many model enables the results of scattered drilling examples of cemented aeolian carbonate sand in Holocene alternating sand/silt sequences in and shingle storm banks can be found. drowned valleys to be meaningfully interpreted Examples of cemented layers of coral rubble, and the distribution of organic silt facies. deposited under high energy conditions and potentially susceptible to a wide range of dipping towards the ocean side, can be found foundation problems - including long-term on lagoon -side coastlines of cays in Fongafale, creep, excessive settlement, shear failure of demonstrating the extreme mobility of cays embankments and piles, and modified over time and thus the danger in relying upon earthquake spectral response to be current location as a means of identification determined. The model can also be used to and classification (Fig. 10). predict the potential occurrence of liquefaction It is likely that the diagenesis of many during earthquakes, given siliciclastic sands of carbonate deposits occurs beneath the surface appropriate grain size and sorting in the midst of a sand cay or beach deposit in characteristics with less than a critical the presence of a fluctuating water table and overburden load. an interface with sea water. Such examples are known from subsurface investigations (Nukulau, Cuvu) where the horizontal and lateral extent of cementation appears to be highly random.

Shorten, G. G. 1990 (ed.). Groundwater in a Summary of Discussions coral cay; water resources, pollutants and their translocation. In Byrne, G., Shorten, It was asked if the Nukulau cay rock formation G., Bullen, F., Collins, W., and Smith, R. was typical or not. The speaker was not sure (eds). Coastal Engineering in the Pacific, as not much drilling has occurred elsewhere. Lecture Notes from CIDA-SOPAC Coastal but it appears to be a good example. Investigations and Engineering Workshop. Burne disagreed with the speakers comment SOPAC Miscellaneous Report 105, llpp. concerning the term "beach rock" and the Shorten, G. G., and Carter, J. P. (accepted for cementing of carbonate sand. He noted that publication, 1994). An embankment on cementing was due to fff~shwater percolation organo-calcareous silt - predictions and and seawater, and was very localised, and a performance. Proceedings of the 8th distinct feature of a beach. hence the International Conference of the Association appropriateness of the term. for Computer Methods and Advances in Byrne commented that engineers do not tend to Geomechanics, West Virginia, May 22-28, ignore foundation studies. for example, in a 1994. recent project 2 percent of the budget went on Van Wagoner, ,J. C., Posamentier, H. W., foundation investigat ions. Mitchum, R. M., Vail, P. R., Sarg, J. F., A comment was made that the rills I'JJ at the Loutit, T. S., and Hardenbol, J. 1988. An Fijian Resort are not unusual forms, and that overview of the fundamentals of sequence there is considerable literature available on stratigraphy and key definitions. In them. Wilgus, C. K., Hastings, B. S., and Kendall, C. G. St. C. et aI., editors. Sea- A comment was made that with drilling the level changes: An integrated approach. amount of cavities may be due to caverns, but SEPM Special Publication 42. Society of in many cases the operator and the drill size Economic Palaeontologists and may be more significant, Mineralogists, Tulsa, pp. 39-45. Another comment was made that perhaps some Weber, J. N., and Woodhead, P. M. J. 1972. contractors were not doing enough research on Carbonate lagoon and beach sediments of foundations, which is reflected in the number Tarawa atoll, Gilbert Islands. Atoll offailures. The high cost of up-keep and repair Research Bulletin, 157: 1·21. associated with turn-key projects affects countries. The need for close cooperation between geoscientists and engineers in the region was noted. Another discussion ensued concerning the issue of sea level rise and carbonate production in the region during and since the IIolocene. A question was asked if, on a practical level. it would be possible to stabilise an area prior to building a structure (eg seawall, revetment) through, for example, pumping the foundation area with grout? The speaker noted that the situations described in the paper may not apply to small structures, but there may be an engineering solution to larger structures.

192 Notes from a Workshop on GIS Applications in the Coastal Zone Management of Small Island Developing States

The [ollouing Executii-e Summary was tahen from the report of a worhshop held in conjunction with the Globa! Con!c'l'cncc on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States in Barbados, April 1.'J.')4, Telecommunications are of critical importance Executive Summary for the transfer of data from remote data bases Baclrgro« n d In[ortn ation at local, regional, and international sites. Some :35 scientists and coastal zone managers Improved communications will also enhance representing 18 Small Islands States and Non- training, as well as facilitate the rapid Governmental Organisations from around the interchange of knowledge, problem solving at World met for :J davs. from April 20-22. in the technical and operational decision making Barbados to explore potential applications of levels, and the sharing of expertise at all levels. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in the Capacity Building management of the coastal zone of Small Island A regional core of marine, coastal social Developing States (SlDS) to ensure their sustainable development. The workshop was scientists, engineers and planners as well as multi- disciplinary technical support familiar co-sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) and the with the use of GIS is needed for ICZM. ICZM Government of Canada. requires comprehensive planning by SIDS to define their long-term objectives and needs. GIS constitutes a powerful management tool as These include the identification of management it is a computer-based system integrating as objectives, the setting of standards, the design much information as possible in a given area, of data collection and monitoring systems, as including scientific. social. cultural. and well as the identification of GIS technologies economic data. to assist decision-makers in appropriate to the situation of given SIDS. managing their coastal zone in a proactive Through education and training, the expertise fashion. It allows a concise view of an often complex situation. and can applied to most in the use of GIS must be developed in SIDS. areas of relevance to sustainable development. Moreover, this will lead to SIDS involvement at all levels in the development of GIS technology Sustainable development in SIDS, and in arid applications best suited to the needs of particular Integrated Coastal Zone small islands. Management (ICZI\l) will benefit greatly from the application of Geographic Information Furthermore, GIS technology can assist in Systems (GIS), because GIS technology has the promoting awareness at all levels of SIDS capability to integrate large amounts of data as societies, from children to scientists to decision- well as the flexibility to accommodate the makers, so that all can be educated on the diverse ICZM needs of SIDS. protection, restoration, enhancement, and utilisation of the coastal zone of their islands. Technology of GIS Plan of Action The judicious use of GIS in ICZM will allow better quality output and decision-making at Given the potential of GIS as an appropriate reduced costs. as the technology allows better tool in ICZM for SIDS, Workshop participants allocation of limited financial and human suggest that a plan of action be developed with resources, which is an essential prerequisite for regards to the use of GIS, comprising the sustainable development in SIDS. For following elements: example, remotely sensed data integrated National Initiatives through GIS offer the potential for satisfying • undertake on an accelerated basis, in all multiple needs from a common data collection SIDS that have not done so, a detailed effort over wide areas. assessment of needs for implementing an GIS technology requires the sharing of data ICZM program utilising GIS technology between SIDS and other countries as well, support; improved communications, training, ad system • develop and strengthen the national compatibility. It is important that the origin of capacity for using GIS in ICZM on a data be documented so that it can be verified continuing basis; and shared. Also. planning for new data collection should consider using standards t.o facilitate fut.ure dat.a exchange.

193 8. Approach Embankment to Cement 10. Seawall at Uduya Point Works Bridge Weathered basement rock foundation. A The embankment can be considered as a seawall has been constructed here to protect coastal berm or roadway having, as a parks and housing development. A major secondary function, the protection of the concern in this Veisari Sandstone rock type is coastline. It overlies a palaeochannel at least the danger from rotational slumps at the 50 m deep, filled with highly compressible shoreline due to saturation of the toe of the organic stilt. The silt is very weak and prone slope and removal of support by erosion. to large settlements as water is expelled from pore spaces, and the skeleton of the soil 11. Walu Bay Earthworks and its effects on undergoes creep. Since the start of the Coastal Zone construction in 1976, the embankment has Major earthworks at the back of the Walu Bay experienced 3 m of settlement. Following a industrial area have resulted in effects to the large failure in 1977, the roadway was not coastal zone which are of great concern to a reopened until 1986. Piled foundations for the major government industry; namely the bridge abutment are also suffering as Shipyard and Marine Department. evidenced by cracks in construction joints and the opening of the expansion joint between the Sediment runoff from such a large exposure of Suva abutment and the first span. mud and marl in an area of high rainfall has resulted in major siltation in, and around, the 9. Foundation Settlement at the shipyard and wharf area. For the shipyard, a Tradewinds Hotel major dredging operation will be required before the current vessel under construction The Tradewinds Hotel is sited over can be launched. One implication arising is the palaeochannels filled with organic silt. question of appropriate disposal of dredge spoil Settlement and structural distress has which from USP studies is known to have a continued since the hotel's construction. The high pollution content. hotel has only recently undergone a facelift to plaster over some of the effects of settlement. Adjacent to the shipyard, major foreshore reclamation has taken place, but the seaward edge of the fill remains unprotected, thereby contributing further to the siltation process. Seawall protection is further complicated by the presence of a major drop-off in bathymetry at the edge of the fill.

196