Human Trafficking Prevalence and Child Welfare Risk Factors Among Homeless Youth
A Multi-City Study
Debra Schilling Wolfe, MEd Johanna K.P. Greeson, PhD, MSS, MLSP Sarah Wasch, MSW Daniel Treglia, PhD, MPP
The Field Center for Children’s Policy, Practice & Research University of Pennsylvania
January 2018 Acknowledgments
The Field Center was inspired to engage in this important research following the convening of a plenary panel on the child welfare to child trafficking pipeline at our national One Child, Many Hands: A Multidisciplinary Conference on Child Welfare, held in June of 2015. It was through this work that Covenant House International initially approached the Field Center to become a research partner.
There are many people to thank, without whom this study could not have happened. David Howard, Senior Vice President—Research, Evaluation and Learning at Covenant House International, and Jayne Bigelsen, Director of Anti-Human Trafficking Initiatives at Covenant House New York and Vice President of Advocacy at Covenant House International, were the primary drivers of this work, and we cannot express enough gratitude for their support, guidance, and wisdom at every step in the process. We are deeply indebted to Kevin Ryan, President and CEO of Covenant House International, for his unwavering support of this research and his passion and commitment to the well-being of homeless youth.
Our research was strongly supported by administration and program staff at each and every site, and we wish to thank the staff of Covenant House in Philadelphia and Washington, DC, and Tumbleweed, One-n-Ten, and Native American Connections in Phoenix for facilitating the research process, including securing private space to meet with youth, recruiting participants and scheduling interviews, providing staff support for youth post-interview, and helping us maintain fidelity to our research protocols. In particular, the Field Center would like to thank John Ducoff, Executive Director of Covenant House Pennsylvania, Madye Henson, Executive Director of Covenant House Washington, Dianna Yazzie Devine, CEO/President of Native American Connections, Stacey Jay Cavaliere, Program Director for One-n-Ten, and Melissa Brockie, Director of Health and Wellness for Tumbleweed for their support.
Additionally, we would like to acknowledge the site liaisons at each of the five agencies who not only served as the “point person” for interviews, but facilitated scheduling for all of the referred youth. A special thank you to Darlene Bell, Covenant House Washington, Aimee Della Porta, Covenant House Pennsylvania, Michael Lafitte, Native American Connections, Sarah Kent, One-n-Ten, and Victor Rojas, Tumbleweed. Each of the on-site staff went out of their way to facilitate the interview process and seamlessly build this project into their already demanding workload.
This research could not have been completed without the hard work of our stellar graduate students in social work. Their contributions to this research and learning were an important part of this process and we wish to recognize the work of MSW students Jennifer Conn, Xuan Trinh, Julia Vadas, and Ran Zhang. In addition, we owe our gratitude to our transcriptionist, Karen Myers, who transcribed heartfelt and often difficult interviews with youth for further analysis.
The Field Center’s interdisciplinary team contributed greatly to conceptualizing this research study and we want to thank faculty directors Cindy W. Christian, MD, Cindy Connolly, PhD, RN, PNP, Kara R. Finck, Esq., Antonio Garcia, MSW, PhD, and Sarah Jaffee, PhD, for their support throughout this process. In particular, the authors wish to acknowledge Dr. Garcia for his dedication and work on the development of the Child Welfare Supplemental Survey tool alongside the study authors.
This research was commissioned by Covenant House International. We are most appreciative of the support of our founding benefactors who, through the generosity of the Joseph and Marie Field Foundation, provided supplemental support to underwrite this work.
The Field Center would not be able to devote resources to research such as this without the support of our partner organizations, the University of Pennsylvania Schools of Social Policy & Practice, Law, Nursing and Medicine, and the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, and affiliated faculty. We deeply appreciate the commitment of Deans John Jackson, Theodore Ruger, Antonia Villarruel, and J. Larry Jameson, and CEO Madeline Bell to promoting the well-being of our most vulnerable children and youth.
This report is dedicated to the 270 youth who candidly and at times painfully shared their stories and themselves with us. We are indebted to their candor and only hope for the very best for them and the thousands of other youth who share similar stories.
For more information about the Field Center, please visit www.fieldcenteratpenn.org For more information on Covenant House, visit www.covenanthouse.org The Field Center Table of Contents
The Field Center for Children’s Policy, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Practice & Research is an interdisciplinary collaboration of the University of EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...... 2 Pennsylvania’s Schools of Social Policy & Practice, Law, Medicine, and Nursing, and INTRODUCTION...... 4 the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia Background...... 4 dedicated to improving the systemic response to victims of child abuse and PROJECT OVERVIEW...... 6 neglect. By harnessing the expertise across Objectives...... 6 the University of Pennsylvania, the Field Definitions...... 6 Center facilitates reform through a “think outside-the-box approach.” Our efforts result METHOD...... 7 in improved policies and laws, translating Design and Overview...... 7 research to practice, and elevating service Participants...... 7 delivery across systems of care through Procedures...... 8 education and training. Measures...... 12 Analytic Procedures...... 13
RESULTS ...... 14 Human Trafficking...... 15 Sex Trafficking...... 17 Survival Sex...... 23 Sex Trafficking “Close Calls”...... 26 Our Mission Commercial Sex...... 28 Using the Internet for Commercial Sex ����������������������� 32 Guided by the Schools of Social Policy & Labor Trafficking...... 35 Practice, Law, Medicine, and Nursing, and the Exploitation Experience...... 37 Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, the Field Center for Children’s Policy, Practice and CHILD WELFARE FACTORS: CWSS FINDINGS �����������������40 Research brings together the resources of the Child Maltreatment...... 42 University of Pennsylvania to enhance and Living Situation...... 44 assure the well-being of abused and neglected Social Supports...... 45 children and those at risk of maltreatment. Caring Adults...... 45 By moving beyond traditional approaches, Peer Relationships...... 46 the Field Center utilizes an interdisciplinary Personal Resilience...... 47 model to integrate clinical care, research and education, inform local and national policy, DISCUSSION...... 50 and prepare the nation’s future leaders, for Strengths and Limitations...... 53 the benefit of children and their families. RECOMMENDATIONS...... 54 Policy and Practice Recommendations ����������������������� 54 Research Recommendations...... 55
REFERENCES...... 56 Executive Summary
The Field Center completed a three-city study as part of a larger initiative by Covenant House International to research human trafficking among homeless youth encompassing nearly 1,000 young people across 13 cities. The Field Center interviewed a total of 270 homeless youth, 100 in Philadelphia, 100 in Phoenix, and 70 in Washington, DC, to learn about the prevalence of human trafficking, and the history of child maltreatment, out of home placement, and protective factors among those who were sex trafficked or engaged in the sex trade to survive. Of those interviewed, 20% were victims of human trafficking, including 17% who were victims of sex trafficking and 6% who were victims of labor trafficking. Fourteen percent engaged in “survival sex” to meet their basic needs. A total of 36% of those interviewed reported engaging in a commercial sex act at some point in their lives.
2 University of Pennsylvania Two out of three homeless LGBTQ youth appear to have females reported being solicited experienced a higher level of 1 of 5 for paid sex. For all genders, 22% sex trafficking, comprising were victims of human of those homeless youth who 39% of those who reported trafficking were approached for paid sex being trafficked, though they had this happen on their very represented only 15% of the total first night of being homeless. interviewed. Transgender youth Transgender youth were are particularly vulnerable, with 22% particularly vulnerable, with 90% 60% of those surveyed reporting sex trafficking. Although the of those homeless youth who of transgender youth reporting sample size is too small to were approached for paid sex being offered money for sex. generalize, it points to increased had this happen on their very risk for these young people. first night of being homeless For youth who reported that they were victims of sex trafficking, 95% had a history For those who were sex of child maltreatment. While trafficked, when asked what 17% 59% report telling someone could have helped prevent them from being in this situation, the of those interviewed were that they were abused, only most frequent response was victims of sex trafficking 36% of them report that the person they told took some having supportive parents or action on their behalf. Among family members. Youth who those who were maltreated, the lacked a caring adult in their 95% highest percentage of youth lives were more likely to be reported being sexually abused victims of sex trafficking. of those who were sex (49%), followed by physical trafficked had a history of child abuse (33%). maltreatment Education was also distinguished in the data. Victims of sex A total of 41% of those who were trafficking were 72% more likely sex trafficked had at least one to have dropped out of high 67% out-of-home placement at some school than the full sample of point in their lives, and many homeless youth. Of those who of sex trafficked victims experienced frequent moves. reported being sex trafficked, had not graduated from Over 50% did not have a place to only 22% had a high school high school live at some point prior to their diploma and 11% had attended 18th birthday, and 88% of youth some college. A full 67% had who experienced commercial not graduated from high school, 41% sex lived in at least one place compared to 41% of the total without a biological parent. sample. Thus, graduating from of those who were sex Sixty three percent reported high school appears to be a trafficked had at least one out- involvement with the child protective factor. of-home placement at some welfare system. point in their lives, and many experienced frequent moves
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 3 Introduction
BACKGROUND According to the United Nations coerced, or otherwise manipulated problem plaguing young people. Office on Drugs and Crime into performing sex acts in Despite numerous attempts to (2014), sexual exploitation is the exchange for something of value; estimate the annual number of most commonly identified form contrary to popular opinion that child trafficking victims in the of human trafficking ahead of sex trafficking is predominantly an United States, the exact number forced labor. Numbers released international trade, it is increasingly of how many children in the U.S. by the National Human Trafficking prevalent in the United States are victims or at risk is currently Resource Center suggest this also (Bounds, Julion & Delaney, 2015). unknown (U.S. DOJ, 2012). Early is true in the U.S., where more than According to the U.S. Department research estimated that between 5,500 cases of sex trafficking were of Justice (2012), the official 244,000 and 325,000 children reported in 2016 (National Human definition of a commercial sex act are at risk of domestic minor Trafficking Hotline, 2017). is one performed for exchange sex trafficking each year (Estes of anything of value given to or & Weiner, 2002). However, later Sex trafficking is a form of received by any person. Types of reports caution that none of such Human Trafficking as defined by sex trafficking include prostitution, estimates are based on a true the federal Trafficking Victims pornography, stripping, live-sex scientific foundation, and thus no Protection Act of 2000 (TVPA). In shows, mail-order brides, military reliable estimates exist (Mitchell, the TVPA, Congress defines severe prostitution, and sex tourism. Finkelhor & Wolak, 2010). By forms of trafficking as: Previous studies indicate threat combining estimates of youth at for sex trafficking is highest when risk of sexual exploitation with 1. Sex trafficking in which a both individual risk factors and estimates of child trafficking commercial sex act is induced environmental challenges collude victims, the early estimates are by force, fraud, or coercion, or in a young person’s life, including likely highly inflated and the in which the person induced poverty, homelessness, a history true incidence rate is unknown to perform such act has not of maltreatment, low educational (Salisbury, Dabney & Russell, 2014; attained 18 years of age; or attainment, identifying as gender Fong & Cardoso, 2010; Stransky & nonconforming or sexual minority, Finkelhor, 2008). 2. The recruitment, harboring, lack of work opportunities, lack transportation, provision or of family support, and lack of The most commonly identified obtaining of a person for connection to caring adults beyond risk factor for commercial sexual labor or services, through use caregivers (Finklea, Fernandes- exploitation of children is a history of force, fraud, or coercion Alcantara & Siskin, 2015; Gerassi, of childhood sexual abuse (Ahrens for purpose of subjection to 2015; Tyler, 2008). et al., 2012). For example, a involuntary servitude, peonage, National Institute of Justice (1994) debt bondage, or slavery (8 Children and young adults report asserts minors who were U.S.C. § 1101). are particularly vulnerable to sexually abused were 28 times commercial sexual exploitation more likely to be arrested for Victims of commercial sexual (CSE), and national data provide prostitution at some point in their exploitation have been forced, insight into the scope of the lives than minors who were not
4 University of Pennsylvania sexually abused. A history of sexual homelessness has also been among homeless youth in molestation was also significantly identified as an important and multiple cities and investigates associated with increased odds of malleable risk factor among young child maltreatment, child welfare, having transactional or survival sex, people who engage in survival and out-of-home placement with gender and sexual orientation sex. Several studies conducted experiences as well as resilience being a significant factor. Additional with samples of this population factors for victims of trafficking and research has demonstrated that have found this association. For other forms of commercial sex. the younger a girl is when she first example, Bender, Yang, Ferguson becomes involved in prostitution, and Thompson (2015) interviewed the greater the likelihood that she 601 homeless youth who were has a history of childhood sexual seeking services in three U.S. More than 5,500 cases abuse. In addition to a history of cities. Almost 13% of the sample of sex trafficking were childhood abuse, prostituted girls reported engaging in prostitution to are likely to have experienced other generate income while homeless. reported in 2016 to forms of family disruption (Clawson Gwadz, Gostnell, Smolenski, Willis, the National Human et al., 2009). Nish, Nolan et al. (2009) also interviewed a sample of homeless Trafficking Hotline For those who enter the child youth who were receiving services welfare system, additional risks from providers in New York City. may contribute to the possibility Nearly 34% of the sample reported of commercial sexual exploitation, trading sex for money, drugs, as multiple placements and/or food or shelter. Similarly, a 1999 group homes may expose minors study examined the prevalence to further abuse or coercion into of survival sex among a nationally trafficking (Choi, 2015). Recent representative sample of 1,159 findings suggest that close to homeless and runaway youth in two thirds of those investigated various U.S. cities (Greene, Ennett as victims of trafficking had & Ringwalt, 1999). Thirty-seven a significant history of child percent of the sample reported maltreatment and prior child engagement in survival sex. protective services involvement (Havlicek, Huston, Boughton & Given the hidden nature of Zhang, 2016). domestic minor sex trafficking, the difficulties in documenting Many victims of sex trafficking occurrence, and the plethora in the U.S. are vulnerable and of overlapping risk factors, the marginalized young people who present study examines the are on the street and transient prevalence of human trafficking (Fong & Cardoso, 2010). As such, and commercial sexual exploitation
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 5 Project Overview
DEFINITIONS RELATED TO THE HTIAM OBJECTIVES Following the lead of the universities who conducted similar studies The objectives of the study are in different locations (i.e., Fordham University in New York City; Loyola twofold: University New Orleans in New Orleans) prior to our study, we draw our definitions for Human Trafficking, Labor Trafficking, and Commercial Sex from 1. To examine the prevalence the U.S. Victims of Trafficking & Violence Prevention Act of 2000 (TVPA). of human trafficking and commercial sexual Human Trafficking — (A) sex Sex Act — Although the TVPA does exploitation among trafficking in which a commercial not define “sex act,” consistent with homeless youth in multiple sex act is induced by force, fraud Fordham and Loyola University New cities through replication or coercion, or in which the person Orleans, we relied on the definition of an earlier study utilizing induced to perform such act has provided by the Office of Refugee the previously validated not attained 18 years of age or Resettlement (2012): Prostitution, Human Trafficking Interview (B) the recruitment, harboring, pornography, stripping, live-sex and Assessment Measure transportation, provision, or shows, mail-order brides, military (HTIAM-10), and obtaining of a person for labor or prostitution, and sex tourism. services through the use of force, 2. To gain insight into the child fraud or coercion for the purpose of Survival Sex — Consistent with maltreatment, child welfare subjection to involuntary servitude, Fordham and Loyola University and out of home placement peonage, debt bondage or slavery. New Orleans’ use of the “popular” experiences as well as Human trafficking thus includes definition for “survival sex,” we resilience factors for victims both sex trafficking (part A) and defined “survival sex” as involving of child sex trafficking. labor trafficking (part B). individuals who trade sex acts to meet the basic needs of survival Commercial Sex — Any sex (e.g., food, shelter, etc.) without act in which anything of value is overt force, fraud or coercion of given or received by any person. a trafficker, but who felt that their Commercial sex includes sex circumstances left little or no other trafficking and survival sex as well option. as commercial sex that does not fall under these categories.
6 University of Pennsylvania Method
Figure 1 DESIGN AND OVERVIEW PARTICIPANTS GENDER The University of Pennsylvania’s A non-probability, purposive Institutional Review Board sampling procedure was used for Male 57% approved this study, which this study. Daniel (2012) suggests had two components. The first that such sampling procedures Female 38% was quantitative and explored are advantageous for populations prevalence of human trafficking, with characteristics that are difficult Transgender 4% commercial sex, and survival sex, as to locate or for whom a sampling well as potential child welfare risk frame is not available, such as Other 1% factors for engaging in any of the marginalized and vulnerable behavior. The second component young people involved in human was qualitative and sought to elicit: trafficking. A total of 270 young 1) an in-depth understanding of the people who sought homeless young people’s lived experiences, services were interviewed across the Figure 2 2) risk factors for becoming a victim three cities (Philadelphia, PA n=100; SEXUAL ORIENTATION of human trafficking or engaging in Phoenix, AZ n=100; Washington, Heterosexual 78% commercial sex or survival sex, and DC n=70). 3) potential protective factors that Homosexual 6% could have prevented the young As shown in Figure 1, participants people from engaging in these were 57% male, 38% female, 4% Bisexual 10% behaviors. Given the nature of the transgender, and 1% other. The information shared by the young majority of participants reported Pansexual 4% people, the research team obtained being heterosexual (80%), followed a Certificate of Confidentiality by 10% bisexual, 6% homosexual, Refused to answer 3% from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver and 4% pansexual (Figure 2). National Institute of Child Health Almost 40% reported earning & Human Development, which a high school diploma. Twenty- protected the identity of research five percent reported dropping Figure 3 participants, such as through out of high school, 20% reported EDUCATION disclosure of information in legal completing some college, 13% proceedings. reported still being in high school, College 20% and 3% reported completing their GED, as shown in Figure 3. All High School Diploma 39% participants spoke English as their primary language and almost 100% GED completed 3% of participants reported being U.S. citizens. All participants were over Still in High School 13% the age of 18 at the time of the interviews and their average age was Dropped out of High School 25% 20.7 years old (SD=2.0). The majority were African-American (56%); White (14%) and Multiracial (14%) were the next two largest groups.
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 7 PROCEDURES Recruitment. The Field During training, site staff was Center visited three U.S. cities directed to refer as many on-site (Philadelphia, PA, Phoenix, AZ, or available clients as possible on and Washington, DC) with the each scheduled date of interviews, goal of interviewing approximately regardless of their trafficking status. 100 homeless youth in each city. It was stressed that recruitment of Five shelters and youth-service participants should not be based organizations participated as on known or suspected trafficking host sites for the research study: status, in order to gain the most Covenant House in Philadelphia and representative data. Washington DC, and Tumbleweed, Native American Connections and The Field Center provided One-n-Ten in Phoenix. recruitment posters for organizations to display at the The Field Center provided program sites to advertise the study. training to shelter or program site Clients were notified that they staff on the research approach and recruitment protocols. An would be given a $10 gift card as Administrative Study Liaison an incentive for their participation, was designated at each location and that snacks would be provided to schedule youth for interview during the interviews. appointments and screen for eligibility to participate in the study. The researcher conducting the Any English-speaking homeless interviews (“the interviewer”) youth aged 18 and older receiving developed a schedule with the services at the program or shelter Administrative Study Liaison site was eligible to participate. that met the needs of both the Children under the age of 18 were research study and the program excluded as there was no parent or site. Interviews in Philadelphia legal guardian to provide consent took place during once-weekly to participate in the research study. scheduled research days over a 6-month period. Interviews in Each of the programs and Washington, DC and Phoenix organizations received a Site Guide occurred during scheduled multi- to orient them to the research day visits ranging from two to six purpose and process. Program staff consecutive research days. received a script to inform clients of the opportunity to participate The Administrative Study Liaison in a research study about their served as the primary contact experiences that have led them to seek services. Youth were informed between the Field Center and the that the purpose of the study is individual program site for the to help identify victims of work duration of the study. Each day, exploitation rather than a study of the Liaison reminded program human trafficking experiences in staff and clients of the interviews order to avoid bias. and encouraged more people to participate in the study. The Participation in the study was Liaison assigned each youth who voluntary, and whether youth chose completed the interview a unique to participate or not, the services participant ID number and ensured that they received were not affected that the Field Center did not in any way. duplicate any interviews.
8 University of Pennsylvania Throughout each research day, the what information the study was interviewer informed the Liaison requesting, how much time when interviews were completed would be required to participate and the next scheduled client could in the study, compensation and begin his or her interview session. risks, circumstances that would warrant breaching confidentiality, Enrollment. Upon agreeing and whether participation would to be scheduled for the study, affect their services. Youth had to prospective participants met with demonstrate understanding of their the interviewer in a private room rights as a research participant in at the shelter or program and were order to be enrolled in the study. read an informed consent form. Participants were verbally informed Each youth was provided with a by the interviewer of all information copy of the informed consent form, necessary to give informed consent. which included contact information Participants were reminded of their for the Principal Investigators and right to choose not to participate in the Office of Regulatory Affairs at the interview, to skip any questions the University of Pennsylvania, as they don’t want to answer, and to well as instructions for withdrawing end the interview at any time. If from the research study. A copy of they chose to end the interview the understanding of consent form because of discomfort, participants labeled with the participant’s unique still received the gift card. ID number was retained by the interviewer. If they chose to participate, youth were notified that everything Once the appropriate consent forms said in the interview will be kept were completed, the participants confidential. Youth were informed were formally enrolled in the study of the exception to confidentiality and the interview began. if reportable child abuse or neglect or the intention to harm oneself or Interview Process. All of the others were disclosed. interview sessions occurred in a private room at the shelter or The interviewer explained to program, away from caseworkers participants that they would and staff offices, with only the be asked questions about their interviewer present. The interviewer experiences that have led them to used a paper survey with printed seek services from the organization questions, for note-taking. Each where the interview was taking survey was labeled with the place, specifically, about their past participant’s unique ID number. All work and life experiences. It was interviews were digitally recorded clarified that youth did not need to and subsequently transcribed. No have had any work experiences in names were associated with audio order to participate in the study. recordings.
To ensure that participants The Field Center interviewer utilized understood the consent form, they the Human Trafficking Interview and were asked a series of questions Assessment Measure (HTIAM-10), about the purpose of the study, which has been validated by
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 9 Fordham University in New York or others. In the instance that a and trust was established. The City. This tool is designed to detect participant self-identified as a interviewer used normalizing and identify victims of human victim of human trafficking, they statements and conveyed trafficking, specifically, victims of were encouraged to inform their understanding and empathy to commercial sexual exploitation and caseworker so that appropriate communicate to participants that labor trafficking. follow-up services could be homeless youth often used a variety provided. The interviewer did not of strategies to survive. It was also Participants who identified that disclose such personal information found to be helpful to remind they engaged in any commercial to caseworkers without the participants frequently of their sex act were then administered the participant’s explicit permission. confidentiality. Child Welfare Supplemental Survey (CWSS) containing additional Interviews of homeless youth took Participants often had a hard time questions pertaining to potential place in Philadelphia, Phoenix, viewing many of their survival child welfare risk factors for and Washington, DC between strategies as work, which was the engaging in commercial sex and September 2016 and March language used in the assessment potential protective factors. This 2017. The interview length varied tool, so additional probing supplemental instrument developed from 20 minutes to two hours, questions were asked to generate by the University of Pennsylvania’s depending on the circumstances discussion around the items in Field Center for Children’s Policy, of the participant. One interviewer the HTIAM-10. Work was clearly Practice & Research asks victims conducted all of the interviews with defined as involving both legitimate of human trafficking and youth the participants. The interviewer and non-legitimate/illegal activities. who have engaged in commercial completed the CITI Human Youth who had limited or no sex about their history of child Subjects Protection course and legal or formal work experiences maltreatment, involvement in the was a Master’s level Social Worker spent less time speaking with the child welfare system, social support with extensive experience working interviewer and thus had less of networks, living situation, and directly with high-risk young adult a relationship in place when the preparation for independent living. populations. The questions on the questions about commercial sexual HTIAM-10 encouraged participants activity were asked. Both instruments were designed to share their experiences to elicit the self-report of human related to commercial sex and Some of the participants were trafficking experiences and child labor exploitation. A discussion assertive about their own welfare risk and protective factors, about work, survival strategies, boundaries regarding what they and were administered once and homelessness allowed the felt comfortable sharing. Youth per participant through a semi- interviewer to build rapport with who chose to skip questions or structured interview format. There the participants before asking entire sections were validated and was no follow-up contact with the more personal questions about respected. Participants on occasion participants after the interview. illegal activities and/or commercial became emotionally upset as the sex. Participants varied in their subject matter resulted in their At each of the shelters or program willingness to discuss sexual activity recalling prior difficult experiences. sites, caseworkers or clinical staff and it often proved useful to ask The interviewer provided support were available to counsel research repeat questions in a different to each youth who experienced participants in case of need. The manner later in the interview. stress during the interview, and interviewer made direct referrals to participants were reminded of their the Administrative Study Liaison if a It was helpful to repeat questions as right to terminate the interview participant shared non-confidential some participants provided different at any time. Youth experiencing information about child abuse answers as the survey progressed distress were referred to the on-site or the intention to harm oneself counselor, always with their consent.
10 University of Pennsylvania At the end of each interview, designation regarding their status as the interviewer debriefed with a trafficked person or whether the the participants and expressed items received in conjunction with a gratitude for the youth’s willingness sex act constituted a trade. to participate in the research study. With the exception of youth For each of the transcripts in referred directly to the liaison, which the interviewer was unable participants returned to regular site to determine trafficking status or programming after completing the sought further review, cases received interview. a second level review with the full research team. The team convened Case Review. Each of the for second-level review on three audio-recorded interviews was occasions, devoting one meeting transcribed. Next, the interviewer to each of the three cities in the carefully read every transcript to research study. Forty-three cases identify incidences of commercial were subjected to second-level sex or labor trafficking. For review overall. There were 12 cases participants who engaged in in DC requiring follow up, 13 in commercial sex, the interviewer Philadelphia, and 18 in Phoenix. used the definitions to assess whether the participant was a victim of human trafficking, either by trading sex while under age 18 or by engaging in commercial sex under force, fraud or coercion. Commercial sex was further explored to assess if the sex act was traded for money or another item of value, such as shelter, food, or drugs. The interviewer also identified (1) whether the participant disclosed survival sex and (2) described that sexual activity was the only way to obtain what they needed.
Many of the cases included clear indications of sex or labor trafficking due to the force of a third party or receiving money for a sex act while still a minor. However, some cases, especially those where commercial sex occurred voluntarily after age 18, required a more thorough assessment, as participants’ descriptions of their experiences may not have provided a clear
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 11 MEASURES Human Trafficking Interview & For this study several questions Assessment Measure (HTIAM-10), were added to the HTIAM-10 at (Bigelsen & Vuotto, 2013). We used the request of Covenant House the HTIAM-10, which was originally International to probe additional developed and validated by areas not included in the validated researchers at Fordham University, instrument. These included including material from the Vera questions about experience with Institute of Justice, with study homelessness, experience with participants served by Covenant trading sex, and the use of the House New York. The HTIAM-10 internet to promote sale of sex was designed specifically to assess (e.g., Backpage & Craigslist). trafficking victimization among clients served by Covenant House. Child Welfare Supplemental Since its original development by Survey (CWSS). The research team Fordham, the HTIAM-10 has been collaboratively developed the used in trafficking studies led by CWSS after first reviewing currently Loyola University New Orleans. available survey tools from ongoing child welfare and wellbeing studies The HTIAM-10 is designed as a including the Midwest Evaluation semi-structured interview protocol. of the Adult Functioning of Therefore, participants were asked Former Foster Youth, the National each question in a one-on-one, Study of Child & Adolescent face-to-face interview format. This Wellbeing (NSCAW), the National allowed for additional probing and Longitudinal Study of Adolescent follow-up by the interviewer. to Adult Health (Add Health), and the Longitudinal Studies on Child The HTIAM-10 evokes stories from Abuse & Neglect (LONGSCAN). participants regarding their labor Through a series of team meetings, and sexual exploitation experiences which included discussion of that would indicate whether the purpose and goals of the they had been victims of human supplemental survey and question trafficking. The questions focus on development, we leveraged “force, fraud, or coercion,” which are our collective experience as the trademarks of human trafficking child welfare researchers and and also assess the age at which a practitioners to design a tool participant might have engaged in that captures maltreatment commercial sex acts. The HTIAM-10 experiences, child welfare system also collects data on demographics involvement, living situation, (age, gender, sexual orientation, preparation for independent living, race/ethnicity, education, citizenship and support systems. status, and parenting status), and immigration status.
12 University of Pennsylvania ANALYTIC PROCEDURES
Quantitative. Quantitative Qualitative. For the qualitative assistance or information that a data were analyzed through portion of the study, a conventional young person was not given that s/ means and frequencies. Where content analysis approach was he wishes they were given to help comparing groups, for example, utilized to guide data analysis (Hsieh them learn to live independently. of characteristics of those who & Shannon, 2005). This involved After coding for these sub-themes, were victims of sex trafficking using an a priori coding structure we used an iterative, inductive with those who were not, applied to the transcribed interview process to identify concepts and bivariate tests were utilized: data based on the themes of themes within each sub-them to t-tests for continuous variables interest for this study: (1) anything better understand the experiences and chi-square and Fisher’s exact that could have prevented a young of homeless youth who experience tests for categorical data. person from being in a victimization victimization and exploitation, as and/or exploitation situation or how well as what could have prevented others could have helped them these experiences from happening avoid these situations, (2) advice a from their perspective. The last young person would give to others step involved an effort to identify who are going through similar, (3) exemplary codes and construct a what a young person would tell more parsimonious understanding his/her younger self in the midst of the data. of these experiences, and (4) any
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 13 Results
Results are presented in two parts: HTIAM-10, and CWSS. In addition to the quantitative and qualitative HTIAM-10 and CWSS data, exemplary quotations from participants pertaining to each finding are included.
HTIAM-10. The following section presents overall results from the HTIAM-10 for the three cities. Data are presented on sex trafficking, labor trafficking, overall human trafficking, commercial sex, and survival sex rates by demographic characteristics.
Figure 4 BREAKDOWN OF EXPLOITATIVE EXPERIENCES AMONG HOMELESS YOUTH (N=270)
All Homeless Youth (n=270)
Experienced Exploitation or Psychological/ Financial Coercion (n=203, 75%)
Trafficking Commercial Survival Sex Other Exploitation (n=53, 20%) Sex (n=39, 14%) or Coercion (n=98, 36%) (n=182, 67%)
Sex Labor Trafficking Trafficking (n=45, 17%) (n=15, 6%)
Force, Fraud, Under 18 Coercion (n=39, 14%) (n=19, 7%)
Categories are not mutually exclusive (i.e., an individual can be both a victim of trafficking and have engaged in commercial sex, and would be counted in both boxes). Percentages represent the share of all homeless youth (270)
14 University of Pennsylvania Figure 5 HUMAN TRAFFICKING Fifty-three (20%) of the 270 HUMAN TRAFFICKING BY TYPE homeless youth reported being a victim of human trafficking. This section provides some understanding of the characteristics and life experiences of those who experienced trafficking.
Figure 5 provides the breakdown of the rates of human trafficking types. Eighty-five percent (45) of the 53 people who experienced Sex Labor human trafficking were victims of Trafficking Trafficking sex trafficking. Most of them (38) 38 7 8 experienced only sex trafficking, (14%) (2.6%) (2.9%) while seven were victims of both sex and labor trafficking.
As shown in Table 1, victims of trafficking of any type were more likely to be female (53%) or transgender (11%) relative to the rest of the sample (38% and 4%, respectively). They were also less educated, being 72% more likely to have dropped out of high school than the full sample of 270. Although the small sample sizes of some racial and ethnic groups make it difficult to draw meaningful inferences, there were some patterns. Whites were underrepresented among trafficking victims. They were also more likely to be Latino or multiracial, and much less likely to be African-American. They were also more than twice as likely (23% vs 10%) to be bisexual than non- trafficking victims.
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 15 TABLE 1: CHARACTERISTICS OF TRAFFICKING VICTIMS COMPARED TO FULL SAMPLE OF HOMELESS YOUTH
Any Trafficking Labor Trafficked Sex Trafficked Full Sample
N % N % N % N % Gender Male 19 36% 11 73% 14 31% 155 57% Female 28 53% 4 27% 25 56% 103 38% Transgender 6 11% 0 0% 6 13% 10 4% Other 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 2 1%
Race White 5 9% 1 7% 5 11% 38 14% Black or African American 24 45% 6 40% 20 44% 153 57% American Indian & Alaska Native 2 4% 1 7% 1 2% 11 4% Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander 1 2% 1 7% 1 2% 2 1% Latino 9 17% 1 7% 9 20% 23 9% Multiracial 9 17% 3 20% 7 16% 36 13% Other 2 4% 1 7% 2 4% 5 2% Refused to answer 1 2% 1 7% 0 0% 2 1%
Highest level of education Some high school/Dropped out 23 43% 2 18% 20 44% 67 25% Some high school/Still attending 8 15% 2 18% 7 16% 35 13% HS diploma received 12 23% 4 36% 10 22% 106 39% GED completed 3 6% 0 0% 3 7% 8 3% Some college 6 11% 3 27% 4 9% 51 19% College completed 1 2% 0 0% 1 2% 3 1%
U.S. Citizen Yes 51 96% 14 93% 44 98% 260 96% No 2 4% 1 7% 1 2% 10 4%
Sexual Orientation Heterosexual/straight 34 64% 13 87% 27 60% 210 78% Homosexual/gay/lesbian 2 4% 0 0% 2 4% 15 6% Bisexual 12 23% 1 7% 12 27% 26 10% Pansexual 4 8% 1 7% 3 7% 11 4% Refused to answer 1 2% 0 0% 1 2% 8 3%
Average SD Average SD Average SD Average SD Age 20.09 2 20.02 1.9 20.13 2.1 20.7 2
16 University of Pennsylvania SEX TRAFFICKING Seventeen percent of the 270 of a family, transgender teenagers homeless youth interviewed sometimes resorted to trading sex On the same night reported that they were victims for money or other needs. One that she left her of sex trafficking; Table 1 provides transgender participant, who was demographic information on this a sex trafficking victim by virtue of mother’s house, she group. Sex-trafficking victims were engaging in commercial sex acts met a man on the more likely to be female (56% of all while under the age of 18, was sex trafficking survivors vs. 38% of kicked out of her family’s home street who became her overall sample) and Latino, and less after coming out when she was a pimp. The pimp kept likely to be African American. They teenager. She was homeless and were less likely to be straight or living alone on the streets, so she her hidden and out of gay, and more likely to be bisexual turned to prostitution as a way to school, and forced her (27% vs. 10%). The small sample survive. She reported it as a horrible sizes in these categories influence experience, saying “When I don't to have sex with adult our capacity to dependably want to do [the sexual] things they men for a year before compare across groups, but the want, they pull my hair, they slap my patterns are noteworthy. face, they threaten me with a gun.” police discovered her at age 11. Education also appeared to play Other transgender respondents a role, as did gender and sexual reported commercial sexual orientation. Forty-four percent of exploitation as children that were sex trafficked youth had dropped unrelated to homelessness or their out of high school and only 11% gender. An adult female currently completed at least some college, completing a gender transition compared to 20% of all 270. at the time of the interview, was Those who received a GED or molested and raped by a family dropped out of high school were friend as a male child at the age also overrepresented among of 13. Her abuser then began sex-trafficked youth compared to coercively exploiting her for money, the rest of the sample. Bisexual stating that “he let other guys come and transgender participants were in and touch me and I gave them overrepresented among the sex- blow jobs. He got paid for it.” trafficked survivors. If we look at prevalence rates within subgroups, Sex trafficked youth entered the sixty percent of transgender youth sex trade under markedly different were sex trafficked, compared circumstances, compared to those to 24% of females and 9% of who engaged in non-trafficking males. Identifying as bisexual commercial sex. They were more was the next strongest predictor likely to have been approached (46%), more than triple the rate of for sex (85% vs. 75%), and slightly straight and gay participants, and nearly twice the rate of those who identified as pansexual. 41% of sex trafficked Of those respondents who identified as transgender, many youth were reported negative coming-out approached for sex on experiences, which led to their homelessness. Without the physical, their very first night of financial, and emotional support homelessness.
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 17 more likely (62% vs. 57%) to be incarceration during her teenage approached while homeless. Of this years, before finally seeking services at a youth shelter. subgroup, 41% were approached The physical force for sex on their very first night of homelessness. Although understanding the used by pimps and rates and characteristics of sex traffickers ranged from It was especially common for female trafficking victims is important, it respondents to report frequent is equally valuable to understand violent assaults to offers of money in exchange for the differences in the two ways in threats of murder. sex. One young woman reported which participants were categorized that while she was homeless and as having been victims of sex on the streets, she was approached trafficking. As seen in Figure 6, “numerous times.” Cars pulled 19 of the 45 sex trafficking victims over while she was simply walking were all victims of force, fraud, or down the street and offered her a coercion, two-thirds of them while ride, a hotel room, or help if she also underage. Figure 6 performed a sex act for them. Sex Trafficking Category Another female says she was The physical force used by pimps approached for sex “everywhere.” and traffickers ranged from violent One time it happened when she assaults to threats of murder. was 15 and working at a fast food One female participant met her 57% (n=25) restaurant. An older man asked trafficker at a party when she was Age if she would give him oral sex 14 years old. After entering into 14% (n=6) for some money. Although this a relationship with him that she Force, Fraud, or Coercion time she declined and reported believed to be based on love, he the situation to her manager, the began pressuring her to sleep with 29% (n=13) Both continued offers of money for sex other men to prove that she loved acts eventually changed her mind, him. Once she began prostituting and a man she initially believed to for him, he threatened to kill her if be her boyfriend exploited her. she ever stopped. She eventually learned that he was pimping Respondents who were exploited out many other women as well, by traffickers as children often had advertising the girls for sex on vulnerabilities making them easier Backpage, and she often observed targets for those looking to take him violently beating them when advantage of them. When one they didn’t obey his orders. female respondent was repeatedly Although she lived with her mother raped as a young child by her and father while prostituting, Respondents who mother’s boyfriend, she eventually she says her family never asked reported drug ran away from her mother’s home at questions or realized what was age 10. On the same night that she going on. addictions were left her mother’s house, she met a particularly vulnerable man on the street who became her Another female respondent talked to the force, fraud, pimp. The pimp kept her hidden about how quickly her relationship and out of school, and forced her to with her exploiter changed, stating: or coercion of a third have sex with adult men for a year before police discovered her at age party. 11. Despite her eventual rescue, she later cycled through experiences of homelessness, psychiatric hospitalization, prostitution and
18 University of Pennsylvania “I know a couple of days after when Basically what I had to do was I started crying, he used to act like either run errands for the person Predators and he cared at first. And like, ‘Oh, it’s or sell drugs or have sex with okay. I understand. You just need somebody and get the money.” exploiters may take to calm down. You’re grown now. She eventually agreed to work advantage of very You got to do what you got to do. for him because he offered her You’re on your own.’ But by the end protection. young children who of that week it was him choking me not only cannot legally up, ‘You need to do what the guys For participants who were trafficked tell you to do.’ It was either I did it through force, fraud, or coercion consent to a sexual act, or he would grip me up, smack me in ongoing situations, fear for their but also are lacking up, or beat me—like he used to physical safety, either through beat me with a belt like literally.” violent repercussions or having no the developmental other resources, was a big factor maturity to understand Respondents who reported drug in remaining with their exploiter. A addictions were particularly young lady who was exploited by the implications of their vulnerable to the force, fraud, or her violent boyfriend for about a actions. coercion of a third party. These year finally got the courage to call youth often had burned bridges her estranged mother and begged with other caring adults, leaving to return home. Although her them few options to support their relationship with her mother didn’t physical needs or battle their last, and she ended up at a youth addiction. A female respondent shelter, she never returned to her shared that while she had begun abusive exploiter: prostituting at age 17 because of a drug addiction, she didn’t “I realize now that I was completely experience exploitation at the depressed in it because I felt hands of a third party until later like I couldn’t do anything. I was when she was a legal adult. She powerless like I couldn’t do nothing. had entered into a romantic I can’t eat, I can’t sleep, if I don’t relationship with her dealer, who have this man, he’s not taking care began selling her for sex without of me, I’m not going to be able to her knowledge or consent while live, point blank, period.” she was high, sometimes when she was semi-conscious. Eventually One female participant who was he threatened to kill her and unhappy at home was exploited her family if she ever left him. through most of high school by She finally escaped her trafficker the man she believed to be her when she was placed directly boyfriend. If she tried to leave him, into a drug rehab program from a she “would be killed or beaten hospitalization. really bad. I always watch like witness protection movies and Another female reported moving could have been involved in the into a homeless shelter when she witness protection program.” She was 21 because she was addicted finally escaped by lying about to drugs and didn’t have family physical abuse in her biological support. While in the shelter, she family to child protective service was recruited into prostitution by workers and her probation officer, a man in his 60’s. She described resulting in her being removed and him as a “father figure,” saying, placed in out-of-home care. “He would take care of the girls like me so that, you know, junkies, druggies won’t mess with us.
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 19 The remaining 57% of the 45 Other participants who entered into were categorized as sex trafficking the sex trade during their teenage For most of the victims based entirely on age, years were able to identify gaps in meaning that while victims could their existing resources and prior youth who were not legally consent to commercial experiences that led them to sell both sex and labor sexual activity because they were sex. A transgender respondent said under 18, they did not engage in that she was living in foster care and trafficked, violent and commercial sex as a result of force, felt bad asking her foster mother for traumatic childhoods fraud, or coercion. things, so she began prostituting at age 15. A woman she met online were common, and Predators and exploiters may take on a dating app suggested the idea respondents often advantage of very young children to her, so she began seeking her who not only cannot legally consent own dates online and in person. engaged in illegal to a sexual act, but also are lacking Despite being currently connected activities and forced the developmental maturity to with services, she still occasionally understand the implications of their sells sex as a way to bring in quick sexual acts at the money. She said: demands of family
“When I was younger, “When I was younger, I was raped members or other I was raped and and molested so it was like I always trusted adults. thought it was okay to go out and molested so it was like have sex with different people I always thought it was because this happened, and then I just became very promiscuous and okay to go out and I started doing all these things and have sex with different then getting all the money and stuff like that, so I thought it was okay. people because this Am I trying to stop it? Yes.” happened.” Another female respondent identified poverty and wanting to support her family as the deciding actions. One bisexual male who factor in selling sex, while still a traded sex for money on and off minor at age 17. Her mother was throughout his life recalls that he was struggling in a difficult low-wage first approached for sex when he was job and her father was not helping. 9 years old. A complete stranger he She said: met in the neighborhood offered him $200 for oral sex, and he “I did what I had to do. My brother accepted, as the money seemed too did what he had to do. He started much to pass up. selling drugs. I started [selling sex].
20 University of Pennsylvania Nobody knew that cause I kept it gang, he was forced to sell drugs. to myself. Me and my brother knew He quickly progressed to making we was doing things that we wasn’t money in other ways, accepting supposed to, but at the end of the money from both women and day we didn’t care cause we was men for sex when offered, and bringing money to the table and was pimping women by the time my little brother and sister were he was 16. Eventually the violent good. Me and my brother had the gang lifestyle caught up with him mentality that we could survive. We and after an assault that almost pretty much knew we don’t wanna killed him, he decided to leave the do this. This is not our type of gang forever. Reflecting back on his lifestyle but we have to do it for our teenage years, he reported: younger brother and sister cause, at the end of the day, if we don’t do it, “From the age of 13 through the nobody wasn’t gonna do it.” age of 21, I would literally go back and forth between homies’ houses For most of the youth who were but then I would get picked up both sex and labor trafficked, by females. I’d be walking up and violent and traumatic childhoods down the street slinging [drugs] were common, and respondents and they’ll come and pick me up. often engaged in illegal activities They’ll ask me where I’m going. I’d and forced sexual acts at the say ‘well, I’m going to go drop off demands of family members or something over here,’ and they’d other trusted adults. One male be like `oh well, we’ll take you.’ respondent reported that he moved Next thing you know they’re paying into his father's house, which was me for sex.” frequented by drug users, sellers, partiers, and violent criminals, The categorization of sex trafficking when he was 11 years old. He (force, fraud, or coercion vs. was immediately taught how to age) was highly correlated with prepare and sell drugs. At first he demographic and background reported feeling scared, but he characteristics. Most notably, didn't want his father to put him victims of force, fraud, or coercion out, so he agreed. Starting around were more than twice as likely to age 12, older women ranging in be female than those categorized age from 17 to 50 began offering as sex trafficking victims based on him money for sex. He went along age (79% vs. 36%), although the with it because he didn't want to be average age at which youth were teased by his family. first sexually exploited was the same for men and women (17). Another male joined a gang for Sex trafficking victims experiencing protection when he was 13 and, force, fraud, or coercion were 20 as part of his commitment to the percentage points more likely to
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 21 have dropped out of high school (58% vs. 38%) and 14 percentage points more likely to be either bisexual or pansexual (48% vs. 34%) compared to minor sex trafficking victims.
There was a strong relationship between sex trafficking victimization and commercial sex. Forty-six percent of those who engaged in commercial sex were victims of sex trafficking, compared to 54% who were not. Most of that 46% exchanged sex for money, as opposed to other goods or necessities. Sex trafficking was also associated with survival sex: 46% of those who engaged in survival sex were sex trafficking victims, while 11% of those who did not engage in survival sex were sex trafficked. In addition, labor trafficking was associated with sex trafficking, with 47% of labor trafficking victims also experiencing sex trafficking.
Eighty-four percent of those who were sex trafficked were approached by someone wanting them to sell sex, compared to 82% of those who were engaged in commercial sex but not sex trafficked. The timing of that approach—whether or not someone was homeless when approached, and how soon after homelessness someone was approached—was not related to sex trafficking rates.
22 University of Pennsylvania SURVIVAL SEX Fourteen percent of the sample, house. I was in the beginning but One young person or 39 youth, reported engaging it broke down early so I got kind reported trading sex in survival sex. Youth received a of used to it. I used to get kicked variety of items in exchange for out when I was real young. I’m to help her take care sexual activity. The most commonly talking about when I was probably of her daughter as a reported item received by youth like 11.” For many young men like who engaged in survival sex was him, turning to illegal activities single mother, stating, shelter or a place to stay, cited was a common way to meet one’s “It was quick and easy by 30 participants. Many youth needs. Unfortunately, criminal reported that staying in the homes justice involvement, convictions, and I needed to get my of adults who could meet their and serving prison time made it daughter some milk.” needs was preferable to living even harder for these youth to on the streets, even when they succeed in legitimate work upon demanded sexual acts in exchange their reentry. He summarized his for housing. reentry process, saying: “I can always find how to get money. But This study utilized a narrow coming home from prison without definition of survival sex to describe supportive family, meeting a girl the trading of a sex act for a basic to provide necessities like housing need that the respondent could was a good way to survive.” not find a way to otherwise meet. Although many youth reported Of those who engaged in survival trading sex for money or other sex, 25 reported receiving both items of value after age 18, they are money and other non-monetary excluded here if they did not trade items of value in exchange for a sex to meet a basic life need, such sexual act. While in and out of as food and shelter. homeless shelters, one participant reported using social media and Compared to others that engaged dating apps for the explicit purpose in commercial sex, these 39 were of finding sexual partners who more likely to be female (49%), as would provide him with needed shown in Table 2, although other items, such as money, food, and demographic groups did not vary hotel rooms. much. The youth who engaged in survival sex were more likely to Eleven of those who engaged in be approached for sex while they survival sex traded sex for a non- were homeless (62%) than those monetary item only. One young who engaged in only non-survival man reported that while he was commercial sex; nine (45%) were running away from various foster approached for sex on their very homes, an adult woman who first night of homelessness. They worked as a school counselor took were also more likely to report him in. She was initially kind and extensive histories of family welcoming, but gradually began to dysfunction, often having been put ask for sex in exchange for allowing out or left to survive on the streets him to stay in her home. He as children. One male participant reported that he felt uncomfortable stated, “I wasn’t born in a stable engaging in sex with an adult, but
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 23 TABLE 2: CHARACTERISTICS OF THOSE WHO ENGAGED IN SURVIVAL SEX COMPARED TO FULL SAMPLE OF HOMELESS YOUTH One female participant
Survival Sex Full Sample explained that she constantly feared for N % N % Gender her physical safety. Male 15 38% 155 57% She strategically dated Female 19 49% 103 38% and engaged in sex Transgender 4 10% 10 4% Other 1 3% 2 1% acts with men at the shelter for the purpose Race of having a bodyguard White 7 18% 38 14% around. Black or African American 22 56% 153 57% American Indian & Alaska Native 0 0% 11 4% Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific 0 0% 2 1% Islander Latino 4 10% 23 9% Multiracial 6 15% 36 13% Other 0 0% 5 2% Refused to answer 0 0% 2 1%
Highest level of education HS diploma received 12 31% 106 39% Some college 7 18% 51 19% GED completed 3 8% 8 3% Some high school/Still attending 5 13% 35 13% College completed 0 0% 3 1% Some high school/Dropped out 12 31% 67 25%
U.S. Citizen Yes 39 100% 260 96% No 0 0% 10 4%
Sexual Orientation Heterosexual/straight 23 59% 210 78% Homosexual/gay/lesbian 5 13% 15 6% Bisexual 6 15% 26 10% Pansexual 3 8% 11 4% Refused to answer 2 5% 8 3%
Average SD Average SD Age 20.2 1.9 20.7 2
24 University of Pennsylvania his friends encouraged him, and constantly feared for her physical Figure 7 he needed a place to stay. “This safety. She strategically dated and REASON BEGAN TRADING SEX, lady let me stay at her house. I kind engaged in sex acts with men at the AMONG SURVIVAL SEX VICTIMS of explained my story to her but I shelter for the purpose of having a Shelter don’t think she really cared. She just bodyguard around. She stated, “It’s 77% really wanted me to stay for sex.” just like you protect me and I’ll give you what you want.” Money Three participants traded sex 67% for money when they were in a Youth who resorted to survival sex Food desperate situation and had no conveyed a sense of desperation, 54% other way to meet their needs. using what amounted to their last One young person reported resorts to get by and make it to the Drugs trading sex to help her take next day. Participants demonstrated 26% care of her daughter as a single clear awareness of the choices they Other mother. She would contact men were making while also expressing 18% she thought of as “friends with disappointment in their lives. benefits” and would engage in Love of Trafficker 15% sex acts with them in exchange One transgender youth began for money. “It was quick and easy prostituting to save for surgery to Running from Abuse and I needed to get my daughter complete a medical transition from 13% some milk.” male to female, sharing that: Fear of Trafficker 8% The reasons for engaging in survival “This whole entire sex thing is sex were more limited than reasons based around my transitioning. expressed by participants for My goal is to become a part of engaging in commercial sex. Unlike society without even having second commercial sex, in which money guesses on me, just being able to was the primary motivator, shelter participate with everyone else not was the most common reason (77%) even getting looked at twice.” participants reported for engaging in survival sex, followed closely by A respondent shared that after A respondent shared money and food. Drugs (26%) were being sexually abused for several that after being sexually a less frequently cited reason for years in foster care, she left on survival sex. One notable difference her own and began trading sex abused for several was that those who engaged in with those who offered love, years in foster care, she survival sex were more likely to money, food, and a sense of do so because they were running safety. She said: left on her own and from abuse (13%) than those who began trading sex with engaged in commercial sex. “There’s been a couple of times where I slept with people that I those who offered love, Some of the “other” reasons that knew and some people that I didn’t money, food, and a youth reported trading sex were know just to get by. It’s not the fact transportation and protection. that I wanted to choose this. It’s like sense of safety. One female participant explained I felt like I was at my end-road. I that, prior to meeting her didn’t know what to do or where to current boyfriend and finding an go or who to turn to.” abandoned house to stay in, she lived in a public shelter where she
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 25 SEX TRAFFICKING “CLOSE CALLS” In addition to the 45 respondents because he knew how scared I who reported trafficking, there would be and he didn’t want me were two additional participants going out and telling on them. I who reported traumatic encounters would have to sit in the room with with traffickers but were able the other girl’s pimp and him.” to escape or avoid commercial She witnessed the pimp violently sexual exploitation. The data do physically and sexually assaulting not capture these participants, her friend, including putting hot yet their experiences demonstrate curling irons inside of her, while attempted human trafficking. Their threatening to do the same to her. stories illustrate circumstances that She finally escaped by getting a very well could have resulted in sex text message to a friend’s mom, trafficking, underscoring the scope knowing that she would likely be and prevalence of the problem, killed if she was caught doing so. and for these reasons we describe The police eventually raided the them here. hotel room, arrested those involved in trafficking, and rescued this respondent.
One young woman Another young woman reported reported that when she that when she was 9 years old, her mother “sold her to a pimp” was 9 years old, her for some drugs. She watched her mother “sold her to a mother exchange something with a man on a street corner, and then pimp” for some drugs. her mother left her with an adult male stranger. He took her to a house where other young girls were waiting, dressed up in heels and At age 15, one female participant makeup. She watched him assault was invited by another girl with another young girl and then forced whom she was in a group home to her to dress up. He brought a see what life on the road was like group of girls to a corner where a for someone in the music industry. 13-year-old girl told her they were Instead, she was brought to a hotel supposed to “go have sex.” As room where the girl was working for soon as she heard this, she started a pimp. After she arrived, she was running and eventually made it to kept captive in the hotel room with her grandmother’s house. two other women for a month. The very first night the pimp raped her. He choked her and forced himself At age 15, one female on her. Although the other girls were forced to work as prostitutes, participant ... was kept this woman was never let out of captive in a hotel room the pimp’s sight. She said, “He wouldn’t let me leave the room with two other women for a month. The very first night the pimp raped her.
26 University of Pennsylvania TABLE 3: CHARACTERISTICS OF THOSE WHO ENGAGED IN COMMERCIAL SEX COMPARED TO FULL SAMPLE OF HOMELESS YOUTH
Commercial Sex Full Sample
N % N % Gender Male 43 44% 155 57% Female 47 48% 103 38% Transgender 7 7% 10 4% Other 1 1% 2 1%
Race White 16 16% 38 14% Black or African American 49 50% 153 57% American Indian & Alaska Native 2 2% 11 4% Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific 1 1% 2 1% Islander Latino 11 11% 23 9% Multiracial 16 16% 36 13% Other 2 2% 5 2% Refused to answer 1 1% 2 1%
Highest level of education HS diploma received 27 28% 106 39% Some college 21 21% 51 19% GED completed 6 6% 8 3% Some high school/Still attending 14 14% 35 13% College completed 3 3% 3 1% Some high school/Dropped out 27 28% 67 25%
U.S. Citizen Yes 96 98% 260 96% No 2 2% 10 4%
Sexual Orientation Heterosexual/straight 64 65% 210 78% Homosexual/gay/lesbian 7 7% 15 6% Bisexual 17 17% 26 10% Pansexual 7 7% 11 4% Refused to answer 3 3% 8 3%
Average SD Average SD Age 20.2 2.1 20.7 2
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 27 COMMERCIAL SEX Thirty-six percent of the sample 10 percentage points more likely 75% of those who (98 youth) reported engaging to be female (48% vs. 38%), 6 in commercial sex. One female percentage points more likely to engaged in commercial participant in her early 20’s, have not finished high school, (48% sex were approached currently residing at a program vs. 41%) and 7 percentage points for homeless youth and engaging (17% vs. 10%) more likely to be by someone else in services, reported thinking bisexual. There were no significant wanting them to sell differences between the age, race, of becoming an escort because or citizenship of participants. sex. For more than half, she was unsuccessful in finding or maintaining stable income this occurred while This disproportionality represents elsewhere. She was scared and statistically significant differences in they were experiencing embarrassed, but had been participation rates across groups, researching escorting on the homelessness. with marginalized groups facing the Internet to learn if it was something highest risks. Seventy percent of she wanted to do. She was so transgender participants engaged ashamed to admit that she was in commercial sex, compared Participants varied greatly in the considering escorting that she to only 46% of females, 28% of circumstances that led them to waited until the interview was over males, and 50% who identified as exchange sex for money or other and the recorders were turned off “other.” Similarly, 65% of those who needs. Seventy-three participants, before asking the interviewer if she engaged in commercial sex were representing 75% of those who could share this information. bisexual, as compared to 64% who engaged in commercial sex, were were pansexual, 47% who were gay, approached by someone else and 30% who were straight. wanting them to sell sex. For One female participant more than half (47), this occurred while they were experiencing The lines between commercial sex, in her early 20’s, homelessness, and this often survival sex, and human trafficking occurred early in their homeless currently residing at a as discussed previously, are often experience. Nearly half of the 47 blurry, with participants frequently program for homeless (19), representing more than two- moving between categories and thirds of those who remembered youth and engaging often inhabiting multiple categories the timeline of their commercial at once—like a 17-year old in services, reported sex work, were recruited within the selling sex, thus both engaging in first week of becoming homeless. thinking of becoming commercial sex and being a victim Fourteen were recruited into selling of sex trafficking. an escort because she sex on their very first night of homelessness. More than half of all was unsuccessful in Respondents who engaged in overt youth who engaged in commercial prostitution, or the act of having finding or maintaining sex (51) felt some level of coercion sex in exchange for money, after to engage in this activity. stable income the age of 18 without force, fraud or coercion or due to desperation elsewhere. The average age of a respondent’s had a variety of reasons and first commercial sexual encounter justifications for their behavior, was 17.3 years (SD=1.7). Responses including peer pressure, pleasure, ranged from the age of 8 to 24, with Table 3 presents demographic and financial payoff. Even when a modal age of 19 (15 responses). characteristics for the 98 youth they knew they were making unsafe Three-quarters of the responses who reported engaging in a or dangerous choices, youth often (73) clustered between 15 and 20 commercial sex act at some point found it difficult to walk away from as the age of their first exploitive in their lives. Compared to the the opportunity to profit from sexual encounter. Participants overall sample, these 98 were sexual activity.
28 University of Pennsylvania also described a range of paths Figure 8 into commercial sex. When asked MAIN REASONS BEGAN to name the person who most TRADING SEX, AMONG THOSE encouraged them to get into the ENGAGED IN COMMERCIAL SEX sex trade, the most common answer Money (20) was himself/herself; followed 74% by significant other (18) and acquaintance (15). Shelter 52%
Participants felt compelled into Drugs commercial sex as the result of 27% a wide range of circumstances Other and reasons. When asked about 18% their main reasons for beginning to trade sex, the most frequent Love of Trafficker answer—common to three-quarters 13% of everyone that engaged in Fear of Trafficker commercial sex—was money. 8% Following that, people traded sex for shelter or money for shelter Running from Abuse (52%) or for drugs (27%). Smaller 8% percentages responded that their One transgender female reported commercial sex was primarily that she and a group of friends, compelled by either positive or all legal adults, were hanging negative emotions or circumstances out at a gay bar and, after some regarding another individual. encouragement and peer pressure Thirteen percent participated out from the group, she agreed to of expressed love for a trafficker participate in “selling themselves” or exploiter, and 8% were either to people driving by. She received running from abuse or acted out $40 for having sex with a complete of fear of the person pushing them stranger. She said it was “a weird into commercial sex. experience” and dangerous because “you don’t know these people and you’re going to a More than half of all different location.”
youth who engaged A male participant shared a story in commercial sex felt from when he was 19 years old. While hanging out at a restaurant, some level of coercion he was approached by a complete to engage in the stranger, an older woman, who propositioned him for sex and activity. promised to pay him $500. He was reluctant at first, but eventually he and a friend agreed to go with her, as the $500 seemed too lucrative to pass up. After the sex exchange, the woman refused to pay the money,
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 29 and his friend began threatening not underage at the time of their her with a knife. Instead of receiving employment as a stripper or those Of the youth who payment for sex as promised, this who did not feel forced into it by young man was arrested when a third a third party or desperation, their engaged in commercial party called the police. commercial sex activity was only sex, 61% engaged included in the non-trafficking, non- Of the youth who engaged in survival sex prevalence statistics in in commercial sexual commercial sex, 61% engaged this section. intercourse or other in commercial sexual intercourse sex acts where sex or other sex acts where sex was One gay male worked at gay show traded for a non-monetary item clubs when he was running low was traded for a non- on money. He reported being of value, most frequently drugs or monetary item of value, housing. One bisexual man who bullied by other dancers at the had been hitchhiking around the club for making more money than most frequently drugs them, often up to $500/night, but country described his attempts at or housing. “freeganism,” a lifestyle of living he never had any problems with without money. Throughout his managers or employers; overall travels he would meet men who he described it as fun. A female participant differentiated stripping provided him with a place to stay, and Another young man said, “I love from other commercial sex, stating, often places to party, in exchange the money. Especially like if I’m “It’s not like you’re giving up sex, for sex. He was very clear that it having sex, I’m making money and you’re just dancing.” Some female was voluntary and consensual, but I’m getting pleasure. A man can’t respondents reported leaving that sex was a requirement for the beat that.” The feeling of enjoyment employment as strippers only due invitation to go home with them. was not ubiquitous among male to getting pregnant. One explained, respondents. One straight male “I don’t want that to be brought Even for youth who did not engage reluctantly shared that during his to my son like `hey, I seen your in any physical sex acts, there was meth addiction he was approached mom dancing at the club.’ That’s awareness that one’s sexuality could by a neighbor who offered him “a embarrassing for a child.” be a strategic way to obtain needed bunch of money to let him touch items. One female respondent me.” Despite initially saying no, For the young men who reported bartered sex videos that she sent to a after repeated pressure and offers of receiving something of value in male she met in school in exchange money and drugs, he accepted. exchange for a sex act, there for him driving her wherever she was often a sense of pride or needed to go. The female respondents who accomplishment in being able to engaged in commercial sex not obtain income for an activity they due to a survival strategy or Another youth worked as a phone sex found pleasurable in the first place. trafficking victimization showed operator, which she generally enjoyed They were more likely to report more hesitancy than men overall because she made good money feeling in control of the situation in endorsing commercial sex. For and never had any trouble with the or the ability to make money with example, one participant began employing company or payment little effort. structure. Others sold pornographic working at restaurants like Hooters and progressed to working at well- photos online, receiving payment yet There was a certain bravado established strip clubs in major cities. maintaining a feeling of safety and displayed by some of the male She and other female respondents anonymity, as they never met the respondents, easily adhering to were generally critical of the purchasers of their photos. society’s expectation for men to be commercial sex trade. Although she desired or experienced lovers. One was never forced into any work, she Employment in strip clubs was adult male told the interviewer, “I've said stripping “scared me at first. I a common source of income for been using females for money if I just wanted to cry because I was not the homeless youth in this survey, don’t really want them. They just like used to that kind of stuff.” Although including both legal clubs as well as to be around me. I do something she made a great deal of money, underground or illegally operating sexual and the next thing they just establishments. For youth who were give me some money.”
30 University of Pennsylvania sometimes up to $1,000/night, she life or said that they simply could not was never happy doing the work continue lucrative commercial sex, “It’s been plenty of and eventually left the sex industry such as stripping, with a pregnant altogether. woman’s body. times that I told them I would never go back Other females who received non- Many of those who were exploited monetary items in exchange for sex as minors cited financial reasons for to that lifestyle and spoke about their choices rather their choices. A female respondent then I always found dryly, conveying a sense of necessity stated that she never wanted to trade rather than enjoyment in the sex act. sex, but her homelessness and lack of myself in a position One respondent says that at age 19, support left her with few options: where I kind of didn’t “I wasn’t addicted but my relief was weed, and my drug dealer made me “I’m going to keep it real. I started have a choice but to, sleep with him. I was only using sex selling my body. I was going from because when you to get the weed. It was what calmed pillar to post, and when you going me. It’s what helped my PTSD.” from pillar to post it’s a lot. You do a don’t have a high lot of things to keep money in your school diploma and pocket to eat, all those type of things, Female respondents were intimately you’re putting in for aware of the dangers of trading sex so yeah. I’ve stripped before. I didn’t but, due to the frequent traumas really like doing those things cause 1,000 job applications it wasn’t something that I enjoyed they were experiencing in other a day and you don’t aspects of their lives, they were not cause as I was telling you it was often deterred from entering such always just for the money.” hear a callback from arrangements. One participant anyone, you don’t reported using social media and Another female respondent admitted dating apps to meet men to drive that despite having previously looked have much left to do.” her home after work in exchange down on commercial sex and never for flirting or kissing. She coldly picturing herself doing it, she had described getting raped one night traded sex not long before the by a male who was driving her home interview. “I’m going to be honest didn’t have a choice but to, because and threatened to drop her off in the with you, I probably did it like three when you don’t have a high school middle of nowhere in the dark if she weeks ago, but I didn’t get money. diploma and you’re putting in for didn’t have sex with him. “He pulled I needed somewhere to go.” Even 1,000 job applications a day and up to a random place and it was though she recently traded sex, she you don’t hear a callback from really scary. He just did it, and that expressed that she wishes she could anyone, you don’t have much left was my first time. I was like damn, I stop. “I lost a lot of friends because to do.” can’t believe I did that.” Even after of me doing what I was doing. But I this night, she continued trading feel like, damn, you don’t understand, A male respondent used to accept sex and sex acts with strangers for you got y’all parents out here, y’all money from women for sex when transportation. got people that wanna look out for he was a minor. He regrets utilizing you. I don’t have nobody but myself.” his power and taking advantage of Seventy-one percent (42) thought others. “It was bad. I’m not gonna about leaving the commercial Some respondents elaborated on lie. You just can’t play with people sex trade at some point. The wanting to leave the sex trade but like that. You’re not supposed to circumstances of their exits, or continually getting pulled back. One play with people’s lives like that the conditions that forced them female who sold sex both for herself cause their heart is something that to consider leaving, varied widely. and a third party while underage said: you could break easily.” A few respondents mentioned pregnancy as the driving force in “It’s been plenty of times that I told leaving the commercial sex trade. them I would never go back to that They spoke about how becoming lifestyle and then I always found pregnant changed their outlook on myself in a position where I kind of
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 31 USING THE INTERNET FOR COMMERCIAL SEX For youth who were victims of sex to. In my head, I thought we were trafficking, 44% (20) were subjects together still. I did that because of an online ad. Although most of I wanted him to be there for me, the youth who reported being the for him to realize that I was a good subject of an Internet ad stated woman; I just wanted to be with him that they were either in control of so badly that I did that.” or consented to the posting, their capacity to consent comes into question as they were often being trafficked by a third party through Many of the youth may force, fraud, or coercion at the not have been truly time, and the placement of the Internet ad was likely under duress. capable to consent to Many of these victims were under sell sex online, as the the psychological control of their trafficker and/or needed to feel that recruitment of clients they were in control of the situation for commercial sex was even if they were not. tied to threats of harm An example of this implied consent for non-compliance, can be found in a female participant or the need to earn who reported being pressured into placing an ad on Backpage money at the demands for sex when she was 19 years old of a trafficker. by a man she believed to be her boyfriend.
“He was encouraging me and She eventually ended the pressuring me, but he wasn’t relationship but continued posting physically abusing me until later her own ads on Backpage to obtain on. He convinced me because he money to survive. She described said that there’s a lot of money in it getting raped at knifepoint by a and how I wouldn’t have to worry man who answered one of her about anything, how he has me and Backpage ads, but felt unable to everything’s going to be fine… But, call the police because it would long story short, he ended up just curtail her business and she needed taking all the money every time. I money to pay for her hotel room didn’t mind because I was willing that very day.
Many of the youth may not have For youth who been truly capable to consent to sell sex online, as the recruitment were victims of sex of clients for commercial sex trafficking, 44% was tied to threats of harm for non-compliance, or the need to were subjects of an earn money at the demands of a online ad. trafficker. For youth who expressed they had no choice but to sell sex
32 University of Pennsylvania using a variety of websites and often were introduced to the online Male respondents platforms to advertise sex or seek sale of sex through friends, and commercial sex partners. The site even if they had not personally reported more comfort with the largest market share in placed an ad on the Internet to sell with using the Internet this study was Backpage.com, sex, they know someone who has. with approximately half (14) of This behavior became normalized in seeking sex trades. the respondents reporting having and even supported by youth’s been the subject of a Backpage social networks. One transgender ad. In addition, three respondents female was pressured into using to survive, they felt that they could reported using Craigslist exclusively. Backpage by her friends. She take control over what few choices The other websites and internet reported, “My friends that were they had left. The psychological platforms used ranged from prostitutes were doing it and they control of these youth is evidenced traditional dating sites to escort just showed me how to do it and I by only three respondents reporting sites to sites aimed at forming illicit just went from there.” that an ad was placed online to sell relationships as “mistresses” or them for sex without their explicit obtaining “sugar daddies.” Close to half (47%) of the consent, knowledge, or approval. respondents who had used the Participants who placed an ad on Internet to sell sex were underage Another female respondent was the Internet were more likely to at the time their ads appeared. exploited by her boyfriend starting at be female (52%) and transgender Although their reasons for ending the age of 14. She reported that he (17%) than others who engaged up in an online ad varied, these quickly became her pimp, at times in commercial sex. However, male young people managed not to be using physical violence to force her to respondents reported more comfort flagged as underage by lying about sleep with men for money. She was with using the Internet in seeking their age or other demographics. forced to give him most of the money sex trades. In fact, one respondent They were also careful to use she earned. She knew that he was stated that he felt safe meeting payment methods that could not advertising her for sex on Backpage people on Backpage because be tracked. One female reported and Craigslist, but she asserted he was male. Whether they used that she started paying for her own that the ad was placed “with her dating sites to secure “sugar ads on Backpage when she was consent.” She felt very unsafe when mamas” or “sugar daddies,” or 16, stating that it was easy to go to meeting up with new clients, and posted specific ads for commercial the pharmacy and put money on a experienced a lot of trauma at the sex, the males interviewed reported prepaid card. Another participant hands of customers. When she told feeling in control of the situation. said that, when she was 17, her her boyfriend she was unhappy, he friend posted an ad for her on replied, “you just do what you have Backpage.com had a strong Backpage seeking money for sex. to do to get the money.” presence among homeless youth The posting said she was 21. interviewed for this study. Youth The Internet was featured One young woman reported putting prominently in the sale of commercial her first ad on Backpage when she sex for those interviewed, with Close to half (47%) of was 16 years old. She was living in Backpage.com as the leading site a hotel room and used Backpage to utilized. Approximately one-third of the respondents who assure that she had enough clients the 98 participants who engaged in had used the Internet to pay for the room. She reported commercial sex had either utilized that she used a prepaid Visa card the Internet to sell sex commercially to sell sex were to promote her Backpage ad so it or had an ad for commercial sex underage at the time remained at the top of the list. placed on their behalf. A total of 30 youth and young adults reported their ads appeared.
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 33 Another female respondent did it, but I didn’t like that feeling. reported being coerced into It was like I was ashamed. And then prostitution while on vacation he left the money right there and I with a friend’s family, later finding didn’t even want to take it. I didn’t out that her friend’s mother even want to touch it.” had posted an ad on Backpage advertising her for sex. Some of those interviewed described being the subject Many underage youth utilized the of internet ads placed under Internet to seek commercial sex circumstances of fraud or coercion. partners. A female participant One young woman reported that first used Backpage at the age of she was recruited into a prostitution 16 because her older sister was ring through trickery and false selling sex and introduced the promises by a madam via a private idea to her. She obtained a pre- message on Facebook. paid drugstore card and posted an ad online for sex. She reported “[The woman] said ‘it’s me and that her customers ranged in age two other girls. We travel a lot. We from 18 years to mid-50’s. Later, make up to $1,000 a day. You could after this participant turned 18 and keep $1,000 in your pocket. You’ll was struggling financially, another have your own room. It’s a nice woman offered to pay for her setup. There’s a nice, big house.’ Backpage ads and a hotel room; in And it was never the way she said it exchange, this young woman had was but I couldn’t leave because I to give the woman 40% of what she had nowhere to go, so I had to stay made throughout the night. until I came to Covenant House.”
One young woman described All of the girls living in the having a friend who put up a apartment were posted on sex ad for her on Craigslist. She Backpage by the madam to described her friend always putting arrange dates. This young woman her in dangerous situations. She never earned the money she was acknowledged that this friendship promised. This participant, although was not good for her, but felt that now a citizen, was particularly she had no choice. vulnerable as she was foreign-born and posted as a university foreign Another participant spoke of her exchange student. ambivalence about being the subject of an internet-based ad.
“My friend was on Backpage, she was like ‘you about to have a baby. I don’t know how you’re going to do this,’ and it was like what she was saying was true but at the time it was like, damn, I don’t know what to do. She’s right. So she made a page and then somebody called and they came but when they touched me I felt so disgusted. I
34 University of Pennsylvania LABOR TRAFFICKING Contrary to the findings on sex trafficking and other types of A female obtained exploitation discussed thus far, straight males with higher rates employment at a of education were at greater risk grocery store under for labor trafficking than others. Seventy-three percent of labor the condition that she trafficking victims identified as male, move in with the store as opposed to 31% of sex trafficking victims. The rate of college entry owner ... Outside of among labor trafficking victims (27%) the store, she was was three times that of sex trafficking victims (9%) and 36% had achieved required to clean, up to a high school diploma, 14 provide childcare, and percentage points more than the 22% of sex trafficking victims. Nearly have sexual relations in 9 in 10 (87%) were straight, greater the home. than the 60% who were victims of sex trafficking.
operation. Thinking back to when Family or caregivers utilized force or he was 12 years old, he said, “My coercion with most of the participants mom was doing her own part, as in who experienced labor trafficking. like distributing stuff, and me and my That was particularly true with drug brother were doing our own part— sales, where male respondents pretty much watch the house and discussed the appeal of doing work make sure everything’s good to go.” suggested by family, despite having reservations. One young man said when he was 13, his uncle brought Although female labor trafficking him into the drug trade stating, “He victims were also involved in forced just like bribed me I guess. He was drug sales—one Native American saying that I could get a lot of money; participant was required by her he’d give me whatever I want. So I father to distribute drugs on an was like ‘why not do this little favor.’ Indian reservation as a child—there Well, I thought it was little at the time were also some incidences of but it wasn’t.” Despite the lack of forced domestic labor. One female overtly expressed force or coercion, respondent moved in with her many of these young people were boyfriend’s family after a psychiatric unable to refuse to comply due to the hospitalization and homelessness, power differential and/or relationship and his family forced her to work with adults in their lives. in their cleaning and landscaping business. She felt like his family Another male says he grew up near took advantage of her by having the United States-Mexico border in her do unpaid work. She added what was considered a “distribution they never accepted her and house.” His family was known for constantly threatened to break up her transporting drugs and people over relationship, putting her back out on the border, and as a young child he the streets, so she continued working was required to support the family for them without pay.
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 35 Another female obtained employment at a grocery store One gay youth under the condition that she move in with the store owner, who was reported feeling polygamous and resided with uncomfortable at multiple “wives” and children. She was homeless, and despite her work since his boss reservations, she agreed. Although was “anti-gay.” she generally enjoyed the work at the grocery, she felt she was not Another said his hours compensated fairly for her hours. were mysteriously Outside of the store, she was required to clean, provide childcare, reduced after he and have sexual relations in the came out as gay. home. Of her “boss,” she said: “He made me feel like I have no other option. He put me in positions that hindered me from finding other resources, a phone or school. When options. At that time it was my job he asked about money and school, and I didn’t have anywhere to go.” his exploiter threatened to call the police or have him sent back to his country of origin. He finally Traffickers often isolated their ran away, survived on the streets, victims from other relationships and and then connected with a refugee resources. One male participant organization that helped him resettle who was not a United States citizen in the United States. escaped his home country to arrive in South America, where he met someone who offered to help Despite elevated risk of labor him find work and go to school. trafficking for some groups, rates He lived with this man for nine of entry into labor trafficking were months, working on a farm and low across the board. Only 6% (15) doing household chores, but never of the 270 study participants were had access to money, personal victims of labor trafficking. Even though males were at higher risk of labor trafficking than others, their risk of labor trafficking (7%) was still Seventy-three percent lower than their risk of sex trafficking of labor trafficking (9%). The same holds true when the sexual orientation and education of victims identified as respondents is taken into account. male, as opposed to 31% of sex trafficking victims.
36 University of Pennsylvania EXPLOITATION EXPERIENCE TABLE 4: RATES OF EXPLOITATION AND THAT DID NOT RISE TO THE Two-thirds of all COERCION AMONG HOMELESS YOUTH LEVEL OF TRAFFICKING participants were Table 4 shows the rates at which # % homeless youth perceived either psychologically Psychological/Financial Coercion 182 67% experiencing various types of or financially coerced Actual work different than promised 143 54% coercion or exploitation. Three- quarters (75%) of the sample were to remain in the Feel scared or unsafe at work* 111 41% victims of either (1) psychological or complement situations Witnessed another employee being 45 38% financial coercion by an employer, hurt or Threatened (2) subject to undue financial control in which they did not Threatened by employer 47 36% from an employer, or (3) exchanged feel comfortable. Tricked or forced into doing work 74 28% sex for either money or some other Pressured to continue 22 15% good or service. Afraid to leave or quit work due to 32 12% fears of violence The degree to which this group within communities where drug reflects the full sample overall belies sales and distribution occurs. The Employer threatened to report to 12 4% the diversity of exploitative stresses trap houses referenced by the police and traumas they have experienced. survey participants had anywhere Two-thirds of all participants (182 from two to twenty people living Types of Control Used by Employer 103 38% youth) were either psychologically inside, all participating in the drug Told to lie about work 66 24% or financially coerced to remain in trade in some way. Related to drug Employer controlled money without 52 19% employment situations in which they sales, some participants worked consent did not feel comfortable. Forty-one as “lookout” or “muscle” for drug Employer restricted contact to percent of all participants, as seen organizations, providing security to 30 11% friends/family/outside World in Table 4, worked in situations that those selling, through firearms or made them feel scared or unsafe. physical aggression. Nationwide, Selling drugs was the most common the youngest age at which a Sexual Exploitation 98 36% reason expressed, although participant reported entering the (Commercial or Survival Sex) participants varied in whether or drug trade was eight years old. not they considered drug sales *Work was defined on the HTIAM as “Anything you have done where you or someone else received something of value, such as money, food, risky or dangerous work. For many, Other participants reported legal clothing, a place to stay, protection, drugs or gifts in exchange for your although they acknowledged the or under-the-table jobs that still work or efforts. Using this definition, “work” could mean stripping, work as objectively dangerous, prostitution, shoplifting, running drugs, or anything where efforts were put them at risk of physical harm, exchanged for something of value. Employers could include a family when prompted with the question ranging from working retail jobs member, a friend, boyfriend or girlfriend, or anyone you lived with or were in a relationship with.” “Have you ever worked in a place in “bad neighborhoods” where that made you feel scared or they were robbed at gunpoint to unsafe,” they reported that they doing unregulated construction or have not. Participants described electrical work where they were at a great deal of knowledge and risk of falling or being exposed to “street smarts” in surviving in their live wires. neighborhoods, and were able to find ways to engage in the drug A few respondents took jobs as trade that did not cause them package couriers, earning up to anxiety or fear for their own safety. $100 per trip for each package delivered. The respondents told In all three cities, youth spoke similar stories of not being able to openly about drug sales from a open the packages, not knowing “trap house”—residences known what was inside, and operating
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 37 under fear of physical retaliation Examples of manipulative payment were. Further, some respondents or death if they did not follow structures mostly centered on who held legitimate jobs were instructions. advertising, door-to-door sales, or discouraged when employers did canvassing, in which youth were not pay them on time, or even In addition to not feeling safe, offered an hourly wage or salary at when paychecks bounced. One many (143) found that their work the interview but, upon completing participant summed it up by saying, some work, they learned that “even legal work is sometimes not was different from what they were they would be compensated presented fairly.” promised, and 74 reported that only on commission. Other youth they were tricked or forced into agreed to work in what they later Thirty-eight percent (103) reported the work. Again, selling drugs was described as pyramid or “get rich that their employer exerted explicit the most frequent occurrence, with quick” schemes, such as selling control over their finances or many participants saying that their cell-phones, that turned out to be contact with loved ones, with half friends or family members forced fraudulent, and there was no money of these respondents (52) stating them into the work. Often, pressure to be earned. that their employer controlled by friends and acquaintances was a their money without their consent, major factor in the youth’s decision Under-the-table jobs were a big and 66 were told to lie about their to get involved in the drug trade. source of frustration for the youth work. Less frequently, 12% of the Other respondents felt forced to who participated in the survey. respondents reported being afraid assault or rob people as part of their Across a variety of industries, to leave or quit a work situation due own involvement in the drug trade including construction, landscaping/ to fear of violence or threat of harm. or “game,” as the drug trade is snow removal, odd jobs or A few young men who participated often called in their neighborhoods. babysitting, youth often reported in the study indicated that if they not receiving the full payment knew too much about any gang or One youth expressed feeling that that was agreed upon. Whether employers and others offering work, they worked for family members, including exploiters and pimps, neighbors or formal bosses, many Nationwide, the youth experienced what they are always looking for ways to trick youngest age at which people. She answered a flyer ad for perceived to be manipulation in the final payment of money owed. a hotel cleaning job and learned at a participant reported Although situations such as these, the interview that the job instead in and of themselves, don’t always entering the drug trade was for an escort. She immediately rise to the level of labor trafficking fled and expressed hesitancy about was eight years old. as defined by law, young people seeking new work with strangers. are often exploited by the offer of illegitimate work. Finally, some youth reported drug activity, the only way out was being forced by family members For youth who successfully obtained “in a body bag.” Thus, some dealt to work in legitimate jobs as part legal employment, there were with this by remaining affiliated as of the family business, such as still examples of exploitation. gang members, still maintaining construction or clothing design, Many youth reported working for ties and personal connections, but but not feeling as though they had minimum wage, despite being being less involved in street gang a choice in the matter since their offered a higher salary during the activities. Others were in hiding families were still providing for interview. This was most prevalent from gangs, sometimes even them. Although such responses may in fast food restaurants. In retail seeking homeless shelter services in not be characterized as trafficking, store jobs the most common a different city. For the young men respondents frequently described a complaint was not being paid for narrative where they felt exploited staying late or being told they and under-valued. were not eligible for overtime pay even when they believed they
38 University of Pennsylvania who worked as package couriers, uncomfortable, although these they too were aware that if they did experiences did not necessarily Thirty-eight percent not leave on good terms with their define them as victims of human employers, their physical safety trafficking. Some youth who were reported that their might be at risk. hired and paid fairly to do a job employer exerted were asked to lie about their When asked if an employer had age if they were minors. Other explicit control over ever kept earnings in exchange participants reported being asked their finances or for transportation, food, or rent, or to lie about commercial products otherwise controlled the money, being sold, such as cooking old contact with loved 19% of respondents, nearly one meat in fast food restaurants, selling ones, with half of those in five, said yes. This was most old produce in grocery stores, or common in the commercial sex being told to lie about a product or respondents stating arena, where the line between benefits during telemarketing and that their employer exploiter, provider, and partner door-to-door work. often becomes blurred. controlled their money Whether or not the youth without their consent. Thirty respondents, 11% of the responded in the affirmative to total sample and 15% of those who any of the HTIAM-10 questions, experienced coercion, indicated many participants discussed what that they had worked for someone they perceived as discrimination who tried to limit their contact with or exploitation in legal or formal friends, family, or the outside world, work. This was particularly true for thereby creating dependence youth who identified as LGBTQ. on the employer. This was most One gay youth reported feeling common for young women who uncomfortable at work since his were exploited and trafficked by a boss was “anti-gay.” Another third party or pimp, as discussed said his hours were mysteriously earlier in this report. reduced after he came out as gay. A transgender female reported Finally, 24% of youth reported anti-trans policies in her workplace, being asked to lie when speaking including being forced into using a about the work they have done. bathroom not matching her gender. For youth who sold drugs there was an awareness that one had Many straight youth also described to hide the illegal activities, and distressing or unfair situations at they knew this without being work. One female reported being told. Similarly for youth in gangs, fired after refusing sex with her participants were not explicitly told boss, and other females described to lie but knew that their safety unwanted sexual advances. Others depended on their secrecy. of all genders felt a general sense of unfairness in the workplace, being Many youth in formal and legal assigned more responsibilities work situations were asked to than others or blamed for other’s lie about things that made them mistakes. They often pointed to their young age or vulnerabilities as making them easy targets.
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 39 Child Welfare Factors: CWSS Findings
Beyond the HTIAM-10 instrument, the 98 study participants who engaged in commercial sex were asked a series of supplemental questions comprising the Child Welfare Supplemental Survey (CWSS) related to their welfare as children, including any history of child abuse and/or neglect, child welfare system involvement, experience in out-of-home placement, and perceptions of social supports. Responses shed light on how childhood experiences during youth might correlate to risk for sex trafficking and whether there were distinctions between those who experienced sex trafficking and those who experienced other forms of commercial sex but were not trafficked. The nuances between the experiences of youth who engaged in the sex trade as a legitimate means of income vs. those who were victims of sex trafficking or engaged in commercial sex for the sole purpose of survival can help illuminate both risk and protective factors.
Ninety-five percent of victims of sex trafficking experienced some type of maltreatment as minors.
40 University of Pennsylvania CHILD MALTREATMENT Eighty-two percent of the 98 1994). Additionally, the Fourth Figure 9 respondents who answered the National Incidence Study of Child TYPES OF MALTREATMENT Child Welfare Supplemental Abuse and Neglect (NIS-4) found BY SEX TRAFFICKED STATUS Survey reported having been a child sexual abuse prevalence Any type of maltreatment maltreated as children. The type of rate of 1.8 per 1,000 (Sedlak et al., 73% maltreatment, and the perpetrators 2010). 95% of that maltreatment, varied Sexual abuse widely. Sexual abuse was the most The rate of sexual abuse for those 47% common form of maltreatment, who were sex trafficked was 49% with 54% (43) of those reporting significantly higher than that found some maltreatment reporting in two earlier studies examining Physical abuse having experienced this type of the rate of sexual abuse among 45% abuse. Physical abuse (40%) and homeless and runaway youth. 36% neglect (28%) were the next most Of a sample of 223 homeless Neglect common types of maltreatment. and runaway youth in New York 29% Only five percent reported explicit State, 21% were reported to have 26% emotional abuse only, and 13% experienced sexual abuse (Powers, Emotional abuse reported having experienced more Eckenrode & Jaklitsch, 1990), and 8% than one type of abuse. 29% of 372 homeless and runaway 17% youth in Seattle indicated that they More than one type Ninety-five percent of victims had been sexually abused (Tyler & 11% of sex trafficking experienced Cauce, 2002). 0% some type of maltreatment as minors, compared to 73% of those For many respondents, the history Not Sex Trafficked who experienced other forms of maltreatment was lengthy, (but Engaged in Commercial Sex) of commercial sex but were not spanning many years and life trafficked. Figure 9 shows the stages, and involving multiple Sex Trafficked different rates of maltreatment type perpetrators, and this did not based on whether or not a youth appear related to sex trafficking had been sex trafficked. There were vs. other forms of commercial no statistically significant differences sex. More than half of those who in the types of maltreatment reported maltreatment indicated him enough money. She was also experienced by those who were that their earliest incidence of abuse sexually abused by her mother’s involved in commercial sex based occurred when they were five years boyfriends and physically abused on whether or not he or she was old or younger, and all but a handful by her extended family. When she sex trafficked. Sexual abuse rates reported that their maltreatment was finally placed in foster care, were nearly equal (49% among began at 10 or younger. The she thought things would change, those who were sex trafficked, vs. abuse lasted for an average of five but she continued to be sexually 47% who engaged in commercial years, and respondents typically victimized by peers, and even sex but were not trafficked). These experienced two to three distinct reports physical assaults from some rates provide a stark contrast to episodes of maltreatment. of the staff in her subsequent group rates of sexual abuse seen in the home placements. general population, with the rate of One female trafficking victim sexual abuse among sex-trafficking identified significant dysfunction Regardless of trafficking status, survivors found to be over four in her biological family. When she emotional abuse and neglect took times higher than the lifetime was seven years old, her father a significant toll on psychosocial prevalence rate of sexual abuse in tried to sell her to men for sex development and future life the general population of 10.5% to feed his drug addiction. She choices. One respondent, who (Finkelhor & Dziuba-Leatherman, recalls that no one ever offered
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 41 was currently battling a drug or guardian, compared to 16% of Figure 10 addiction and had been tricked into youth who experienced commercial PERPETRATOR prostitution, reflected on her distant sex but were not sex trafficked. BY SEX TRAFFICKED STATUS relationship with her adoptive Biological Parent parents, commenting: Sixty-two percent (45) of youth 63% who were maltreated reported that 55% “How about pay attention to your they told someone about their Sibling or Other Relative kid’s life and see that it’s going the maltreatment and, of those, only 53% wrong way and that she really isn’t 47% (23) stated that some action 43% acting right every day and that was taken as a result of reporting that’s just not her mental state, the maltreatment. Taken together, Parent's Partner that’s something else. Maybe pay of the 74 youth who were 11% attention to why your liquor’s going maltreated, less than one third 12% missing every day when you go were able to see any direct action Placement Guardian to try to take a drink and half of to address the maltreatment. 3% it’s gone and you just bought the This was an important distinction 5% bottle. Maybe you should wonder between youth who were victims Other why she’s always wearing these of sex trafficking, and those who 16% really long shorts in the summer, experienced commercial sex but 33% trying to hide things. Maybe you were not sex trafficked, as seen should look at why she wears all in Figure 11. Only 36% of sex Not Sex Trafficked these bracelets on her arms. Maybe trafficking victims who informed (but Engaged in Commercial Sex) when she shows you one day that someone of maltreatment saw Sex Trafficked she cut her arm that you don’t just a resultant action, compared to give up on her and just be like, you 64% of those who experienced know what, I don’t care. Maybe you commercial sex but were not sex should show a little more support trafficked. from the beginning and be a little In addition, only 69% (53) of those Figure 11 more there.” who experienced abuse or neglect reported receiving any help or RECEIVING HELP FOR MALTREATMENT Immediate family members services, formal or informal, related were the most likely people to to their maltreatment. Participants Tell Anyone about Maltreatment abuse respondents. Fifty-nine varied on their opinions of prior 62% percent of those who experienced therapeutic services; some youth 59% maltreatment were abused by felt that talking about personal Person You Told Took Action a parent, and about 48% were things was not comfortable for 64% abused by a sibling or other them or felt that their therapists 36% relative. Four percent (3) were were simply getting “paid to listen Received Help or Services abused by a guardian appointed to them.” Others cited positive 66% to them through the child welfare outcomes from the help they 72% system. Rates generally varied received, including learning coping little between those who were skills and having someone to talk Not Sex Trafficked sex trafficked and those who to. One female reported, “I finally (but Engaged in Commercial Sex) experienced commercial sex but started opening up at placement. Sex Trafficked were not sex trafficked, as seen We would do girl groups. I felt in Figure 10, with one exception. comfortable around other girls.” Thirty-one percent of those who were sex trafficked reported being abused by someone other than a biological parent or other relative
42 University of Pennsylvania Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 43 LIVING SITUATION The youth who answered the Figure 12 children in the home. One Child Welfare Supplemental PLACEMENT SETTING FOR participant stated “[my foster Survey indicated severe residential YOUTH PLACED IN OUT- mother] treated her other kids like instability growing up. This was OF-HOME CARE BY SEX she loved them and treated me like true regardless of sex trafficking TRAFFICKED STATUS I was nothing.” status. Eighty-four youth (88%) Foster Home lived in at least one place without 86% Another respondent reported a biological parent and more than 88% living in approximately ten different half (50) said that, at some point Group Home foster homes. She said that she was before their 18th birthday, they 60% devastated to be taken away from did not have a place to live. All 67% her mother when she was initially but seven had lived in at least placed. She felt like she had been Independent Living two places, with someone other separated from her best friend. 5% than a parent, friend, or significant Of her placements, she reported, 6% other. The modal response (19) was “None of [the homes] really fit me having lived in two places, but 24 as a person. I was really rebellious Not Sex Trafficked said that they had lived in at least because of all of the behavior (but Engaged in Commercial Sex) 10 places, including seven that problems with me moving and answered 20 or more residences; Sex Trafficked getting to know new people.” in addition, three indicated that they had lived in too many places Despite the abuse experienced in to count. their biological families, some youth expressed that their family of origin Youth interviewed in Philadelphia Sixty-three percent (56) of youth was still preferable to foster care, had twice as many placements in who answered the CWSS indicated resulting in frequent placement foster homes (average of 4.75) and that they had been involved in the moves and disruptions. One male nearly twice as many placements child welfare system, and 41% (39) participant reports that he was in in group homes (4.06) than the were removed and placed outside nearly 20 foster homes because he homeless youth from either Phoenix of their homes by the child welfare and his brothers always ran away or Washington, DC. system at some time during their from placement. He said, “We youth, with experiences in the always ran to what we know—family. Youth in foster care frequently system varying widely. Eighty-seven We always found a way to find them spoke of feeling like they didn’t percent of them were placed into a cause they didn’t move us far.” foster home, 63% were in a group belong in the family or being treated differently than biological home, and 5% (2) were placed into A female respondent who was independent living environments. in out-of-home care from the As Figure 12 demonstrates, there age of 10 to 18 described the were no stark differences between Eighty-four youth impermanence in group home sex trafficking victims and others (88%) lived in at least placement and shared how this who engaged in commercial sex. made her feel like nobody cared one place without a about her. She frequently ran from Although one and two were biological parent and her group homes, admitting that the most commonly reported she sometimes had sex just to number of placements (10 and more than half said have somewhere to stay. She did 5, respectively), 10 participants that, at some point not like feeling scrutinized in her reported having 10 or more placements and constantly being different placements. Examinations before their 18th diagnosed with different disorders. of child welfare involvement birthday, they did not “I felt they just wanted to get rid of revealed the biggest differences me cause when I was in placement I between youth from different cities. have a place to live. didn’t want to talk to anybody.”
44 University of Pennsylvania SOCIAL SUPPORTS
Caring Adults. Despite their Another described a supportive Figure 13 reported maltreatment, the majority relationship that he valued: “My PRESENCE OF A CARING ADULT of respondents indicated the ‘adoptive grandma’ - she’s just an BY SEX TRAFFICKING STATUS presence of a caring adult (other older lady that’s always been a part Caring Adult While Under 18 than a caregiver) throughout their of my life and never gave up on me, 73% lives. Sixty-six percent of youth so she’s earned my respect and the 58% reported having a caring adult in title is grandma.” their lives while under the age of Caring Adult Now 18, and 72% said they had one at Participants also distinguished 76% the time of the interview. These between different types of support 69% figures varied based on whether or and what a caring adult in their not youth were sex trafficked, as life can offer. Although one female Not Sex Trafficked shown in Figure 13. Youth who were participant identified an aunt as a (but Engaged in Commercial Sex) sex trafficked were 15 percentage caring adult in her life, when asked Sex Trafficked points less likely to report having if she still had an adult she could a caring adult in their lives while rely on, she replied, “It’s still kind of under the age of 18 than those my aunt, but just on certain things.” who experienced commercial sex but weren’t sex trafficked; that gap Others took this as an opportunity was narrower (7 percentage points) to reflect on how adults in their life to describe the current presence impacted them in positive ways. Youth who were sex of a caring adult, thus indicating One respondent stated: that those who had a caring adult trafficked were 15 present in their lives were less likely “My teacher was one of them. I percentage points less to be sex trafficked. don’t remember if it was like third likely to report having or fourth grade, but she was my Who they saw as a caring teacher and she treated me a little a caring adult in their adult, however, varied widely. different from the other students lives while under the Respondents mentioned a variety cause she knew that something was of extended family members, wrong. She’d wait till the class was age of 18 than those including grandparents, aunts, over, and she’d ask me what was who experienced uncles and siblings, as providing going on, and sometimes she’d support to them when they were let me sit there and cry. She just commercial sex but children. One female respondent cared. She tried to intervene, and weren’t sex trafficked. credited her grandfather for when she did they pulled me out of believing in her, stating, “My the school. She went to the school grandfather was the one that I could district board to file a complaint turn to for anything. I’ll say he was against my parents.” my inspiration.”
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 45 Figure 14 SELF-IDENTIFIED In addition PEER RELATIONS Peer Relationships. to caring adults, many youth also Have Group of Friends reported having peer supports on 57% which they could rely. Fifty-two 53% youth (55%) reported having a Gang Involved group of friends that they could 17% rely on, and 18 (19%) reported 22% being involved in a gang. As shown in Figure 14, sex trafficked youth Not Sex Trafficked were slightly less likely than others (but Engaged in Commercial Sex) who engaged in commercial sex Sex Trafficked to say they had a group of friends, and were slightly more likely to have been involved in a gang.
Some youth proudly claimed membership in national gangs, including Bloods, Crips, and Gangster Disciples, while others vaguely indicated that they were “affiliated.” Particularly in Philadelphia, gang activity sometimes included affiliation with smaller local groups, named by neighborhoods. Although several shared stories about violence within the gang and difficult exits, some noted that these were people you could rely on if you needed something or who provided protection and safety in a community otherwise difficult to survive in, even if gang membership required participation in illegal activities. One young person noted, “They’re not as bad as you might think.”
46 University of Pennsylvania PERSONAL RESILIENCE Several open-ended questions were asked in order to understand their perspectives on potential resilience/protective factors related to both preventing victimization and coping strategies.
Participants were asked if there was anything that might have helped to prevent them from being trafficked or helped them leave their situation, and how others might have provided assistance. Three themes emerged as most salient: (1) having family/parents, (2) having someone other than parents who cared about them, and (3) having the support of one’s community and programming. As one participant said,
“I wish that my mom had been more working with me than against me, being more there for me. I wouldn’t have had to go out and do other things to make myself fit in or feel like I was not wanted at my home. If I had more love from my mom, basically, because I had went from being taken to being in foster care and then recently gone back home with my mom. Basically just having family, love and support.”
Another participant commented on both parents.
“I wish I had a mother that was alive. I wish I had a father that was there. I wish I had a family that wasn’t so screwed up. I wish I had a family that was on good mental terms. I wish I had a supportive family.”
In addition to parents and family, participants also reflected on the role of other caring adults and how such individuals could have served a protective role and prevented
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 47 them from being sex trafficked. For with food, provide them with example, one young man stated, “If books that they can actually put I’d just reached out or told others, their nose into cause a lot of these but being the kind of guy I am, young men and women out here, I’m not really going to talk about they’re trapped within this world.“ that stuff. It’s embarrassing. It’s shameful; it made me feel like an Another open-ended question abomination.” asked participants what assistance or information they wish they had Another participant reflected on been given to help them learn to feeling alone, stating, “I wish I had live on their own. Two primary areas somebody that was there to tell emerged: learning independent me like don’t—I don’t know, just living skills and having a supportive somebody there for me. I was out adult/mentor available to teach there by myself.” them these skills. At least twenty- five young people endorsed Participants also discussed the independent living skills, especially role of community support and financial literacy and money programs as potentially having management skills. been able to prevent them from “The whole time I was “The cost of living, the savings being trafficked or leaving earlier. homeless, I only had One young person discussed what account, the checking account, just was missing. all that stuff, what credit is, how one guy approach to file taxes. I didn’t have nobody. me and tell me that “Resources. It’s a lot of for-yourself. I still am working on all of them I wish I would have had more things now as far as like building there’s some place my credit and stuff like that. I didn’t community resources from people that could help me that I know…. The whole time I know I needed credit to get an was homeless, I only had one guy apartment. I didn’t know I needed out of this situation. credit to get a car or how my approach me and tell me that I'm pretty sure that there’s some places that could help credit would determine how much me out of this situation. I’m pretty I would have to pay for the car or out of all the people put down on it.” sure that out of all the people that that probably seen probably seen me, somebody else probably knew something that Similarly, a second young person me, somebody could help me.” shared, “My credit score. Checking else probably knew account, I don’t know, everything A second young person listed the about money.” A third young something that could array of supports that are needed to person related, “Budgeting is a help me.” help prevent youth from becoming huge one. Oh god, I’m terrible with victims of trafficking. money! I don’t even like having it in my hands. As fast as it comes is as “I would say to support these fast as it goes, and now I’m paying young men and woman out here bills and I’m like, ‘I really need to that are at least under the age stop.’” Another young person also of 26 years old that you see on stated, “I wish someone had talked the streets, to prevent them from to me about how to set up a bank doing what they do, from what account before turning 18.” they have in the streets, provide them with shelter, provide them
48 University of Pennsylvania Having someone to teach them States? I feel like for a female at that independent living skills and/ time, she needs to have that hope or mentor them also emerged as to look to her future, because if you a salient theme for participants. don’t look to your future, you have For example, one young person nothing.” stated, “I just wish I would have had somebody to keep me on the Another young person reflected “I just wish I would straight and narrow before I made on the importance of thinking these terrible choices. Somebody about the long-term implications of have had somebody like a mentor or something, or choices, and trying to stay positive. to keep me on the somebody to just stay on my back.” Similarly, another young person “Think about what really matters straight and narrow described, “Coaches, someone that to you and whatever you can do before I made these can coach a kid or young adult on to change your situation, then do how to meet goals, how to set up it cause right now it might seem terrible choices. goals, so a coach or a mentor.” like it's not that much of a big deal, Somebody like a but then 5 years, 10 years, 20 years A young woman described wishing from now it's gonna be a whole mentor or something, she had had an adult to teach her different story. It could be really or somebody to just about growing up, relationships, bad. I would also tell them to think and sex. She said, “I never had on the bright side, think of how you stay on my back.” the mom, the period talk or the can make it better. And whatever birds and bees talk, so I basically good advice people give you, take got everything from the internet it and use whatever you have to or just from experience. So having your advantage.” more so like a female role model or someone who has similar situations Similarly, another participant shared to you.” a history of suicidal ideation, describing a positive attitude as a Participants were also asked what salvation. advice they would give other young people going through “I'd tell them there's always a way, similar experiences. Three themes there's other options, stay strong, emerged: (1) attitude matters, and just get there. I was in a black (2) ask for help, and (3) access hole and I didn't think I'd make it programs. “Attitude matters” to this age and I wanted to commit emerged as the most potent suicide, but it's like, just stay strong, theme with nearly 40 participants everything happens for a reason; at expressing sentiments pertaining to the end you'll get stronger.” this theme, offering advice to others based on their own experiences.
“Besides staying strong, I would tell a young person to believe in himself or herself and to look to your future. Is there something that you want to do in the future, do you want to have kids, do you want to be the next president, you know, the first female president of the United
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 49 Discussion
The Field Center studied homeless youth in three U.S. cities as part of an initiative by Covenant House International to conduct the largest study to date of the prevalence of trafficking among homeless youth, encompassing nearly 1,000 youth across 13 cities. The Field Center interviewed 270 homeless youth in Philadelphia, Phoenix, and Washington, DC to learn about the prevalence of domestic sex and labor trafficking, as well as the history of child maltreatment, out-of-home placement, and protective factors among those who were sex trafficked and/or engaged in the sex trade to survive.
Prior studies provided similar The Field Center had very similar results. The Covenant House findings in its three-city study: 17% With 67% of homeless New York City study found that of the youth interviewed reported 14.9% of youth in their sample being victims of sex trafficking, females in this study experienced some form of 14% engaged in survival sex, reporting being trafficking victimization, consistent and 36% engaged in commercial with the definition under federal sexual activity. Six percent reported offered money for law (Bigelsen & Vuotto, 2013). An that they were victims of labor sex, it is apparent that additional 8%, all of whom were trafficking. over the age of 18, had engaged homeless youth are in survival sex. In New Orleans, With 67% of homeless females in particularly vulnerable Covenant House found very similar this study reporting being offered rates, with 14% of the young money for sex, it is apparent that to traffickers. people having been trafficked by homeless youth are particularly federal legal definitions, and 25% vulnerable to traffickers. Youth engaging in commercial sex labor described being approached for sex (Murphy, Taylor & Bolden, 2015). in a variety of places, such as gas stations, explaining that they are recognized on the streets as being
50 University of Pennsylvania homeless and therefore targeted. and allegiance. This manipulative As close to one-out-of-four who relationship ensures the youth will were offered money for sex had remain loyal to the exploiter, even this happen on their very first night in the face of severe victimization. of being homeless, this population Traffickers are predators who seek remains at high risk for victimization. out vulnerable victims. Although a trafficker can target any youth, Among key findings were that children in state care or children several special populations appear experiencing trouble at home are particularly vulnerable, including especially vulnerable (Children’s transgender youth. Although the Bureau, 2015). number of transgender youth Children within the care interviewed was small, it remains When youth exit the foster care noteworthy that this is a population system, or are discharged from of the child welfare that remains at risk for becoming congregate care, having reached system are particularly victimized by sex traffickers. the age of majority (“aging out”), they frequently do so without the susceptible to This study investigated the benefit of the skills or resources traffickers who target role of child welfare risk factors needed to survive. Without access for trafficking victimization, to jobs or adequate wages, skills and take advantage including history of maltreatment, for independence, a place to live, of their emotional and involvement in the child welfare or connection to a caring adult, system, social support networks, youth exiting the child welfare physical vulnerability. living situation, and preparation system are particularly vulnerable for independence. Youth who have to traffickers. Numerous youth been maltreated were particularly surveyed reflected on the lack of vulnerable, with 95% of those who soft and hard resources, resulting were sex trafficked reporting a in their victimization. The need for history of child abuse or neglect. caring adults was evidenced at Similarly, in 2007, New York City varying points throughout the study, identified 2,250 child victims of from responses to questions on trafficking. Seventy-five percent of what could have made a difference those experienced some contact to the low numbers who took action with the child welfare system, on behalf of trafficked youth when mostly in the context of abuse abuse or neglect occurred. and neglect proceedings (Saada Saar, 2013). Traffickers target vulnerable youth and lure them into sex trafficking using physical and psychological manipulation, and sometimes they may resort to violence (Children’s Bureau, 2015). Children within the care of the child welfare system are particularly susceptible to traffickers who target and take advantage of their emotional and physical vulnerability. Often traffickers/ pimps create a seemingly loving or caring relationship with their victim in order to establish trust
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 51 The rate of child maltreatment Data, however, pointed to a among victims of sex trafficking potential opportunity to reduce The rate of child was found to be an astounding the risk of trafficking for homeless 95%, with sexual abuse the most youth. The presence of a caring maltreatment frequently cited form of abuse. adult in the lives of youth, and among victims of sex The rate of sexual abuse among graduation from high school homeless youth who were sex emerged as two potential trafficking was found to trafficked was significantly higher protective factors. These are be an astounding 95%, than the rate found in studies on worthy of further exploration. homeless and runaway youth in with sexual abuse the general, and four times the rate of Most human service providers, most frequently cited sexual abuse among the general including child welfare systems, population. have not developed ways to identify form of abuse. The rate youth at risk of being trafficked of sexual abuse among This study also found differences in out-of-home care (Mace, 2015; between those who were victims Macy & Graham, 2012). Although homeless youth who of sex trafficking and the larger recent efforts are targeting services were sex trafficked population of those who engaged for victims of sex trafficking, little in the commercial sex trade. Two headway has been made to identify was significantly higher findings in particular stand out. who is most at risk and develop than the rate found in Those who reported that they interventions aimed at prevention. had experienced child abuse or With an understanding that victims studies on homeless neglect told someone about it of child maltreatment and those and runaway youth at similar rates, but those who involved in the child welfare were sex trafficked reported a system may be at higher risk for in general, and four significantly lower rate (36% to victimization, focus on stemming times the rate of sexual 64%) of intervention on their the child welfare to child trafficking behalf. Additionally, those who pipeline is warranted. Therefore, in abuse among the were sex trafficked reported a order to put in place practices and general population. lower rate of having a caring adult policies to better protect children in their lives. These data offer with child welfare risk factors, this several hypotheses, including (1) research has endeavored to better that those who were sex trafficked understand the nature of these risk may have learned to not rely on factors and how they come together or trust adults and (2) that those to create vulnerable trafficking who were sex trafficked may have victims. This study’s findings lead to internalized their victimization actionable recommendations that experiences, informing both life can identify and potentially predict choices and subjecting them to which youth may be vulnerable to increased vulnerability. Those who trafficking, inform new strategies engaged in non-trafficking and at prevention and intervention, non-survival commercial sex may and ultimately improve the lives of be better equipped to assume and homeless and runaway youth. assert control over their lives, vis a vis engaging in commercial sex activities in which they perceive they are in control, versus trafficked youth who may be more vulnerable to exploitation by others.
52 University of Pennsylvania STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS A significant strength of this study As all data were self-reported, is the level of candid participation the researchers have relied on the by youth participants. There were honesty of the youth participants. a variety of reasons why the youth Self-reported data also increases openly shared their thoughts and the risk of response bias, or an experiences with the interviewer, individual’s tendency to respond including: a certain way, regardless of the actual evidence they are assessing. 1. Anonymity: Because no one will Some participants could over-report know who they are experiences, while others may have under-reported experiences. There was also some fear about “true” 2. Confidentiality: Because confidentiality; youth often asked information will not go in their file Those who reported and staff will not have access to the interviewer if she “promised their responses not to tell anyone.” The mandated that they had reporting requirement of the interviewer may have also limited experienced child 3. Professional distance: Because some youth from sharing about they will never see the interviewer abuse or neglect told illegal activities. again someone about it Due to the highly sensitive nature at similar rates, but 4. Desire to help: Because they of the topics discussed, there want to help other youth. those who were sex could have very likely been under- reporting of sexual exploitation trafficked reported Limitations encountered also experiences of some youth, deserve comment. One limitation a significantly lower including those not wanting to was using a non-probability, share personal history with a rate of intervention on purposive sample of youth stranger, and those fearing legal presenting for services at five their behalf. or personal repercussions. Males programs in three cities rendering may have been less likely to results not generalizable to the acknowledge sexual exploitation entire homeless youth population. out of a sense of shame and fear There could be difference in of stigma (Estes & Weiner, 2001; victimization experiences between Curtis, Terry, Dank, Dombrowski, & homeless youth who seek shelter Khan, 2008; Willis, Willis, Friedman and those who do not. Youth who & Roberts, 2013). Lastly, there was are currently being trafficked and not an even gender distribution those who are being provided across the participants. The overall shelter through commercial sex study results may look different if activity might not be seeking the participants were more evenly services from a program providing distributed between male and shelter for homeless youth and female respondents and if the rate therefore would not be represented of transgender youth was higher. in the research study.
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 53 Recommendations
Policy and Practice Recommendations
In light of the findings from this study, which provide the opportunity to make an impact on current policy and practice, we offer the following recommendations:
1. Utilize data to identify populations at highest risk for human trafficking and create targeted prevention services.
2. Support continued and increased funding for programming for homeless youth on both state and federal levels.
3. Target street outreach services to newly homeless youth, and support continued funding of this critical service.
4. Promote psychoeducational intervention and access to evidence-based treatment for victims of sexual abuse.
5. As LGBTQ youth were found to be frequent targets, develop and implement victimization minimization services for this demographic.
6. Promote programs that support youth to remain in school and graduate from high school. Preliminary data indicates that being in school, as opposed to earning a GED, may be a protective factor.
7. Support policies that promote out-of-home-placement stability for youth in the child welfare system, as multiple moves place them at greater risk.
8. Assure that youth who exit the child welfare system are financially literate and are provided with transitional and after-care services to foster a successful transition to independence.
9. Identify and foster emotional attachments for vulnerable children and youth with both family members and other caring adults, including natural mentorship initiatives to help connect at-risk youth with caring adults in their lives. Early identification of and facilitation of such relationships can serve to both prevent youth from becoming victimized and to provide a resource should they end up needing support and assistance.
10. Services and interventions need to acknowledge that being trafficked does not define who youth are, but rather it is something that happened to them. This is likely one in a series of traumas they have faced throughout their lives. Therefore, all services must be trauma-informed.
54 University of Pennsylvania Research Recommendations
There are several recommendations for future research that will move the field forward, and for which this work lays an important foundation:
1. Conduct longitudinal work to prospectively follow a sample of trafficked youth over time to learn how they fare later in life. Similar work has been done with youth who have aged out of foster care (i.e., Midwest Evaluation of the Adult Functioning of Former Foster Youth), and the learning from this seminal work has been critically important for advocacy efforts on behalf of this marginalized population, including extending foster care to age 21. Similar work needs to be done for youth who have been victimized by trafficking in order to provide evidence-based policy recommendations.
2. Incorporate administrative data to supplement self-reports of exploitation, victimization, and service system experiences. Administrative data can help address the validity issue with self-report data.
3. Incorporate standardized measures of health and well-being to better understand and define the impact of trafficking’s impact on these vulnerable youth, building on earlier research.
4. Further refine the Child Welfare Supplemental Survey (CWSS)to gather more information about child welfare and protective factors.
5. Administer the HTIAM and the Child Welfare Supplemental Survey to both trafficked and non-trafficked homeless youth to further understand the particular risk and protective factors that distinguish the two groups.
Field Center for Children's Policy, Practice & Research 55 References
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