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Aging an Evolutionary Competition Between Host Cells and Mitochondria

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Aging an Evolutionary Competition Between Host Cells and Mitochondria Medical Hypotheses 127 (2019) 120–128 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Medical Hypotheses journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mehy Aging: An evolutionary competition between host cells and mitochondria T Dun-Xian Tan The Department of Cell System and Anatomy, The University of Texas, Health, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Keywords: Here, a new theory of aging is proposed. This new theory is referred as the Host-Mitochondria Intracellular Aging Innate Immune Theory of Aging (HMIIITA). The main point of this theory is that the aging is rooted from an Mitochondria evolutionary competition, that is, a never ending coevolutionary race between host cells and mitochondria. Host immunity Mitochondria are the descendants of bacteria. The host cells will inevitably sense their bacterial origin, parti- Intracellular innate immunity cularly their circular mtDNA. The host intracellular innate immune pressure (HIIIP) aims to eliminate mtDNA as Evolution more as possible while mitochondria have to adapt the HIIIP for survival. Co-evolution is required for both of them. From biological point of view, the larger, the mtDNA, the higher, the chance, it becomes the target of HIIIP. As a result, mitochondria have to reduce their mtDNA size via deletion. This process has last for 1.5–2 billion yeas and the result is that mitochondria have lost excessive 95% of their DNA. This mtDNA deletion is not associated with free radical attack but a unique trait acquired during evolution. In the postmitotic cells, the deletion is passively selected by the mitochondrial fission-fusion cycles. Eventually, the accumulation of deletion will significantly jeopardize the mitochondrial function. The dysfunctional mitochondria no longer provide sufficient ATP to support host cells’ continuous demanding for growth. At this stage, the cell or the organism aging is inevitable. Introduction major source of free radicals or other reactive oxygen species (ROS) [4,5]. Moreover, researchers had assumed that mitochondrial DNA Aging seems to be an inevitably irreversible process. This is parti- (mtDNA) in contrast to nuclear DNA (nDNA) is naked without protec- cularly valid for higher metazoans which do not possess large numbers tion by histone and, thus, is more vulnerable to ROS attack [6,7].In of stem cells. Some species have a long lifespan, whereas, some exhibit addition, the repair mechanisms for mtDNA are less efficiency than the accelerated aging, thus, live shorter, while others are aging at an those in nDNA [8]. These factors were supposed to cause high mutation intermediate velocity. All of these lifespan variations lead to the mar- rate in mtDNA compared to nNAD. The accumulation of mutant mtDNA velous diversity of life histories in creatures inhabiting earth. However, was concluded to finally result in the dysfunction of mitochondria and humans represent the only species who care about aging, tries to extend therefore, in phenotypes of aging at cellular and organismal levels life and to maintain healthy state. Starting from our ancestors several [9,10]. thousand years ago, the pursuit of longevity has not been stopped yet. MTA, however, cannot plausibly explain some obviously contra- As a result, at least, 300 plus theories and hypotheses which are related dictory phenomena of aging. For example, several long-lived species to aging have been formulated [1] and many animal studies as well as have higher levels of metabolic rate and generate more ROS than short- computer simulations have been performed in attempts to prove these lived species [11]. Many studies have failed to find accumulated oxi- theories and hypotheses. Even though countless efforts have been made dative damage in mtDNA of old animals or even of humans [12,13]. and considerable amounts of money have been spent, no fundamental Prolonged supplementation with mitochondrially targeted antioxidant breakthrough on aging research has been achieved till now. It appears did not attenuate age-related oxidative damage and rescue the loss of that the aging research will continue forever. muscle mass and function associated with aging [14]. In addition, Among the aging hypotheses, the “Mitochondrial Theory of Aging” mtDNA is not as poorly protected as previously thought. On the con- (MTA) [2] has gained ground. MTA can be considered as an extension trary, mtDNA is well protected by a robust protein coating with mi- of the free radical theory of aging which was proposed by Denham tochondrial transcription factor A (TFAM) and proteins, including an- Harman [3]. He hypothesized that aging might be a result of accumu- tioxidant enzymes [8,15,16]. All these factors let us to reconsider the lated cellular damage inflicted by free radicals. Mitochondria are a merits of MTA. E-mail address: [email protected]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2019.04.007 Received 18 February 2019; Accepted 11 April 2019 0306-9877/ Published by Elsevier Ltd. D.-X. Tan Medical Hypotheses 127 (2019) 120–128 Here, we propose a new theory of aging which is also associated host cells by cheating. with mitochondrial mutation accumulation, but which is not primarily The easiest and economically most fitted way is camouflage. For the related to the free radical theory. We classify this theory as the Host- bacterium, the most promising procedure might have been to cover Mitochondria Intracellular Immunity Theory of Aging (HMIITA). A itself with a membrane containing, at the surface exposed to the host’s main point of this theory is based on the intracellular innate immune cytosol, components of the host’s membrane, i.e., markers that seem to capacity of organisms. As it will be outlined below, the innate arm of indicate “self”. Traditionally, the outer mitochondrial membrane is the immune system has been shown to not only act in terms of inter- interpreted as a descendant of the endosomal membrane, which con- cellular interactions, but to also play an important intracellular role. I tains host membrane proteins that are specific for the inner face of the hypothesize that aging is rooted in intracellular innate immune pro- plasma membrane. This may be sufficient for preventing detection as cesses which can be understood as a long lasting competition between “nonself” and attack from the cytosol, but it would not yet avoid ly- host cells and mitochondria. sosomal digestion, because the normal fate of an endosome is fusion with a lysosome. However, avoidance of lysosomal digestion has been Co-evolution of host cells and mitochondria described for alphaproteobacteria of the genus Wolbachia [29], which have been regarded by some investigators as genetically close relatives Based on the endosymbiotic theory, the precursor of the mi- of mitochondria [30].InWolbachia, the endosymbiont associates with tochondrion has been an alphaproteobacterium which has been taken Golgi-derived vesicles and is preferably found in the endoplasmic re- up by the protoeukaryotic cell. It is impossible to decide whether the ticulum [29]. Another method of avoiding lysosomal digestion would host cell has actively taken up the bacterium endocytotically by at- be lysis of the endosomal membrane before fusion with the lysosome, a tempting predation of a prey that escaped from becoming digested, or strategy used, e.g., by Listeria [31]. whether the bacterium intruded the host cell by inducing endocytosis, The inner membrane of mitochondria still preserves the trait of a in order to persist as a parasite. Processes of uninvited intrusion as bacterial membrane by containing 20% cardiolipin (CL), which is occurring in recent pathogenic bacteria may serve as models or not. characteristic of bacteria, especially, at this high concentration Endosymbiosis has taken place many times in evolution, in which other [32–36], thus, to cover this bacterial originated inner membrane is bacteria or eukaryotes became endosymbionts of host cells. Well-known necessary. How the outer mitochondrial membrane was formed, may examples are cyanobacteria that have transformed into plastids, or the still be debated. The assumption of a derivative of the ancient en- so-called P-symbionts in bacteriocytes of insects [17]. Some eukaryotic dosomal membrane may have some likelihood, but lacks a direct proof. cells, especially those which carried plastids, have also turned into Other intracellular membranes that are able to fuse with endosomal endosymbionts of other uni- or multicellular organisms, which thereby membranes may also be considered, e.g., Golgi-derived vesicles or parts acquired so-called secondary plastids [18,19]. For, instance, the dino- of the endoplasmic reticulum. Lysosomes as one kind of Golgi deriva- flagellate Kryptoperidinium foliaceum carries a second nucleus belonging tives can only be taken into account, if the early proto-endosymbiont is to a diatom-derived symbiont [20]. Even tertiary plastids caused by sufficiently protected against digestion and low pH. This is possible in three successive endocytotic events are known [21]. In these cases of several recent pathogenic bacteria. Some of them such Legionella secondary and tertiary endosymbiosis, a parasitic intrusion into the host pneumophila secrete effector molecules that prevent phagosome ma- appears rather unlikely. The concept of epibiotic symbiogenesis, in turation [34], whereas others such as Chlamydia, Anaplasma and My- which epibiotic symbiosis precedes endosymbiosis [22], would also not cobacterium species prefer to hijack host lipids that prevent the endo- be easily compatible with parasitic intrusion. However,
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