CHARACTERISTICS AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITON OF GROUND WATER IN RARA BASIN
A thesis submitted to the
Graduate College Sudan University of Science and technology For fulfillment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Omer Adam Mohammed Gibla (Vs.. Diploma, viSc. Chemism ) ipervised by
Dr. Mohammed Ahmed Hassan Fl-Tayeb
Professor of Chemistry
Director of Sudanese Atomic Energy Corporation,
Khartoum o-supervisor
Dr. Abd FJ-Salam Abdalla Dafa Alia
Associate Professor of Chemistry
Sudan University of Science and Technology, Khartoum January, 2007 Approval Page
The Thesis of.QtfZ.ik APAKmmn£J).9i£La.... is approved
1. Externa! Examiner 0 Name MbHM.&..hU.M4$&.ti....S\gr) ..^.^)...Date i^/..?.*2C?P^
2. Internal I Examiner Name d?W^f^^^gn /^£k*xDate
3 . Supervisor Name .V^W*l.fcWAHsrf**.ft/jjjign^^sfc.Date ^7 ecllcation
an3 § OtlA DISCLAIMER
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Approval page 1 Dedication i' Table of content id Acknowledgment Xi
Ahsiraci ( Fnglish ) ;
Abstract (Arabic) 1 NU>
Declaration xv Chapter One 1.1. Introduction 1 1.1.1 Natural Water 1 1.1.2. The hydrosphere J 1.1.3. ] h drospheric Processes i 1.1.4. Groundwater 2 1.1.5. Common Ions Presents in Natural Water 2 1.1.6 Physical Properties of Natural Water 4 l.l.b'l. PH 4 1.1.6.2. Turbidil\ 1 I. I.6. v Alkalinil;. ! ! hA. (Flour 1.1.6.5. Water I emperaiure 1.1.6.6. Water Colour " 1.2. Ground Water in Africa (' 1.2.1. Factors Controlling The Formation of Ground Walcr in Africa 1.3. Ground water in the Sudan F* 1.3.1 Climate • • • • '•••> 1.3.2 Geology of the Sudan 1.3.3. Geological History F- 1.3.4. Description of the main formations 14 1.3.5. Crv.stalline Basement Rock '4 1.3.6. Paleozic sandstone and Nawa Formation I ^ 1.3.7. Nubian Sandstone F^ 1.3.8. Fm Ruwaba Formation F> 1.3.9. Surface deposits 1 ; 1.4.1. Rural Water Supply and Research in Sudan IS 1.4.2. Evaluation and prospects of Ground Water Resources 23 1.4.3. Sudan's Main Aquifer Systems 23 1.4.3.1. River Aquifer 23 1.4.3.2. UMM Ruwaba Aquifer 1.4.3.3. Description of the aquifers 2? 1.4.3.3.1. Bara Basin ' 25
in 1.4.3.3.2. Atshan Basin 25 1.4.3.3.3. Baggara Basin 2o 1.4.3.3.4. Sudd Basin ;__ 26 1.4.4. Ground -Water Flow _27 1 45 Properties of Umm Ruwaba Aquifer 27 1.4.6. Ground water Resources 2N 1.4.7. Ground Water Quality 2S 1.5. Nubian Sandstone Aquifer 30 1.5.1. Description of the Aquifer 3< 1 !.5.1.1. Sahara basin ... 3o 1.5.1.2. Umm Kaddada 31 1.5.1.3.E1-Nahaud Basin 3[ 1.5.1.4. Nilo-Nubian Ba sin ^' 1.5.1.5. El-Gadarif Basin 32 1.5.1.6. Nubian Aquifer Ground Water Resources 3 2 1.5.1.7. Water Quality (Chemical Composition) 53 1.6. Water Quality Requirements "4 1.6.1. Water quality criteria for individual categories 5.S 1.6.2. Raw water Drinking Water Supply >> 1.6.3. Irrigation 5o 1.6.4. Water tor Live Stock Consumption 4i 1.6.5. Recreational use 4!
Chapter Two 2. Ground Y\ ater Pollution -o- 2.1. Dellnition 4 ; 2.2. Norms and Criteria I 2.2.1. The bacteriological norms of biological pollution J 2.2.2. Proposed levels of radioactive pollution 4
IV 2.5.4. Population patterns -^4 Salinity Buildup 22-* 2.6.1. Definition ^4
2.6.2. Types of Salinity L-55 2.6.2.1. Dry Land Salinity _ 55 2.6.2.2. Irrigation Salinity '"6 2.6.2.3. Urban Salinity _..j\Z. 2.6.2.4. River Salinity ^7 2.6.2.5. Industrial Salinity 5,S 2.6.2.6. Ground Water Quality 2.6.2.7. Significance s"
h(i 2.6.2.7.1. Salinity : 2.6.2.7.2. Acidity and Redox Status "<) 2.6.2.7.3. Radioactivity "! 2.6.2.7.4. Agricultural Pollution 'A 2.6.2.7.5. Mining Pollution '<2 2.6.2.7.6. Urban and Industrial Pollution rA. Salinity Generation 2.7.1. Ram fall Chemistry "4 2.7.2. Inorganic Carbon (,,> 2.7.3. Inorganic Nitrogen 11 2.7.4. Nitrification 2.7.5. Ammonillcation 1 >,s 2.7.6. I )enitrollcation ',N 2.7 7. Nitrogen ( Kidc^ in the atmosphere <=>^
Chapter Tliree Drinkin" Water ( ontaiiiinanK ~ \
Health Effect of Inorganic Minerals P{ 3.2.1. Barium ^ 3.2.2. Cadmium ?6 3.2.2.1 .Cadmium Metabolism 3.2.2.2.Cadmium and hypertension 2/ 3.2.2.3.Cadmium and reproduction so
3.2.3. Chromium vO 3.2.4. Copper ^1 3.2.5. Flouride 2 3.2.6. Iron s 3.2.7. Nitrate and Nitrite _. «j£ 3.2.K. Sulphate K$ 3.2.9 Arsenic • . s 6
v 3.2.10. Aluminum 3.2.11. Asbestos ":« 3.2.12. Lead 85 3.2.13. Manganese $0 3.2.14. Mercury 90 3.2.15. Nickel . l)\ 3.2.16. Selenium . 3.2.17. Molybdenum T'< 3.2.18. Zinc : ^ 3.2.19. Sodium y-5" 3.2.20. Water Hardness ^H-
Chaptev Four 4.1. Bara Basm Rex sew 4.2 Bara Basin Cy6 4.3. Bara Basin Topograph} 59 4.4. Geological I iistory of the Basin Area \0O
4.5. Geology of Bara Basin I-11 4.6. Geological Formation L)i| 4.6.1. Superficial Deposits (Pleistocene to recent) L)Z/. 4.6.2. Um-Rawaba formation (Plio-Pleistoeene) I o 5" 4.6.3. Nubian Sandstone Formation (Mcso/oic possibly crcataccous) K1^ 4.6.4. Nawa Formation (upper - Palepzoic) I'i6 4.6.5. Basement Complex (Pre-Cambrian to Cambrian) Mi'c7 4.7. Bara Aquifer Complex 4.7.1. lUdrological Characteristic of Bara Ba^ii ... l<3g 4.".2. Ground V\ alcr Uuaiit\
Chapter Five Techniques used for Analysis of Ln\ironmental Samples ;~'£J 5.1.1. (iamma spectrometry >2D 5.1.2. The Detector I-D 5.1.3. Detector Conllguration —J 5.1.4 Detector Assembly 522 5.1.5. Electronic Package % 5.1.6. The Pulse Shape '-^ 5.1.7. Data Storage and Presentation , lj^f 5.1.8. System calibration 124- 5.1.9. Energy Calibration ': • L\- 5.1.10 Resolution '2 5 5.1.11. Efficiency Calibration \-'& SAM. Detection Limit 1 - d 5.1.13. Background 2 ^ 5.1.14. Laser Fluorimeirv 12 8
VI Chapter Six Experimental 6.1. Introduction 6.2 Aim of the Study 6.3 Collection of samples 6.4 Instrument 6.5 Methods of Analysis 6.3.1. Total Alkalinity Determination 6.3.2 Determination of chloride (Mohr method) 6.3.3 Determination of nitrate (Cadmium Reduction Method) 6.3.4. Determination of N'trite (low range) Reaction limit 6.3.5. Determination of Sulphate D.I.. (0.0 to 70 mg 1) 6.3.6. Determination of fluoride (D.L. 0-2.Omg I) Spans Method 6.3.7. Determination of Suphide (D.L. 0 - 800 tig I) Methylene blue method 6.3.8. Determination of Ammonia Nitrogen (D.L. 0 2.500 mg I N1L.X) .. 6.3.9. Atomic Absorption Elemental Analysis (Ground water)
6.3.10. Atomic Absorption of Soil Samples
6.3.1 I. X-ray Fluorescence Analysis
6.3.12. X-ray Diffraction Analysis
6.3.13 Gamma Ray Detection of Soil Samples
Chapter Seven
I. Results and Discussion "7.1.1. I'hy sical Properties 7.FI I nil values 7.1.1.2. lolal Alkalinity 7.1.1.5. Flectrical Conductivity. Total Dissolved Solids and I urbidity \ allies 7.1.1.4. Nitrate 7.1.1.5. Nitrite 7.FF6. Ammonia Nitrogen 7.1.1.7. Chloride 7.1.1.8. Fluoride 7.1.1.9. Sulphide 7.1.1.10 Sulphate 7.1.1.11. Macro-cations 7.1.1.1 1.1. Sodium 7.1.1.11.2. Potassium 7.1.1.1 1.3. Calcium and magnesium
vii 7.1.12. Micro Cations i Jj^ 7.1.12.1 Barium '. 7.1.12.2. Chromium I$3 7.1.12.3. Manganese 7.1.12.4 Iron .. 7.1.12.5. Copper L_^°'^ 7.1.12.6. Zinc : -()& 7.1.12.7. Cadmium .•• 2o'f 7.1.12.8. Lead %c8 7.2. X-ray Diffraction Results 7.3 Conclusion ^-3% 7.4. Suggestions L_?^0
Chapter Eight 8. References
\ in List of Tables
Table 1.1. Sea Water ionic composition I able 1.2. Ground Water A\ ailabilitv (as shown on Map) -1 Table 1.4.1 Ground Water Resource ol'l.'mm Ruwaba aquifer Basins 2 X Table 1.5.1. Mineral contents Sahara Basin 3t) ~i i Table 1.5.2. Um-Kaddada basin Mineral content A j Table 1.5.3. El-Nahaud basin (Mineral Content) 31 Table 1.5.4. Nilo-Nubian Basin (Mineral content) Table 1.5.5. Gedarif Basin (Mineral Content) •\ Table 1.5.6. Estimate of the ground water potential of the aquifer (Nubian Sandstone) hvdroloiiical \ > Table 1.6.1. Selected Water Oualitv Criteria for Initiation Waters 40 Table 1.6.2. Selected Water Quality Criteria for Live slock Watering " 41 Table 2.1.1. Toxic substances which are the base for lejection of supply 45 Table O ] 1 Chemicals for which U.S Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards give desirable maximum concentrations 44 Table 3.1. Factors that mav Inlluence \ irons movement to Ground Water 71 Table 3.2. Factors Affecting Survival of Enteric Bacteria in Soil M 1 able 23* . ^ L'SIiPA National Primary Water Disinfectant Standards lable 3.4. I SFPA National Secondary Drinking V\ atcr ('onl.imiuani Smiidai\K . Table 3.5, ;. s': P \ Drinking Water Regulation and Health \dvisories for Inorganics Table 4.7.2 (iround Water ()uahtv i ! . Table 4.7.3. FmRuwaba province vicld sallv water 11 -i Table 4.7.4. Bara Province i 1 ^ Table 4.7.5. 126. values of some representative Sources in each Mahallia I 1 . Table 4.7.6. FTC. value in the sludv areas 1 /
Tables of pH, Electrical Conductivity, Total Dissolved and Turbidity values
fable 7.1.1. PTI values Section (A) and Section (B.) 14 0 Table 7.1.2. pi l-v allies Section (C) and Section (Di 140 Table 7.1.3. Electrical Conductiv ity Values Section (A) and (Bi !4Cj fable 7.1.4. Electrical Conductiv ity Values Section (C) and (D) 145' Table 7.1.5 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Values Section (.Aland (B) i -i C Table 7.1.6 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Values Section (C) and (D) \4& Table 7.1.7 Turbidity Values Section (A) and (B) JJTl Table 7.1.8 Turbidity Values Section (C) and (D) 14"^
IX Tables of Anions in Ground Water
Table 7.1 .9. Concentration of Nitrate (NOT) Section (A) and (B) l 15* Table 7.1 . 1 0 Concentration of Nitrate (NOT) Section (C) and (D) 1 5£ Fable 7.1 .1 1 Concentration of Nitrite (N(K) Section (A) and (B) fB Table 7.1 .12 Concentration of Nitrite (MKj Section (C)and (I)) i > Tab It- 7 1 .14 Concentration of Ammonia-N (Nlf-N) Section (A) and (B) l54 Table 7.1 .15 Concentration of Ammonia-N(NTF-N) Section (C) and (D) 1 54 Table 7.1 .15 Concentration of Carbonate (COT) Section (A) and (B) 155 Table 7.1 .16 Concentration of Carbonate (COT) Section (C) and (D) Table 7.1 .17 Concentration of Hydrogen Carbonate (HCOT) Section (A) and (B) .. 1 5 & Table 7.1 .18 Concentration of Hydrogen Carbonate (HCOf) Section (C) and (D) .. 1 5 6 Table 7.1 .19 Concentration of Hvdroxide (OH") Section (A) and (B) I5> Table 7.1 .20 Concentration of Hvdroxide (OH") Section (C) and (D) ' 157 Table 7.1 .21 Concentration of Sulphate (SOT") Section (A) and (B) Table 7.1 Concentration of Sulphate (SOT") Section (C) and (D) Table 7.1 .23 Concentration of Sulphide (S"~) Section (A) and (B) ; £9 Table 7.1 .24 Concentration of Sulphide (S") Section (C) and (I)) is? Table 7.1 .25 Concentration of fluoride (F) Section (A) and (B) 1 able 7.1 .26 Concentration of fluoride (F") Section (C) and (1)) \6o Table 7.1 i 7 Concentration of Chloride (CF) Section ( A ) and ( B) \t\ Table 7 ! 2X ('oncentral ion of ('blonde i (T) Seel ion (( ' lam 1 ( 1) i 161
fables of Cations in G round Water Table 7.1 .29 Concentration of Sodium Section (A) and (B) : C Table 7.1 .30 Concentration of Sodium Section (C) and (1)) i 6 Table 7.1 .31 Concentration of Potassium (K) Section (A) and (B) ! 11 Table 7.1 .32 ('oncentralion of Potassium ( K ) Section (C) and (1) >
1 able 7.1 . .1 Concentration of Calcium (Ca) Section (A) and (15) 178 1 able 7.1 .34 Concentration of Calcium (Ca) Section (C)and (1)) I7S Table 7.1 .35 Concentration of Maenesium (Me) Section (A)and(B) 171 Table 7.1 .36 Concentration of Mamresium (M«) Section (C)and (13) Table 7.1 .37 Concentration of Barium (Ba) Section (A) and (B) Ifj7 Table 7.1 .38 Concentration of Barium (Ba) Section (C) and (D) '"\S=h Table 7.1 .39 Concentration of Chromium (Cr) Section (Ai and(B) Table 7.1 .40 Concentration of Chromium (Cr) Section (C) and (I)) ! S9> Table 7.1 .41 Concentration of Manganese (Mn) Section (A) and (B) I Table 7.1 .42 Concentration of Maneanese (Mn) Section (C) and (D) \W Table 7.1 .43 Concentration of Iron (fe) Section (A) and (B) \W Table 7.1 .44 Concentration of Iron (fe) Section (C) and (D) mo Table- 7.1 .45 Concentration of Cobalt (Co) Section (C) and (I)) ' 191 Table 7.1 .46 Concentration of Nickel (Ni) Section (A) and (B) •
x Table 7. .47 Concentration oTCopper (Cu) Section (A) and (B) ... Table 7. .48 Concentration of Copper (Cu) Section (C) and (I)) ... Table 7. .49 Concentration of Zinc (Zn) Section (A) and (B) Table 7. .50 Concentration of Zinc (Zn) Section (C) and (D) Table 7. .51 Concentration of Cadmium (Cd) Section (A) and (B) Table 7. .52 Concentration of Cadmium (Cd) Section (C) and (I)) Table 7. .53 Concentration of Silver (Ag) Section (A) and (B) Table 7. .54 Concentration of lead (Fb) Section (Aland (B) 1 able 7. .55 Concentration of Lead (Pbi Section (C land (D) Table 7. .56 Correlation between Cations and Anions section (A) si
Tables of Elemental Analysis of soil Samples Table 7.1 .57 Determination of Calcium (Ca) Table 7.1 .58 Determination of Mamiesium (Mi:) Table 7.1 .59 Pfeie-rvVx^^^CovA p<3+<^ fuw\ ( J^T -i Table 7.1 .60 Determination of Sodium fable 7.1 .61 Determination ot Chromium Table 7.1 .62 Determination of Maimanese Table 7.1 .63 Table 7.1 .64 Determination of Cobalt Table 7.1 .65 Determination of Nickel Table 7.1 .66 Determination of Copper Table 7.1 .67 Determination of Zinc Table- 7.1 .08 Determination of Cadmium Table 7.1 .69 Determination ol 1 cad Table 7 1 .70 \-Ra\- Hunrcsecncc Analvsis
I able of Radioactive Isotopes Table 7.1 71 Radio-activity \ allies - Isotope Ac-^ Table 7.1 72 Radio-activity \ allies - Isotope Bi-^P Table 7.1 75 Radio-acti\ ity \ alues - Isotope Cs-!57 Table 7.1 74 Radio-activity values - Isotope Ph-214 Table 7.1 .75 Radio-activity values - Isotope Ra-223 Table 7.1 .76 Radio-activity values - Isotope Ra- 224 Table 7.1 .77 Radio-activity values - Isotope Ra-^6 Table 7.1 .78 Radio-activity values - Isotope TI-^4 Table 7.1 .79 Radio-activity values - Isotope Zn-65 Table 7.1 .80 Radio-activity values - Isotope TI-^OS Table 7.1 .81 Radio-acti\ ily values - Isotope T;i-182 Table- 7.1 .82 Radio-acli\ ity \ allies - Isotope Pa-140 Table 7.1 .83 Radio-activity values - Isotope- Th-228 Table 7.1 .84 Radio-activity values - Isotope 'Th-230 Table 7.1 .85 Radio-activity values - Isotope- Zr-97 ...
XI List of Figures Fig. 1.1. Skidv Area Location in Africa 9 F m. 1.2. Geolouieal Formation of sudan .. ".3 Fig. 1.3. Availability of Ground Water at Nothern Kordufan 20 Fig. 4.1 Bara Basin Map oZb Fig. 4.2. Geological Map for Bara Basin ~7o3 Fig. 4.3. Hvdrological Map for Bdra Basin j n \o Fig. 4.4. Geolosiical Cross-section across the Bara Basin 111 Fig. 4.5. Some of FxisithiL! Ground Water Sources within Bara Basin ! 1 6 Fig. 7.1 pFl values 142 Fig. 7.2 Turbiditv Values ! 1 Fig. 7.3. Micro Anions mean concentrations in nm/l (Section A) io£ Fig. 7.4. Macro Anions mean Concentration in mud (Section A) K»6 Fig. 7.5. Micro-Anion mean concentration in nm.'I (Section B) Fig. 7.6. Macro Anions mean concentration in mud (Section C) i 6>s h] Fig. 7.7. Micro Anions mean concentration in irm/1 (Section C) I Fig. 7.8. Micro Anions mean concentration in mud (Section D) \€9 Fig. 7.9. Sulphide mean concentration in nm/1 i © Fig. 7.10. Macro-cations mean concentration (Section A) FX J Fig 7.11. Macro-minerals mean concentration (Section B) iX^ Fig. 7.12. Macro-cations mean concentration (Section C) iX£ Fig. 7.13. Macro Minerals mean concentration in mg 1 (Section l)i ;x6 F'ig. 7.14. Micro-cations mean concentration (Section A) 2i| Fig. 7.15. Micro-cations mean concentration (Section B) lot Fig. 7.16. Micro-cations mean concentration (Section C) iig. 7.17. Micro-cations mean concentration (Section Dt Fig. 7.1 iS. Macro-cations mean concentration in Soii Samples ( \ \M. 1\6 Fig. 7.14. Micro-cations mean concentration in Soil Samples ( \.\Si. Fig. 7.20. Means Concentrations of Some Cations in Soil Samples ( XRI i Fig. 7.21. Means Concentrations of Some Micro-Cations in Soil Samples (XRF ) 220 Fig. 7.22. Means Radioactivity Values for Some Soil Samples (Gamma Detection) Fig. 7.23. Means Radioactivity Values for Some Soil Samples (Gamma Detection) • ) a Fig. 7.24. XR1) i soil sample results _ j*. & Fig. 7.25. X R1)" soil sample results 1%H Fig. 7.26. XRD3 soil sample results Fig. 7.27. XRD4 soil sample results 23 I Fig. 7.28. XRD5 salt sample results • "2 Fig. 7.29. XRD6 salt sample results 23 4 Fig. 7.30. XRD7 salt sample results i-JS Fig. 7.31. XRD8 Rocks sample results 2^6
Xll Acknowledgement
I would like hereby to express my gratitude and appreciation to my
supervisor Professor Mohamed Ahmed Hassan El-Tayeb and co-
supervisor Dr. Abd-Elsalam Abdalla Dafaalla, for their close
super\ ision, valuable advice and persistent encouragement.
1 would like also to thank deeply Professor Mohamed Khair Salih of
SUST, Dr. Hamid Omer of Hydro-master, L'staz Salah Ahmed
Mahgoub from El-Obied Water Quality Management, and Ustaz Abdalla
Mirgani of 1FAD (El-Obied Office) for their valuable professional
information concerning the topic.
1 would like to express my gratitude to Engineer Gafar Hassan from El-
Obied, for his great help.
My appreciation would go to the family of Central Petroleum Laboratories.
Khartoum, the Director and Staff for their signii/cant cci-opcrution.
I would never forget to thank the members of my family. Ylutasim. Ahmed,
El-Sadig and Osama for their great help during sample collection at the
field.
My appreciation would extend to my colleges and friends. Dr. El-Fatih
Ahmed Hassan, Dr. Ibrahim El-Faki, Ustaz Babikir Khalid, Ustaz
M. B. El-Mufti, Ustaz Abdel-Karim Mohamed and Ustaz Aneis Awad
of UNESCO chair in water resources.
My thanks and gratitude also go to all those who offered me help and
support during the performance of this work.
My thanks are due to Sudan University of Science and Technology for
financial support .
XIU Abstract
In this study analysis was carried for forty five ground water samples from different areas within Bara basin, fifteen solid samples, three locally
produced salt samples and one mixed rocks sample. The rocks were brought
from the underground during hand digging of wells. The study include areas
Um-Galgie. Bara, Saatah Shambool, Um-Sadoun El-Shareef, El-Dair. Fl-
Murra, Taybah, Um-sadoun El-Nazir, El-Hodied Shareef, Um-Nabeg, Um-
Gazira,Magror. Ma'afa, El-Kheiran, Dameerat Abdu. Sharshar Fast.
Sharshar West, El-Gaa*a Um-Salari, and Hl-Gaa'a I'm E!-Gora. Physical
characteristics of ground water samples were determined including pFI.
electrical conductivity, turbidity, and total dissolved solids, using pH-meter.
conductivity-meter, and ultra-meter. Many other analytical techniques were
used . Spectrophotometry- analysis was used for determination oi nitrate
(NOC) , nitrite (NO;* K ammonia-nitrogen (NHrN). Iluoridc (!•",. sulphide
(S"), and sulphate (SG\T) ions.Chloride (CT) and total alkalinih (()11 . (.'( f .
HCOF) were determined titrametrically. X-ray diffraction technique was
used for determination of chemical composition of solid samples (Soils. sails
Ulld I'ocf S \ \ . !.•>>. | • | 'j'x. re^ e;' i v' • • '•'••hnujU'* was ' . I !n >">v r.> i •. .
concentration of some metals in the solid samples. Kadioaclh it\ v. a-
measured using gamma-spectrometry. Atomic Absorption spectrometry was
used for the measurement of cations concentration in ground water samples
as well as soil samples, this include macro-cations : Sodium (Na), Potassium
(K), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), and Micro cations (trace) : Iron (Fe).
Manganese (Mn), Chromium (Cr), Cobalt (Co), Nickel (Ni), Copper (Cti),
Zinc (Zn), Cadmium (Cd), Silver (Ag), Lead (Pb) and Barium (Ba). The
results obtained were -statistically treated, using SPSS program, discussed
and further future research was suggested.
Xl\ The analysis show general suitability of fresh ground water at section A and
C samples from physical and chemical characteristic point of view.
The study shows a significant concentration of nitrate (NCV"). Cadmium and lead ions. Total dissolved solids content appeared to be problematic in some areas e.g. Elmurra and Sharshar east. Relativly low pl~i values were observed in section (C) samples.
X-ray diffraction shows high bromide content in salt samples.
XV 4 *2%JJ>\
jia_p. ^ja^ ^-o\^ AjuCj tLli^a 4 Vna j^!>LcV ( I. \\S )t " tl "> \r. 4j^Ajj /ju ,!r.'l 1 ij'jjaJl . fcU* .jjj^o ;Sjj> ?» ^ i ^cj^l ^1 4x-U]l t^jLa-^a pi Ax-liil iojc jLlj_J: .J;^. j—~ >. j-^- "i j-^- Jla t4u3_^sJI »Laa]I ^ual>}i>- ^J -^aj jJ CJ-aJ i" i;^ *.g_!' 'V°.'?'l /_u> _^c- yf~ V'il p^ -Mij t (Turbidity)* sjl£*Ji .(EC) ^j^i J^yJ' (pi I) s^^'j }-. ^ < J£ A-^UJi i3eV^ (TDS) ^JsFJi « (NH3-N) ^-j^l ^-(NO: ) '(NO/) ^^^ £ l 1 ^ULaIU t(S04")^-'^_>^ j '(S')^j^ MP") ^jj^1 l (OH" 'CO.F" ' ^ (CF) ^ ^5 (Specirophoiometr\ • *~>\jd (X-rays Diffraction Spectrometry) ^ (X-ray Fluorescence ) **-Vf * j^i ±& vuos-U ^lij^j , -LgjLo (y_ rays) ^> '~^ ^i-uxJi W'l i (Na) >j-p <• jj^' 3^j^' L-J'-i j .^j-^j ^U-^ ^Lbc. CiiJ oUjjbl] AiLjaVlj '(Ca) fj^-^'j (Ms) fj«Jh^1-^1 '(K) fj^-'j^' t(Cr) '(Mn) '(Fe) ^j j ^jV'*^ 4(Cd) '(Zn) ^Jil '(Cu) '(Ni) J^li '(Co) ^jSH! .(Ba) j.(Pb) jit j '(Ag) ! ^ ^ (SPSS) ^ ^L-~! CJU}J. VJU- ^ .^lc Aj^ jj ^Ij^l^U sAi^ ^ CjIjjjJI j V. • .-i ^ CAx^c ji Jill ++ ^^Jjci .(Pb'i j (Cd ) ^jISII '(NO,) ^ijUi ^UO jS , xvii Declaration I have hereby declare that the work embodied in this thesis is my own. It has neither been submitted nor is currently being submitted for any other degree than the Doctor of philosophy of the graduate college, Sudan University of Science and Technology. This thesis was accomplished under the supervision of : 1] Dr. Mohamed Ahmed Hassan El-Tayeb, Professor of Analytical Chemistry, Sudanese Atomic Energy Corporation, Khartoum. 2] Dr. Abd-El-Salam Abdalla Dafalla, Associate Professor, of Inorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemisliy, College of Science, Sudan University of Science and Technology . Signatures : Omer Adam Mohamed Gibla (Candidate) Dr. Mohamed Ahmed Hassan FJ-Tayefe^-^^V"(Supervisor) Dr. Abd-El-Salam Abdalla Dafalla (Co-Supervisor) Will 1.1. INTRODUCTION 1.1.1. Natural Water : Water is the most important resource, without it, life is not possible. From a chemical point of view water (H2O) is a pure compound, but in reality, you seldom drink, see, touch or use pure water. Water from various sources contains dissolved gases, minerals, orgnic and inorganic substances. 1.1.2.The hydrosphere : The total water system surrounding the Earth planet is called the hydrosphere, including fresh water systems, oceans, atmosphere vapour, and biological waters. The Arctic, Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans cover 71% of the earth surface and contain 97% of all water. Less than 1% is fresh water and 2 - 3% is ice caps and glaciers. Canda has 20% of the world fresh water supply. These waters dominate our weather and climate, directly and indirectly affecting our daily life. (Mark M. Benjamin, 2002). 1.1.3. Hydrospheric Processes : Hydospheric processes are the steps by which water cycles on the earth planet. These processes include sublimation of ice, evaporation of liquid, transportation of moisture by air, rain, snow, river, lake and ocean currents. All these processes are related to the physical properties of water, and many government Agencies are set up to study and record phenomena related to them. (Mark J. Harmar et al, 1981) The study of these processes is called hydrology. Among the planets, Earth is the only one in which there are solid, liquid and gaseous waters. These conditions are just right for life, for 1 which water is a vital part. Water is the most abundant substance in the biosphere of Earth. (Water Chemistru, 2002 - 2006).. 1.1.4. Ground Water : This is an important part of the water system. When vapour is cooled, clouds and rain develop. Some of the rain percolate through the soil and into the underlying rock. The water in rocks is ground water, which moves slowly. A body of rock which contains appreciable quantities of water is called an aquifer (Herry, G. Roddis (1964). Below the water table , the aquifer is fdled or saturated with water. Above the water table is the unsaturated zone. Some regions have two or more water tables. These zones are usually separated by water - impermeable material such as a boulder and clay. Ground water can be brought to the surface by drilling below the water table, and pumped out. The amount of water that can be pumped out depends on the structure of the aquifer. Little water is stored in tight granite layers but large quantities of water are stored in lime stone aquifer layers. In some areas there are under ground rivers. 1.1.5. Common Ions Presents in Natural Water: Hydrology is also the study of how solids and solute interact in and with water. Table 1.1. shows water ionic composition. 2 Table 1.1. Sea Water Ionic composition (mg/kg) Ion Concentration in mg/kg Cl- 19350 Na+ 10760 S04" 02710 Mg++ 1290 Ca++ 00411 K+ 00399 HCO3- 00142 Br- 00067 Sr++ 00008 BO? 00004.5 F- 00001.3 FI4Si04 0.5-10 PH 8.35 Dust particles and ions present in the air are nucleation centers of water drops. Thus water from rain and snow also contain such ions Ca2+, Mg2+, + + + Na , K , NH4 . These cations are balanced by anions such as ITC03", S04", N02\ CF and N03". Sayed A. El-Khatib, (1993). The pH of rain is between 5.5 and 6.5. Rain and snow waters eventually become rivers or lakes water. When rain or snow fall it interacts with vegetation, top soil, bed rock, river bed and lake bed, dissolving whatever is soluble. Solubilities of inorganic salts are governed by the kinetics and equilibria of dissolution. The most common ions in lakes and rivers water are the same as those present in rain water, but at higher concentrations. The pH of these waters depend on the river and lake bed (Edmunds W.M ,1999). 3 1.1.6. Physical Properties of Natural Water : 1.1.6.1. gH : A pH of 6.5 to 8.2 is optimal for most organisms. Rapidly growing algae or submerged aquatic vegetation remove CO? from water during photosynthesis, significantly increasing pH levels. PH levels >9.0 are harmful. Rain water naturally has pH = 5.5. pH < 5.5 may be harmfull to some organism species. Metals normally trapped in sediments may be released into the acidified water. Natural water can be described as acidic when pH < 6.5 and basic when pH >7.5. 1.1.6.2. Turbidity : Turbidity or cloudiness in water is caused by suspended materials that scatter light passing through the water. There are many sources of turbidity, including sediments from disturbed or eroded soil and high numbers of microscopic plankton due to excess nutrients and sun light. Suspended particles near the water surface can absorb extra heat from sun light, raising surface water temperature. Drinking water should have turbidity < 0.5 NTUs. Typical ground water should have turbidity < 1.0 NTUs. (Khalid Abd-El-Rahim, 2001 ; Mark M. Benjamin, 2002 and Water Chemistry, 2006). 1.1.6.3. Alkalinity : Alkalinity is the amount of buffering material in the water, if a body of water has an abundance of buffering materials (high alkalinity), it is more stable and resistant to changes in pH. If a body of water has very little buffering 4 material (low alkalinity), it is very susceptible to changes in pH. (Edmunds et. al. 1988, 1992 and 1996 ; Cook J.M. etal. 1991). As increasing amounts of acids (acid rain) are added to ponds and lakes, thier buffering capacity is consumed. If surrounding soils and rocks supply additional buffering material, the alkalinity may be eventually restored. 1.1.6.4. Odour : Odour affects the acceptability of drinking water, the aesthetics of recreational water and the taste of fish. Sewage and industrial chemical waste discharges or natural sources such as decompositioning vegetation and microbial activity can cause odour (SSMO, 2002 ; CAcT Home Page, 2006). The human nose can accurately detect a wide variety of smells, making it the best odour-testing device available. 1.1.6.5. Water Temperature : Temperature is one factor in determining which species may or may not be present. Temperature affects the feeding, reproduction and metabolism of aquatic animals. It also determines the suitability of water for human, livestock and irrigation use. (CAcT Home Page, 2006 ; Water Chemistry, 2006). 1.1.6.6. Water Colour : Verbal descriptions of colour are unreliable and subjective. A reproducible system of colour comparison should be used to compare other systems. Each water colour is expected to be caused by seperate reason. 5 Blue = transparent water with a low accumulation of dissolved materials and particulate mater. Yellow/Brown = dissolved organic material, humic substances from soil, peat, or decaying plant material. Green = water rich in phytoplankton and other algae. Mixture of colours - may be caused by soil run off. (Hem, J.D., 1985 ; Mark M. Benjamin, 2002 ; Water Chemistry, 2006 ). 1.2. Ground Water in Africa 1.2.1. Factors Controlling The Formation of Ground Water in Africa : 1) The African continent, which is a huge compact block, is noted from its horizontal and normal dissection. The continent may be divided into three parts according to the prevailing altitudes : 1] Southeastern high Africa, 2] Northern low Africa and 3] The Atlas high land. Geologically it is an old platform bordered in the south by the Hercynion structure of the capids and by the Alpinion structure of the Atlas in the north. The basement of the platform cropping out on wide areas, is formed by the Archean and Proterozoic metamorphic and igneous rocks. The sedimentary cover prevaild at the northern part of the continent ismade mainly of Fanerzoic sedimentary structures. (Geological Society of Africa, Conference , Khartoum, 1976) 2) Two groups of factors are involved in the formation of ground waters : 6 i) Regional (Climate, topography, vegetation, soils, water bearing rocks, earth gravitation, human activity. ii) Local (microclimate relief, stream flows, mineral deposits, the action of thermo-mineral water. And brines in places of their discharge). In Africa the influence of climate, topography, water bearing rocks composition, surface stream flows and human activity is clearly defined (Geological Society of Africa, Conference Khartoum, 1976). 3) Africa's symmetrical situation on both sides of the equator, determine the quantitative characteristics and distribution of the basic climatic parameters. (Precipitation, temperature, direction of winds, wormth and humidity ratio, and the latter govern the recharge of ground water e.g. the distribution of precipitation in the principal climatic zones is defined by the basic patterns of atmospheric circulation. The effect of the latter shows up not only in the quantity of the ground water recharge but also it's quality, as precipitation transfer soluble salt to it. 4) Topography plays a significant role in the formation of ground water in Africa. It governs the trends of their flow; and the steepness of the topography controls the rate of flow, the duration of water and rocks interaction, and consequently the mineral and chemical content of the ground waters. The ground water within the boundaries of the central Sahara massifs (Ahgar, Tebisti), in the Ethiopian high lands, in the plains of the Sudan depression and the Congo basin furnish a good example to this effect. 5) The ground waters are recharged under considerable influence of the surface channels and reservoirs, but their function is different under arid, semi-arid and humid climates, as well as within various releifs. The 7 drainage received poor development in the northern and southern parts of Africa with their arid and semi-arid climate and little relief. Then the ground waters are recharged mainly from precipitation, and the stream flows are largely transient. Surface stream flows feed the ground water only during high flood, which accompanies by partial desalinity. (e.g Saura, Atbara, Kasalla and other wadis). In humid environment the levels and recharge of ground and land waters are closely interrelated and shallow ground water are widely spread. 6) The water bearing rocks play a major role in the formation of ground water resources and their chemical content. Fluriol Colian and eluvial deposits are predominant in the upper part of the rock sequence, when they are the main resources of shallow ground waters. The age of the rocks is largely confined to Neogene quarterly era, less commonly to cretaceous. The deposits are located among sedimentary and igneous facies. The weathered zones within the crystalline rocks may be even older. The Umm Ruwaba formation in the Sudan depression (Neogene - quarterly), Lacustrine Holocene and Neogene quarterly of the upper section of the Chad and kerry-Kerry formation in the Chad depression, a complex of poliocene quarterly sandy lacustrine alluvial deposits in the Congo depression are among the biggest water bearing complexes in Africa. (UN. 1988). 8 Source : PRC. Eng. Consultant report, (1981). Fig.1.1. Shows the location of the study 1.3. GROUND WATER IN THE SUDAN Sudan is the largest country in Africa with coastline of 700 km in the Red sea and has borders with nine African countries, two Arab countries, three central African countries (Chad, Central Africa and Zaire), and four east Africa countries Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia and Aretria. The country runs from south close to the equator to North just south of the tropic of cancer," a distance of about 2000km, and from east to west for about 1300 km. Sudan area is 2,506,000 km with population of 35-40 millions. Sudan has vast flat expanses where the menotary is broken only by low hills and small mountain chains, e.g. Tmatong in the south, Red sea hills in the east, Jabel Marra and Nuba mountains in the West. The country's highest point (3,224 m) is in the Imatong. The red sea hills rise to 2700 m. The Nuba mountains rise to 1374 m in the Jabal Dair. Jabel Marra is a volcanic massif mountain running North South for 200 km in Western Darfaur. About half the country is between 300 and 500 m in altitude, with two percent (2%) of the land below 300 m and 0.3% above 1500m. Most of the country lies in the hydrographic basin of the Nile. Western Darfur is a part of the Chad basin. The coastal basins of the red sea should also be mentioned. The north west of the country is desert with no hydrographic network (UN, 1983). 1.3.1. Climate : The climate is dominated by continental influence. It is of the tropical and subtropical type. The rain falls in summer. The winters are dry. The coastal areas are subject to the influence of the Red sea. The winds are changed with moisture as they cross the red sea and they deposit it as rain in the coastal areas. The rain falls increases from the North (Nil at the Egyptian frontier) to 10 the south west (1500 mm) and the isohyets generally run east west, except in higher areas. The inter annual irregularity of the rain falls is much greater in the North. Sudan has been suffering from draught for so many years. The rain fall has, generally, been less than half the normal amount. Except in the far south, about 90% of the rain falls between July and September with two thirds in July-August. Most of the rain fall is of the convective type (short violent local storms). Sudan is a hot tropical country. The highest temperatures are recorded in the central plain between Abu-Hamad and Khartoum with annual average of 29°C. The highest temperate ever recorded was 52°C at Wadi Haifa on 29 April, 1903). (H.G. Roddis, 1963 ; UN, 1988). The lowest (2°C) was also recorded at Wadi Haifa On 26 December 1917. The temperature rises in January; the minimum temperatures are between 6°C and 20°C and the maximums between 24°C and 36°C. In summer (April) the central plain (Khartoum and Gezireh) have the highest temperatures ; the maximum range from 34°C. to 40°C and the minimum from 16°C to 24°C. The ranges are wider in the dry north than in the wet tropical south. They are in the order of 18°C to 20°C in the northern and central plains, and 12°C to 14°C in the south. The part of the country which is drained towards the Chad basin contain the seasonal wadis, Wadi Kaja and Wadi Azum, which rise on the western slopes of Jabel Marra. The eastern slopes of Jabel Marra are drained by Wadis Bulbul, Kaya and Gendi towards the vast swamps of Bahrelarab. The main coastal wadis on the Red sea are Khor Arbaat, Mog (Near Portsudan) andKhorHandoub. There are two seasonal water sourses of great importance : Khour Elgash and Khor Baraka in Kassala. The Nile is the country's only permanent water 11 course ; it is the dominant feature of the physical geography from the human and economic stand point. The main course of the Nile begins at Khartoum , where the White Nile and Blue Nile converge. Further North the Nile receives Atbara river, then crosses the Nabri desert towards Egypt. The white Nile rises in the plateau of the lakes and provides 16% of the water of the Nile. The Blue Nile drains the platuea of Ethiopia and contributes 84% of the water. The limits of the basins of Blue Nile, White Nile and the Attbara are not clearly defined (UN, Water Series 1988). 1.3.3. Geology of the Sudan : Sudan has the following geological units of structure (Sir Alexander, 1979; H.O. Ali, 1981): • Crystalline basement rock (Precambarian) • Nawa formation and Paleozoic sandstones (Cambrian-carboniferrous) • Nuri sandstone (Jurassic - Cretaceoua)altic out crops (Tertiary). • Basaltic out crops (tertiary). • Coastal deposits (Late Tertiary) • Umm Ruwaba formation (Pliocene - Pleistocene) • Surface deposits (Late Pleistocene). 12 .\7«7 Tertiory Lavo ~ Nubian Formation Lower Cretaceous Bosemenl Complex Pre-Cambrion |Source : Geoexploration , 19, 1981, p 128. Figure 1.2. Geological Formation of Sudan 13 1.3.4. Geological History : Along the period of erosion which continued to the upper polezoic period, removed most of the marine sedimentary cover which had been deposited in shallow water on the crystalline basement rock with the exception of a few isolated pockets at Nawa (Kordofan), near the Chad frontier, near Jabal Uweinat and in the north west of the country. In the Mesozoic (Jurassic -cretaceous) period clastic sediments of Nubian sandstone were deposited. These were eroded and survived only in the depressed areas of the basement rock and its Paleozoic cover. The tectonic movements of the rift system (middle to upper tertiary) led to the formation of vast structural basins such as those of Bara, Dinder and Baggara. A volcanic phase then produced Jabal Marra, Meidob and Tagabo, and the Basaltic flours of Bayoda desert and the Gadarif region. This volcanic activity throughout the upper tertiary and early quaternary periods. In the Pliocene -pleistocene period these basins received thick fluvial and lacustral deposits , which constitute the formation known as Umm Ruwaba. The North of Sudan was consequently subjected to a dry climate. Strong winds caused by heavy erosion of the Nubian sand stone and the most recent sediments producing the vast expanses of sand and sand dunes which cover most of the Northern part of the country and the regions of Kordufan and Darfur. 13.5. Description of the main formations : 13.6. Crystalline Basement Rock This consists mainly of orthogneiss , paragneiss and precambarian schists which are divided into three main groups : 14 a. Acid gneiss. b. Quartizites. c. Schists and grauwackes. These rocks are heavily folded, faulted and injected with interusive rocks, mainly granite, and quartz veins. 1.3.7. Paleozoic sandstone and Nawa Formation : Paleozoic sandstones out crop, mainly, in the west of the country. Camberian - ordovician fluviatile sandstones are found in the upper basin of Wadi Hower which forms a continuation of the Ennedi platuea as far as the Chad frontier. Some of these formations are covered with sandstone sediments of the coastal and fluvial deltic type of lower Siluran age. Carbinoferrous sandstones rest in discontinuity on the crystalline basement rock on the Sudanese slopes of Jabel Uweinat. They consist mainly of sandstone intercalations with intersected stratification which contain many remains of foccilized plants. The Nawa formation out crops in very few places, it is found in the spoil of wells or bore holes in the area between latitudes 12° 21' and 12° 50" N on longitude 29° 50' E. These rocks sample consist, mainly, of sandstone arkose and brown or green fine medium grained schists. The Nawa formation contains considerable amounts of mica, which distinguishes it from the Nubian Sandstone (IFAD, 1993) 13.8. Nubian Sandstone \ This formation cover 28% of the country and out crops mainly on Kordofan, Darfur and Khartoum regions. In the south it is overlain by thick unconsolidated sediments of the Umm Rawaba formation, while in the rest 15 of the country. It out crops in the plateaus or sub-out-crops below a cover of surface formations of variable thicknesses. This formation is well stratified with layers of Schist or Conglomerate and with little or no slope. The elements are of average size and homogeneous. Its origin is disputed, but it was probably produced by deposits accumulated in fresh water. In the north the formation is divided into three groups : 1) Basic silicified sandstone and conglomerate . 2) Soft or hardened white, purple and rarigated schist and sandstone 3) Yellow or brown sandstone. The Nubian sandstone varies greatly in thickness, attaining over 40000 m in the deep structural trenches and the northern region. It is generally thought to vary in age from upper Jurassic to lower Cenozoic. (EG.Rodisefa/. 1962, 1964) 1.3.9. Umm Ruwaba Formation : This formation covers 20% of the country forming two big trenches in the center and south. The main trench covers most of Kordofan, Darfur and the southern region, the other trench is found in the area of Blue Nile and it's tributaries, Rahad, and Dinder. These are unconsolidated series with little stratification consisting of sand, Silts and clays. However, layer of pebbles can occur at the base of the series where it is in contact with the underlying basement rock or the ultered surface of the Nubian sandstone. The sand or clay content is probably due to the Nubian sandstone and the clay content to basement rock. The Umm Ruwaba formation consist of lenticular sand and clay units with great lithological variation in the rentical-lateral direction and in the rentical 16 direction. The following sequences have generally been identified, from top to bottom : a) Greenish clays with nodules. b) Sand with very course rounded grains. c) Greyish Grumbly and soft clays. The formation varies in thickness from 50 m. above the east and west up lift' of the crystalline basement rock which divides the Bara trench into two sub basins to 1400 m along the main axis of the trench in the vicinity of the town of Bara and in the south. This great thickness and the composite and base nature of the sediments indicate rapid sedimentation by short rivers in a continental or lacustral environment (H. G. Rodis et al. 1962, 1964). 1.3.10. Surface Deposits : These include Nile alluviums, the fill deposits of the valleys, The Kordofan sands, the black clay plains and coastal deposits of the Red Sea. All these deposits, which range in age from Pleistocene to recent, cover most of the oldest formations with a variable but fairly thin layer. The Nile deposits form the plains and the ancient and recent terraces of the river and of it's tributaries to a depth of up to 60 meter. They consist mainly of well-sorted silts and clays with occasional sandy strata. The nature of the Alluvial fill accumulated by the, temporary, water courses depends on the pattern of the water course. In the piedmont areas these deposits consist of medium to coarse, poorly, sorted sands with gravel and lenses of clay in some places. The fine material is carried further down stream before being deposited. Clays and alts of the spreading plains are found only around minor arms along the Nile's course and it's delta, can be up to 30-50 m thick. 17 The Kordofan sands consist, mainly, of eolian sand deposit in the form of vast layers of stabilized dunes covering most of the northern part of the country. These sands consist of fine or medium well rounded grains of quartz, usually coloured light-brown or dark- red by the oxides. The thickness of the sand cover varies considerably, from a few centimeters to about a hundred meters. These dunes usually run north - south in line with the main direction of the wind. However north-east transversal dunes are also quite common. The black clays cover the plains of Gezireh, Rahad, Dinder and Butana, extending south wards to the Sud region on the northern slopes of the Nuba mountains and the vast plains North of the Nile - Congo water shed. This formation has a, remarkably, uniform clay content of 60%, with few coarse elements but many lime stone nodules and concretions. The black clay of southern Kordafan and Darfur, usually, rest in continuity on the unconsolidated sediments of Urn Rawaba formation, indicating that their sedimentation was the last phase of the deposition of this formation. The Red Sea Litoral formations consist of sequence of mixed marine and continental facies resulting in discontinuity of tertiary deposit and older formations. A highly developed network of wadis including Khors, Baraka, Arbaat, Eit and Mog, drain the Red Sea Hills, carrying down large quantities of gravel, sand silt, and clay and depositing them in coastal areas. These continental sediments are sometimes 50 to 75 meter thick. (Isam Abd-ElMagid, 1986 ; UN, 1988) 1.4. Rural Water Supply and Research in Sudan : Sudan first Rural Water Supply Service was established in 1946. In 1956 a department of land use and rural development was established in the i Ministry of Agriculture, with three divisions : i 18 (i) Land use. (li) Development of surface water and (hi) Water drilling. Just few kilometers from the Nile, ground water aquifers provide the only permanent stocks of water in Sudan. They guarantee the existence of almost 75% of the population and the live stock whose total annual needs are estimated at 500 million cubic meters. The needs of wild animals, supplementary irrigation and industry, as well as losses due to evapo- transpiration, infiltration and wastage. Up to 1987, the bodies responsible for rural water supply survices produced about 90 million cubic meter a year, representing less than a quarter of the requirement. Technical responsibility was assigned to the Ministry of Mineral Resources. This led to construction of 100 tube wells, 200 hafirs and four small dams with annual capacity of 11 million cubic meters. The Rural Water and Development Corporation (RWDC) was established in 1967, as a response to the situation caused by the draught and degradation of the soil and to satisfy the large requirements resulting from the implementation of the rural development program. This was followed by the anti- thirst campaign, which was the first step in the great advance made in the area of rural water supply. Within the year 1967 - 1987, 3200 boreholes were successfully drilled as well 350 hafirs and 10 small dams were build. This made it possible to store about 70 million cubic meters of water each year, representing 19% of the total human and live stock requirements. During these 20 years the effort was concentrated on the exploitation of ground water, which is more difficult to develop than the surface water, but is of better quality and less vulnerable to pollution. 19 28° 30° _ " 32 1 1 r zr r Source : Ministry of Mineral Resources Sudan Bulletin No. 14 (1964) Figure 1.3. Availability of Ground Water at Northern Kordufan 20 Availability of Ground Water Brief Description ot Geologic ana Map Area of Ground Water Based on data from drilled wells unless otherwise indicated. Depths to Ground-Water conditions Availability water-bearing strata are from land surface Al Most wells obtain water from Umm Ruwaba aquifers from depths of Nubian and/or Umm Ruwaba strata approximately 150 feet. A2 Most wells obtain water from Umm Ruwaba aquifers from depths of overlain by surficial deposits and approximately of 150 feet and 300 feet. A3 Most wells obtain water from Umm Ruwaba aquifers from depths of underlain by basement rocks ; or Nawa approximately of 300 feet and 500 feet. A4 Most wells obtain water from Umm Ruwaba aquifers from depths strata overlain by surficial deposits and greater than 500 feet. underlain by basement rocks. A!D Most (dug) wells obtain water aquifers in surficial deposits or Umm Ground water generally occurs in more Ruwaba strata from depths of 30 to 150 feet permeable Nubian and Umm Ruwaba Most (dug) wells obtain water from Umm Ruwaba aquifers between sandstone and conglomerate ; A2d depths of 150 feet and 250 feet occurrence of ground water in Nawa Aic Water very high in total dissolved solids ; wells either abandonedor comparatively unknown. Ground water limited in use ; depth to water not recorded. A2c Water very high in fluoride content, wells abandoned ; depth to water occurs locally in surficial deposits and from 150 feet to 300 feet Aoc Attempts to find ground water usually failed. Where water has been in the weathered and creviced zones of found it is very high in total dissolved solids content. AO Attempts to obtain water usually failed or resulted in a small yield basement rock. However, these sources Ax Ground water potential unexplored, however, geologically favorable for are not dependable ground-water exploration and development. B Most (dug) wells are from 10 to 250 feet in depth and are dry part of the Basement Rocks overlain by surficial year ; few drilled and dug and wells obtain perennial supplies deposits. Ground water occurs locally in weathered and creviced zones of basement rocks and in surficial deposits. 1.4.2. Evaluation and prospects of Ground Water Resources This type of research expanded rapidly after the establishment of RWDC. Significant efforts were made in Kordofan and Darfur Regions , with financing provided by grants and loans. The actual research was entrusted to foreign study companies. Ground water research section is responsible for the activity financed in this area by the government. A major project financed by the British government was carried out in northern Darfur (1968 - 1974.) with the object of studying ground water, which included : 1) Aerial photograph and photo-geological interpretation. 2) Evaluation of all available data on boreholes. 3) Measurement of the water levels in the boreholes and observation of fluctuations in these levels and in salinity of the water. 4) Test pumping and interpretation. 5) Geophysical prospecting by geo-electrical, gravimetric and seismic methods. 6) Determination of ground water potential of Shagra basin, with a view to supplying El-Fasher, and of west Nyala basin to supply Nyala. In Southern Darfur ground water studies dealt with the aquifers of the Nubian sandstone and Umm Ruwaba formations and with the main alluvial aquifers. These studies considered the possibility of small irrigation projects. The second ground water exploration program in order of importance was carried out by a Czechoslovak Company over an area of 80000 km in Kordofan (1967- 1976). It identified limits of the ground water basins and determined locations for [suitable water boreholes in the areas of crystalline substratum at the 22 Precambrian basement rock. The researcher used geophysical prospecting methods and then took core samples and made diagraphic studies. The geophysical operations consisted of magnetic and gravimetric measurements (6, 100), electrical soundings (1770) and seismic refraction profiles (9). These studies brought about a considerable improvement in the knowledge of the ground water basins and identified several other basin e.g Iyal Bakhit. Lastly they succeeded in establishing water points in areas considered barren. Other work financed by bilateral aid programs included the geophysical and hydrological research carried out between 1967 - 1985 by the geological service of the Netherlands at El-Gadarif, El-Jebelain, Kassala and Nyala. German Missions have been studying ground water since 1958 e.g. atKordofan and later at Khartoum (1967). In 1985 scientific mission of the University of West Berlin began to study the Nubian sand stone aquifer in Sudan and Egypt. The United Nations Development program financed studies of the Jebel Marra (1958) and Kordofan (1967), and later a regional project on the main aquifer north-eastern Africa (Nubian sandstone). 1.4.3. Sudan's Main Aquifer Systems 1.4.3.1. River Aquifer : The Nile silts and the fill deposits of the valleys are Sudan's largest aquifers. Most of them contain large quantities of good quality water, especially in the sircas of crystalline basement rock, owing to their hydrological properties [(High storage and trans-missivity coefficients). Ground water drawn from pese alluvial aquifers is the most important resource used for domestic and 23 irrigation purposes in several northern areas, and at Kassala as well as in Kordofan and darfur. Ground water of the alluvial formations is usually contained in uncon fined aquifers at shallow depths (few centimeters to 15 meters) below ground level. The rate of flow within the aquifer depends on the surface gradient and the transmissivity of the alluvial aquifer. Accordingly the rate of flow of ground water is higher in the upper part of the aquifer, than in the lower part. It is about 25 to 40 cm a day (Darfur, Kassala and jebel Marra). The transmissivity coefficient ranges from 200 to 1500m /day. The storage coefficient is also high (13 to 25%) as is to be expected in unconfined aquifer. Ground water from these aquifers contains little mineral salts e.g. in valley of Khor Elgash the TDS is 180 to 270 mg/1 with a mainly Ca(HC03)2 Facies. Away from the bed, salinity increases to 2000mg/l of carbonates, sulphates and sodium chloride. This may be mainly due to the return of irrigation water. TDS of ground water of Wadi Azum is about 180 - 270 mg/1 as carbonates and calcium and sodium bicarbonates. At Wadi Aribo this value is below 150 mg/1, mainly, due to Ca(HC03)2-This is similar also at wadi Bulbul, Nyala and Kutum. Elseleim and Kerima basin contains water of better quality than that of the Nile itself (120mg/l TDS). That may be due to the presence of layer of silt acting as a semi-permeable membrane trapping the salt of irrigation water. In the Alluvium sodium absorption rate of ground water is below 10, so they can be classified as excellent for irrigation. 24 1.4.3.2. Umm Ruwaba Aquifer : This is the second important aquifer, it has lenticular water bearing strata of sand and pebbles which are mostly in contact with each other. The areas composed of fire elements are unproductive or even barren. Water of this aquifer is exploited mostly for domestic use and for live stock and occasionally for small scale irrigation (Bara and El-Khairan). It covers an area of about 800000 km2 mostly south of the 12th parallel N. It may over lie attend formations of the crystalline basement rock (Bara basin) an attend Nubian sand stone or other older formations (Atshan, Baggara and Sudd basins). 1.4.3.3. Description of the aquifers 1.4.3.3.1. Bara Basin : This occupies a trench of 68000 km2 running north-west / south-east in central Kordofan and eastward to meet the White Nile south of Kosti. It is bounded in the North west by Nubian sand stone, and by the crystalline base rock on the other sides. The basin is divided into two sub-basins by a north• east saddle produced by an uplift of the basement rock, but they remain in hydraulic contact with each other. I 1.43.3.2. Atshan Basin : I This basin includes the southern part of the syncline located between Bayoda • hoist and the Sodiri-Mega anticline ; the northern part is occupied by Nubian •pandstone.. It is in the form of triangular trench, the apex of which is the •ponfluence of the Blue Nile and the Rahad, while the base terminates at the Hnsement relief which run along the Ethiopian frontier. The lithology is 25 typical to Umm Ruwaba, except that it contains much more coarse material (Sand and Pebbels). Very little is known about the hydrology of it. 1.4.3.3.3. Baggara Basin : This Basin covers about 150000 km in southern Kordofan and southern Darfour, south of the Nuba mountains and the saddle leading to Umm Kaddada basin (South of the 13° 30' parallel/N). It is south-east limit is Bahr El-Arab. In the west it terminates at the high banks forming the control part of Jubel - Genina horse. Almost all the seasonal streams south of the water shed are lost in desert deltas or continue their course in Bahr El-Arab. This is true of Wadi El-Ghalla, Shalengo, Bardab, Bulbul, Ibra, Nyala and Kaja. where three trenches have been identified, they are interconnected in a North-east/south-west, direction, together with other shallower trenches containing oil resources. 1.4.3.3.4. Sudd Basin : This basin take the form of plain Of 200,000 km2 covered with fresh water lakes and swamps at the confluence of Bahr El-Arab, Bahr Elgazal, Bahr El- Jebel and Sobat. This basin is situated in the area, where the Mega Syncline covered with Umm Ruwaba sediments has just split into two. The outlet is towards the North through the White Nile. It is bounded in the east with the Ethiopian ~\ plateau, in the west by the Jabel Geneina horst and in the south by the I plateau of the lakes. I Umm Ruwaba aquifer which occupies the Basin consist of fine sediments warned down by Nile and it's tributaries. It is thought that these sediments •were deposited in the form of island deltas made up of fixed strata of sand 26 and clay. The aquifer is unconfined at it's edge with static water level close to ground level (2-1 Om deep). Around Bara it is exploited by hand-dug wells for domestic purposes and irrigation of vegetables and fruit trees. The aquifer is saturated in the south and sometimes emerges in swamps and lakes. In the center semi artesian or artesian conditions can occur beneath the clay strata at 200 to 400m with static water level of 10 to 100m above ground level. Temporary artesian conditions have been observed e.g at Umm Balagi Bore hole, which is situated at a point where the ground water flow is blocked by an uplift of the basement rock. 1.4AGround -Water Flow : In the Bara basin the ground water flows south-east across the basement saddle towards Umm Ruaba town and east towards the white Nile. In Atshan basin it flows in the same directions as the surface water do (Northwards). Baggara basin in the dry season flows south-east towards Bahr El- Arab and then eastwards towards the Sudd basin. The Sudd area acts as a drain for all surface and ground flow of the basin. The Northward ground water flow is very slow owing to the poor ipermeability of the Umm Ruaba formation. •Mi. Properties of Umm Ruwaba Aquifer : M The transmissivity coefficient ranges from 30 to 200m3/day in the Bara Kan. The lower values are found in areas of fine elements where some of •swells are of defective construction. permeability coefficients range from a minimum of 0.7 m/day to a ^•rimum of 5m/day. 27 In it's center the aquifer is artesian or semi-artesian, with storage coefficient of 10"s to 10"3. The aquifer is in hydraulic contact with the under lying aquifers e.g. Nubian sand stone and older formations, so the transmissivity values of the wells penetrating the all formation are higher than those which penetrate the Umm Ruwaba formations only. 1.4.6. Ground water Resources : It is thought that Bara basin has a considerable recharge from direct infiltration of the rain fall e.g. from El-Kairn area, and from surface run off e.g. south of Umm Ruaba town. The considerable recharge is in Baggara basin, which is provided by flow from the Nuba mountains, the slopes south of the water-shed of the Nile, Bahr Elarab, and the volcanic mass of Jabel Marra. Table (1.4.1.) Shows Ground Water Resource of Umm Ruwaba a quifer Basins : Hydro-geological Ground water stock Annual Recharge Annual draw off system (Million (Km3) (Million Km3) (Million Km3) l.Barra 45 15 4 2. Atshan 23 70 20 3. baggara 1300 30 10 4. Sudd 110 340 20 Total 1478 455 54 Source ; Ground water. Narural Resources /water series No. 18, United Nations 1988. 1.4.7. Ground Water Quality : Water from Umm Ruwaba aquifer is generally of good quality, it has low pineral content and sometimes slightly saline. Total dissolved solid content Is usually below 1000 ppm , in some areas below 80 ppm. However, there •e some pockets of high salinity up to 6000 ppm. The salts may have •posited by evaporation in lacustral areas prior the deposition of Umm 28 Ruaba formation itself. At Bara Basin salinity is generally low near the recharge areas (150 ppm). Such as Elkheiran, but it increases gradually towards the basin outlet. This phenomenon is sometimes reversed where low concentrations are found in the vicinity and south of Umm Ruaba town owing to recharge from Khor Abu Habil. Saline pocket (5000 ppm) occur north of the saddle of the crystalline basement rock which divides the basin into two sub-basins. Other pockets occur near Jabal Kon (6000 ppm). Average salinity of Baggara Basin is 340 ppm. The lowest salinity levels were found close to the recharge areas (in the north, west and south west) close to the mouths of Wadi ElGhalla and other wadis that drain Nuba mountains. Areas with salinity levels above 400 mg/1 are found in the deep trenches at the central part. They may be caused by the presence of strata containing evaporites. Owing to the stagnation of the ground water, concentrations of salt in the Sudd basin are high and/or very high ranging from 270 to 6500 . mg/1 with average values of 1500 mg/1 which increase with depth and towards the north. (Towards the basin outlet). The facies are mainly of |carbonate and sodium bicarbonate types when salinity is low or moderate, of the chloride and sodium sulphate types in the areas of high acentration. In some cases there are high concentrations of nitrates, kpart from pockets of high salinity, water of Umm Ruaba aquifer is fairly land suitable for human and animal consumption. leases where the concentration of nitrates exceeds the admissible amount 1) water cannot be used for drinking and the wells or boreholes must iemned. However, such water can be used for irrigation purposes. 29 1.5. Nubian Sandstone Aquifer : This is the most reliable and largest aquifer in Sudan and North-east Africa. The water bearing strata consist of sandy beds with high storage and transmissivity coefficient. This aquifer is a potential resource of considerable importance for the country's future (UN, 1988). It covers about a million square kilometers, mainly north of the 12th parallel north. It includes a number of inter-connected or isolated depressions. South of the 12th. 1° parallel North, it is, generally, over lain by the Umm Ruwaba formations which fill the vast Y shaped trench covering southern Kordofan and Darfur and the Sudd region in southern Sudan. 1.5.1. Description of the Aquifer : 1.5.1.1. Sahara basin : This basin form a rectangular trench, two million square kilometers in area, running North-North-West/South-South-East in northern Darfur. In the north the basin extended beyond the Libyan and Chad fountiers and may encompass the Kufra oasis (it's lower limit is not known). It can be divided into three sub-basins : a) Wadi Hawer. b) SaniyaHaiyeh and c) Tima. Table (1.5.1) : Mineral contents Sahara Basin; Mineral conten t in m. equivalent/1) Location TDS pH Ca Mg Na C03 HC03 S04 CI SAR AinFarah 100 7.2 2.4 1.2 0.6 3.6 0.2 0.2 0.04 CiS, Tima 134 7.4 1.4 0.5 0.7 1.8 0.3 0.1 0.72 C1S1 Sanya Hayey 054 7.1 0.5 0.1 0.3 0.7 0.4 0.1 0.55 C,S, 30 1.5.1.2. Umm Kaddada Basin This basin covers about 100000 km in central and eastern Darfur and in Kordofan. 1.5.2. Table :Umm Kaddada Basin ; Mineral content (m.eq/1) Location TDS pH Ca Mg Na C03 HC03 S04 CI SAR Umm kadda 314 7.0 1.0 0.5 1.9 0.9 0.7 1.2 2.2QS1 Sag Elnaam 080 7.8 1.8 1.5 7.8 0.5 4.7 0.7 1.8 6.1 C,S, Shagra 668 7.6 0.7 0.2 1.9 1.6 0.5 0.5 2.8 C2S2 Umbayada 530 8.5 0.4 3.7 3.5 0.9 4.9 0.4 1.4 0.23 C2S! El-Fuda 500 8.2 1.2 8.0 0.8 4.8 2.1 1.6 6.34 C2Si 1.5.1.3. El-Nahaud Basin It is a saucer - shaped area of 10000 km" filled with Nubian sandstone in central and western Kordofan. It was produced by complex erogenic movements and erosion. In the south it has a subdivision (Nahaud- Saata- Gefauwi) of very considerable ground water potential. (In other parts the Nubian sandstone is Barren). Iyai Bakheit depression is smaller in area and it is one of the regions of Sudan which suffers most from lack of water (Sir Alexander, 1979 ; UN, 1988). Table (1.5.2.) El-Nahaud basin (Mineral Content in m.equivalent/1) Location TDS pH Ca Mg Na C03 HCO3 S04 CI SAR Nahoud 280 3.0 3.0 0.8 0.3 3.3 0.5 0.3 0.2 C,S, Khammas 160 8.0 2.1 0.5 0.2 — 1.9 0.3 0.5 0.2C,S, Umm Feis 220 8.0 2.6 1.1 0.3 2.9 0.5 0.6 0.8 C1S1 1.5.1.4. Nilo Nubian Basin : This is the biggest basin extending for 300000km2 in central and northern Sudan. Its upstream part corresponds to the Nile-Bahr ElArab . water shed which starts in eastern Darfur and crosses central Kordofan I along Kagmer mountains. In the north it extends beyond the Egyptian 31 low salt content of the aquifers water also seems to indicate the constant fresh water recharge. Further more, isotopic analysis indicates a mixture of ancient and recent water. Table 1.5.5 : Estimate of the ground water potential of the aquifer (Nubian Sandstone) hydrological. Hydrological system Ground Water Annual recharge Annual draw off in storage (Km3) (km3) (km3) Sahara basin 400.00 27.00 03.00 Umm Kadda 600.00 100.00 10.00 Nahoud basin 002.00 016.00 05.00 Nilo-Nubian basin 600.00 175.00 35.00 Gedarif basin 076.00 040.00 08.00 Total 1678 358 61.00 Table 1.5.5. indicates the enormous volume of water stored and suggests that these resources are renewable. (UN, 1988 ; IF AD, 2001) 1.5.1.7. Water Quality (Chemical Composition) Most of the ground water of Nubian sand stone aquifer has low mineral content. The lowest concentration (TDS) (<1000 ppm) are found near the recharge areas e.g. at Sanya Hayeh (50 ppm), as along the permanent, or temporary water courses which periodically recharge the aquifer e.g Sag Elnaam (80 ppm). Salinity increases gradually down stream to 300-400 ppm in the center of the basin. Local pockets of high salinity are found in close basins e.g east Gedarif, as in areas where the ground under flow is low e.g. in Jebel Hilla in eastern Darfur (PRC. Eng. [Consultant, 1981 ; UN 1988). fNear the recharge areas the main mineral salt found in Nubian sandstone Kround water is carbonate as well as calcium bicarbonate. Ground water 33 near the recharge areas has very similar chemistry to that of surface water. Further down steam the ground water tends to have a higher sodium carbonate content. Nubian sandstone ground water is generally suitable for human and animal consumption. It has low salinity and it contains no toxic elements. It can be used for irrigation of all crops and for all soil types. 1.6. Water Quality Requirements Control of water pollution has reached primary importance in a number of developed countries. The prevention of pollution at source, the precautionary principle and prior licensing of waste water discharges by complement authorities, have become key elements of successful policies for preventing, controlling and reducing inputs of hazardous substances, nutrients and other water pollutants from point sources into aquatic ecosystems (H. Larsen et al., WHO/UNEP, 1997). In a number of industrialized countries as well as some countries in transition, it was become common practice to base limits for discharge of hazardous substances on the best available technology (S. Veenstra et al., 1997; WHO/UNEP). Such water pollutants include substances that are toxic at low concentrations, carcinogenic, mutagenic and/or can be bioaccumulated, especially when they are persitent. In order to reduce inputs of phosphorous, gen and pesticides from non-point sources to water bodies, ironmental and agricultural authorities in an increasing number of tries are stipulating the need to use Best Environmental Practices (BEP) "erlein, 1996). 34 In some situations, even stricter requirements are necessary. A partial ban on the use of some compounds or even the total prohibition of the import, production and use of certain substances e.g. DDT and lead or mercury based pesticides, may constitute the only way to protect human health , the quati flora and Fauna and other specific water uses (EclAC, 1989 ; UNECE, 1992; UN., 1994). Some elements e.g. copper, zinc, manganese, boron, phosphorous and selenium are needed, however, in trace amounts to support and maintain functions in human and aquatic ecosystems. Concentrations above which water pollutants adversely affect a particular water use may differ widely. Approaches to water pollution control, initially focused on the fixed emission approach and the water quality criteria and objective approach. Emphasis are now shifting to integrated approaches. The introduction of ballistic concepts of water management, including the ecosystem approach, has led to the recognition that the use of water quality objectives, the setting of emission limits on the basis of best available technology (BAT) and the use of Best Environmental Practices (BEP), are integral instruments of ^prevention, control and reduction of water pollution (ICWE, 1992 ; UNECE, |l993). Iiese approaches should be applied in an action orientated way (Enderlein, >5). further development in environmental management is the integrated Dach to air, soil, food and water pollution control using multimedia lents of human exposure pathway (WHO/UNEP, 1997). [water quality criteria and objectives? 35 Water quality criteria are developed by scientists and provide basic scientific information about the effects of water pollutants on specific water use. They also describe water quality requirements for protecting and maintaining an individual use. Water quality criteria are based on variables that characterize the quality of water and/or the quality of the suspended particulate matter, the bottom sediment and the biota. Many water quality criteria set a maximum level for the concentration of a substance in a particular medium (water, sediment or biota) which will not be harmful when the specific medium is used continuously for a single specific purpose. For some other water quality variables, such as, dissolved oxygen, water quality criteria are set at the minimum acceptable concentration to ensure the maintenance of biological fiinctions. Most industrial processes pose less demanding requirements on the quality of fresh water and therefore, criteria are usually developed for raw water in relation to it's use as a source for drinking water supply, agriculture and recreation or as a habitat for biological communities. Criteria may also be developed in relation to the functioning of aquatic ecosystems in general. ie production and maintenance of these water uses usually pose different lirements on water quality and therefore, the associated water quality ria are often different for each use. ;Nigeria the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) issued I) a specific decree to protect, restore, and preserve the ecosystem of Nigerian environment. In the absence of national comprehensive fic data FEPA approached this work by reviewing water quality ies and standards from developed and developing countries as well as Water Quality Organization. 36 The standards reviewed include those of Austria, Brazil, Canada, India, Tanzania, The USA and WHO. These sets of data were harmonized and used to generate the interm National Water Quality Guidelines and Standards for Nigeria. These address drinking water, recreational use of water, fresh water aquatic life, live stock watering, agricultural and industrial water uses (FEPA, 1991). In Papua New Guinea, water resources Act outlines a set of water quality requirements for fisheries and recreational use. The Public Health Drinking water Quality Regulation specifies water quality requirements and standards relating to raw water and drinking water. The standards established with WHO guidelines and data from other tropicl countries. In Vietnam, the water management policy of the government high lights the need for availability of water, adequate in quantity and quality for all beneficial uses, as well as for the control of point and non-point pollution sources. A set of national water quality criteria for drinking water use, as well as of national water quality criteria for fish, aquatic life and irrigation (5-8), dissolved oxygen (DO) (>2 mg/1) NIT4.N (< 1 mg/1), copper (<0,02 ig/1), cadmium (< 0.02 mg/1), lead (< 0.01 mg/1) and TDS (1, 000 mg/1). ire recently allowable concentration of pesticides in the fresh water of the ikong delta have been established by the hygiene institute of HO Chi City as follows : DDT :0.042 mg/1, heptachlor 0.018 mg/1, lindane, 6 mg/1 and organo phosphate 0.100 mg/1 (ESCAP, 1990, Pharm Thi i, 1994). quality criteria often serve as a base line for establishing water quality ves in conjunction with information on water uses and site specific 37 Water quality objectives aim to as supporting and protecting designated uses of fresh water (e.g for drinking supply, live stock watering, irrigation, fisheries), while supporting and maintaining aquatic life and/or the functioning of aquatic ecosystems. The establishment of water quality objectives is not a scientific task, but a rather political process that requires a critical assessment of national priorities. Such an assessment is based on economic considerations, present and future after uses, forecast, for industrial progress, and for the development and agriculture and many other socio-economic factors (UNESCO/WHO, 1978 ; UNECE, 1993, 1995). In some countries, water quality objectives play the role of regulatory instrument or even become legally binding. Their application may require . eg. the appropriate strengthening of emission standards and other measure I for tightening control over point and diffues pollution source. In some cases, water quality objectives serve as planning instruments and/or I by sources. [.6.1. Water quality criteria for individual categories : Ifater quality criteria have been widely established for a number of itional water quality variable such as pH, dissolved oxygen, biological jfgen demand for periods of five or seven days (BOD5 and BOD7), aical oxygen demand (COD) and nutrients . Such criteria guide decision in the establishment of control strategies to decrease the potential for gen depletion and the resultant low BOD and COD levels. 38 1.6.2. Raw drinking water supply : These criteria describe water quality requirements imposed on inland waters intended for abstruction of drinking water and apply only to water which is treated prior to use. In developing countries, large sections of the population may be dependent on raw water for drinking purposes without any treatments as well as inorganic and organic substances of significance to human health are included. Quality criteria for raw water generally follow drinking water criteria and even stoire to attain them, particularly when raw water is abstracted directly to drinking v/ater treatment works without prior storage. Drinking water criteria define a quality of water that can be safely consumed by humans throughout their lifetime. Such criteria have been developed by international organizations and include WHO guidelines for drinking water quality (WHO, 1984, 1993 and the EU Council) Directive of 15 July 1980). Relating to the quality of water intended for human consumption (*0/778/EEC), which covers some 60 quality variables. 1.6.3. Irrigation Poor quality water may affect irrigation crops by causing accumulation of salts in the root zone, causing less permeability of soil due to excess sodium (Na) or calcium (Ca) leaching. Or by contaminating pathogens or contaminants which are directly toxic to ts or those consuming them. Contaminants in irrigation water may ulate in the soil, and after a period of years, render the soil unfit for ture. Criteria of irrigation water have been published by a number of 'es as well a by FAO as shown in Table 1.6.1. below : Tabic 1.6.1 : Selected Water Quality Criteria for Irrigation Waters in mg/1 Element FAO Canada Nigeria Aluminum (AL) 5.0 5.0 5.0 Arsenic (As) 0.1 0.1 0.1 Cadmium (Cd) 0.01 0.01 0.01 Chromium (Cr) 0.1 0.1 0.1 Copper (Cu) 0.2 0.2-1.0 0.2-1.0 Manganese (Mn) 0.2 0.2 0.2 Nickel (Ni) 0.2 0.2 0.2. Zinc (Zn) 2.0 1.0-5.0 1.0-5.0 Sources : FAO, 1985 ; CCREM, 1987 ; FEPA, 1991 Water quality criteria for irrigation water, generally, take into account, amongst other factors, such as characteristics of crop tolerance to salinity, sodium concentration and phytotoxic trace element the effect of salinity on the osmotic pressure in the unsaturated soil zone is one of the most important water quality considerations, because this has an influence on the availability of water for plant consumption. Sodium in irrigation water can adversely affect soil structure and reduce the rate at which water moves into and through soils. Sodium is, also, a specific source of damage to fruit. Phytotoxic trace element such as boron (B), heavy metals, and pesticides may stunt the growth of plants or render the crop unfit for human consumption as other intended uses. When treated or untreated waste water is being used for the irrigation of crops, the WHO Health Guidelines for use of waste water in agriculture and 40 aquaculture (WHO, 1989) should be consulted to prevent adverse impacts on human health and the environment (Hespanhol, 1994). 1.6.4. Water For Live Stock Consumption : Livestock may be affected by poor quality water causing death, sickness, or impaired growth. Variables of concern include Nitrate, sulphate, salinity (TDS), some base elements and organic micro-pollutants such as pesticides. Criteria for livestock watering usually take into account, the type of the livestock, the daily requirements of each species, the chemicals added to the feed to enhance growth and reduce the risk of diseases, as well as information on the toxicity of specific substances to the different species. Table 1.6.2. below give example of criteria for livestock watering. : Table 1.6.2. Selected Water Quality Creiteria for Live stock Watering Water quality variable Canadian criteria Nigerian Criteria Bfitrate + Nitrite 100 mg/1 100 mg/1 •Sulphate 1000 mg/1 1000 mg/1 •otal dissolved solids 3000 mg/1 3000 mg/1 Mue-green-algae Avoid high growth of Avoid high growth of Htihogens and parasites Water of high quality Water of high quality should be used should be used ces: CCREM, 1987 ; FEPA, 1991 ; ICPR, 1991 J. Recreational use. tional water quality criteria are used to assess the safety of water to for swimming and other sport activities. The primary concern is to 41 protect human health by preventing waste pollution from fecal material or from contamination ear, eye or skin infections. Criteria are therefore, usually set for indication of fecal pollution (coliform and pathogens). Research has been carried to develop other indicators of microbiological pollution including viruses that could affect swimmers. As a rule, recreational water quality criteria are established by government health agencies. The EU Council Directive of 1975 concerning the quality of Bathing Water (76/160/ESC) has established quality criteria containing both guideline values and maximum allowable values for microbiological parameters (Total coliforms, faecal coliforms, faecal, streptococci, salmonella, entro viruses) together with some physico chemical parameters such as pH, mineral oils and phenols. 42 Ground Water Pollution 2. Ground Water Pollution 2.1. Definition : Pollution is a modification of the physical, chemical and biological properties of water, restricting or preventing its use in the various • applications where it normally plays a part (Jean J. Fried, 1978). Pollution is also defined as faulling or making unclean air or water harmful for beneficial use (NES, 1999). Ground water is generally a very good source of drinking water, because of the purification properties of the soils. In many arid or semi-arid zones it is the main source of water. An aquifer constitutes a natural reservoir of usually high quality water. But although it is more protected than surface water, ground water appears to be subject to pollution (Jean J. Fried, 1975). The solvent property of water results in many forms of the elements being ;ent in the dissolved state in water. drinking water standard minerals are devided into groups according to ar maximum limits (Public Health Services Drinking Water Standards, ,2). Me 2.1.1. Toxic substances which are the base for rejection of supply ement Concentration above which supply should be rejected Benic (As) 0.05 mg/1 Un(Ba) 1.0 mg/1 Iknium (Cd) 0.01 mg/1 jpmium(VI) (Cr) 0.05 mg/1 Bride (CN) 0.02 mg/1 |(Pb) 0.05 mg/1 Bium (Se) 0.01 mg/1 lr(Ag) 0.05 mg/1 43 Table 2.1.2. : Chemicals for which U.S Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards give desirable maximum concentrations Element Concentration Arsenic (As) 0.01 mg/1 Chloride (CI) 250 mg/1 Copper (Cu) 1.0 mg/1 Cyanide (CN) 0.05 mg/1 Iron (Fe) 0.3 mg/1 Manganese (Mn) 0.05 mg/1 Nitrate (N03) 45 mg/1 TDS 500 mg/1 S04 250 mg/1 Zn 5.0 mg/I ccording to PHSDWS (1962) there are twenty elements from Al to Zinc br which desirable maximum have been recognized. These include • ihytotoxins such as As, Be, Cd, Cr, Co, Pb, Li, Mn, Ni, V, and Zinc. |)ther have effect on certain species for which limits are set such as Al, B, ?u, Mo. Of these boron has been most trouble some in irrigation water, loron up to 0.5 mg/1 is an essential nutrient. Some crops have tolerance up 4 mg1). Em'il T. Chanlet (1973) reported that, there are only five prime rces of water for man's use : ) Captured and stored rainfall in cisterns and water jars. ) Ground water flowing springs and artesian wells, or trapped by man made wells. I Surface waters of lakes with or without dams. Desalinized sea water or Brackish ground water. Reclaimed waste water. 1 pollution is generally characterized as originating from either point or oint" source. 44 Point source pollution is associated with a particular site or stream and typically involves a known quality and type of pollution that can be controlled at the site (e.g. an end of pipe discharge). Non-point source pollution is more difficult to manage and monitor. It results, typically, from multiple contaminant sources in the vicinity where water quality has been impaired. So the volume or "load" from individual sources is difficult to measure, and often water quality may not degrade at the source site. Therefore, the accumulated impacts of multiple sources of pollution can cause water quality problems (ODEQ, 1996). Ground water pollution is usually traced back to four main origins : i) Industrial ii) Domestic iii) Agricultural and iv) Environmental pollution. Each source is sub divided to continuous and accidental types. (1) Industrial pollution is carried to aquifer by : i) used waters which contain chemical compounds and trace element, or which are at rather high temperature. ii) Radioactive pollution from atomic plants can also be brought in this way e.g. A) rain infiltration through waste disposals. B) accidents like the breaking down of a pipe line. (2) Domestic pollution is carried to the aquifer by : i) Rain infiltration through sanitary land fills. ii) Accidents like the break down of septic tank. (3) Agricultural pollution is due to irrigation water or rain carrying away fertilizers, minerals, salts, herbicides and pesticides. 45 (4) Environmental Pollution is mainly due to sea water intrusion in coastal aquifers. The factors that are, usually, studied in ground water pollution are listed below, as the main possible ground water pollutants and pollution indicators: 1) Total dissolved solids (TDS). 19) Manganese. 2) Chemical oxygen demand (COD). 20) Sodium 3)Biological oxygen demand (BOD) 21) Potassium 4) Carbon (organically linked) 22) Calcium/ 5) Hydrogen (organically linked) 23) Magnesium 6) Nitrogen. 24) Total hardness (TH). 7) Detergents. 25) Chloride. 8) Phenols. 26) Fluoride 9) Oxygen. 27) Phosphates (HP04"). 10) Sulphate (S04") 28) Lead. 11)Hydrogen sulphide. 29) Zinc. 12) Nitrate nitrogen 30) Copper. 13) Nitrite. 31) Arsenic. + 14) Ammonium (NH4 ) 32) S02. 15) Free CO2 (carbon dioxide). 33) Temperature. 16)Bicarbonates (HCO3) 34) PH values 17) Iron (II) (Fe2+). 35) Conductivity 18) Total iron (Fe2+ and Fe3+). 36) Redox potential 46 2.2. Norms and Criteria : International norms of water quality have been established for drinking water only (WHO, 1972). They represent the minimal norms that can be reached by all countries. As some countries can reach higher figures for economic and technical reasons, the World Health Organization has proposed European norms of higher standards (WHO, 1971). The WHO gives five classes of quality parameters : i) Biological pollutants. ii) Radioactive pollutants. iii) Toxic compounds. iv) Chemical compounds which may be a health hazard. v) Water acceptability characters.. 2.2.1. The bactriological norms of biological pollution : Thess are based upon the occurrence of micro organisms, which are pathologenic. These normal germs of fecal pollution are more numerous than pathogenic bacteria, and they are good pollution indicators, which can be detected easily. These are usually Escherichia coli (E. coli) and coliforms Any sample of 100 ml of chlorinated water should be free of these micro organisms, when entering distribution net. Any sample of 100 ml of non- chlorinated water should be free of E. coli and could contain at most 3 coliforms. AH the samples taken in the distribution net should be free of coliforms (not always possible). For individual wells and springs an upper limit of 10 coliforms will be observed to consider the water as potable. 47 2.2.2. Proposed levels of radioactive pollution These are : (i) Global Alpha radioactivity 30pci/l. (ii) Global Beta radioactivity 30 pci/1. These levels are applied to the average of all radioactivity measurement for a time period of three months. 2.2.3. Toxic compounds . Maximum concentrations are based on the assumption of an average man of 70 kg consuming 2.5 liters of water per day. (1975) Toxic compound Max. concentration in mg/1 As 0.05 Cd 0.01 CN 0.05 Total Hg 0.001 Pb 0.10 Se 0.01 2.2.4. Compounds which may be health hazard. • For fluoride (F-) upper and lower limits depend upon temperature and vary between 0.6 and 0.9mg/l for he lower limit and 0.8 to 1.7 mg/1 for the upper limit. • Nitrate expressed as (NO3) should not exceed 45 mg/1. • Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons should not exceed 0.0002 mg/1. 48 2.2.5. Water acceptability characteristics (WHO, 1972). Property Max. Cone, proposed Max. Cone, admisible Colour Colourless (No limit) Colourless (No limit) Turbidity 5 units 25 units TDS 500 mg/1 1500 mg/1 pH 7- 8.5 6.5-9.2 Anionic detergents 0.2 mg/1 0.10 mg/1 Phenols 0.001 mg/1 0.002 mg/1 Ca 75 mg/1 200 mg/1 Cl- 200 mg/1 600 mg Copper 0.05 mg/1 1.5mg/l Iron 0.1 mg/1 01.0 mg/1 Magnesium <30 if S04 (150 max) conc>250 mg/1 otherwise less than 150 mg/1 (150 max) Manganese 0.05 mg/1 0.5 mg/1 S04" 200 mg/1 400 mg/1 Zn 5.0 mg/1 15.0 mg/1 49 2.3. Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR). Crops are well identified in terms of salt tolerance. Celery, green beans, most clovers, and most of fruit trees are examples of crops with a low salt tolerance. Beets, spinach, barley, cotton, date palm and most grasses have a high salt tolerance. The importance of "SAR" is that, it provides an indicator of the effect of sodium on soil. The effect is very drastic, as it leads to reduction of soil's permeability to air and water. When sodium concentration is high in ratio to calcium and magnesium, the soil becomes plastic and sticky. This phenomenon along with salt left by evaporation destroyed the yields of fertile soils of ancient Mesopatamia after centries of irrigation (E. mil T. Chanlet, 1973). The SAR is an integer by : SAR = NaW(Ca + mg)/2 SAR of 8 is satisfactory, 12 to 15 is marginal and over 20 is very disadvantageous. SAR in combination with total salt content determines the suitability of a wafer for irrigation (US GPO, 1968). 2.4. Total Dissolved Solids : Naturally, ground water contains mineral ions. These ions slowly dissolve from soil particles, sediments and rocks as water travels along mineral surfaces in pores of fracture of the unsaturated zone and the aquifer. Some dissolved solids may have originated in the precipitation water or river water that recharge the aquifer. Dissolved solids can be divided into three groups (University of California, 2003, publication 8048) 50 2.4.1. Major Constituents : Those are ions with concentrations ranging from (1.0 - 100 mg/1) and include sodium (Na) calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), iron (Fe), strontium (Sr), bicarbonate (HC03"), sulphate (S04"), carbonate (CO3" ), Chloride (CI"), nitrate (N03~) fluoride (F")and boron (B). 2.4.2. Secondary Constituents : Those are ions with concentration range from (0.01 to 10 mg/1). These include antimony (Sb), aluminum (Al), arsenic (As), barium (Ba), Bromide (Br"), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), germanium (Ge), iodide (I), lead (Pb), lithium (Li), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), phosphate (HPO4"), rubidium (Rb), selenium (Se), titanium (Ti), Uranium (U), vanadium (V) and Zinc (Zn). 2.4.3. Trace Constituents : Those are ions with concentration les than (0.001 mg/1), and include Berylium (Be), bismusth (Bi), cerium (Ce), ceasium (Cs), gallium (Ga), gold (Au), indium (In), lanthanum (La), Niobium (Nb), platinum (Pt), radium (Ra), ruthenium (Ru), scandium (Sc), silver (Ag), thalium (Tl) thorium (Th), tin (Sn), tungsten (W), Yetterbium (Yb), yttrium (Y) and zincorium (Zr). With more ions in the water it is electrical conductivity increases, so that we can indirectly determine TDS content by measuring water conductivity. At high TDS concentration water becomes saline. Water with TDS above 500 mg/1 is not recommended for use as drinking water (EPA secondary drinking water guideline. 51 Water with TDS above 1500 - 2600 mg/1 is, generally, considered problematic for irrigation use, on crops with low or medium salt tolerance (University of California ANR,2003). In natural waters, salts are chemical compounds such as carbonates, chlorides, sulphates and nitrates (previously in ground water), and cations such as potassium magnesium, calcium and sodium. The natural amounts of salts are largely determined by the geologic bedrock underlying ( James E. Kotiski, 2006). Low salinity is expected in non-faulted areas, which have 19 neaus rock formation. If an area is heavily faulted, marine sediments barred deep within the earth may contact with ground water and form very salty water (Brine). The fault may serve as channel for the brine which may be introduced to surface water systems via springs. Salt concentrations are expected to be high in arid and semi-arid areas, where evaporation usually exceeds precipitation. 2.4.4. Industrial Effects : Dissolved salts may either encrust or corrode metallic surfaces. Salts in intake water may interfere with chemical processes within the plant. 2.4.5. Health Effect: Sodium sulphate and magnesium sulphate levels above 250 mg/1 in drinking water may produce a laxative effect. Excess sodium may affect those restricted to low sodium diets and pregnant women ((James E. Kotiski, 2006). 52 2.5. Major Components of an Information System needed for Ground Water Management Decision : Ground water is an essential natural resource, which should be perfectly managed through an integrated information system to guide decision makers for the establishment of control stratigies for future development in industry, agriculture and other socioeconomic factors. This include : 2.5.1. Hydrology Soil of unsaturated zone characteristics, Aquifer Characteristic , Depths involved, Flow patterns , Recharge characteristics, Trans-missive and storage properties, Ambient Water Quality, Interaction with surface water. Boundary conditions Mineralogy, including organic content. 2.5.2 Water extraction (withdrawals) and use patterns : Location, Amounts. Purpose (domestic, industrial, Agricultural) Trends. 53 2.5.3. Potential contamination sources and characteristics point sources. Point Sources : 1) Industrial and mining waste discharges, 2) Commercial waste discharges, 3) Hazardous materials and waste storages, 4) Domestic waste discharges Non-point sources : 1) Agriculture, 2) Spetic tanks, 3) Land applications of waste, 4) Urban runoff. 5) Transportation spills (can also considered a point source). 6) Pipeline (energy and waste) can also considered a point source). 1.5.4. Population patterns : 1) Demographic, 2) Economic trends. 3) Land use patterns. 2.6. Salinity Buildup : 2.6.1. Definition : Salinity is the presence of salt in the land surface, in soil or rocks, or dissolved in water in rivers or ground water. According to NSW Surveys (1983-91) when wind and rain weathered rocks that contain salt, or carry salt from the ocean, then salt is left in' the 54 landscape. Salts has also been deposited in places that were under the sea in pre-historical times. Salinity can develop naturally, but where human intervention has disturbed natural ecosystems and changed the hydrology of landscape, the movement of salts into the rivers and onto land has been accelerated. This is beginning to dramatically affect natural environment, reduce the viability of agricultural sector and damage private and public infrastructure. The acceleration will continue until a new hydrological equilibrium is reached, but that equilibrium will impose an incalculable cost unless action is taken now and that will not be able to reverse all the damage, or do more than slow the rate of damage over the next ten to fifteen years. Salinity often occurs in the company of other natural resource problems, such as decrease in soil quality, erosion, and die back of native vegetation. Salinity can be categorized into a number of different ways. 2.6.2. Types of Salinity i The NSW (New South Wales) salinity strategy encompasses many types of salinity, dealing with salinity wherever, it is found in the landscape. 2.6.2.1. Dry Land Salinity : Dry land salinity occurs due to removal or loss of native vegetation and it is replacement with crops and pastures that have shallower roots and different water use requirements, result in more water reaching the ground water system. The ground water rise to near the ground surface in low lying areas or on the peak of slope. Ground water can also flow underground directly into streams. 55 The ground water carries dissolved salts from the under lying soil and bedrock material through which it travels. A saline ground water comes dose (within two meters) to the soil surface, sa/t enters the plant root zone. So even where the ground does not bring much salt with it, the water• logging and salinization will vary depending on soil type, climate and land use. Impacts can be barely noticeable to the untrained eye : (NSW survey 1988- 1991), and may appear in form of: i) reduced plant vigour ii) change in the vegetation mix in a particular area. More dramatic effects include the death of the native plants and crops that are not salt tolerant, and the development of totally bare patches of earth known as salt-scads. Such areas act as the focal point of erosion, to develop and spread, and for washing salt loads into rivers through run-off. These impacts are additional to other factors that have degraded, and continue to degrade natural habitats and further risk the viability of plant and animal communities and vulnerable species. In some areas, dry land salinity is not related to rising ground water (NSW, 1991). e.g in Liverpool plains, the removal land loss of native vegetation, as well as some agricultural practices, have increased erosion rates and exposed naturally saline sub• soils. Run -off carries the salt in these exposed sub-soils into streams. In these situations, rising ground water has little role in the development of the salinity problems (NSW, 1988,1991). 2.6.1.2. Irrigation Salinity : The main cause of this type of salinity is the application of large volumes of irrigation water, equivalent to as much as four times the average naturally 56 occurring rain fall, compounded by the replacement of native vegetation by plants with different water use patterns. The usual effect is to create "a ground water mound" where water is being applied, so impacts are very localized (The recharge and discharge zone can be the same place. The problems of irrigation salinity are better understood than those of dry land salinity. 2.6.1.3. Urban Salinity : This is a combination of dry land and irrigation salinity. It is caused both by rising water tables due to clearing, and by the application of additional quantities of water from : a) Watering of gardens and parks. b) Leaking water, sewerage and drainage pipes. c) Obstruction or modification of natural surface and subsurface drainage paths. The mechanisms that induce salinity can work very quickly to affect vegetation in drainage lines and on sporting ovals, and to damage buildings, roads and pipe systems. Salinity shortens the life of infrastructure such as roads and bridges, and increases building costs due to the need for protective works and use of higher specification materials. Urban salinity currently affects towns in the Murray-Darling basin as well as parts of western Sydney and the lower Hunter Valley. (NSW, 1991). 2.6.1.4. River Salinity : River salinity is caused by saline discharges from dry land, irrigation and urban salinity into creeks and rivers. 57 2.6.1.5. Industrial Salinity : Salinity both has an impact on, and is influenced by, industrial sector. Effluent from towns, intensive agriculture and industry can contain high levels of salt. Coal mines need to manage saline water emanating from ground water seepage and rain water coming into contact with mine workings. Coal fired power stations use water for cooling, a process in which water is evaporated and salt concentrated. 2.6.1.6. Ground Water Quality Ground water quality comprises the physical, chemical and biological qualities. Temperature, turbidity, colour, taste and odour make up the list of physical water quality parameters. Since most ground water is colourless, odourless and without specific taste, quality studies are typically concerned with ground water chemical and biological qualities (FWQP, 2003 series). The chemistry (quality) of ground water reflects inputs from the atmosphere, from soil and water rock reactions (weathering) as well as pollutant sources such as mining land clearance, agriculture, acid precipitation, domestic and industrial wastes (Gregory, K.J. et al. 1987, Nuhferefa/., 1993). The relatively slow movement of ground water means that residence times in ground waters are generally orders of magnitude longer than surface water. As in the case of surface water quality, it is difficult to simplify to a few parameters. However, in the context of geo-indicators a selection has been made of a few important first-order and second order parameters that can be used in most circumstances to assess significant processes or trends at a time scales of 50 - 100 years. 58 The following first order indicators of change are proposed, in association with a number of processes, and problems and supported by a number of second order parameter : 18 2 [1] Salinity : CI, SEC, S04, Br, TDS, Mg/Ca, 5 0, 5 H, F. [2] Acidity and Redox status : PH, HC03, Eh, DO, Fe, As. [3] Radioactivity : 3H, 36C1, 222Rn. [4] Agricultural pollution : N03, DOC, K/Na, P, pesticides and herbisides. [5] Mining pollution : S04, PH, Fe, As, other metals, F, Sr. [6] Urban pollution : CI, HC03, Dissolved organic Carbon (DOC), hydrocarbons, organic solvents. During development and use of aquifer, changes may occur in the natural base line chemistry that may be beneficial or detrimental to health (e.g. increase in F or As). The quality of shallow ground water may also be affected by land slides, fires and other surface processes that increase and decrease infiltration or that expose or blanket rock and soil surfaces which interact with down ward-moving surface water. 2.6.1.7. Significance : Ground water is almost globally important for human consumption, and changes in quality can have serious consequences. It is also important for the support of habitat and for maintaining the quality of base flow to rivers. The chemical composition of ground water is measure of its suitability as a source of water for human and animal consumption, irrigation, and for industrial purposes. It also influence ecosystem health and function , so that it is important to detect changes, (early warning changes) both in natural systems and that resulting from pollution.(Appelo et ah, 1993, Berger et aJ. 1996). 59 2.6.1.7.1. Salinity : Fresh ground water may be limited laterally by its influence with sea water and adjacent rock types, or vertically by underlying formation waters. Saline water intrusion into coastal aquifers can result from over pumping of fresh ground water, or when stream flow decreases (e.g. due to dams or I diversions) lead to reduced recharge of aquifer in deltas and alluvial plains. ^ Strong evaporation in areas with shallow water tables may also lead to salinization. Changes in levels of salinity may occur due to natural climate I change or due to excessive pumping and irrigation practices that stimulate precipitation of dissolved solids as salts on agricultural lands. It is important to monitor overall changes in salinity using CI or SEC, and if possible to characterize the source of salinity , using one or more secondary indicators (Applelo, C.A.J, and Postma D., 1993). 2.6.1.7.2. Acidity and Redox Status : Emission of SOx and NOx for industrial source have, in places, led to an order of magnitude decrease in mean rainfall pH (Berger et al., 1996). This celerate natural weathering rates and reduce the buffering capacities of il and rocks causing an increase in acidity of shallow ground waters pecially in areas deficient in carbonate minerals (Edmunds et al., 1980). cidification is a major problem to human and ecosystem health in large eas of North America , Northern Europe, South East Asia and South merica (Edmound, 2004). he impact on surface waters is accellarated where the buffering effect of i[CO3 in ground water base flow to rivers and lakes is diminished (Goudi, 60 Changes in the redox status of ground water (mainly reduction of O2) can also take place rapidly due to microbial or chemical processes in natural systems or as a result of pollution (Berger et al, 1996). An increase in acidity (decrease in pH) or decrease in Eh (redox potential) may give rise to undesirable increase in dissolved metals (Berger et al., 1996). The onset reducing conditions may however, have benefits such as situ de-nitrifications. 2.6.1.7.3. Radioactivity : Natural back ground radioactivity can be closely related to the presence or absence of rocks and sediments containing uranium or other naturally radioactive materials. Concentration of dissolved Rn gas provide one means of detecting the presence of natural radioactivity in ground water. Of more significance from environmental point of view is the possible migration of radionuclides to ground water from thermonuclear testing, nuclear power plants and military installation. 2.6.1.7.4. Agricultural Pollution : Nitrate levels in ground water have been increasing over recent decades in most countries as a result of drainage of excess fertilizers. Nitrate and other mobile fertilizers derived parameters, such as K (K/Na), DOC and SO4 serve as important tracers of human induced environmental degradation, though natural denitrification can also occur under reducing conditions, Herbisides, pesticides and other agrochemicals may also be mobile in ground waters and can serve as an index of diffuse pollution beneath agricultural lands over the past 20 - 30 years (Appelo, et al., 1993, Berger etal, 1996, WHO, 1993). Because analysis is extremely difficult, it is not 61 feasible to use these as indicators . Their presence can, however, be inferred if high concentrations of other indicators are present.. 2.6.1.7.5. Mining Pollution : Sulphate derived from oxidation of sulphide minerals is the best single indicator of pollution from metal and coal mining, oil and gas production, and to a lesser extent from exploration activities. A decrease in pH is generally associated with this process, as an increase in the dissolved loads of Fe and other metals, that may contaminate both ground water and surface waters as acid mine drainage. The problem becomes acute for water ies and ecosystems as ground water levels rise following mine closures.. F and Sr, derived from the weathering of associated vein minerals may also serve as secondary indicators. 2.6.1.7.5. Urban and Industrial Pollution : The impact of human habitation and disposal of wastes characterized by Numerous chemicals is invariably evident in the quality of local ground iter. Many chemicals enter the ground, but the determination of water ity may be assessed by those constituents that are most mobile. ie key issue is to protect deeper, uncontaminated aquifers and to monitor effects of contaminant plumes moving into surrounding areas. Thus , CI and HCO3 represent primary indicators of pollution from towns, ies, landfills, and waste dumps. Biological impacts may be measured ing indicator organisms such as E. coli. However, harmful fcroorganisms generally fade out within several hundred meters of flow in d water, and an alternative is to measure the break down products of 62 these biological processes, such as DOC and HCO3. Secondary indicators include B (where detergents are used), solvents and hydrocarbons. 2.7. Salinity Generation Most water sampling programs are heavily oriented towards suitability for drinking use, having regard to health related problems. But we need to understand the overall controls on water quality evaluation. Natural geochemical reactions taking place over hundreds or thousand of years which, thus, give rise to distinctive natural properties, without the recognition of this important natural base line it will be impossible to identify if pollution from human activity is taking place. Salinity distribution may be due to natural geological and climatic factors. The oxidizing conditions prevalent in many semi-arid regions may give rise to enhanced concentrations of metals such as Cr., As, Se and Mo. Prolonged residence times, may lead to high fluoride and manganese concentrations. Under reducing condition high Fe concentration may occur (W. M. Edmunds, 2004). Salinity build up in ground water in semi arid regions has several origins (Edmunds and Draubi, 1980). The most important (three) sources are (i) Atmospheric aerosols (ii) Sea water of various generation (iii) evaporite sequences. All of which may be distinguished using a cocktail of chemicals or isotopic techniques. Atmospheric inputs that slowly accumulate over geological time scales are of great importance as a source of salinity. The impact on ground water 63 composition will be proportional to the inputs, climate change sequences and the turn over times of the ground water bodies. (Hingston and Galitis, 1976). Formation waters from marine sediments are important as salinity source in aquifer near to modern coastline. Different generation of salinity, may be recognized, either from formation waters laid down with young sediment or from marine intrusion arising from eustatic or tectonic changes. Evaporites containing halite and/or gypsum are an important cause of quality deterioration in many aquifers in present day, arid and semi arid regions. Formation evaporites are usually associated with inland basins of marine or non-marine regions. The different origins and generation of salinity in formation waters may be characterized by a range of isotopic and chemical tracers such as 5 87Sr and 8"B. 2.7.1. Rain fall Chemistry : Chemical components of rainfall are of especial interest to hydrologist for chemical mass balance studies of river flow and recharge. Rain fall may also be considered as (a titrant) in hydrochemical processes, because it represent the initial solvent in the study of water rock interaction. Knowledge of rainfall chemistry can also contributes to the fundamental understanding of air mass circulation in present day and past climates. For Africa the available information on rainfall composition is very little. However, a reasonable understanding of the isotopic evaluation of rainfall in semi-arid areas is emerging (Taubin et al. 1997 ; 2000). The isotope (§ 0 and 5 H) Composition of precipitation can aid identification of the 64 origin of the precipitated water vapour and it's condensation history and accordingly, the indication of the sources of air masses and the atmospheric circulation (Rozanski et al. 1993). Several elements in rainfall (e.g. CI) behave inertly on entering the soil and unsaturated zone, and can be used as tracers (Hingston and Edmunds, 1999). The combined geochemical signal may provide a useful initial tracer for hydrologists as well as providing a signal of past climates from information stored in the saturated and un saturated zones. (Cook, et al., 1992, Tyler, et al., 1996 ; Tyler and Edmunds, 2001). Over much of the Sahara -sahel region rainfall derived solute, following concentration by evapo-transpiration, form a significant component of ground water mineralization (Andrews, et al., 1994). The rainfall chemistry may vary considerably in both time and space, especially to distance from the ocean. This is clear in temperate latitudes for North America (Junge and Werley, 1957). The basic relationship between decreasing salinity and in land distance has also been demonstrated for Australia (Hingston and Gilitis, 1996). The chemical data for Africa are very limited and it is not yet possible to generalize on rainfall chemistry across the continent (Edmunds, 2004- 2005). The primary source of solutes is marine aerosols dissolved in precipitation, but composition may be strongly modified by inputs from the terrestrial dry deposition. Because precipitation originates in the ocean, it's chemical composition near the coast is similar to that of the ocean. Aerasol solutes are dissolved in the atmospheric moisture through release of marine aerosols near the sea surface (Winchester and Duce, 1967). 65 This initial concentration is distinctive in retaining most of the chemical signature of sea water such as the high Mg/Ca ratio and as well as distinctive ratio of Na/Cl. As rainfall moves inland towards the interior of continents, sulphate and other ions may increase relative to the Na and CI ions. Chloride may be regarded as inert ion in rainfall with distribution and circulation in the hydrological cycle taking place solely through physical processes. A study of rainfall chemistry in Northern Nigeria has been made by Goni et al., 2001, throughout the rainy seasons from 1992 to 1997 showed weighted mean of values ranging from 0.6 to 3.4 mg/1 CI. This is an important conclusion for the use of chloride in mass balance studies. Bromide like chloride, also remains relatively inert in atmospheric processes, though there is some evidence of both physical and chemical fractionation in the atmosphere relative to chloride (Winchestery and Duce, 1967). The Br/CI ratio may thus be used as a possible tracer for air mass circulation, especially to help define the origin of the chloride. The Br/CI ratio is also a useful palaeoclimatic indicator (Edmunds, et al., 1992), since rainfall ratio values may be preserved in ground in continental areas. The relative amounts of chloride and bromide in atmospheric deposition results initially from physical processes that entrain atmospheric aerosols and control their size.. 2.7.2. Inorganic Carbon ^ Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form a hydrated molecule C02(aq), which then forms an equilibrium mixture containing carbonate C03~, HC03" 66 Ions. In pHs lower than those found in sea water carbonic acid will also be present as H2CO3. C02(gas) 4 water ^ C02(aq) H20 + CO2(aq) « • H2CO + H2C03 4 » H +HCO3" = HCO3 « • H* + C03 Most oceanic waters have pH in the range 8 to 8.3 as they contain more hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions according to reactions HCO3 * C02 + OH~ 2 C03 " +H20 * • HCO3 + oh" When C02 dissolves in water calcium and magnesium carbnates will dissolves to form the soluble bicarbonate ion = C02 + H20 + C03 * • 2HC03" The presence of these inorganic carbon species plays a particularly important part in controlling pH of natural waters. 2.7.3. Inorganic Nitrogen 1 The nitrogen cycle is dominated by reaction involving biological material according to the following reaction series : N2 >NH3 • N02 • N03 •amino acid • Protein Natural inorganic reaction mechanism do not produce ammonia from dinitrogen, however, high temperatures caused by lighting in natural systems and by furnaces and automobile engines in industrial systems can 67 cause N2 and 02 to combine to form nitrogen oxides. These oxides are gradually removed from the atmosphere as nitrates. The steps in the micro-organism controlled portion of the nitrogen cycle include : 2.7.4. Nitrification : This is the conversion of ammonium ions to nitrate, which is very essential for the growth of majority of plants as they are able to absorb nitrate but not + ammonia (NH3) or ammonium (NH4 ). + + 4NrL + 602 • 4N02" + 8H + 4H20 4N02" +202 • 4N03" Since nitrate is very soluble it can easily leached from soil. Therefore, a build up of nitrate concentration (salinity) in ground water can take place. 2.7.5. Ammonification : When plants and animals decay, the more complex molecules are utilized by various organisms, and eventually converted into simpler molecules or ions. Nitrogen containing compounds eventually form ammonia or ammonium ions. e.g. (NH2)2CO + H20 • 2NH3 + C02 (iii) 2.7.6. Denitrofication : This is the generation of N2 from N03- under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions in the soil and oceans. Under anaerobic conditions organism can use nitrate to replace dioxygen as an electron acceptor and as their source of respiratory energy. + 5CH20 + 4N03' + 4H »2N2 +5CCV+ 7H20 68 Since the reduction of nitrate does not always form dinitrogen (N2), appreciable quantities of nitrous oxide (N2O) may also be produced. As gaseous N20 is, relatively, inert in the troposphere, it is only slowly removed, and is the second most abundant nitrogen species in atmosphere (0.3 ppm). The concentration of N20 in atmosphere is growing at the rate of 0.3% per year. ST 2.7.6. Nitrogen Oxide in the atmosphere : As well as the biologically mediated reactions, there is a number of other reactions probably the most important of these occur in atmosphere , and involve the cycling of various oxides of nitrogen. This part of the nitrogen cycle has been the subject of some concern due to the production of increasing quantities of nitrogen oxides by humans. In addition to the nitrous oxide added to atmosphere by denitrification reactions, nitric oxides NO and nitrogen dioxide N02 are produced at high temperatures in the areas where there are a lot of thunders storms, this may be significant input source of oxides of nitrogen. N2 + 02 • 2NO (nitric oxide) N2 + 202 • 2NO2 (nitrogen dioxide) N2O, gradually, passes from the lower atmosphere into the stratosphere where it is rapidly converted into dinitrogen (95%) and nitric oxide (5%). Solar radiation with a wavelength below 250 nm(UV radiation) have enough energy to break up the N20 molecules : N20 hv > NO + N N20 hv-* N2 + O The photolysis of N20 can only occur at heights above 20 km (The short wave length radiation is absorbed by molecules such as N20 and 03 and 69 therefore, removed as it passes through the upper atmosphere ). Further, nitric oxide can be formed by the reaction of nitrous oxide with excited (high energy) oxygen atoms, which are also produced by short wave length radiation. N20 + O 2NO The nitric oxide is able to catalyse the decomposition of ozone which could allow more harmful UV radiation to reach the surface of the earth. Some of the nitric oxide (NO) reacts with either atomic oxygen or ozone to form nitrogen dioxide (N02), which is then combines with water to give nitric acid. NO O? or N02 H9Q „ FFNO3 Nitric acid is then rained or washed out, either as the free acid or combined with ammonia as ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3. 70 ^ Drinking Watert^ Contaminants 3.1. Drinking Water Contaminants : Table 3.1.: Factors that may Influence virous movement to Ground Water: Factor Comment Soil type Fine textured soils retain viruses more effectively than light textured soil iron oxides increase the adsorptive capacity of soils. Muck soil are generally poor adsorbents. PH Generally adsorption increases when pH decreases. However, the reported trends are not clear cut due to complicating factors. Cations Adsorption increases in the presence of cations (cations help reduce repulsive forces on both virus and soil (particles). Rain water may desorb viruses from soil to its low conductivity Soluble Organic Generally compete with viruses for adsorption sites. No significant competition at concentrations found waste water effluents. Humic and vulric acid reduce virus adsorption to soil Virus type Adsorption to soil varies with virus type and strain. Virus may have different iso-electric points. Flow Rate The higher the flow rate the lower virus adsorption soils Saturated versus Virus movement is less under unsaturated flow conditions unsaturated flow Source CP. Gerla and G. Billon, 1989. Table 3.2. Factors Affecting Survival of Enteric Bacteria in Soil: Factor Comment oisture content Greater survival time in moist soils and during time of rain fall loisture holding capacity survival time is less in sandy soils with lower water holding capacity. I Shorter survival time in acid soils (pH 3-5) than in alkaline soils. Blight Shorter survival time at soil surface. ganic matter Increased survival and possible re-growth when sufficient amounts of organic matter are present. Btagonism from soil micro flora Increased survival time in sterile soil. Burce CP. Gerba and G. Bitton "Microbial pollutants: their survival and transport pattern to ground water 1984 (John Wiley and Sons 71 Table 3.3. USEPA National Primary Water Disinfectant Standards (USEPA, 1998). Disinfectant MRDLG (mg/1) MRDL(Mg/l) Chlorine 4(as Cl2j 4 (as Cl2) Chloramine 4 (as Cl2) 4 (as Cl2) Chlorine dioxide 0.3 (as C102) 0.8 (as C102) Table 3.4. USEPA National Secondary Drinking Water Contaminant Standards aminant Effect SMCL (mg/1) Reference Cloured water 0.05-0.2 USEPA 1991a Salty taste 250 USEPA 1979a ur Visible tint 15 color unit USEPA 1979a ler Metallic taste, blue-green stain 1.0 USEPA 1979a osivity Metalic taste, corrosion, mixture staining None None corrosive corrosive tide Tooth discolouration 2.0 USEPA 1986a ning agent Forthy, cloudy, bitter, taste, odour 0.5 USEPA 1979a Rusty colour, sediment, metallic taste, reddish or orange staining 0.3 USEPA 1979a ganese Black to brown colour 0.05 Black staining, bitter metallic taste or "Rotten egg" musty or chemical smell 3 TON USEPA 1979a Low pH : bitter, metallic taste, corrosion, 6.5-8.5 USEPA High pH : slippery feel, soda taste, 1979ae deposits. Skin discoloration, geying of the white 0.1 USEPA 1991a part of the eye. hate Salty taste 250 USEPA 1979a S) Hardness, deposits, coloured water, 500 USEPA 1979a staping, salty taste Metallic taste 5 USEPA 1979a 11 Table 3.5. USEPA Drinking Water Regulation and Health Advisories for Inorganics Chemical MCLG (mg/1) MCL(mg/l) Cancer Risk (mg/1) Al Ammonia Antimony 0.006 0.006 As 0.05 0.002 Asbestos 7MFL 7MFL 700MFL Ba 2 2 Be 0.004 0.004 0.008 B Bromate 0.00 0.01 Cd 0.005 0.005 Chloramine 4ef 4ef Chlorate Chlorine 4ef 4ef Chlorine dioxide 0.8 Chlorite 0.8 1.0 Chromium (total) 0.1 0.1 Copper (at top) 1.3 TTg Cyanide 0.2 0.2 Fluoride (natural) 4 4 Lead (at top) 0 TTg Manganese Mercury (inorganic) 0.002 0.002 Molybdenum Nickel 0.1 0.1 Nitrate (as N) 10.0 10.0 Nitrite (as N) 1.0 1.0 NO' andN02 (as N) 10.0 10.0 Se Silver Sodium Strontium Sulphate 500 500 Thalium 0.005 0.002 Vanadium White Phosphorus Zinc MRDLG : Maximum Residual Disinfectant Level Goal. MCI : Maximum Contaminants Level. USEPA : U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. RFD : Reference Does. 73 3.2. Health Effects of Inorganic Minerals 3.2.1. Barium : Barium occurs naturally in trace amounts in most surface and ground water from their exposure to barium containing minerals. Industrial release of barium occurs from oil and gas drilling muds, coal burning and auto paints (EPA, 1995a). It is also widely used in brick, tile and ceramics manufacture. The insoluble and unabsorable salt Barium sulphate is used clinically as a radiopaque dye for x-ray diagnosis of the gastro-intestinal tract. Chronic exposure may contribute to hypertension. Rats ingesting 0.5 mg (kg/day). Barium in drinking water (10 mg/1) for 16 months or 6 mg/ kg day"1 (100mg/l) for 4 months, demonstrated hypertensive symptoms, however, another 4 months study of rats exposed to 15 mg/kg/day"1 in drinking water showed no effect. Human epidemiological studies with Community drinking water containing from 2 to 10 mg/1. Barium did not provide definitive results. (USEPA, 1989b, Agency of Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 1992b). The MCLG and MCL for barium are 5 mg/1, based on hypertension among Humans (U.S Environmental Protection Agency, 199 If). Barium occurs widely in soils, plants and animal tissues in highly variable concentrations. A neutron activation Technique, with limits of detection approximating 0.1 pg Ba and 0.04 pg Sr (77) was used by Bowen and Dymond ((99 L) to determine the barium content of plants growing on different soils. Different plant species ranged from 0.5 to 40 ppm with a mean value of 10 ppm Ba. These levels compared well with those obtained in various spectrographic studies. Thus 10-90 ppm Ba (dry basis) has been reported for Kantucky Hay fd 1-20 ppm for grain (85). In a comparison of red clover and dry grass grown together on different soils in Scotland, R.C. 74 Mitchell (1937) found the former species to contain 12- 184 ppm (mean 42) and the latter 8-35 (mean 18) ppm. Ba. Certain plant species can accumulate high concentration of barium from Ba-rich soils. For instance, Juglans Region and Fraxinus Pennsylvania were reported to contain 2600 and 1700 ppm respectively (R. O. Robinson, R.R. Whetstone, and G. Edginton, 1950). Higher concentrations may occur in Brazil nuts. They vary with locality but levels of 3000 ppm to 4000 ppm Ba are common and are not accompanied by unusual concentrations (W. O.Robinson and G. Edgiton, 1945, W. Seaber, 1930). Barium is poorly absorbed from most diets, with generally little retention in the tissue (M. Fay, M. A. Anolresch, and V. G. Behrmann, 1942). Tipton and Co-workers (1966) determined a 30 day mean daily intake of barium by an adult male and an adult female consuming normal diets. The former ingested 1.54 mg Ba/day and was in strong negative Ba balance. The latter ingested 1.77 mg Ba/day and was in strong positive balance. Both subjects excreted an appreciable proportion of the total intake in the urine. The following mean barium concentrations were reported by Tipton and Cook (1963) for normal adult human tissues. Adrenals 0.02, Brain 0.04 ; Heart, 0.05; Kidney 0.10 ; liver, 0.03 ; Lung, 0.10 ; Muscle 0.05 and spleen, 0.08 ppm. Of dry tissue. (The Sr levels in these tissues were mostly 3-4 times higher, except in muscles where the concentration of Ba and Sr are, nearly, identical. J. Sowden and Stitch (1957) examined 35 samples of bone from normal men and women by activation analysis. Ba and Sr were detected in all specimens, with a mean of 7 ppm for Ba and 100 ppm for Sr in the ashed tissue. Indications were obtained of an increase in Sr. Content (but not in Barium) with age. 75 Conclusive evidence that barium perform any essential function in plants and animals has not appeared. It has been reported to act as a plant growth stimulant (k. Scharrer and W. Schopp, 1937). Rygh's work with rats and guinea pigs fed specially purified diets suggestes that this element may be essential to those species (O. Rygh, 1953). When such diets were supplemented with "a complete" mineral mixture, growth and bone development were satisfactory. The ommission of either barium or strontium from the mineral supplement resulted in depressed growth. W.C. Pond et. al., (1995) reported that barium may be required for growth of some animal species (W.G.Pond et al. 1994). 3.2.2. Cadmium . Schwarz and Spallholz (1985) found that rats fed a highly purified diet containing less than 0.4 ppb Cd showed a growth depression when maintained in a metal free environment. This is the first evidence of metabolic requirement for Cd, the overwhelming research emphasis has been toxicology of Cd ingestion. Cadmium (Cd) is toxic to a wide range of animal life and has specific adverse effects on the testes and kidney. (Kostial, 1986 ; national Research Council, 1980) (NRC). Cd occurs geologically in Zn ores and is used widely in industry in the production of batteries, pigments, and stabilize electroplating. The atmosphere around some cities of US contains cadmium as high as 6.2 mg Cd/m3. Also it may be an important dietary source. Vegetables, fruits and nuts are poor sources of Cd (W.G. Pond et. al., 1995). Total Cd in tissues of adults has been estimated in the US at 30 mg with 10 mg in kidney and 4 mg in liver (Kubato J. et. al. 1968). 76 Specific adverse effects of Cd, when fed to experimental animals, include kidney damage and hypertension and microcytic, hypochromic anemia, but more information is needed to a certain the importance of environmental Cd contamination in human and animal health (W.G. Pond et. al. 1995). Hence Biological interests in cadmium are largely confined to its toxic properties, it is possible relation to human hypertension and its interaction with zinc and other essential metals. Similarity of Cd with Zn, in atomic structure and chemical behavior, as well as the high concentration of Cd in the kidney relative to those of other organs, Led vallee and associates (1957, 1961) to suggest that it might occur as an integral part of a natural of substance, and like zinc perform some function in mammalian organisms. They isolated a protein compound containing 5.9% Cd and 2.2% Zn from equine renal cortex, which named metallothionin ; which was also found in human kidney and liver with varying proportion of Cd and Zn (J.H.R. Kagi and B.L. Vallee, 1961, 1966). An aggregation of Cd of this size higher by an order of magnitude than the metal content of any other known metallo- protein, and it is specific association with a particular macromolecules point to a functional role of Cd. But no such role has yet been demonstrated in living cells. Catzias et al. (1961), suggest that metallothionein may merely constitute a sequestering system for Cd. No cadmium containing metallo enzymes have yet been found, but in vitro studies have revealed an inhibition by Cd of several maminalium enzymes (H.A. Schroder, 1957). Increased esterase activity, accompanied by a parallel fall of peptidase activity, result from incubation of Carboxy peptidase B with cadmium (II) ions. Cd in animal tissues and fluids according to I.H. Tipton and M.J. Cook (1963), levels of 30 to 40 ppm Cd in the kidney and 2-3 ppm in the liver are 77 common. All other organs and tissues studied have very much lower concentrations. Substantial variation in kidney cadmium concentration occurs with geographical location. Mongaloid subjects from several areas contained significantly higher levels of renal cadmium than their North American Counter Parts, with Japanese averaging more than twice as much (H.M. Perry et al., 1961). Such differences may reflect differences in Cd intakes, either as a result of differences in food habits, or in the cadmium contents of foods, water supplies, and the atmosphere or from both (together). Cadmium concentration in human blood is very low and highly variable ranging from 0.3 to 5.4pg/100m. (Imbus et al. 1963) with a median concentration of 0.7pg. Kubota et al. (1968) studied 243 adult, from 19 cities in US for cadmium Blood, and reported that less than over half of the samples had detectable amounts of Cd using A.A.S Method. The median concentration was stated to be 0.5pg/100ml. Normal human urine also contain very low and variable Cd content, ranging from <7 to 22pg Cd/L. with average of <12.7ug/L (Perry and Perry, 1959). Smith and Kench (1957) reported that urine, Cd composition of factory workers with no known exposure to cadmium, ranges from 2 to 22pg/L with a mean close to lOpg/L. Workers exposed to cadmium oxide dust disclosed much higher urinary Cd levels ranging from 15 to 420pg/L with most values between 40 and lOOpg/L. The urine of workers exposed to cadmium fumes varied from 40 to 410pg Cd/L. 78 3.2.2.1. Cadmium Metabolism : Little is known about the intestinal absorption of Cd from ordinary food at physiological intakes (Perry D.Cohn et al., 1999). The metabolism of this element is known to be greatly affected by Zn, Cu, and other metals intakes. On the other hand it influence the metabolism of zinc, copper and iron. According to Cotzias et al., (1961), Schrroeder et al. (1967). It appears that the body does not possess homeostatic control mechanism for cadmium, such as that of zinc or manganese. A partial replacement of zinc by Cd in various tissues was reported providing an evidence that cadmium is a zinc antimetabolite (Cotzias et al., 1961 ; Cox et al.1962 ; Gunn et al. 1961 ; Lease, 1969 ; J. Parizek, 1957, Supplee, 1963). Rabits fed cadmium develop hyperplastic bone marrow and hypochromic, mycrocytic aneamia, similar to that caused by iron deficiency (B. Axelsson andM. Piseatan, 1966). 3.2.2.2. Cadmium and hypertension : Schroder (1965) postulated a relationship between cadmium and human hypertension. Because several effective antihypertensive drugs had the characteristic of binding transition trace metals. Calcium EDTA compound was shown to lower the diastolic of hypertensive rats (But not normatensive). Schroeder and Perry (1955). Carrol (1966) considered cadmium as causal factor in hypertension. He found the average concentration of cadmium in the air of 28 US cities to be markedly positively correlated with the death rates from hypertension and anterioscleratic heart disease. Rats exposed to 5 ppm cadmium in drinking 79 ;r developed hypertension disturbances (Schoeder and Vinton, 1962, Deder, 1964 ; Schroeder et al. 1966,) mechanism of cadmium hypertension observed in rats and the ficance of the relation ship between cadmium and "essential" human rtension remain to be determined. 13. Cadmium and reproduction : Absbery and E.W. Schmartze (1919-1923) in their early studies of lium toxicity, referred to the injurious effect of cadmium on the testes. • Parizek, (1957) showed that a single small injection of 0.02- 0.04 mM '2/kg body weight induced selective hemorrhagic necrosis of the rat 5. Parizek, 1960 reported that both seminiferous tuball and interstitial 2 were acutely damaged by cadmium resulting in perminant sterility, vas then confirmed by Gunn et al. (1961); A.B. kar and R.P. Das, 1960, Meek, 1959. Similar cadmium effect upon the testes have been reported ; mouse (A.D. Chiquoine, 1964), Rabbit (Cameron and Foster, 1963). n cadmium is injected during the critical last 4 days of pregnancy ial signs of toxicity, with high mortality of the injected rats are ved Parizek, 1965. I. Chromium : mium occurs in drinking water in +3, +6 valence states, with +3 being common. The valence is affected by the leveled disinfection (increased >rtional in +6 valence), pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), and presence of ;ible organics. Primary sources in water are mining wastes from 80 electroplating operations, and garhage and fossil fuel combustion (US EPA, 1985a). Chromium (III) is nutritionally essential, has low toxicity, and is poorly absorbed. Deficiency results in glucose intolerance, inability to use glucose, and other metabolic disorders. The safe and adequate intake is of 50 to j 200ug/day, which is the approximate range of daily dietary ingestion (NRC, 1989). | Chromium (VI) is toxic, producing liver and kidney damage, intestinal hemorrhage, and respiratory disorders as well as causing cancer in humans and animals through inhalation exposure, but it has not shown to be carcinogenic through ingestion exposure (USEPA, 1985a, USEPA, 1991e). [Notably chromium (VI) is reduced to chromium (III) with salivary and [gastric juices. For drinking water, USEPA. Consider chromium an [tmclassifiable human carcinogen. 12.4. Copper : pper is commonly found in drinking water (USEPA, 1985a). Low levels "0 |ig/L) can be derived from rock weathering, and some industrial ntamination also occurs, but the principal sources in water supplies are rrosion of brass and copper pipes and fixtures and the addition of copper ts during water treatment for algal control. pper is a nutritional requirement. Lack of sufficient copper leads to mia, skeletal defects, nervous system degeneration, and reproductive ormalities. The safe and adequate copper intake is 1.5 to 3 mg/day ational Research Council, 1989). 81 per doses in excess of nutritional requirements are excreted; however, at doses, copper can cause acute effects, such as gastro-intestinal •bances, damage to the liver and renal systems and aneamia. A dose of mg/day was the lowest at which gastrointestinal tract irritation was xed. Exposure of mice via subcutaneous injection yield tumors, wever, oral exposure in several studies did not. Mutagenicity tests have negative. per is regulated under the special provision of the lead and copper rule EPA, 1991b). Under the Rule if more than 10% of the residential tap pies have copper over the action level of 1.3 mg/1, then water purveyors minimize corrosion (American Water Works Association, 1999). ondary standard of 1.0 mg/1 applies to water leaving the plants. .Flouride I ride occurs naturally in most soils and in many water supplies. For more 40 years fluoride has been added to supplies lacking sufficient natural tities for reducing dental caries. But acute over dosing in the range of 200 mg/L. can result in nausea, diarrhea, abdominal pain, headache and '""ess (Center for disease control, division of oral health, 1992). MCL for fluoridating systems is 2.0 mg/L (USEPA, 1986). But the safe effective target range established by the public health service (Ad HOC committee on fluoride, 1999a) is between 0.7 - 1.2 mg/L depending on rature and pH. The MCL and MCLG for naturally occurring fluoride mg/L. 82 [3.2.6. Iron : [Since there is a nutritional requirement of iron 10-12 mg/day is reported for [healthy adult men and 10-15 mg/day for women (NRC, 1989), it is unlikely perious health problems will arise even from the maximum concentration bund in the surveys. However, in individuals genetically susceptible to Hemochromatosis, too much iron can be accumulated in the body, resulting i liver, pancreatic and heart dysfunction and failure after long-term of high asure (Motulsky, 1988). One person in 200 is potentially at risk, though ! actual incidence is much lower (Walker et al. 1998). here is a secondary standard for iron of 0.3 mg/L, based on discolouration 'laundry and metallic taste that become noticeable in the 0.1 - 1.0 mg/L age. 2.7. Nitrate and Nitrite : ate is one of the major anions in natural waters, but concentrations can [greatly elevated due to leaching of nitrogen from farm fertilizers or from Hots or from septic tanks. The mean concentration of nitrate nitrogen in pical surface water supply would be around 0.2 to 2mg/L; however, idual wells can would have significantly high concentrations. Adult ' dietary intake (of NO3") is approximately 20 mg, mostly from bles, like lettuce, celery, beets, and spinach (National Academy of ces Committee on Nitrite and Alternative Caring Agents in Food, )• does not typically occur in natural waters at significant levels, except reducing conditions. 83 It can also occur if water with sufficient ammonia is treated with permanganate. Sodium nitrite is widely used for cured metals, pickling and beer. Rarely buildings have been contaminated by faulty cross connections or procedures during boiler cleaning with nitrous acid. Nitrite, or nitrate converted to nitrite in the body, causes two chemical reactions, that can cause adverse health effects : I) Induction of methemoglobinemea, especially in infants under one year of age, and II) the potential formation of carcinogenic nitros-amides and nitros-amines (National Academic of Science, Safe Drinking Water Committee, 1977 ; EPA, 1989b). emoglobin, normally present at 1 - 3% in the blood. Certain substances •h as NO2" ions act as oxidizers (National Academy of Sciences Safe ' *'ng Water Committee, 1977). Nitrite is formed by reaction of nitrate saliva, but in infants under one year of age the relatively alkaline 'tions in the stomach allow bacteria to form nitrite. Up-to 100% of e is reduced to nitrite in infants compared with 10% in adults and en over one year of age. Furthermore, infants do not have capability to vert methemoglobin back to hemoglobin. When the concentration of moglobin reaches 5-10% the symptoms can include lethargy, shortness ath, and bluish skin colour. Anoxia and death can occur at high trations of nitrites or nitrates. ' ogenic nitrosamines and nitroamides are formed when nitrate or are administered with nitro-stable amines such as the amino acids in (International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1978). However, biological studies, primarily on gastric cancer, have not yielded stent results (Cantor, 1997). arcinogenicity of nitrate and nitrite is currently under review. lata on the Role of Nitrate in developmental effects such as, birth is, are regarded as being inconclusive (US EPA, 1991e). Several miologic case control studies found an increase risk of developmental defects (Sever, 1995), but more studies are needed. /ICLGs and MCLs are lOmg/Lfor nitrate measured as nitrogen or 45 N03" and 1 mg/L for nitrite measured as nitrogen (USEPA, 1991e). In on, the MCL for total nitrate N and nitrate - N is 10 mg/L. Sulphate : ate is a naturally occurring anion. High concentration of sulphate in ing water may cause transitory diarrhea (USEPA, 1990b). A study of ; found that most experienced a laxative effect above 1000 mg/1, :as, medical case reports indicate that bottle-fed infants develop ea at sulphate levels above 600mg/l. Acute diarrhea can cause ration, particularly in infants and young children who may already nicrobial diarrhea condition. > living in areas having high sulphate concentration in their drinking easily adjust, with no ill effects. A. had suggested a guidance level of 400mg/l sulphate to protect but it is under review (USEPA, 1992c). irrent SMCL for sulphate is 250 mg/1 based upon taste. The USA standard for soldiers drinking 5L/day is 300mg/l. 85 3.2,9. Arsenic : Arsenic may be a trace dietary requirement and it is present in many foods such as meat, fish, poultry, grain and cereals. Market-basket surveys suggest that daily adult intake of arsenic is about 50pg with about half coming from fish and shell fish (Pontius, Brown and Chen, 1994). In fish, fruit and vegetables it is present in organic arsenical forms which are less toxic than inorganic arsenic. However, arsenic is not currently considered essential (National Research Council, 1989). Extrapolating from animal studies (Uthus,1994) calculated a safe daily intake of As between 12 and 40ug. In excessive amounts arsenic causes acute gastrointestinal and cardiac damage. Chronic doses can cause Black foot disease, a peripheral vascular disorder affecting the skin, resulting in the discoloration, cracking and ulceration. Changes in peripheral nerve conduction have also been observed. Epidemiological studies in Chile, Argentina , Japan and Taiwan have linked arsenic in drinking water with skin, bladder and lung cancer (reviewed by Smith et al., 1992, Cantor, 1997). Some studies have also found increased 'dney and liver cancer. estion of arsenical medicines and other arsenic exposures have also been ciated with several internal cancers, but several small studies of unities in the USA with high arsenic level have failed to demonstrate health effects (Pontius, Brown and Chen, 1994). cronuclei in bladder cells are increased among those chronically ingesting nic in drinking water (Moore et al., 1997). anic arsinate and arsinite form have been shown to be mutagenic or toxic in several bacterial and mammalian cell test systems and have teratogenic potential in general mammalian species but cancer have not been included in lab-animals (Agency of Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 1992a). United States Environmental protection Agency has classified arsenic as an Carcinogen, based primarily on skin cancer (USEPA, 1985). e ability of arsenic to cause internal cancers is still controversial. Under NIPDWR regulation and MCL of 50u.g/l had been set, but it is under 'ew. Currently (1994) USEPA, Risk Assessment Council estimate that (for non-carcinogenic skin problems) range from 0.1 to 0.8ug/kg/day, according to MCLG 23ug/L (Pontius, Brown and Chen, 1994). edon a 1 in 10000 risk of skin cancer USEPA estimate that 2u.g/l might an acceptable limit for arsenic in drinking water (Pontius, Brown and -n, 1994). 10. Aluminum : uminum occur naturally in nearly all foods, the average dietary intake ?;g about 20mg/day. Aluminum salts are widely used in antiperpirents , cosmetics and food additives (Reiber and Kukull, 1990). It is ated that drinking water typically represents only a small fraction of aluminum intake (Reiber and Kukall, 1996). Al shows low acute ity, but administered to certain lab-animals is a neurotoxicant (Gaurat, ). Chronic higher level exposure data are limited, but indicate that 'urn affects phosphorous absorption resulting in weakness, bone pain, orexia. Carcinogenicity, mutagenicity and teratogenicity tests have all negative. Associations between aluminum and two neurological ers, Alzheimer's disease and dementia associated with kidney dialysis been studied. Current evidence suggests that Alzheimer's is not related inum appeared to intake from drinking water (Reber and Kukull, 6), but other sources of aluminum appeared to be associated with eimer's disease (Graves et al., 1990). Dialysis dementia has been nably documented to be caused by aluminum (Ganrat, 1986 ; Shovline d, 1993). Aluminum was included on the original list at 83 contaminants be regulated under the 1986 SDWA amendments. (USEPA , 1988b oved Al from the list. But USEPA has a secondary maximum taninant level (SMCL) of 50 to 200pg/L to ensure removal of fated material before treated water enters the distribution system. 11. Asbestos : stos is the name for a group of naturally occurring, hydrated silicate rals with fibrous appearance. Include in this group are the minerals, "Otile, crocidolite, anthophyllite, and some of the termolite actinolite cummingtonite - gruncite series. All except hyrsotile fibers are known phibrole. Most commercially mined asbestos is chrysotile. Asbestos in water exposed natural deposits of these minerals, asbestos mining arge, and asbestos comment pipe (USEPA, 1985a). The physical •nsions of asbestos fibers, rather than the type are more important in effects, with shorter, thinner fibers more highly associated with rs by inhalation. Human occupational and laboratory animal inhalation ures are associated with the cancer, mesothelioma, found in lung, , and peritoneum (USEPA, 1985a). An NTP study also observed, intestinal cancers in rats dietary exposed to intermediate range fibers their lifetime (USEPA, 1985a). Epidemiological studies of asbestos in ' g water have had in consistent results, but there are suggestions of ted risk, for gastric, kidney, and pancreatic cancers (Cantor, 1977). The •PA based its 1/1000000 cancer risk estimated and the MCLG and MCL 88 on7X106 fibers 1L > 10pm observed in the NTP rat study (USEPA, 1991e). (65% of asbestos fibers larger than 10 um, 14% larger than 100 um), 3.2.12. Lead : Lead occurs in drinking water primarily from corrosion of lead pipe and solders and faucets constructed with leaded brass, especially in areas of soft or acidic water. Health effects of lead are generally correlated with blood test levels. Infants and young children absorb ingested lead more readily than do older children and young adults (National Academy of Sciences Safe Drinking Water Committee 1982). Maintaining high levels of the divalent ions, iron and calcium, in the diet reduces up take. Lead exposure across, abroad range of blood lead levels is associated with a continuum of pathophysiological effect, including interference with heme synthesis necessary for formation of red blood cells, anemia, kidney damage, impaired reproductive function, interference with vitamin D metabolism, impaired cognitive performance delayed neurological and physical development, and elevation in blood pressure (USEPA, 1988b). USEPA has classified lead as a probable human carcinogen because some lead compounds cause renal tumors in rats (USEPA, 1985a). i In 1991 the centers for disease control reduced the action level from 25 to lOug/dl in blood, based on a reassessment of neuro-developmental toxicity [ (CDC, 1991). At this level the lead from plumbing become more significant as a potential source. Under the interim primary drinking water regulations, [the MCL for lead was 50ug/l. USEPA (1991b) reported that if more than 0% of the residential tap samples are above the action of 15ug/l there are [treatment requirements. 89 3. Manganese : anese is ubiquitous in the environment and is often naturally present in ""cant amounts in ground water. Man-made sources include discarded 'es, steel alloy protection and agricultural products. Manganese is an "tial nutrient, fulfilling a catalytic role in various cellular enzymes. The nal Research Council (1989), provisionally, recommended 2-5 mg/day fe and adequate for adults compared with recommended 0.3 to 0.6 day for infants. It has generally been regarded as non-toxic and naturally Tig. ganese is removed from well water primarily due to esthetic reasons, ever, it has long been known that occupational inhalation exposure can tomanganism, an irreversible, slow-onset neuro-toxic disease, recently a working group in USEPA developed an RED based on a k study of manganism due to drinking water exposure. Valezquiz and (1994), reported that a lowest observed adverse-effect level (LOAEL) of g/1 and a Non-Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) of 0.17mg/l identified. Accordingly they consider the a daily allowable level of 0.2 would be lower than the NRC recommendation for overall diet. .14. Mercury : rcury occurs in water primarily as an inorganic salt, and as an organic "thyl) mercury in sediments and fish (USEPA, 1985a). Sources of xury include the burning of fossil fuels, incineration of mercury taining products, past use of mercury containing pesticides, and leaching organic mercury from anti-fungal outdoor paints as well as natural 'gins. Inorganic mercury is poorly absorbed in the adult gastro-intestinal ct, does not readily penetrate cells, and therefore, is not as toxic as methyl 90 |mercury. (Calomel (HgCl) was used in the past as a laxative). However, the bsorption of inorganic mercury can be much higher in infants and young lildren. he most sensitive target organ of inorganic mercury in adult laboratory rials is the induction of an autoimmune disease of the kidney (Agency for foxic Substances and Disease registry 1994d). Organic forms such as ethyl mercury are readily absorbed in gastro-intestinal tract and easily nter the control nervous system (CNS), causing death and/or mental motor ysfunctions. Organic mercury also easily causes the placental varies of the us. Larger salt water fish and in some locations larger fresh water fish uificantly bio-accumulate organic mercury. The MCLG and MCL for organic mercury arc 2 u.g/1 based on iduction of auto-immune kidney ease (USEPA, 1991e). 2.15. Nickel: ickel is common in drinking water. Most ingested nickel is excreted, vever, some absorption from the gastro-intestinal tract does occur. Trace ounts are required by the body and about 200 to 500u.g/day are provided he average diet. is little useful data on chronic effect of exposure except that nickel ppounds are carcinogenic via inhalation and injection in lab-animals. In us, the incidence of respiratory tract cancers in nickel refinery workers Significantly higher (Agency of Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 3d). Nickel has not, however, been shown to be carcinogenic via oral psure. General studies suggest that it is not carcinogenic at 5mg/1 in (ring water given to rats and mice. NiCl2 tested negatively in bacterial 91 utagenicity screening, however, both NiCL. and NiS04 tested positive in utagenicity and chromosomal aberration tests in mammalian cells SEPA, 1985a, USEPA, 1990b). For ingestion the USEPA considers ickel unclassifiable regarding human carcinogenicity. The MCLG and MCL of 100mg/l are under review (USEPA, 1992c). .2.16. Selenium : elenium is an essential dietary element, with most intake coming from food. The National Research Council at the National Academy of Sciences 1989) has recommended that the daily diet include between 55 and 5ug/selenium, the higher part of the range for adult males and pregnant or ursing females. Selenium is a key component of gluta-thione peroxidase, a 'tal thyroid enzyme (Corvilain et al., 1993). In humans, dermatitis, hair oss, abnormal nail formation and loss, diarrhea, liver degeneration, fatigue, ripheral nervous system abnormalities and garlic odour have been bserved among people exposed to chronic, moderately high dietary lenium intakes (reviewed by Pairier, 1994 and by Patlerson and Levander, 1997). The molecular form of dietary selenium was not determined, lenium reacts in vivo with other elements, protecting against heavy metals xicity. Naturally occurring selenium compounds, have not shown to be cinogenic in animals and selenium may inhibit tumor formation (USEPA, 985a, Patlerson and Levander, 1997); though an antitumor preventive ction is controvercial (Clark and Alberts, 1995). Selenium has not found be terato-genic in mammals (Poiren, 1994). MCLG and a new MCL' of 50pg/l (USEPA, 1991e) have superseded the CLoflOug/l. 92 3.2.17. Molybdenum : Molybdenum is an essential trace element in the diet. The estimated safe average daily intake is 75-250ug/day, matches the typical intake at 150- 500mg/day (NRC, 1989). Chronic exposure can result in weight loss, bone abnormalities and male infertility. USEPA has not classified the carcinogenicity of molybdenum and no MCLG has been proposed (USEPA, 1998f). 3.2.20. Zinc : Zinc, commonly, occurs in source waters and may leach into finished waters through corrosion of galvanized metal pipes. Adult requirement for zinc is 15 mg/day for males and 12mg/day for females (NRC, 1989). Drinking water contributes about 1 to 10%of the requirement. The equivalentof 40 mg/1 Zn over along period would cause muscular weakness and pain, irritability and nausea (Catilli, Abernthy, Donohue, 1994 ; Greger, 1994). Excess zinc also interferes with the absorption of other trace metals such as copper and Iron (Cu and Fe). USEPA established an SMCL of 5mg/l for zinc based on taste (USEPA, 1979). Zinc was one of the seven constituents removed from the list of 83 contaminants, to be regulated under the 1986 SDWA amendments because the available data dose not pose a public health risk (USEPA, 1988b) 3.2.21. Sodium (Na) : Sodium (Na) is a naturally occurring constituent of drinking water. A survey of 2100 finished water conducted between 1953 and 1966 by the Public Health Service found concentrations ranging from 0.4 to 1900 mg/1, with 42% having more than 20 mg/1 and 4% having more than 250 mg/1 (White et i 1967). This level can be increased at the tap by water softeners, which (add approximately 1 mg sodium for each 2mg hardness removed, pre is strong evidence that there is an at risk population of persons (disposed to high blood pressure from dietary sodium(Ely, 1977 ; Luft jl Weinberger, 1997 ; Kotchen and McCarron, 1998). Others appear to be jatively unaffected (Mc Carron, 1998 ; Taubes, 1998). Coronary heart lease and stroke (Stamler, 1991) and certain other diseases are aggravated I high blood pressure. The long term significance of sodium on jpertension in normal children is controversial (Falkner and Michel, 1977 ; jnons Morton and Obarzanek, 1997). K)d is the major source of sodium. Of a suggested maximum daily intake [2400mg (Krauss et al., 1996), drinking water at a typical concentration of Jmg/1, contributes less than 2% assuming consumption of 2L/day. Average jult intake is 10000mg/l day (National Academy of Sciences Food and [utrition Board, 1980). or persons requiring restrictions on salt intakes sodium levels may be jmited to as low as 500mg/day (American Heart Association, 1969). -he American Fleart Association recommended a drinking water pncentration of 20 mg/1, because dietary sodium restriction to less than jOOmg/day is difficult to achieve and maintain (National Academy of fciences Safe Drinking Water Committee, 1977). This level has been jidopted as guidance by USEPA, but an MCLG has not been proposed (US fJPA, 1985a). 3.2.22- Water Hardness : (Hardness is generally defined as the sum of the polyvalent cations present in water, and expressed as an equivalent quantity of calcium carbonate 94 CaCO}). The most common such cations are calcium (Ca) and magnesium g). Although no distinctly defined levels exist for what constitutes a hard soft water supply. Water with <75mg/l CaCC>3 is considered to be soft and ~ve 150mg/l CaC03 as hard. An inverse relationship has been postulated tween the incidence of cardiovascular disease and the amount of hardness, the water, or conversely a positive correlation with the degree of softness, me hypothesis suggest that the harmful effect from elements (Major and 'or constituents) is more commonly found in soft water (National demy of Sciences Safe Drinking Water Committee, 1980b). Many estigators attribute a cardiovascular protection effect to the presence of cium and magnesium (Marx and Neurtra, 1997 ; Mc Carron, 1998b) A 'erate increase in calcium in the diet has been observed to lower levels of dating organ cholesterol ; this is speculated as a possible factor in ing water hardness and cardiovascular disease. Magnesium is reported protect against lipid deposits in arteries, to reduce cardiac irritability and age, and also have some anticoagulant properties that could protect 'list cardiovascular diseases by inhibiting blood clot formation, ymond D-Lettern, 1999) limited number of studies suggest that minor constituents often associated hard water may exert a beneficial effect on the cardiovascular system 7 C. Arino, 2001). Candidate trace elements include vanadium, 'um, manganese and chromium. On the other hand investigations suggest certain trace metals found in high concentrations in soft water, such as ium, lead, copper and zinc, may be involved in the induction of Avascular disease. Hard water generally supplies less than 10% of the dietary intake for calcium and magnesium. 95 Bara Basin Review 1. Bara Basin Review mind water studies of local problems have been carried out in Kordofan -vince since 1905, it was not until the 1930's that the first reports cribing the regional occurrence of ground water in the province were blished. As part of a report on the water resources of Sudan, Grabham 1934) described the general occurrence of ground water. Sandford (1935), "scribed ground water conditions in the desert and semi-desert areas of orth Western Sudan, that included part of Northern Kordofan Province (at at time). A more detailed report of the geology of Sudan by Andrew 1948), include a description of the water bearing characteristics of various ck units in the province. Other geologic reports, some contain hydrologic ta, have also been prepared by Andrew (1950), Auden (1951), Delaney 1950, 1951), Karkanis (1950, 1952) and Kleinsorge and Zscheked (1958). These reports gave in-formations about ground water problems. Special phases of the geology and occurrence of ground water were discussed by Barbaur (1961). The first report that was devoted exclusively to relationships between geology and occurrence of ground water in Kordofan province was written by Mansour (1961). A plan for a province-wide ground water investigation was first submitted by Waite (1955), and most of Mr. Waite recommendation have been carried out by Harry G. Rodis et al., (1961- 1963,1964) 4.2. Bara Basin : Bara basin is about 60 Km North of El-Obeid covering an area of about 6000 km2 of semi desert terrain with sparse vegetation (H.O. Ali and R.J. Whiteley (1981). The basin occupies a trench of 6800 km2 running North- 96 iouth-East in central Kordotan ana eastward &s lotds U.t«? \ 1988). Bara basin comprises mainly the provinces of Bara and vaba of Kordofan state. It extends between latitudes 12° - 10° and 48° North and longitudes 28- 50 and 32 East covering an area forms 12 Councils, 7 in Bara and 5 in Umruwaba province, (IFAI, 1993). Fig i semi closed system with an outlet only in the South easterly direction, imposed of fine unconsolidated sediments that attain a maximum ness of about 1.4 km around the central part of the basin. The water varies from 50 - 70 m and occurs under confined conditions (FLO. Ali, ) Bara aquifer complex is the main water bearing zone within uwaba and Bara provinces. It is composed of Nubian, Umruwaba and 2 sands, that filled the Bara structural traugh and form a multi-layer fer system (IFAD, 1993). 97 Source : NKRDP Ground Water Specialist Reports (2001) Fig. 4.J. Barn Basin Map 3. Basin Topography : ipographically the area covered by white sands and sand dunes which form rough surface with general elevations varying from 540 m (a.m.s) in the uth to 480 (a.m.s.) in the north. Annual rain fall in the region is 300 mm [. 0. Ali and Whiteley, 1981). IF AD (1993) describe the surface of the ;a as largely undulating plain of low relief, punctuate by Jebels of sement complex rocks, which appear as a chain extending along the )rthern, Western and Southern boundaries of the area. This include Jebel dair, Dumbair, Kon, Zalata, Muginus and Hemaui (Fig.4.2). le land surface, generally, slopes in an easterly direction towards the White le , falling from 540 m above mean sea level in the West to 400 m on the istem boarder. le area is characterized by the presence of longitudinal sand dunes (qozes), nerally extending North-South. Goze Elhagiz e.g extends for more than '0 km North South of Khor Abu Flabil. El-Kheiran, a topographical ^ression, extends for more than 100 km west of Bara town, and from haf in the south to Sharshar in the North. It forms 108 clay depressions jarated by invading sand dunes.(It can be described as Wahat or Oasis's). e mean rain fall (1912-1993) over the basin area varies from 150 mm in : North to 350 mm in the South. Ninety percent of the total rains fall in y, August and September (With rainy days average of 28 day/annum), hough the area lies in water shed of White Nile, permanent surface inage courses are absent. This is mainly due to seasonality of rain falls 1 the sandy nature of the soil cover. e major drainage system is Khor Abu Habil system, with it's major jutaries, Kageer and Tagerger, draining the Northern slopes of the Nuba tuntains and the scattered Jebels South of El-Obeid water divide. During 99 wet periods Abu Habil used to spill into the White Nile. But recently it used to disappear under creeping sands at Tendelti 40 kms east of the basin (IFAD, 1993). Minor drainage systems exist at Khor El-Teina, Khor Elhamra and Khor Shashar that spill into El-khaeiran depression. Khor El-Karta that drain the area east of El-Obied used to spill into Bara depression, but recently it used to infiltrate in the Qozes 30 km south of Bara. 4.4. Geological History of the Basin Area ± The basement complex that consist of various igneous and metamorphic rocks formed during the pre-cambarian time and was followed by a period of prolonged erosion. Towards the end of Paleozoic, shallow seas invaded the southern parts of the area and deposited Nawa formation.Uplift and erosion removed most of Nawa formation leaving only isolated remnents. During Mesozoic time shallow continental seas covered the Northern parts of the area and Nubian sediments were deposited. The area was subjected to uplifting, seas receded and the area experienced, a prolonged erosion that pped away most of Nubian sediments. 'd and late tectonic movements in east Africa had formed the rift system d created structural basins. Rifting process gave rise to fracturing, faulting d subsidence to form Bara trough. The trough was filled during leistocene and early Pleistocene time with fluvial and lacustrine deposits t now comprise the Um-Ruwaba formation. Subsidence continued with deposition of Um-R.uwaba sediments. In late Pleistocene time, the area subjected to a wide spread and recurrent flooding and deposited (silts) d clays. Concurrent with flooding, strong Northerly winds denuded the bian sediments and deposited "Qoze" sands, that later moved southwards. 100 Deposition of Wadi-fill deposit, along the water courses, still continuing (NKRDP, 1993). {5. Geology of Bara Basin . Geologically the bulk of the basin is composed of relatively fine consolidated sediments known as Umruwaba formation (Whiteman, 1971, H.O. Ali, 1983) and overlain by thin superficial deposits of wind blown sands. The sediments are bounded from the Western and Southern parts by the basement complex formation and from the north by the Jurassic. Gretaceous Nubian sandstone formation (Fig. 1.2.) quantitative geophysical survey (Ali and Whitley, 1981) has revealed that the basin is narrow elongated depression and about 45 km wide. The basin is semi closed with an outlet only at the south-east end (Fig. 4.2). Around it's central part the basin attains a maximum thickness of about 1.4 km. To the North and the South, the basin has steep side walls suggesting that the basin is bounded by the faults which may well be related to the African rift system. (Ali and Whitley, 1981). Ali, (1981) reported that Um-Ruwaba formation sediments are probably tertiary to Pleistocene in age and may be related to the early Nile drainage system (Vail, 1978). They are enclosed to the West and the South by metamorphic and igneous rocks, and to the North by relatively thin sediments of the Nubian sandstone formation (Whiteman, 1971). NKDP of IF AD (1993 - 2002) reports described the geological system cture of Bara basin as a result of rifting process, which gave rise to fracturing faulting and subsidence of basement rocks. Bara trough is controlled by three systems of faults mainly striking North East-South West, North West-South East and East West. The North East - South West and 101 North West - South East faults formed the western and North-eastern boundaries of the trough. The East-West faulting system controlled the protrusion of basement inliers within the sedimentary basin (Fig. 4.2.). With the exception UmRuwaba fault, all the North East - South West faults have down through South-East wards. The axis of Bara trough extends from Elbashiri south east wards passing Bara town, and then bifurcates into a southern and Northern branches. The southern branch passes south-east wards through Eltayara, UmRuwaba and continues into the White Nile boundaries. The Northern branch continue east wards to join Abu-Tenetin depression which is controlled by North West - South East faulting system and finally continues east wards. The two branches of Bara trough are separated by a North West - South t trending basement ridge extending from Jebel Kon to Magrur barried 'dge. The extension of the ridge north west wards to jebel Muginus was inated by the East-West faulting system 312 SCALE: Wadi Rll Deposits © | Umm Ruwaba Formation Nubian Sandstone Formaton Nawa Formation Undifferentiated Boscmwil Complex Gootogica! Boundary Ff.ult Line wi'.h Dip Direction 1~ Axis of Trough — DrainaQO System Surface water divide Project Boundary Provincial- Boundary Asphall Road Railway Lino Source : Special Identification Mission Reports. IFAD. ROMF. (1993) Fig. 4.2. Geological Map of Bara Basin 46. Geological Formation The geological formation of the area can be characterized as follows (6.1. Superficial Deposits (Pleistocene to date): This include clay plains, Qoz sands and Wadi-fill deposits. The clay plains tat had extensively covered the whole area were eroded from the Northern parts by the action of winds. In the Northern part only reminent of clay layers were prescured along the interdunal hollows or in the depressions of El-Kheiran, Khor El-Terna etc., South of khor Abu-Habil clay layers minated the top soil and with thickness rarely exceeding one meter. Their sence, with swelling character impedes rainfall in filtration to recharge e underneath layers. Qozes are made of well graded and well sorted, edium to coarse sands with thickness up to 50 meters. The most famous zEl-Hagiz extends for more than 300 km from North of the area to South fKhor Abu-Habil. Their hydrological significance is that they act as a rmeable layer through which rainfall infiltrates and thus no run off can velop. Wadi-fill deposits cover the beds and the banks of the present and Ider drainage systems. They vary from medium to coarse sands and trearn to silts and clays in flood plains and deltas. This thickness rarely ceeds 20 meters. Older Wadi-fill deposits might have occurred in the rthern part of the area, but presently buried under the sands and can only detected by geophysical surveys. Khor Abu-Habil is the most important ified deposit within the area. 104 ithology are Known only from bore hole logs. The formation consist of ring sequence of unsorted or unconsolidated gravels, sands, sandy clays clay containing characteristic carbonate nodules or Kankers. The ted nature of the sediments indicated rapid deposition under torrential inental fluriatile or lacustrine conditions. rjugh rapid facies change is characteristic of Um-Ruwaba sediments, (>100m) and continuous coarse sandy and gravelly layers were untered from bore holes logs in Bara and Um-Ruwaba areas. The mum Um-Ruwaba thickness encountered by bore holes is 500 m. At Balagei, east of Bara town, geophysical investigations indicated a ness up to 1000 meters. (Ali, 1981). 1. Nubian Sandstone Formation (Mesozoic/ possibly cretaceous). sediments of the Nubian sandstone formation are of fluviatile mental origin and are generally flat lying or gently dipping North wards is, 1964 ; IF AD, 1993). The strata consist predominantly of friable to consolidated conglomerates and sandstones containing silt stone and stone layers. Lateral changes in lithology, so quite rapid, are icteristic. Nubian sediments crop out North at the Northern parts of the i and is encountered from bore hole logs in the Northern part of the Nubian sediments filled the Abu-Tenetin trough and believed to fill the of the Bara trough. Most of existing boreholes do not tap the full ation thickness, and maximum Nubian thickness tapped never exceeded m. Geological investigations indicated Nubian thickness of more than 105 Im. Along Abu-Tenetin trough and up to 300 m, west of Bara town bian sediments are known to be the best aquifers in Sudan. i.4. Nawa Formation (upper - palepzoic) : is is the least extensive rock unit and include well consolidated micaceous idstone; Arkose, Shale and thin beded lime stone. It is not known as out >p, but detected in few bore holes and dug wells in Semeih and Nawa lages. The surface distribution of Nawa rocks suggest that they lie in uctural depressions in the basement rocks. The maximum thickness of jawa rocks recorded from Semeih bore hole is 135 m. It's hydrological ^nificance is largely unknown (but generally resembles Semeih rocks). i6.5. Basement Complex (pre-Cambrian to Cambrian) : his is the oldest and most extensive rock unit in the area. Basement imposed of geneinsses, Schists, granites, crystalline lime stone and other peous and metamorphic rocks. Basement crops out as mountainous terrain ong the Northern, Southern and Western boundaries of the basin area such i Jebel Dumbair, El-Dair, Abu-Urf, Muginus, Kogmar, and Quleit. It also :curs as in liers within the sedimentary basin as Jebel Kon, Zaluta and emawi. It's hydrogeological significance is that, it forms the base of Bara augh as well as causing damming to ground water movement. Under lecific geological and by hydrogeological conditions it contain minor [uifers. ,R. Mukhtar (2001) referred to the presence of two aquiferous zones within Bara basin. One deep and extends under most of Bara and Um-Rawaba ovinces and the other shallow and extends under the Northern part of the isin and along Abu Habil system. 106 4.7. Bara Aquifer Complex The Northern part of the basin is underlain by Nubian sediments While the Western part is formed mainly from Um-Ruwaba sediments with Nubian sediments filling the base of structural depressions.. Both areas are covered by Qoze deposits. Ground water occurs in the three formations (Bara, Nawa and Abu-Habil aquifer), as a single hydrolic unit and under free water table conditions. Depth to water varies from 4 meters to 70 meter depending on topographical elevations and proximity to recharging sources. South and South east of the aquifer devide two aquifer exist : 1) The upper aquifer is confined to the Qoz deposits and upper Um- Ruwaba sediments. Here, ground water occurs in the, well sorted, Qoz deposits and the, coarse sandy, layers of Um-Ruwaba formation. Ground water occurs under free water table conditions at depths varying from 10 meters at Bara town to a maximum of 48 meters along Quze El-hagiz, south of Um-Dam. The upper extends as an extensive sheet over most of the area (and with thickness varying from 30 to 100 meters. Along the eastern boundary of the area, when the Qoz diminishes the upper aquifer is dominated by clays of the Um-Ruwaba formation 2) The deeper aquifer is separated from the upper one by a clay layer of Um-Ruwaba sediments acting as an aquiclude. The thickness of the aquiclude varies from 70 meters at Bara to >150 meters around Um- Ruwaba town. Along the deep aquifer ground water occurs in multi• layers of Um-Ruwaba and Nubian sediments under hydrolic connection. Ground water generally occurs under semi-confining 107 conditions and at depths of 10 meters at Bara to over 100 meters south of Um-Ruwaba. lartisan aquifer was tapped within Um-Ruwaba formation at depth of 500 rters, by two bore holes at Um-Balagei east of Bara and ground water jvel rises 2.5 meters above ground level. II. Hydrological Characteristic of Bara Basin i rdrologically, Bara basin is not fully developed (H.O.Ali and R.J. Whitley, 81). This indicates that the bulk of basin is filled with sediments of Um- waba formation and that aquifers associated with gravels and sands have :n found at depths greater than 60 meters. In most cases, shallow Bara lin sediments are poorly sorted clay beds and/or sandy clays in which tical and lateral facies changes are common. chanical analysis tests have shown that the effective grain size is about mm and the uniformity coefficient varies from 3.2 to 5.7. The water level |ies from 50m to 75m and is confined by relatively thick and fine layers of 'S and sandy clays (Fig. N-S geol. Section). Estimation of hydraulic imeter (Salama, 1977) indicated that the transmisivity of the basin varies n 100m2/day to 500m2/day, whereas, the startivity varies fro 10° to 10"4 and Whitley, 1981). Water levels in the basin vary from 50-75 meters confined by fine materials of sandy clays and/or silty sands which cause sianity in many places in the Basin. The water moves from the pheries of the basin inwards in an eastern direction. Salama, 1977 nated the velocity of the movement to be under 0.1 to0.3 meter/year, ording -to IF AD, 1993, the accurate determination of aquifers •acteristics are faced by the following constituents : 1 Most of existing bore holes did not tap the full aquifer thickness. 108 • High hetero-genecity of the deep aquifer material and variation of aquifer characteristics from place to place. • The deep aquifer permeability and storativity are expected to reduce along the eastern boundary of the area due to domination of clays over the aquifer material (Fig. 4.4.). • Fluid resistivity logging applied in El-Ibeid wells near Bara indicated a complete separation between the shallow and deep aquifers of Bara aquifer complex. • Ground water flow direction is generally controlled by the surface topography of the basement complex (IFAD, 1993). Within Bara aquifer complex, ground water flows from the recharge areas along the northern and western aquifer boundaries towards it's center (Fig. 4.4.). The hydraulic gradient, along the north-western part amounts to 0.0006 while along the north-eastern part amounts to 0.001. Within shallow aquifer, ground water moves from the western boundary east-wards with a gradient of 0.001. 109 Source : Special Identification Mission Reports IFAD. ROME (1993) Fig. 4.3. Hydrological Map of Bara Basin At the center of the basin ground water attains a hydraulic gradient of 0.0007 indicating high aquifer permeability. Ground water then moves eastwards across Magraur buried ridge. Water level fluctuation of Bara averages 0.3m/annum The flow component in the deeper aquifer, bifurcates at Baia and flows in an east and south east components following the basement topography. The two components were separated by the South East - North• west basement ridge of Jebel Kon and Magrur buried ridge. The eastern (component) join the south-ward directed components following Abu Tenetin trough and then moves eastwards. The hydraulic gradient along Bara - UmRuwaba axis amounts to 0.009 indicating a high permeable zone. Ground water velocity amounts to 1.425 m/annum and annual fluctuation varies from 0.95 to 1.9 m/annum. The area east of Jebel Kon - Magrur ridge lies in their shadow and ground water leaks, to it, from North and South. Along the basement aquifers ground water is either stagnent or moves towards the nearly sedimentary basin as the case in Mazroub, or towards AbuHabil system in Rahad area. 4.7.2. Ground Water Quality According to Newport and Haddor (1963), Rodis (1964) ground water quality in Kordafan can be described by the amount of total dissolved solids (TDS) with respect to tolerance by man, plant and beast. They classified ground water as follows : Rating TDS /ppm Good quality < 1500 ppm Fair quality 1500 ppm Poor quality > 3000 ppm. Fresh water < 3000 ppm Brakish (moderately mineralized water) 3000 - 6000 ppm Salty water (Highly mineralized) > 6000ppm. Rodis (1964) reported that the (TDS) content of water from UmRuwaba aquifers range from 420ppm to more than 3000 ppm (average 1050 ppm). Rodis et al. (1964) also stated that "The water from weathered basements rocks in the northern (Two thirds) of Kordofan province. Is, commonly, brackish or salty. Typical examples are the dug wells of Jebel El-Gara, Shershar and Jebel El-Gheraid area, some 30 miles north-east of El- Mazroub, all of which, yield salty water. Chemical analysis of 100 representative wells in great Kordofan showed a eneral relationship between chemical quality of water and it's geologic urce (Rodis, 1964). ,R. Mukhtar (2001 - 2002) studied many representative water sources ote holes, open shaft wells or pump wells, considering the electrical ductivity (EC) as a measure of ground water quality and considering "und water with EC >1500 ps/cm unsafe for human use. Accordingly he "sified the ground water of the administrative localities of UmRwaba and provinces to safe and unsafe, (a) Um-Ruwaba province : Mahallia (Locality) | WateTquality 1 UmRuwaba - Shetke'ila \ Mostlysafe 1 UmDam - Muzdalifa ~ \Marginal \ IWad A^haxva. i 40% unsafe 4, 1 El-Rahad \ Mostly unsafe 113 (b) Bara Province Mahallia (Locality) Water quality El-Mazroub - Um Koreidim Mostly unsafe 1. Taiba Mostly unsafe 2. Bara Mostly unsafe 3. Um-Garfa Mostlv unsafe 4. Gireigikh Mostly unsafe i5 . Um Sayala Mostlv safe This can be demonstrated by some representative sources in each mahallia accordingly Table . Mahalia Location Min. EC value Max. Ec value 1. UmRuwaba Sherkeila 422 Samandia 744 2410 Rokab 1643 2. UmDam - Muzdalifa Elzreig -Goraan 325 Um-Ganah west 103 Caraw 6310 UmBarkat 3230 3. Wad Ashana Wad Ashana 946 Gagura Ruweina 8010 4. El-Rahad Elhamra Eleiga 504 Maltaut 2630 5. El-Mazroub- Dedail Ayaden 483 Um-Kereidim Lamena 573 Saatat Shambeul 278 1500 El-Gefeil Sroundings 289 6. Taiba (B.H.) Abu-Kuweit 223 - 197 (H.D.W.) Damirat Awlad Hizma 171 Um Saadun 440 El-Maseed Very saline EIGaa Very saline Abu-Noir 2410-3676 7. Bara Um-Nebeig 295 (BH) Mashaga ElQoz 150(HDW) EI-Riad 2290 Hamadan 2500 8. Um-Gerfa (B.H.) El-Sileikat 133 (OSW) Um-Garfa 1306 Nizaiha 2970 9. Gireigikh (B.H.) Um-Ushara 693 Sarariya Elzaki 127 Um-Dayoga Muzmmil 130 Hegeir 442 10. Um-Sayala (B.H.) El-Baniya 276 1 Midamein 251 Eid El-Nebeig 3950 Um-Saba 1 85580 1 114 The Following Table describe E.C. value in the study areas Area Source E.C. value Mahallia [l Satath Shambaul (B.H.) 1500 us/cm Mazroub 12 Satat Sarha (B.H.) 650 Mazroub 3 Salata Shambaul (HDW) 1160 Mazroub 4 Taiba (B.H.) ~ Taiba 5 Um-Sa'adun (B.H.) 440 Taiba li Damirat Abdu (HDW) 323-971 Taiba 7. Shershar (HDW) Saline Taiba Is. Alga'ah (HDW) Saline J Taiba / _ _ r ' Taiba (HDW) Taiba 10. Um-Sa'adun (HDW) 471 Taiba ii. El-Hedaid Sharif (B.H.) Bara 12. El-Hedaid Sharif (O.Sh.W) 321 Bara 13. Um-Nebeig (B.H.) 295 Bara 14. Um-Nebeig (O.Sh.W) 241 Bara 15. El-murra (O.Sh.W) 2050 Bara 16. Ma'afa (O.Sh.W) 675 Um-Gerfa 17. Um-Gulgie (O.Sh.W) 1140 Gereigikh 18. Um-Gezira / (O.Sh.W) \ 147 / Gereigikh j 115 1 _ 1 :'.2DO.C0O Si lT -52 |S- .53 -fe ® _AL *' I i? J Goroigikh... 38 32 • I i _ SO hi. 70 .59 O <. .O Umm KorelfJir O- Wo teryard Flowing Sor«_hoto * Duo VJOU with depth _^ Hand pump © Hatlr or Dam Source Special Identification Mission Reports IPAD. ROME (1993) Fig. 4.5. Some of Existing Water Sources in Bara Basin ukhtar (2002) recommended that technical and financial feasibility of -Jinization techniques for the high saline zones should be considered, and ed that, the open shaft well technique should be improved, to ensure equate and safe water. Such type of wells could be feasible in Bara area ere the shallow aquifer is productive and with good quality water, ccording to ground water specialist report (NKRDP, 2001), ground water "inity from the existing water yards along the eastern boundary of Bara in vary from 3000 to 6000 part per million. They suggested that ground ter salinity is believed to be partly due to stagnation, ince there is no other alternative water source in this area, they ommended that a feasibility study for desalinization of ground water ould be carried out, suggesting that a reverse osmosis technique, using liable unit can solve the domestic water supply problem, and the live ock can continue using the saline ground water. "AD (1993) reported that, along Bara aquifer complex, the shallow aquifer ntains fresh ground water with (TDS) of 200 mg/1 to 400 mg/1. It is mainly Icium bicarbonate water. Along the eastern boundaries salinity increase to 000 mg/1, this is mainly due to increase of chlorides. The report ommended that ground water of the shallow aquifer can generally be scribed as a good quality waters, suitable for domestic, live stock watering d irrigation purposes. IF AD study reported that with the exception of me saline pockets, ground water of the deep aquifers are generally fresh, 'th salinity varying from 80 to 2000 ppm., with an average of 700 ppm (as S). our saline pockets were recorded from the areas of: (i) Um-Kereidem town. (ii) South of Greigikh. 117 (iii) Along the North Eastern boundary, and (iv) Along the eastern boundary of the area. • Um-Kreiden salinity reaches 1700 ppm and with nitrate concentration ranging from 250 to 910 mg/1, rendering the water unfit for human consumption. The source of salinity was expected to be the weathered basement tapped by the bore holes. The source of nitrate was suggested to be surface contamination, because the town lies in a topographical sandy depression and animal dunks can be washed by collected rains and infiltration to reach the water table, such contamination is not recorded from the surrounding bore holes. • High salinity zone extends South of Greigikh ranging from 3000 to 7000 ppm. (Fig.4.2). The area characterized by high sulphates and chlorides. This is expected to be due to the presence of a thick evaporite layer deposited under lacustrine conditions. • Along the basement contact of Jebel Abti-Urf on the North Eastern part, salinity was reported to varies from 2000 to 5000 ppm. This is expected to be, partly, due to domination of clays and partly due to Stagnation. • Along the Eastern boundary, salinities of 2000 to 5000 ppm were recorded, with sulphate and chloride concentrations over 1000 ppm. The area lies in the shadow of Jebel Kon Maguar burned ridge, in addition to the fact that aquifer materials were dominated by clays. Under such conditions ground water velocities are very low causing contact with the dissolvable clays for longer times. 118 • Ground water quality in the basement rocks is a function of basement composition and annual recharges. Salinities are generally high (1000 - 3000 ppm). • Ground waters of Abu-Habil aquifer are general!) of excellent quality, with salinity ranging from 200 to 500ppm.. because they are usually replenished. • Ground water specialist report (NKRDP, 2001) stated that, ground water chemical surveys recently carried by the national water indicated high barium concentration (15mg/l) in the shallow aquifers zones of El-Kheiran areas. Mukhtar (2002) suggested that, technical financial feasibility of desalinization technique for the high saline zone of El-Bazaa area should be considered. 119 Isotopic Techniques 5.1. TECHNIQUES USED FOR ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES The techniques used for studying radioactivity of environmental samples can be classified generally to five types: 1. Gamma spectrometry. 2. Laser fluorometry. 3. X-ray fluorescence (XRF). 4. Alfa spectrometry. 5. The charcoal consister technique for radon monitoring. 5.1.1. Gamma spectrometry : This is a relatively quick, accurate and reliable technique in which no chemical treatment is required. The method is non-destructive, small sample treatment is required and it is limited to gamma emitters. The method can be used for measurement of gamma emitter in soil, water and loud samples. The instrumentation used for gamma-ray measurement is gamma spectrometer system which consist of : (i) Pure germanium coaxial detector. (ii) Electronic package system for pulse processing. (iii) An IBM compatible "HCS" microcomputer + ADC to operate as an MCA data display and storage system. (iv) Printer. 5.1.2. The Detector : The detector used is a solid-state semiconductor p-type coaxial pure germanium detector. Pure germanium is preferred because of its superior 120 performance, due to its high density (v=5300kg/nr) and low specific ionization (W = 2.98 e v), when compared with ionization chamber in which air is used for detection of events (density of air = 1.29kg/nr1) and specific ionization W = 33.7e.v. Such type of detector has a high resolution and low noise. Pure germanium has a forbidden band of 0.66 eV. To reduce the conduction due to thermal energy, the detector must be cooled, liquid nitrogen is used for cooling system, ft has a temperature of 77 K, the detector has a total volume of 32 cm' with diameter of 46 mm and length is 51 mm. The peak to Ccmpton ratio is defined as the ratio of the count of highest photo peak channel to the count in the typical channel just below the associated Compton edge and, conveniently, quoted for 1332.5 KeV photo peak line for Cow). The peak ratio of the detection normally used is 46. The detection efficiency of the detector is 12%. This is found by a standard procedure defined as internal ion of electronics of electrical engineering (IEEE) to check the detector efficiency. A calibrated source of CoW) is placed exactly 25 cm from the source of the end cap of the detector and the count late is determined. The count rate is then compared with 3X3 inch Nad (TL) scintillation detector with the same source, placed at 25 cm from the 'etector. The count rate for the Nal (TL) scintillation dele ctor al this geometry is known to be 1.2X10"1 times the disintegration rate of the Co"" rate 1332.4 kev photo peak is used for comparison. The resolution of the detector : The full width at half maximum [FWHM] is 1.8 KeV for 1332.5 KeV Co(,,) gamma line . 5.1.3. Detector Configuration : The detector has the following basic configuration. The high puriiv oaxial germanium detector element is located concentrically in the end cap 121 with its front face approximately 5 lines from the outer surface of the end cap. The lower part of the detector is connected to liquid nitrogen through a rod which is immersed in the (LN) for detector cooling. 5.1.4 Detector assembly : consists of three parts : (1) Liquid nitrogen dewar. (2) Cryostat. (3) Preamplifier/electronic package. The Dewar holds 30 litre liquid nitrogen. The Cryostat is a vacuum package system that allows the germanium detector element to be at liquid nitrogen temperature and still in a physical position convenient for use. The pre-amplifier electronic package fixed directly behind the cryostat end cap. The liquid nitrogen dewar cryostat and preamplifier package fitted inside the cylindrical lead shield, with wall thickness of 5 cm. The shield is placed on a table, and it consists of a base and four rings with platform and lead cover. The internal diameter of the rings is 20 cm. the height is 12 cm. The inside of the cylindrical shield is lined with copper, dura! aluminum and prespex to reduce the scatter of gamma rays into the detector again. 5.1.5. Electronic Package : The package includes a high voltage bias supply, logic to control the high volatage and various light emmiting diodes (LEDs) indicators. This logic system incorporate a circuitry which prevents high voltage bias to be applied 122 to the system unless the detector is at liquid nitrogen temperature. The temperature sensing element is a field emission transistor (FET). 5.1.6. The Pulse Shape : A gamma ray incident on the detector generates a linear charge pulse, which is delivered to the amplifier. The detector is directly connected to the pre• amplifier by pulse mode of connection. The pulse carries the energy and line information. The line constant of the preamplifier is greater than the detector collection time and the charge are accumulated in the capacitor. The rise time of the pulse determined by the detector characteristics, while the decay time is determined by the external electronics associated with the detector. The pre-amplifier matches the detector with the linear amplifier, converts the charge into voltage pulse and amplifies it. The linear amplifier beside amplification, it is, really, a signal processor. It converts the signal form received from the pre-amplifier into a form suitable for measurement. It cuts the signal tail to prevent pile up and restore the baseline. The amplifier generates a semi guassian shaped unipolar pulses with different peaking times of 1, 8, 16 and 24 us. This pulsing time is a function of the detector size. The input voltage is in the mV range and the output voltage in the range of 0 - 10V. The signal transferred from the amplifier goes into the MCA, which is an HCS microprocessor adopted hv clipping an analogue u> digital conventor (ADC) board. The ADC converts the analogue voltage into a digital number. In the MCA these numbers (proportional to pulse heights) are sorted in appropriate memory channels. After a prescribed time and after a sufficient large number of events are collected, the events are plotted as a histogram of the number of pulses. Versus pulse heights (Channel number, or pulse energy if an energ\ calibration was performed. The spectrum is registered in a floppy disk and analyzed by a suitable software. 5.1.7. Data Storage and Presentation i The collected pulses will be analyzed, stored according to their pulse height in the MCA and stored permanently in a floppy disk. The stored data can be seen on the screen of the monitor during and after collection as a histogram of pulse height as die number of pulses. This data can be stored in a floppy disk or sent to a standby printer. The data stored on the floppy disk is then analyzed by the GDR software. The result of the analysis the acth >V. reper: is either stored in a floppy disc or printed on a standby printer. 5.1.8. System calibration \_ To identify and quantify the concentration of the unknown radio-nuclidcx the system must be calibrated. The resolution measurement is required for identification is necessary for sample qualitative analysis. The efficiency calibration is required for sample quantitative anai\ *>s. 5.1.9. Energy Calibration : The spectrum stored in the MCA as a number of pulses versus channel number. To identify radio-nuclides by energy, the channel number axis must be calibrated in energy units in (KeV). This calibration is done by standard Amersham Marienelli source containing several radio-nuclides of known energies in the range of 60-1800 KeV. Energy calibration is important for identifying radio-nuclides by their characteristic emission (sometimes it is 124 necessary to determine the half-life for identification). A curve ol energy (h) versus cannel number (C) is plotted manually or using a computer. The simplest form is the linear relationship between (he two quantities and two points are enough to establish such calibration relationship (El CI), E2C2), then the linear relationship is : E = E1 +(E2-El)/(C2-Cl)X(C-Clj. Where E is the unknown energy of a line whose peak center is at channel C. The slope and the intercept of the energy calibration line is determined by the least squares fit calculations. The slope and the intercept are checked routinely using Amersham Marincelli standard source. The radio nuclide in the sample are identified after finding their energy by using radionuclide library for natural radio nuclides. Once the energy of gamma line is identified, the name of the radio nuclide is searched from the library and written on the activity report. If the radio nuclide has more than one line, the other lines are searched for and written in the activity report. 5.1.10. Resolution : Resolution is defined as the smallest energy separation between two neighbouring peaks, which enables the system to identify them as separate peaks. It is equal to that fall width at half maximum (FWHM) and expressed in KeV. It depends on the detection characteristics, the gamma energy, the count rate, the pre-amplifier noise the cooling and the stability of the system. The resolution should be checked routinely. It is always 1.8 KeV for 1332 KeV Co60 line. Sometimes it may increase either because of the inadequate cooling in laboratory room during measurement or because of inadequate cooling in the detector due to decline in liquid nitrogen level in the devvar on which the detector stands. 5.1.11. Efficiency Calibration : 'To quantify the radio nuclide activity concentration the elliciencs mu.-u he known exactly. The intrinsic efficiency (Er) is defined as the ratio of counts read by the instrument (R) to the number of photons incident on the detector E,-=R/N The absolute efficiency (EfA) is defined as the ratio of the count rate (R) to the gamma emission rate. N0 from the sample. = The absolute efficiency is given by EA R/N0 The EA depends on the gamma energy, the geometrical factor, the distance from the detector, the energy of the photon incident on the detector and the analytical expression used for curve fitting. A generally accepted simple expression for the efficiency (IT) as a function of energy is an exponential function. Ln E,•= Ai + In E Where Ef is the efficiency Ai and A2 are the fit parameters E is the gamma energy in KeV of the line. This expresson is adequate for the detection efficiency in the range 200 - KeV. 5.1.12. Detection Limit : The lowest amount of activity of specific gamma emitting radonuclide which can be measured by the instrument is called detection Limit (DL). It •provides information about the operating capability of a gamma spectrometer without the influence of the sample on the assumpution that the count rate-in the energy region taken for a certain radionuclide and count 126 rate in the background at the same region are equal. The detection limit estimated is 95% confidence Unit by the following formula. D = 4.66 S/[E\ X P] Where : S is the estimated standard error of the net count rate of the background at certain energy. E is the absolute efficiency of the system at that energy. P is the transition probability for that line. When the sample mass is considered, the term minimum detectible activity (MDA) is usually used and is related to the detection limit by the equation below : MDA = DL/m Where m is the mass of the sample. The detection limit is inlluenced h\ i!in• efficiency counting time, the background of system and the sample mass. 5.1.13. Background : Any radiation measuring system record some background signals because of the natural radioactivity from the earth material, cosmic rays and structural materials in the system. This background differs from one place to another, depending on the type of the detector, size, type of shield used for the detector. Also the background mav increase as a result of the interaction of primary radiation with the structural and shielding materials around the detector. To reduce such effects, the lead shield is lined with low atomic number material to reduce the scatter of gamma rays. Copper, clural - aluminum and prespex cylindrical sheets are used for this purpose. The measurement of the background is important because it affects the detection limit and accuracy of the measurement. 127 In the absence of artificial sources nearby the background of the detection system is mainly due to natural radioactivity. (Uranium and Thorium daughters, Potassium-40 and cosmic ray). The background level can be reduced considerably by shielding. The presence of any samples in the counting room, during measurement, affects the spectrum of the sample being counted by increasing the background and the appearance of lines from these samples. The background is routinely measured to check the presence of any contamination (Osman. 1991 ; A.Moneim, 1999). 5.1.14. Laser Fluorimetry The determination of uranium concentration is important not only in uranium exploration in soil or rock samples but also in environmental studies, in food, "plant and water samples." The phenomenon of fluorescence from uranyl salts has been known for Ionic time age before the enhancement of fluorescence when uranium is used with certain substances e.g. alkali fluorides, was discovered and this lead to what is called conventional fluorometry (Osman, 1991). In such techniques "Conventional fluorometry"; the uranium is embedded in fluoride or fluoride containing carbonate pellets, and "UV" light is used to excite the sample in pellet form. A serious drawback of this method is the quenching of uranium salts fluorescence by some ions like Mn~", Fe'1" and Cu" . In this case the sample must be suitable diluted, or the uranium is separated by ion exchange, solvent extraction or by addition of an enternal standard (spike). Later Shaw and Norris and other developed fluorimetric methods using pulsed light ources. In laser fluorimetry a nitrogen laser is used instead of the L!V light 128 used in the conventional method. Green fluorescence is emitted by the uranyl salts. The measurement of uranium concentration b\ laser fluorometry is quick, sample reliable and accurate especially in soil samples. It has a detection limit of 0.05 ppb in water and an accuracy of 15% at the I ppm. The instrument used is UA-3 uranium analyzer. 5.1.15. Alpha spectrometry For pure alpha emitting nuclei and for low level activity of gamma, alpha emitters activity measurement, alpha spectrometry is one of the best and sensitive methods. As a result of the hort range of alpha in air and less in water, radiochemical treatment of samples is necessary for the removal of all interfering elements which may either attenuate the alpha energy or may be alpha emitters having energies near to that energy of interest of the sample. The radiochemical procedures for separating other nuclei is tedious and lime consuming, so the separation can be carried out by one or by a combination of the following techniques : 1. Precipitation followed by filtration or centrifugation. 2. ion exchange : reversible extraction of ions between solid and liquid. 3. Solvent extraction. 4. Distillation. 5. Electro deposition. For the determination of certain nuclei concentration, the chemical yield must be determined. This can be done by adding a known amount of tracer that behaves similarly as the nuclei of interest but having different energy and reasonable half life. In naturally occurring radio nuclei Ra-226 is one of the most toxic radio nuclei, since it is a bone seeker, and alpha emitter and has half life 1620 129 years. In studying environmental samples R;,.226 concentration is measured by a- spectrometry across alpha-beta counter can be used to cheek the different steps in the chemical separation and to check sources for radio act'vity before taking them to alpha spectrometer. Th-232 and Th-22X can be determined by some other experimental procedure. 130 6. EXPERIMENTAL 6.1. Introduction : Alga'ah and Sharshar areas, are parts of Bara province (Northern Kurdufan). They are fields of brine underground water with high content of dissolved salts. People at these areas produce salt from wells water by evaporation methods, either by boiling in large drums or by drying on large plastic sheets (Solar evaporation). According to the local use, the produced salt is of two types : 1) Table salt. 2) Licking salt. 6.2. Aim of the Study : i) To determine the characteristics and mineral content of brine well water, and the produced sails. ii) To investigate the relationship between ground water salinity and soil composition. iii) To compare the chemical composition of the saline ground water zones and other sources of fresh water within Bara basin. 6.3. Collection of Samples : Ground water samples were collected in two visits to the Held of study. The first visit was in December 2004, the end of the rainy season at Northern Kordofan. The second visit was during July 2005, the beging of the rain fall in the region. Samples were colleted from, separate ground water source 131 within Bara basin boundaries, starting from Um-Galgie (Lg 13 - 32, Lt 30 - 21) in the south of Bara town (15 kilometer) and ended by Sharshar in the north (Lg 14-20, Lt 30 - 12). Three sources of samples are bore holes (Water yards). Three other sources are hand dug wells used for irrigation purposes and three sources are used mainly for livestock watering because of relatively high salinity. This is mainly for section (A) and Section (C), Section (B) and section (D) samples were collected from two saline zones at El-Ga'a and Sharshar. Soil samples were collected at depth of 20cm from Sharshar west and El-Ga'a. locally produces salt samples were also collected from the two zones. Rock samples obtained during well diging were collect from El-Ga'a. The sampling areas are populated by so many tribes e.g. Baza'a, Bani-Garrar, Ma'agla, Ma'alia, Nawahia, Elababeen, Ariiia, Gawama'a, Maramra and Frahna. The livestock are mainly sheeps, goats ans camels. Hand dug wells appear to be the most available sources of water for human, livestock and irrigation use. 6.4. Instruments : (1) Magellan (GPS) Map 330. (2) pH meter : pH/ion meter 555, Corning Pinnacle. (3) Ultra-meter'Nl 6P MxRONL company senw. ii 600014. (4) Hach DR/40004 spectrophotometer(Comlab). (5) 712 Conductometer/ Metrohm.. (6) Atomic absorption Spectrometer (Agilent). (7) Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (Perkin Elmer, Model GBC 032, USA, 1996). (8) X-ray Diffraction System PW3040t60X'pert PRO Philips (www. Panalytical. Com) Console main supply 40, 200-240V single phase. 132 6.5. Methods of Analysis 6.6.1. Total Alkalinity Determination : 10 ml portion of each sample was quantitatively transferedto 250 ml titration flask using graduated pipette. Double indicator Method is used. Standardised hydrochloric acid (0.1M) was used to phenolphthalein - Methyl red and end point according to the following equations : Stage (1): HCO.f + COT" + HC1 •2HC03" + C1" Stage (2) 2HCO.T + 2HC1 ^ 2H20 + COT + 2Cf The concentrations of OH, COT and HCO-f ions were calculated according the following Table Result of titration OH alkalinity OH'Alkalinitv COf HC03- alkalinity P = 0 0 0 T Pl/2 T (2p-T Up-T) P = T T where : p = phenolphthalein alkalinity. T = total alkalinity. 6.6.2. Determination of Chloride (Mohr Method) 10 ml of each ground water sample was transferred to 250 ml titration llask and titrated against standard silver nitrate solution to potassium chromate end point. For high salinity samples 1 ml of each sample is transferred to the titration flask using 1 ml graduated pipette and diluted to 10 ml with distilled water. The flask content was well swirled and titrated against standard silver nitrate solution to potassium chromate point. The average value of measurements for each sample was taken and the chloride concentration was calculated for each ground water sample as ppm. 6.6.3. Determination of nitrate (Cadmium reduction method) : After sample preparation for nitrate analysis, the soft key under HACH program was pressed. The stored program number for high range nitrate was selected by pressing 2530 with the numerical key. The display showed HACH program : 2530 N. Nitrate HR. The wave length (k) 500 m was automatically selected. The sample cell was filled with 10 ml of the sample. The contents of one nitra ver 5 nitrate reagent powder pillow 'The prepared sample'1 was added and the cell was stoppered. The soft key under start timer is pressed. The cell was shaken vigorously for one minute. The soft key under start was pressed. A5 minute reaction period was started, after which, a second cell was filled with 10 ml of the sample The blank'. The blank was placed into the cellholder, the soft key under zero was pressed. The display showed o.o m- ! N0:,N. The prepared sample was placed into the cell holder. The light shield was closed. The result in mg/1 nitrate nitrogen [(NOV)-(N) was displayed. Table (8,9). 6.6.4. Determination of Ntrite (low range) Detection limit (0.0003 and 0.004 mg/I) : The soft key under HACH program was pressed, the stored program number for low range nitrite was selected by pressing 2610 with numerical keys. Enter was then pressed. The display showed HACH program : 2610 nitrite (LR), the wave length (X) 507 nm was automatically selected. A sample cell wras filled with 100 ml of each sample. The contents of one nitraver 3 nitrite reagent powder pillow "the prepared sample" was added the cell was then stoppered and shaken. The soft key under start timer was 134 [pressed. A 20 minute reaction was begun. After the timer beeded, a second sample cell was filled with 10 ml of sample (the blank). The blank was then [placed into the cell holder. The soft key under zero was pressed. The display showed 0.000 mg/1 N02.N. The stopper was removed and the prepared sample was placed into the cell holder. The light shield was closed the result [inmg/1 nitrite. Nitrogen (N02.N) was displayed Table (10 and 1 1). 6.6.5. Determination of Sulphate D.L. (0.0 to 70 mg/1) The soft key under HACH program was pressed. The soft stored program for sulphate (SCTf) was selected by pressing 3450 with the numeric keys. Enter was then pressed, the display showed HACH program : 3450 sulphate. The wave length (X) 450 nm was automatically selected. A clean sample cell was filled with 25 ml of sample. The contents of sulfa ver u reagent powder illow was added to the sample cell "the prepared sample". The cell contents were mixed by swirling the soft key under start timer was pressed. A " minute reaction period was begun (by leaving the cell stand undisturbed). A second sample cell was tilled with 25 ml of the sample (blank), when die timer beebed the blank was placed in the cell holder and light shield was closed. The soft key under z?.>v y/ss pressed me uY*pui\ snowed u.O mg I S04 . Within 5 minutes after the timer beeded, the prepared sample was placed into the cell holder, the light shield was closed. The result was displayed as mg/1 sulphate. Tables (20 and 21). .6.6.6. Detemination of Fluoride (D.L. 0-2.0 mg/1) Spans Method : The soft key under HACH program was pressed. The stored program for fluoride (F) was selected by pressing 1900 with numeric keys. Enter was pressed. The display showed HACH program : 1900 fluoride. The wave 135 length (X) 580 nm was automatically selected. 10 ml sample was transferred into a dry sample cell (The prepared sample). 10 ml of deionized water was pipetted into a second dry sample cell (the blank), a pipette filter was used to transfer 2.0 ml of standard reagent into each cell. The two cells were swirled well for mixing. The soft key under start timer was pressed. One minute reaction period had begun. When the timer beebed, the blank was placed into the cell holder and the light shield was closed. The soft key under zero was pressed, the display showed 0.0 mg/1 F. The prepared sample was then placed into the cell holder, the light shield was closed, the result was displayed in mg/1 F-. Table (24 and 25). 6.6.7. Determination of Suphide (D.L. 0 - 800 ug/l) Methylene blue method The soft key under F1ACF1 program was pressed. The stored program number for sulphide was selected by pressing 3500 with the numeric key. Enter was then pressed. The display showed HACH program : 3500 sulphide and the wave length (X) 665 nm was automatically selected. 25 ml of sample were transferred to a sample cell (prepared sample). 25 ml <>f deiom/'.'d water was placed into a second sample cell (the blank). A 1.0 ml of sulphide reagent was added to each cell. The two cells were swirled to mix the contents. The soft key under start timer was pressed. A 5 minlute reaction period had started, after 5 minutes, the blank was placed into the cell holder and light shield was closed. The soft key under zero was pressed where the dispay showed 0.0 ug/l s2" . The prepared sample was then placed in the cell holder and the light shield was closed. The result was displayed as ug/1 s2". Table (22 and 23). 136 6.6.8. Determination of Ammonia Nitrogen (D.L. 0 - 2.500 mg/1 iNH>N) (Nessler method) The soft key under HACH program was pressed 'The stored program for low range ammonia nitrogen (NH3.N) was selected by pressing 2400 with numeric key. Enter was pressed. The display showed HACH program : 2400 N, ammonia Nessler, the wave length (X) 425 nm was automatical!} selected. A 25 ml graduated cylinder was filled to the mark with sample and another 25 ml graduated cylinder was filled with deionized water (the blank). Three drops of mineral stabilizer were added to each cylinder, the two cylinders were stoppered, inverted several times to mix, three drope of polyvinyl alcohol dispelling agent were added to each cylinder, inverting several times for mixing. 1.0 ml of Nessler reagent was pipetted into each cylinder, stoppered and inverted several times to mix. The soft key under the start timer was pressed. A one minute reaction period had begun. Each solution was poured into a sample cell. When the timer beebed. the bla.nl-, was placed into the cell holder and the light shield was closed. Result in mg/1 ammonia was displayed as NEE-N. 6.6.9. Atomic Absorption Elemental Analysis : The atomic absorption spectrophotometer is calibrated using standard solution for each element. The calibration cur\e is ploted. Each element concentration is measured in all samples. The AAS specific lamp were changed for measuring each ion concentration. The automization tube was rinsed with distilled water after each sample reading. The results were tabulated and data was then statistically handled. 137 6.6.10. Atomic Absorption Analysis of Soil Samples The soil samples were finely grinded and about 1 gm of each sample was accurately weighed. Dissolved in 5 ml cone. HC1. After the gas evalution is scesed, the beaker content was diluted with distilled water. Transferred lo 250 ml volumetric flask quantitatively through a filter paper. The residue was washed with 5 ml portionsof 0.1 M HCI thoroughly. The f Iterate was then complete to the volume with distilled water. The measuring flask was carefully stoppered and shaken for each sample. The solution was then used for dtermination of different cations using atomic absorption spectrophotometer. 6.6.11. X-ray Fluorescence Analysis Solid samples were finely grinded and about I g for each was weighed and pressed in a dial at 15 ton.ocm to form pellet. The diameter of each pc!L_> was 4.9 cm. The pellets were presented to XRf spectrometer system, where each sample was measured for 2000 seconds. The spectra obtained as a result of x-ray excitation using cadmium 109 X-rays source were transferred to a computer. The spectral dat was analysed and the concentrations of the elements present in each sample were obtained using EXCEL XRF software available in the computer. IAEA soil (7) was used as standard. (The experimental setup of the XRF system is shown inFigure . 1.6.12. X-rav Diffraction Analysis :ach solid sample was finely grinded, packed and introduced to X-ray liffraction system. The results obtained w?ere shown in figures (XRD1 - (RD8) 138 6.6.13. Gamma-ray Detection of Soil Samples Activity of some isotopes in six mixed soil samples was measured using a high resolution y-spectrometry equipped with high purity germanium detector (HPGe). The detector was calibrated with respect to energy efficiency and resolution using Amirsham Mixed Radio nuclide standard. Sample were sealed in 500 ml Marineli beakers with plastic covers and set a side to allow gaseous ~~~Ru (ty2 = 3.8 daya). And it's short lived decs- products ("l4Pb and ~'4Bi) to reach equilibrium with the long lived ""Ra precursor in the sample. At the end of the ingrowth period the sample were counted for 8- 14 hours (depending on their activity levels). Samples spectrum were analyzed using GANAAS software package (Provided by IAEA.). The activity of the detected isotopes were determined by means of it's progeny photopeacks the activity values were expressed in Bq'kg of sample Fig (Block diagram of a typical electronic system used with nuclear radiation detection. 7.1. Results and Discussion Table (7.1.1.) pH of Section (A) and (B) Samples Sample Section (A) PH-value Sample Section (B) 1 Number Number PH-value 1 7.516 11 7.629 -) 7.640 12 7.453 ' -» s> S.178 13 7.493 4 7.775 14 8.012 5 8.206 15 7.860 6 8.038 16 8.189 j 7 8.1 18 17 7.849 8 7.924 18 8.315 0 8.227 8.163 ! 8.51 1 7.808 Table (7.1.2) pH of Section (C ) and (D) Samples j Sample 1 Section ((.' Pit value Sample Section (I)) i Number Number I'll value 21 7.03 35 6.98 22 6.87 36 7.32 23 6.53 37 7.27 24 6.53 38 7.62 25 6.43 7.7(i ------26 1 6.80 27 6.80 4 i (N" 7.06 28 6.57 42 7.3 3 29 6.48 43 7.18 30 6.69 44 7.17 i 31 6.84 45 7.14 - 1 32 6.79 i ~» -> JO 6.98 1 34 7.10 i 140 7.1.1. Physical Properties : 7.1.1.1. p_H values : As one of the most important physical characteristics determining water quality, pH appeared in the four sections of this study to be within the acceptable range. The highest value in section (A) is 8.51 1 at well No. (10). Whereas, the to west value is 7.516 at well No. (1) at Bara town. The mean value is (8.0133), Fig. (7.1). The ten samples of this section were collected from open Sharft wells and Bore holes used for human drink and animal watering. Only one well is used for irrigation purposes. Section (B) samples which were collected from open Sharft wells of Brine water at Sharshar, Elga'a, Um-Safari and Um Elgura. The highest pH value is at Sharshar (8.315), well No (18). And the lowest value is 7.453 at Flga'a (well No. (12). All section (C) samples show pH values less than 8, with the highest \aiue at well No (34) is 7.10, and the lowest reading at well No. (25) is 0.43. with amean value of 6.75. Almost all pH values at this section are less than 7.0. This may explain the corrosivity to metallic water tanks and reservoirs, when moving east ward from the center of the basin. The slight acidic properties were suggested to be due to high sulphate and chloride Concentrations. lection (D) samples which are also from Elga'a and Sharshar showed high H value of 7.76 at well No. (39) at Sharshar west and the lowest value of .98 at well No. (35) Shaishar west also with mean of 7.27. The standard pH alue according to SSMO (2002) is ranging from (6.5 - 8.5). 141 8.0133 a b c Section Fig. 7.1. pH mean values WHO (1977) suggest, the pH range of 7-8.5 for high pH and 6.3 - 9.2 for maximum value affecting the acceptability of water for domestic use. S. A. ElKhateib (1993) reported a pH of 7.5 - 8.5 for semi arid zone ground water . The US EPA had the range of 6.5 - 8.5. IF AD (2003) (El-Obied Office) reported pH value of 6.8 at El-Murra. In this study the measured pH values are 8.0 for sample No. (7) and 7.9 for sample No. (8) which are from two open Shaft wells at El-Murra (Section A). This may be due to seasonal variations. 7.1.1.2. Total Alkalinity : Total alkalinity ingredients are carbonate, bicarbonate and hydroxide content of water sample. Throughout the studied areas the hydroxide content is zero. There is no carbonate in all section (A) samples. In section (C) there is only two samples showed carbonate occurrence, as 62.52 mg/1 and 31.26 mg/1 in samples No. (21) and (32) respectively. Samples for section (B) and (I)) contain considerable concentrations of carbonate, ranging from zero to 240 mg/1 for section (B) and from 156 - 1750 mg/1 for (D) with a mean of 64.0 mg/1 for section (B) and 254.2480 mg/1 for section (D). This may be due to seasonal variations. Bicarbonate concentration in section (A) and (C) has a mean of 166.5 and 254.2480 mg/1 respectively. For section (A) the highest bicarbonate concentrations are at Um-Saadun, El-Sharif and El-Murra (7 and 8) 245, 235 , 2 5 8 mg/1 respectively. The lower concentrations were at Um-Gulgie (51.0mg/l). For section (C) the highest bicarbonate concentration recorded at Sharshar east (Sample numbers. 32, 33, 34) is 476.7 mg/1 and the lowest value is at El-Hedeid and Um-Gezira at 63.6 mg/1 each (Table 7.1.17, 7.1.18). PRC Engineering Consultants (1981) reported total alkalinity of 140 mg/1 at Bara and 250 at Um-Ruwaba, referring to the later as (excessive salinity). Total alkalinity was expressed as sodium carbonate. IFAD (1993) (El-Obied) described the salinity of ground water in low aquifer as calcium bicarbonate water. According to a study carried by North Kordofan Rural, Development Project (IFAD, 2004), total alkalinity of Kerima was found to be 43 1.6 ppm as bicarbonate with zero carbonate concentration (Nill). IFAD (2003) also reported that the alkalinity of El-Murra well was found to be 549 mg 1, which is almost double the concentration of bicarbonate in this study (235 and 258mg/l) in sample No. 7 and 8 of El-Murra field. Bicarbonate concentrations for section (C) samples showed inverse relationship with pH. This may agree with IFAD report above, such as phenomena was reported by Edmund, (2001) studying an aquifer beneth Mexico city, stated that there is an overall increase in 111 i > across the aquifer with an inverse relationship with pll. This may expected to be due to C02 concentration which increase the amount of TDS. Masai and Crane, (1969), Rudolph et al., (1989) reported TDS value of 37000 - 53000 mg 1 and 195000 mg/1 in saline aquifers. Section (B) and (D) showed high HCOf concentration and relatively low carbonate content. This may be due carbonic acid, bicarbonate buffering system HCCV + EEO • ETCCE + OH" 144 Table (7.1.3) Electrical Conductivity of Section (A) and (B) Samples nple Method EC section (A) Sample Method !.( section (\\) mber Number 1 PAHA 251 OB 411.300 Lis/cm 11 PAHA 2510B 150.800 ms/cm 2 69El00 us/cm 12 169.300 ms/cm ! : 741.600 its/cm 13 151.200 ms/cm 4 148.000 us/cm 14 126.000 ms/cm 5 128.500 us/cm 15 133.700 ins cm 6 159.800 Lis/cm 16 j 1 13.000 nb cm 1 166.800 ms/cm* 17 114.700 ms cm J 300.800 ms/cm* 18 100.700 ms cm 9 791.800 }.is/cm 19 116.200 ins cm I 10 417.300 us/cm 20 S 089.390 ms'cm i Table (7.1.4) Electrical Conductivity of Section (C) and (D) samples r~ Method EC Section (C) Sample Method 1-C Section (D) hple mber Number 21 370.80 [is/cm 35 120.70 mstni 22 j 222.80 us cm 36 105.00 ms cm 23 i 338.10 us,- cm 37 127.80 ms uii U | 140.60 lis'cm 1 38 J 19.20 ms cm li ; 680.90 us/cm 39 120. i 0 ms cm 16 169.10 us cm 40 1 45.00 ins cm 11 535.90 LLS/cm 41 1 63.50 ms ciii « 258.50 us/cm 42 143.00 ms cm 231.00 us/cm 43 1 39.30 ins cin 10 231.00 us/cm 44 142.10 ms/cm 45 | 143.10 ms'em 145 Table (7.1.5) : Total Dissolved Solid values (TDS) of Section (A) and (B) samples ample Method TDS section (A) Sample Method TDS section (15) umber Number 1 218.00 mg/1 11 136.00 u-'L 2 368.00 mg/L 12 163.00 g/L 3 396.00 mg/L 13 136.00 g/L 4 805.00 mg/L 14 106.00 g/L ,5 699.00 mg/L 15 114.00 g/L 6 874.00 mg/L 16 092.00 ii/L 7 910.00 mg/L 17 094.00 »/L I 1690.00 mu/L 18 080.80 a/I. 9 423.00 niii/L 19 096.00 g 1. 10 220.00 nm/L 20 070.40 g i. Table (7.1.6):Total Dissolved Solids TDS of Section (C) and (D) Samples mple Method TDS section (C) Sample Method TDS section 11) umber Number 21 0515.20 mg 1 35 139.048 g 1 22 0148.40 mg/1 36 135.972 a,'l 23 0226.80 mg/1 37 163.470 g'l 24 0092.80 irm/l 38 135.2X2 g 1 h' 0468.90 mg 1 39 1 106.! IS g 1 26 01 1 1.40 nm'l 40 ' 1 191.^04 a ! 27 ! 0074.87 mg/1 41 ! 243. X 5.X g 1 28 0366.90 mud 42 j 169.104 -1 29 0170.60 m»T 43 ! 155.91X g'l 30 0152.20 m»'l 44 171.516 - I 31 0152.40 nm/1 45 158.876 u/1 ,32 01193.0 mii/l jj 0354.60 mu/1 34 0317.90 m»/l 146 Table (7.1.7) : Turbidity Values of Section (A) and (B) samples imple Method Turbidity (NTU) Sample Method i urbiditv (N I'l lumber Section (A) Number | section (B) I 04.25 11 08.02 i i 02.91 12 1 1.58 T 02.96 13 03.17 ! J | 4 02.78 14 08.44 ! 5 01.54 15 07.95 27.3 16 04.18 i6 7 07.64 17 02.18 8 01.82 18 1 9.1 0 9 01.28 19 04.03 10 04.41 20 02.00 Table (7.1.8) : Turbidity Values of Section (C) and (D) samples mple Method Turbidity (NTl:) Sample Method ! Tui-biditN (NT! mber section ((') j Number sec lion (1)) 21 00.67 i 35 T()2(i.4 22 02.21 36 023.0 23 01.94 37 215.0 24 03.37 38 100.0 25 01.95 39 012.4 26 267.0 40 240.0 27 03.03 41 360.0 28 04.20 42 ! 167.0 29 11.27 43 r046jT 30 02.46 44 070.0 ,31 08.81 45 | 070.0 1 32 01.60 1. 223.0 l |34_ 055.6 147 ! 7.1.1.3. Electrical Conductivity (EC), (TDS) and Turbidity values :- ; For section (A) samples the most good quality water is of well No. (1) at Bara Twon well No.(10) of Um-Saadun El-Nazir, with TDS values of 218.0 ppm and 200 ppm respectively. The EC values are 41 l.3us/cm for N0.1 and 417.3 ps/cm. For No. (10). The mean TDS value (661 mg/1) and mean EC 306.2139. Except the ease of sample (8) of El-Murra (TDS - 1690) (EC = 791.8). the water quality of section (A) sources is good from EC and TDS values (Tables 7.1.3.. 7.1.5) For section (C) the most good quality sample is NO. (24) at Um-Gezira and .sample NO (26) and (27) at El-Kheiran area, with TDS values of 92 ppm) 74.87 ppm and 111.4 ppm respectively. The highest TDS value in this section is 1193 ppm. At well No. (32) and the lowest value is 74.87 ppm at well No. (27), with EC values of 1674 ps/cm and 535.9ps/cm for each. This achieves the expected relationship between the amount of total dissolved solids and electrical conductivity in water samples as a general rule For thN reason EC values mav. sometime, considered to be a quality (A.R. Mukhtar, 2002). Rodis at al. 1964 considered ground water with TDS< 1500 is of good quality. WHO, 1993 stated that "Reliable data on possible health effects associated with the ingestion of TDS in drinking water are not available and no health based guideline value is proposed. However, the presence of high level of TDS in drinking water may be objectionable to consumers). SSMO, (2002) considered the acceptable TDS value for drinking water to be 1000 ppm, and 80 - 500 ppm for packed drinking water. With respect to TDS values of section (A) and (C) water sources in the two sections can be classified as safe for drinking, domestic use. animal watering and irrigation (except the cases of samples 7,8 and 32). 148 Section (B) and (D), show very high TDS and hC values. TDS values here can be compared with those of sea water. They range from 70.4 to 163.00 g/L for section (B) and 106.1 18 to 243.858 g/1 for section (D). with EC values ranging from 89.39 to 169.3 ms/cm for (B) and from 120.1 to 163.5 I ms/cm for the same samples (Tables 7.E5. and 7.1.6) . The variation in TDS values at the same field may be due to variation in well depth or the nature [of the water bearing formation, e.g. clay lences. The people of area classify [the saline water to; a heavy water, where the Barell produces 125 to 1 75 Lb j of salt . and light water where the Barell produces 75.00 to 125 Lb of salt. According to this classification the price of water barell or jercan differ (in [their market). [The occurrence of such abnormal salinity of ground water is questionable : (i) is it just a result of water-rock interaction? ( What type of rock '.'). (ii) is it a result of some geological changes0 (iii) Is the water beaming-rock is a basement complex formation aquifer. [Total Disolved Solids (TDS) values reported in this area is 3000-0000 ppm. [A.R. Mukhtar (2004) stated that ground water salinitx is believed to be [partly due to stagnation. Ali and W hi ley (1981 ) report that "chemically the [water quality of Bara Basin varies between 500 and 1200 ppm as TDS. [suggesting that the relatively high salinity may be clue to low estimated velocity of the water (0.1 - 0.3 m/year), low infiltration and high clay ratios some places. They also referred to a satisfactory relationship that has been found to exist between salinity (TDS), depth and clay ratio. I FAD |1993), considered ground water quality in the basement rocks as a function of basement composition and annual recharges referring to high salinity 11000 - 3000 pprrr). 149 In this study, the relationship between TDS and EC values can be elearl) observed (Tables ), IFAD, (1991). reported that, along the Bara aquifer complex the shallow aquifer contain fresh ground water with TDS of 200 to 400 ppm. This is exactly true for well No. (1) at Bara town (21 8 ppm). well No. (3) at LJm-Galgie (396 ppm), No. (9) at El-dair (423 ppm) No. (2) at •Um-Nabeig (148 ppm), No. (22) at El-Fledeid (226 ppm) NO (28) at Damira i *(366 ppm), No. (33) and (34) at Sheshar east (334 and 317 ppm i respectively). i According to IFAD (1993), ground water of deep aquifers of Bara Basin are i [generally fresh, and with salinity (TDS) varying from 80 to 2000 ppm, with average salinity of 700 ppm. This is shown by the samples No (2) 368 ppm (B.H.), sample No. (4) 805 ppm (B.FI) and No. (5) 699.98 ppm. of section (A) (Table 7.1.5.). El-Murra open shaft wells (1 5 - 20 meters), show high TDS values (010 and 1690 ppm) compared with 92-22 ppm performed by IFAD 2003'2004. Section (C) samples generally showed TDS values ranging from 74.87 to 515 ppm, with an exception at well No. (32) (40 meter) which have TDS value of 1 193 ppm. This well is locally used for animal watering only. Such high TDS values of ground water were reported by Sandia National Laboratories (2002) on studying Tularosa Basin, which have extensive Brakish ground water resources. They reported that within a (5 mile) radiux water with salinity from 1000 to over 60000 ppm TDS, which is almost i Itwice as salty as sea water. They stated that there is a wide range of water i chemistry, including sodium chloride, carbonate and sulphate-based Brackish water also exist in the basin. 150 ED Section A B Section B • Section C • Section D • 120.8909 Fig. 7.2.Turbidity mean values (NTU) in ground water samples Table (7.1.9) : Concentration of Nitrate (NOf) of Section (A) and (3) Samples Sample Method Section (A) Sample Method Section (B) Number Number 1 013.00 my ]. 11 21.00 mg/L 018.00 mdL 12 <02lHfmg:L -i : 28.nil nm/L 13 57.00 mu/L 4 490.00 nm/L 14 44.00 mg/L j 310.00 mg/L 15 40.00 nm/L 6 270.00 mg/L 16 00.00 nm/L 7 340.00 mg/L 17 1070.00 mu/L 8 410.00 mg/L 18 400.00 mu/L 9 150.00 mg/L 19 28.00 mg/L 10 029.00 mg/L 20 790.00 nm/L Table (7.1.10) : Concentration of Nitrate (N03") of Section (C) and (I)) samples 'Sample Method Section (C) Sample Method Section (D) Number Number 21 HACH 8039 84.00 mg/L 35 HACH 8039 102.000 nm I ' 22 HACH 8039 82.00 nm/L 36 HACH 8039 0049.00 nmd. : 23 HACH 8039 93.00 nm/'L 37 11ACT1 8039 1 0126.00 nm'l 24 HACH 8039 47.00 me i 38 Tla7TT8039 jTlToo.On nm L ' ; 25 HACH 8039 136.00 nm/L 39 HACH 8039 112.00 mgl. 1 26 HACH 8039 27.00 mg/L 40 HACH 8039 0100.00 nm 1 27 HACH 8039 20.00 mg/L 41 HACH 8039 0042.00 nm'L 28 HACH 8039 10.00 mg'L 42 HACH 8039 0078.00 nm 1 29 HACH 8039 80.00 mg/L 43 HACH 8039 "TJbliTIjOnm/I. 30 HACH 8039 23.00 mg'L 44 HACH 8039 i 001 5.00 nm 1 • 31 HACH 8039 29.00 nm'L 45 HACH 8039 j 0008.00 mg I 32 HACH 8039 139.00 nm/L -»-» jj HACH 8039 13.00 mg/L i 34 HACH 8039 16.00 mg/L • 1 i 152 Table (7.1.11) : Concentration of Nitrite (NOz") of Section (A) and (B) Samples Sample Method Section Sample Method Section j Number Number (A) l(B) j 1 0.14 mg/L 11 0.74 mu^L ~> 0.41 mg/L 12 0.01 mg'L 1 -» 0.56 mg/L 13 1.24 mgd. 0.0? mg I 14 0.00 mgd. i 5 0.94 mg'L 15 ~07)() niud. " i 6 0.47 mu/L 1 [6 r 0.00 mud. i 7 0.60 mu/L 17 10.00 mg'L j 8 0.95 mu/L 18 2.00 mgd. j 9 0.35 mu/L ' 19 9.00 mgd. j 10 0.2 mg/L 20 3.00 mud. Table (7.1.12) : Concentration of Nitrite (NCV) of Section (C) and (D) Samples j Sample j Method 1 Section (C~)[Sample["Method ; Section Number j Number ; 153 Tabie (7.1.13) : Concentration of Ammonia - Nitrogen (NH3-N) Of Section (A) and (B) Samples Sample Method Section (A*) Sample Method Section (B) Number Number 1 0.030 mg/L 11 1.270 mg/L <0.017mg/L 12 2.590 mg/L _-i 0.010 mu/L 13 0.460 mg/1. 4 <0.017 mg/L 14 ~| <0.017 mg/1. 0.017 mud. 15 j 0.540 mu 0.1 10 mud ' 0.220 mu 0.140 mu/L 17 0.230 mud. 0.070 m< 18 0.420 mud. 0.800 mu/L 19 0.230 mu 10 < 0.017 mu/L 20 ••-'0.017 mu/ Table (7.1.14) : Concentration of Ammonia -N (NH3-N) of Section (C) and (D) Samples Sample Method Section (C) Sample Method Seel ion Number N umber 11)) 21 nTATdTKd55 0.00 mud. lT;\Cl 181 55 0.1 7mg i. IT HACK 8155 0.00 mud. 56 ! i \i ! 1 8] 55 0.58 mg 1 23 Id AC 11 8155 0.01 mud. 37 HACH 8155 '7)7)7 mg 1." 24 HACH 8155 <0.09 mu/L 1 I.AC Id 8155 ().09mg 1. 25 HACIl 8155 0.00 mu/L hlACTTlHAS 0.10 mg I. 26 HACH 8155 0.00 mu/L 40 HACH 8155 0.22 mg/L 27 HACH 8155 O.09 mg/L 41 Id AC Id 8155 0.02 mg.'L 28 HACH 8155 0.00 mg/L . 42 11 AC Id 8155 0.26 mg'L 29 HACH 8155 0.00 mg/L 43 HACH 8155 0.45 mg/L 30. HACH 8155 <0.09 mg/L 44 HACH 8155 0.43 mu/L 31 HACH 8155 <0.09 mg/L 45 HACH 8155 0.43 mg'L 32 HACH 8155 < 0.09 mg/L jj HACH 8155 0.00 mg/L 34 HACH 8155 <0.09 mg/L 154 Table (7.1.15) : Concentration of Carbonate (CO3) of Section (A) and (B) Samples Sample Method Section (A) Sample Method Section (B) Number Number 1 00.00 mu/L 11 020.00 mg/L 2 00.00 mg/L 12 000.00 mu/L .) 00.00 mg/L 13 140.00 mu/L 4 00.00 mg/L 14 000.00 mu/L 5 00.00 mu/L 15 000.00 mg/L 6 00.00 mg/L 16 240.00 mg/L 7 00.00 mg/L 17 000.00 mu/L 00.00 mu/L 18 200.00 mg/1 9 00.00 mg/L 19 040.00 mg/L 10 00.00 mg L. 20 000.00 mg'l. Table (7.1.16) : Concentration of Carbonate (CO{) of Section (C) and (D) Samples Sample Method Section (C) Sample Method Section ([)) Number Number 21 62.52 mu/L 35 250.08 mu/1. 22 00.00 mud. 36 468.90 mud. 23 00.00 mud. 37 250.08 mg'l. 24 00.00 mu/L 38 ; 1312.92 mg 1 25 00.00 mu L 39 1 750.50 nig L 26 00.00 mu/L 4U ! 218.82 mul. 27 j 00.00 mu/L 41 1 56.30 mud. 28 00.00 mu/L 42 187.56 mu/L !' 29 00.00 mg/L 43 187.56 mu/L [ 30 00.00 mu/L 44 187.56 mg/L 1 31 00.00 mg/L. 45 187.56 mgd. 031.26 mg/L \ 32 1 jj 000.00 mg/L [ 34 000.00 mg/L 155 Table (7.1.17) : Concentration of Hydrogen Carbonate (HC03) Of Section (A) and (B) Samples Sample Method Section (A) Sample Method Section (H) Number Number 1 051.00 mg/L 1 1 790.00 mg/L 2 129.00 mg/L 12 990.00 mg/L i 146.00 mg/L 13 480.00 mud. 4 164.00 mg/L 14 560.00 mud. 5 133.00 mg/L 15 470.00 mu/L 6 245.00 mg/L 16 1510.00 mg/L ,7 235.00 mg/L 17 840.00 mu/L 8 258.00 mg I. 18 1700.00 mud.. 9 147.00 mg/L 19 2260.00 mg/L 10 157.00 mg/L 20 1080.00 mgd. Table (7.1.18) : Concentration of Hydrogen Carbonate (HCO/) of Section (C) and (D) samples Sample Method Section (C) Sample Method Section (Di Number Number f 21 | 381.372 mg'L 35 1 144.1 10 mu 1 •n 063.562 mg/L 36 2d37.825 mu I. 23 063.562 mu/L 37 1271.240 mud. 24 063.562 mg/L 38 5943.047 mu I. 25 286.029 mg/L 39 5847.704 mu L 26 127.124 mg/L 40 1016.992 mg L 27 127.124 nm/L 41 1271.240 mu'I. 28 508.496 mg/L 42 1016.992 mu I. 2C) 063.00 mg/L 43 ! 334.020 mu L 30 222.467 mg/L 44 1334.020 mud. 31 222.467 mg/1 45 1303.021 mud 1 32 476.715 me/1 476.715 mg/1 i 34 476.715 mg/1 Table (7.1.19) : Concentration of Hydroxide (OH ) of Section (A) and (B) Sampl es Sample Method Section (A) Sample Method Section (B) Number Number • 1 00.00 rng/L 11 00.00 mg/L 2 00.00 mg/L 12 00.00 mu/L J 00.00 mg/L 13 00.00 mu/L 4 00.00 mg/L 14 00.00 mu/L 5 00.00 mg/L . rs r 00.00 mgd. 6 00.00 mud. 16 00.00 mg'l. 1 7 00.00 mu/L ]? 00.00 mud. 8 00.00 mg/L 18 9 I 00.00 mg/L ,9 00.00 mu/L 10 00.00 mg/L 20 ' 00.00 mu 1. ! Table (7.1.20) : Concentration of Hydroxide (OH) of Section (C) and (D) Samples Sample Method Section ((d) Sample Method Section f i) i Number Number 21 | 00.00 mu'L 35 00.00 mg 1. 00.00 mg'l. "~3(> 00.00 nm 1 23 ! 00.00 mu 1. 57 00.00 mu 1. 24 00.00 mu/L 38 . ! 00.00 mu 1. 25 00.00 mu'L 59 i 00.00 mu 1 26 00.00 mu/L 40 ! 00.00 mu 1. 1 27 00.00 mu/L 41 00.00 mu 1. 28 00.00 mu/L 42 00.00 mg/L 29 00.00 mu/L 43 00.00 mu/L 30 00.00 mg/L 44 00.00 mg/L 31 00.00 mg/L 45 00.00 mu/L 32 00.00 mg/L J J 00.00 mu/L —— 34 00.00 mu/L Table (7.1.21) : Concentration of Sulphate (SO\f) of Section (A) and (B) Samples Sample Method Section (A) Sample Meth »d Section (B) Number Number i 1 025.00 mg/L 11 1 109.60 gd. i 077.50 mg/L 12 095.20 g/L 1 -i _i 070.20 mu/L )•-•> ] 074.00 g 1, 4 319.00 mu/L " 063.20 u 1. 5 209.00 mu/L 15 081.20 ud. 6 355.00 mg/L 16 081.60 AL 1 7 375.00 mg/L 17 079.20 g/L [ 8 645.00 mu/L 18 070.80 U//L i 9 211.00 mg/L 19 090.00 g/L | 10 020.00 mud. 20 057.20 u 1. ! Table (7.1.22) : Concentration of Sulphate (S04"') of Section (C) and (D) Samples Sample Method Section (C) Sample Method j Section (I)) Number Number 21 HAC1I 8051 55.30 me L 35 IIAC1I 8051 1 88.20 g 1. 22 | HACH 8051 00.60 mud. 1 56 ! RAO I 80.5 / 1 ^s 75 . / 25 I HACH 8051 \ 1 7.00 mu L ' 57 ' /-/. \( 7/ Hu?l " 52.00 u / ' 24 i HACH 8051 ioO.OOmud. i 38 i 1IAC11 X(n 1 ! 1 (> i »0 - I — 25 1j HACH 8051 1 48.50 mud— . fI 59 I JACf 1 8()5 1 : 16.00 ^u I 26 HACII 8051 1 1.20 mu i. 4o , li.vCii 8u5 i 5sa/w u i 27 Id AC 11 8051 00.50 mud. 41 J 1!.\( !i 8051 | 56.30 g L 28 HACH 805 1 70.00 mg/L 42 HACH 8051 103.20 u L 29 HACH 8051 16.00 mu/L 43 HACH 8051 50.20 g/L. 30 HACH 8051 25.30 mg/L 44 HACH 8051 49.10 u'L 31 HACH 8051 23.60 mu/L 45 HACH 8051 50.50 u/L 32 HACH 8051 18000.00 mg/L HACH 8051 45.00 mu/L -——_ - 34 HACH 8051 41.00 mg/L 158 "1 Table (7.1.23) : Concentration of Sulphide (S~) of Section (A) and (B) Samples Sample Method Section (A) Sample Method Section (B) Number Number t 1 2.00 ug/l. 1 1 ~i 24.00 umg'L \ i 2.00 Mgd. 12 } 27.00 ug 1 -> 2.00 ug/L 13 12.00 ugl. | 4 2.00 ug/L 15.00j.igd_. I 5 1.00 ug/L 15 TTioTugH. 1 6 5.00 ug/L 16 69.00 ug L J 7 2.00 Ug/L 17 15.00 ug/L | 8 2.00 ug/L 18 67.00 ugd. ; 9 1.00 ug/L 19 i 23.00 ug/L j 10 Too^g/l" ^ 20 21.00 usid. 1 Table (7.1.24) : Concentration of Sulphide (S ) of Section (C) and (D) Samples Sample Method Section (C) Sample Tkihod ! Section (1).' Number Number 21 HACH 8131 [Too ug/L 35 TIaTTiTiTi [_9.no ng l. HACH 8131 2.00 ug/L 36 HACdl 8151 ! LOO ug 1. 23 HACfl 8131 3.00 ug/L 37 HACIi 8131 j 4.00 ug L 24 HACH 8131 • 2.00 ug/l.. 38 1 LACH 8131 1 2.00 ug 1. 1 HACH 8131 1.00 ug/L 39 HACH 8131 26 | HACH 8131 5.00 ug-'L 40 1IACH 8131 1 O.OOu" 1. 27 HACH 8131 <2.00 ug/L 41 MdMaTvTrTrJi 1 19.00 ug'L I 28 HACH 8131 0.00 ug-'L 11 AC 11 8131 To9j3T) Liu i. [ 29 HACH 8131 3.00 ug/L ' 43 Md77TTr8T3r JToToITTLT/l [ 30 HACH 8131 roToMgjL 1 HACH 813! 07.00 ug/l. [ 31 HACH 8131 <2.0() ug/L 45 HACH 8131 ! 05.00 ugd. HACH 8131 5.00 ug-'L | | 1 jj HACH 8131 5.00 ug/L (— 1 j I 34 j HACH 8131 3.00 ugl I j i Table (7.1.25) : Concentration of Fluoride (F ) of Section (A) and (B) Samples Sample Method Section (A) Sample Method Section (B) Number Number 1 0.06 mg/L 11 13.00 nm/L •) 1.54 mg/L 12 1 1.90 nm/L 3 0.55 mg/L 13 16.90 nmA 4 0.58 mg/L 14 13.10 me/I. 5 1.01 mg/L 15 13.90 me./1. 6 1.93 mg/L 16 17.20 mg I. 7 2.09 mg/L 1 6.00 mgd 8 1.64 mg L 18 j i 15.60 mg'l. 9 0.80 mg/L 19 12.80 mg 1. 10 0.71 mg/L 20 21.20 mgt. Table (7.1.26) Concentration of Fluoride (F~) of Section (C) and (D) Samples Sample Method Section (C) Sample Method Section Number Number (D) 21 HACH 8029 0.81 nm/1. 35 11 AC 11 8029 1 1.60 nmd -n HACH 8029 0.35 nm/L 36 HAC II 8029 08.80 mgd 23 HACH 8029 0.52 mgd. 37 TlACdl8029 ' 08.80 nm I 24 | 1IACII S029 j .02 mg 1. 58 M.AC'! I 8029 09.50 mg | 2.5 ' ! !.\( '11 8029 ii.! 5 nm | "a) 1 IA( 1! X030 ! 4.50 11 IP 1 26 i 11ACII 8029 0.73 mg I. 47) I lACd 1 8020 1)2.1 0 mg 7 27 1J I1ACH 8029 0.53 mg L j 41 ]] 1 ACdd 8029 i 04.20 mg ! 28 HACH 8029 0.20 mgd. 42 HACdl 8029 32..20 nm 29 HACdd 8029 0.35 nm L 43 1IAC1I 8029 i 10.00 nm 1 30 | HACH 8029 •0.02 mgd. 44 HACdl 8029 1.3.90 mg I 31 j Id.ACH 8029 0.77 me/L 45 11 ACII 8029 08.90 nm I 32 HACH 8029 0.86 nm/L HACH 8029 0.86 mg/L i 34 HACH 8029 <0.02 nm/L 1 i 160 Table (7.1.27) : Concentration of Chloride (CI ) of Section (A) anf (B) Samples Sample Method Section (A) Sample Method Section (B) Number Number 1 035.453 mgd 11 070.728735 u'1 i 106.359 mg/1 12 101.04105 g/1 -i _*> 072.67865 mg/1 13 072.67865 u.'l 4 106.359 mg/1 14 047.329755 u/1 5 132.94875 mg/1 15 055.30668 u'l 6 132.94875 mg/1 16 038.9983 g/1 7 443.1625 mg/1 17 038.64379 »/| 8 301.3505 mg/1 18 032.439495 Table (7.1.28) : Concentration of Chloride (Cf) of Section (C) and (D) Samples Sample Method Concentration of Sample- Method Section (D) Number Chloride Number 21 070.900 mgl 35 38.9985 g 1 "n 035.453 mul 36 f"vv^5X2t:l 23 053.1795 mg/1 37 43.96172 g 1 24 017.7265 mCl 38 41.85454 e 1 25 065.58805 mg'l 39 40.948215 -1 26 035.453 m» 1 40 00.447505 e 1 020.56274 mu'l 41 81.719105 g 1 28 050.165995 mg'i 42 0T5 9 7 2~8 g i 2L> 058.49745 mg 1 43 00.447305 g ! 30 035.453 nm/1 44 | 60.2701 g 1 31 0354.453 mgl 45 : 60.092835 g 1 32 248.171 mti/l i "> J J 070.906 nm/1 1 —~———.— •• •• —1 34 062.04275 nm/1 • i 161 7,2.1.4. Nitrate (NOV) Nitrate concentrations in this study are significantly high in all sections (A,B, C and D). Except for samples I, 2 and 10 of section (A) (Tables 7.1 A and 7.1.10), which have 13.0, 18.0 and 29 ppm respectively. All other samples, have nitrate concentration higher than the standard permissible value (40 mg/1). with the highest value in sample (No.4) which is 490 ppm. The mean value is 21 5.0 ppm nitrate. This concentration indicate high nitrate contamination. Such water is not suitable for human use as drinking water. '•• For section (C) the mean concentration of nitrate is 57.0 ppm. The maximum readings were 139.0 ppm. At Sharshar east and 130ppm at Ma'afa. The , lowest nitrate (NOV) concentration in this section is at Damirat Ahudu ( A ! ppm), Other samples with acceptable nitrate range in section ((') are :v> i (26), (27). (30). (31 ), (33) and (34) with (27). (20). (23). (29). ( 13) and A. ; ppm nitrate respectively ('Tables 7.1.9, 7.1.10.) I For section (B) and (D) the mean nitrate value is 245.2 and 07.5 ppm., for ! each section. | Taking in consideration the high TDS values for these two sections, such [ nitrate concentration range may be expected. | Suitable water quality for live stock use should contain not more than 100 | ppm (as Nitrate and Nitrite (NO/ , NCK)). according to (CCRHM ( 1978). | FEPA ( 1991 ), ECPRC (1991 )). I here fore we can conclude that the nitrate | concentration is a real risk in the study area. Sudanese Standards and < Metrology Organization (SSMO) consider 50 mg/1 nitrate concentration as a maximum admissible limit for drinking water. Although nitrate contamination, partially, may be, attributed to animal waste especially in the case of open shaft wells using Dalue for animal watering, the geological 162 formations are expected to be the main source in the case of the Bore Hole. Taking in consideration distance separating the sample sources in this study. 7.2.1.5. Nitrite (NO/): Samples of section (A) and (B) showed relatively high concentrations of nitrite, with respect to those of section (C). In section (A) the maximum concentration is 0.03 ppm at El-Salata Shambaul. The value is 0.4944 ppm. Section (C) sample have the maximum concentration of 0.04 ppm and a minimum of 0.01 ppm with a mean value of 0.0164. It is clear that the nitrite concentration in these two sections is proportional to that of nitrate where the mean concentrations nitrate ions for section (A) and (C) are 215.8 and 57.07 ppm respectively. This can be considered as indication of nitrate risk. For section (B) and (I)) samples, the maximum concentration of nitrite is 10 ppm lor iBi ;md 5g ppm for (D). The mean nitrite concentrations for the two section.s IN 2.5W ppm for (B) and 1.2473 for (D). The concentration of nitrite here is not a direct problem, since the water is not used for human drinking or livestock watering. Such relatively high nitrite (N(V) concentration may be expected with high TDS values, including nitrate (NO;,") ions occurrence. The proposed guideline value for nitrite is 3 ppm. (WHO. 1993). Because of the possibility of simultaneous occurrence of nitrite and nitrate in drinking water, the sum of the ratios of the concentration of each to it's guideline value should not exceed 1. e.g. CNO/ZGVNO:" + ( \(). t A \( :• ' < 1 Where C = concentration, GV = guideline value. Sudanese standards and meterology organization considered the admissible concentration of nitrite in drinking water as 2 mg/1 (2 ppm.). 163 Accordingly die nitrite concentrations for samples of section (A) and (C) are far low from the maximum levels accepted by WHO (1993) and SSMO, (2002). From this point of view wells of section (A) and (C) are ground quality water sources. 164 Anions Fig. 7.4. Macro-anions mean concentration (mg/1) Section (A) 500 450 400 i350 0 300 •I 250 -r >/~i 1 200 •u £ L50 r i CJ 100 iZ 50 ZZ7 ZZ7 0 4 4; -a s4 Anions Fig. 7. 8. Anions means Concentration (mg/1) Section (D) A B C D Sections Fig. 7.9. Sulphide mean concentration (ug/l) 7.1.1.6. Ammonia Nitrogen (NHrN) Ammonia Nitrogen has the mean values of 0.1228, 0.5994, 0.0393 and 0.2564 ppm for section A, B, C, and repectively. According to World Health Organization (WHO. 1993). The natural leveK of ammonia in surface and ground water are usually below 0.2 mg'l. Ammonia in non-ionized (NH3) and the ionized from NHC) in drinking water is not of immediate health relevance. An aerobic ground waters, may- contain up to 3mg/1 (ppm). Ammonia contamination arising from bacterial, sewage and animal waste pollution, has no proposed, health based, guideline value for NHA Toxicological effects are observed only at exposures above 200 mg/kg of body weight, WHO ( 1993). The measured N11. - N values from section (A) and ((') samples (fables 7.1.13 and 7.1.14) are not problematic. The few exceptions ma\ be due u> local environmental pollution (e.g. sample (No. 9)). Section ((.') is almo-a ammonia Nitrogen free. Brine test samples of section (B and D) show higher concentrations in general with respect to the standard limit (0.2 ppm), as part of total dissolved solids values in these sections. SSMO level for drinking is 1.5 mg/1 (ppm) which is greater than the mean concentration for the four sections covered by this stud)-. 7.1.1.7. Chloride (CQ : Chloride concentration for section (A) samples are. generally, lower than the maximum permissible value (250mg/l). The mean value concentration (145.5 mg/1). Two exceptions were showed by samples No. (7) and No. (8) of El-Murra wells, which are respectively 443.2 mg/1 and 301.4 mg/1. IFAD 171 I analysis (2003) sugest a 418.31 mg/1 for El-Murra. PRC" Engineering i consultant (1981) reported chloride concentration as 30 -160 mg/1 at Bara. I ; The results of this study are 35.453 mg/1 and 106.359 mg/1 at Bara. from an | open shaft well and a borehole respectively (Table 7.1.27 and 7.1.28). [ Section (C) samples all have chloride content less than the admissible I maximum limit, with a mean value 84.18 mg/1. The lowest chloride I concentration in this stud} is at well No. (24) (17.73 ppm) and No. (27) i ! (20.56 ppm). of section (C). I In the high salinity zones of section (B) and (D), chloride content of ground water is very high, a favorable condition for salt production for commercial purposes by the local community. The most higher chloride content is at El- ; Gala Um Safari (sample No. 12) which is 101.0g/l. Brakish ground water at I Cape Koral of Florida state (USA) was reported to contain 502 mg/1 chloride ! (S.A. El-Khateib. Egypt). i 7.2.1.8. Flouride (F-) : I The guideline value of fluoride is 1.5 mg/1 (WHO, 1984. 1993.: SSMO. \ 2002). Ground water may contain up to 10 mg/1 (WHO, 1993;. for section : (A) and section (C) samples, the mean lluoride concentration is low than the ' maximum permissile value. It is 1.1 ppm. for (A) and 0.447 mg/1 for (C). In i section (A) samples 2, 6, 7, and 8 show high fluoride concentrations of ; 1.54, 1.93, 2.0 and 1.64 mg/1 respectively. j 1FAD (El-Obeid, 2003) reported 8.44 mg/1 of fluoride at El-Murra. In this I study samples No. 7 and 8 are from El-Murra. All section (C) samples ground water can be descriped as fluoride deficient (fable 7.1.26). 172 For section (B) and (D) the fluoride content is significantly high, with mean values of 15.16 for (B) and 9.21 for (D). Such high concentration may be expected as a part of dissolved ions in brine ground water. For section (A) and (C) ground water sources, the people of the area, amy face the risk of increasing dental fluorosis. PRC Engineering Consultants (1981) reported fluoride concentration of 1.16 mg/1 at Bara and 0.7 mg/1 at Um-Ruwaba. 7.2.1.9. Sulphide (S-) content : Sulphide concentration in samples of section (A) is ranging from 1.0 to AO ug/'l, with a mean of 2.1 ug/1. In section (C) the mean value is also ranging from 1.0 to 5.0 pg/1 with a mean value of 2.5714 pg/l. Occurrence of sulphide ions (S") in water is mainly due to presence of hydrogen sulphide (H:S), which is formed when sulphides were hydroly/ed in water. The level of hydrogen sulphide formed in drinking water, is usually low because sulphides readily oxidized in, well, aerated water. But in deep wells at arid zones areas, ground water contain dissolved hydrogen suphide as a source of (S ) ions, since oxygen content at such depths is gencrall) low. With respect to WHO (1993) no health-based guidelines value is proposed lor sulphide m drinking water. Although oral toxicity data are lacking, it is unlikely that a person could consume, a harmful dose of EES from drinking water. However, WHO (1993) recommended that hydrogen sulphide should not be detectable in drinking water by taste or odour. In this study the concentrations of sulphide are in ppb. Concentration of sulphide ions for section (B) and (D) are relatively high with a mean values of 29.2 and 7.95 ug/1 for each section. These concentrations are very low 173 compared to TDS values expressed as g/1 (ppt) part per thousand. Taking in consideration that in these sections water is not used for drinking. 7.2.1.10. Sulphate content : The mean concentration of sulphate for section (A) and (C) is general l\ below the permissible limit (Table 7.1.21 and 7.1.22). For section (A), it is 230.67 ppm. with minimum values at well No.(l) 25.0 ppm and maximum at well No. (8) which is 645 ppm. Samples (4), (6) and (7) show concentration of 319, 355 and 375 mg/1 sulphate respectively. For section (C) the mean concentration is with lowest values of 0.5 ppm at well No. (27) and 0.6 ppm at wells No. (22) and (24). The highest sulphate concentration is at well No. (32) 18000 mg'l. The local community people tise this well for live stock watering onl\. For saline zone samples (B) and (D). the mean concentration is 80.2 g/1 lor (B) and 56 g/1 for (D) I FAD. (1993) described the salinity /one in Bara basin to be characterized by very high sulphate and chlorides. They stiggested thai such salinity may be due to the presence of thick evaporile la\er deposited under lacustrine conditions. They reported high sulphate and chloride concentrations over 1000 ppm. near Jebel Koan. The report described the ground water quality in basement rocks as a function of basement composition and annual recht ti'ges. fVlukhlar (2001;2002) reported that, lite northern part of Mahlliat Taiba is underlained by basement rocks and form saline aquiferous zones. Such high concentrations of sulphates and chlorides were reported by Sandia National Laboratories (SN labs) on evaluating ground water at Tular osa Basm of New Mexico (2002), concluded that "a wide range of water chemistry including sodium chloride, carbonate, and sulphate based Brakish water exist in the basin. This is nearly to be the case 174 of the high salinity pockets (B and D) at Bara basin. XRD analysis results for soil, rock and salt samples show high concentrations of sodium chloride, and sodium sulphate (Fig 7.2.10 and 7.2.12) as halite and anhydride. This indicates that the main salinity source at Shashar and Elga'a are bicarbonate, sulphate and chloride, resulting in Brakish ground water zonations. 175 Table (7.1.29) : Concentration of Sodium of Section (A) and (B) Samples Sample Method Section (A) Sample Method Section (B) Number Numbei" A AS 11.30 mg/1 11 52.325 ii/l 72.10 mg/1 12 65.400 ^a/ 1 2 -> 48.22 mii/I 13 53.850 O/l j 4 66.50 nm/1 14 37.100 Table (7.1.30) : Concentration of Sodium of Section (C) and (D) Samples Sample Method Concentration Sample Method Section 11 )7 Number of sodium nm 1 Number 21 140.598 mgd 35 57, X744 -j i r ...... 008.072 nml 36 72.766(Y 23 014.623 nm/1 37"" " ! 55.5688 Ai 24 1 006.025 nm/1 38 ; 45.1390 y 25 041.510 nm'l 39 '41.1664 H I - - l 26 015.656 mn! 40 >2.6040 -7 006.127 nm 1 41 ^7TFo8(7 28 1 12.960 mg/1 42 58.5,852 Li I 29 009.699 nm/1 43 54.4624 '1 30 019.095 mg/1 44 57.0756 u / j 31 018.278 nm/1 45 58.4532 CI • 32 177.571 nm/1 063.768 mg/1 34 075.352 mg/1 176 Table (7.1.31) : Concentration of Potassium (K) of Section (A) and (B) Samples Sample 1 Method 1 Section (A) Sample 1 Method Section (B) Number | Number 1 AAS 2.30 mg/1 11 AAS 814.00 mg/I 9 4.00 mg/1 12 812.50 mg/1 J 1.00 nm/1 13 7391)0 mgd 4 3.00 nm/1 14 414.00 mg/1 5 1.40 mg/1 15 457.00 nm/1 6 0.64 mg/1 16 232.50 mg/1 7 3.00 mg/1 17 310.00 nm/1 8 3.90 mg/1 18 102.00 nm/1 9 0.97 mg/1 19 7335.50 nm/1 10 1.04 mg/1 20 7274)0 nmd Table (7.1.32) : Concentration of Potassium (K) of Section (C) and (D) Samples Sample Method Section (C) Sample Method Section (I)) Number Number 21 04.537 nmd 35 593.154 nm/1 22 02.367 mg/1 36 683.484 nmd 23 01.798 nm/1 37 834.623 mad 24 01.955 nm/1 38 699.979 mg 1 25 06.020 nm 1 39 757.5()3 nm ! 2b 02.809 nmd 40 ,' 857.755 nm ! 27 01.469 mg/1 41 I 1252.81 1 nm 1 28 02.830 nm/1 42 J095.308 nig! 29 01.782 mg/1 43 967.706 mg/1 30 01.282 mg/1 44 883.433 nmd 31 01.201 mg/1 45 790.028 nm/1 32 01.952 nm/1 01.507 mg/1 34 04.737 mg/1 177 Table (7.1.33) : Concentration of Calcium (Ca) of Section (A) and (B) Samples Sample Method Section Sample Method Section (R) Number (A) Number 1 A AS 032.40 nm/1 11 AAS 359.60 mg/1 2 025.60 mg/1 12 308.80 mud -> 080.60mg/l 13 389.00 mg'l 4 110.40 mg/1 14 339.00 mg/1 ^ 5 131.60 mg/1 15 308.40 mgl 6 061.20 mg/1 16 071.60 mg/1 7 077.40 mg/1 17 370.00 mg/1 8 114.20 mg/1 18 021.40 mgd 9 068.00 mg/1 19 052.60 mg/1 10 022.80 nm/1 20 332.40 mg/1 Table (7.1.34) : Concentration of Calcium (Ca) of Section (C) and (D) Samples Sample Method Section (C) Sample Method Section ([)) Number Number 21 30.1 19 nm/1 35 j_()32.%2 mg 1 ~>~> 07.996 mg/1 36 304.944 nm/1 ">3 1 1.470 nm/1 37 255.908 nm'l 1 24 07.084 nm/1 38 069.897 nm [ 1 .25 30.696 mg/1 39 056.145 mg/1 26 11.654 nm/1 40 472.603 mgd 27 07.506 mg/1 41 245.366 nm/1 28 1 1.933 mg/1 42 237.867 mg/1 29 14.057 nm/1 43 250.829 m..'l 30 12.155 nm/1 44 256.489 mgd 31 08.947 mg/1 45 216.549 nm 1 32 30.662 nm/1 19.677 nm/1 34 26.000 nm/1 178 Table (7.1.35) : Concentration of Magnesium (Mg) of Section (A) and (B) Samples Sample Method Section (A) Sample Method Section (B) Number Number 1 AAS 11.66 mg/1 11 AAS 1210.00 mgd 2 20.64 mg/1 12 1283.00 mg/l A 18.24 mg/i 13 0673.00 mg/l 4 26.24 mud 14 i 0710.50 mgl I 27.56 me/I 15 0627..50 mg i 6 31.74 mg/1 16 0136.50 mg/l 0383.00 mgd i 24.06 mad 17 , , 8 59.36 mg/i 18 0061.50 ma'! 1 „ — 9 12.22 mg/l 19 0148.00 mgd , -jo—1 f 05.32 mg/l 20 0501.00 mgd | i Table (7.1.36) : Concentration of Magnesium (Mg) of Section (C) and (D) Samples I Sample 1 Method j Section (C) I Sample | Method j Section (\)\ I I Number 1 ! Number J I 21 ^8A92_mad_ I 35 1 53.635 mg 1 09.270 mg I : 381.! !4 :r, ! _ - - b 12.726 mgd j"4077X98 mgd I 05.258 mn/1 A o J j_0cJ7.05S mg.l I 25 I 25.435 mgd 39 ] A184.09O Dig •)" 26 04.739 me/! 1 40 "619.187" mad"' M7 i 02.395 mad 41 658.526 mud 28 06.910 mad • —To r~ 536.1 1 3 myd -M 08.441 mad 43 506. Id 3 mgl 30 ! { 03.996 mg/i 44 508.878 ma'l 31 04.274 mg/l 1 516.678 mu 1 32 16.551 mg/l j .u 07.764 mg/l 34 09.281 ma/1 | 179 7.1.1.11. Macro Cations 7.1.1.11.1. Sodium (Na) : Sodium concentration for section (A) samples ranges from 11.3 ppm. at well No. (1) as the lowest concentration to 3275 ppm at well No. (9). The mean value is 629.4 mg/1 with exception of sample (9) and (10), sodium concentration of this section is at the permissible drinking water range. Sodium showed a gradual increase from south to north through the basin. For section (C) sodium concentration is ranging from 6.025 mg/1 at well No. (24) to 177.57 at well No. (32). So many samples in this section show sodium concentration less than the admissible value so it can be described as sodium deficient. SSMO maximum limit is 200 mg/1 of sodium.(SSM(). 2002) PRC Engineering Consultants (1981) reported sodium concentration of 1 10 mg/1 at Bara (Bore hole). In this study a bore hole, at Bara shows a 72 mg/1 sodium (Sample No. 2). IF AD (2003/2004) reported a concentration of 80 mg/1 sodium at Urn-GaiTa. For section (B) and (D) sodium content is very high, like that of chloride and sulphate ions in these two sections. S.A. Elkhateib (1993, 1998) reported that, for Arid zone ground water, sodium concentration range from 150 ;n 2000 mg/1, especially, in the cases of sea water intrusion e.g. in Lybia. The sea water can affect ground water up to 30 km distance from the shore. The dominating concentration of sodium as well as that of chloride and sulphate may agree with local use of this water, for salt production as a natural salt lick to supplement sodium and other cations in animal diet. In section (A) sodium showed no significant correlation wdth most anions. The highest correlation coefficient obtained was with floride (0.4566, p - 0.255) (Table 7.1.56). 180 7.1.1.11.2. Potassium (JK) : For section (A) potassium concentration is ranging from 0.64 to 4.00 mg'l with a mean value of 2.126 mg/l for section (C ) potassium ranges from 1.20 to 6.02 mg/l with a mean value of 2.589. IFAD (2004), has reported a 12 mg/l potassium at Karima (Mahalit Um-Garfa). For section (B) and (D) potassium concentration is, considerably, high with a mean value 1194.4 for (B) and 856 mg/l for (D). In section (A) potassium show moderate positive correlation with chloride (0.5145, p = 0.156) (Table 7.1.56) 7.2.1.11.3. Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg) : Calcium and magnesium concentration for section (A) and (C ) are at the acceptable ranges, with a mean value of 72.42 mg/l for calcium and 23.704mg/l for magnesium (Table 7.1.33). For section (C) the mean value of calcium is 16.4254 mg/l and that for magnesium is 9.538 mg/l. Calcium concentration of 45 - 55 mg/l and magnesium concentration 20 - 25 mg/l was reported by PCR Engineering Consultants (1981) at Bara. IEAD (2003) reported 132 mg/l calcium and 51.03 mg/l magnesium at El- Murra. This study conclude a 77.4 mg/l and 1 14 mg/l calcium in samples (7) and (8) and 24.06 mg/l and 59.36 mg/l magnesium in sample (7) and (8) from El-Murra wells. IFAD (2003) also reported 192 mg/l calcium and 130.2 mg/l magnesium at Karima. For section (B) and (D) magnesium shows, a significantly, higher concentrations of calcium. The mean concentration of calcium is 56.73 mg/l for section (B) and 21.63 mg/l for section (D). Magnesium mean concentration value is 25.55 mg/l for section (B)and 39.72 mg/l for section (D). 181 7.1.1.11. Macro Cations 7.1.1.11.1. Sodium (Na) : Sodium concentration for section (A) samples ranges from 11.3 ppm. at well No. (1) as the lowest concentration to 3275 ppm at well No. (9). The mean value is 629.4 mg/1 with exception of sample (9) and (10), sodium concentration of this section is at the permissible drinking water range. Sodium showed a gradual increase from south to north through the basin. For section (C) sodium concentration is ranging from 6.025 mg/1 at well No. (24) to 177.57 at well No. (32). So many samples in this section show sodium concentration less than the admissible value so it can be described as sodium deficient. SSMO maximum limit is 200 mg/1 of sodium.(SSfvK). 2002) PRC Engineering Consultants (1981) reported sodium concentration of 1 10 mg/1 at Bara (Bore hole). In this study a bore hole, at Bara shows a 72 mg/I sodium (Sample No. 2). IF AD (2003/2004) reported a concentration of 80 mg/1 sodium at Em-GaiTa. For section (B) and (D) sodium content is very high, like that of chloride and sulphate ions in these two sections. S.A. Elkhateib (1993, 1998) reported that, for Arid zone ground water, sodium concentration range from 159 to 2000 mg/1, especially, in the cases of sea water intrusion e.g. in Lybia. The sea water can affect ground water up to 30 km distance from the shore. 1 he dominating concentration of sodium as well as that of chloride and sulphate may agree with local use of this water, for salt production as a natural salt lick to supplement sodium and other cations in animal diet. In section (A) sodium showed no significant correlation with most anions. The highest correlation coefficient obtained was with floride (0.4566, p - 0.255) (Table 7.1.56). 180 7.1.1.11.2. Potassium (K) : For section (A) potassium concentration is ranging From 0.64 to 4.00 mg/1 with a mean value of 2.126 mg/l for section (C ) potassium ranges from 1.20 to 6.02 mg/l with a mean value of 2.589. IFAD (2004), has reported a 12 mg/l potassium at Karima (Mahalit Um-Garfa). For section (B) and (D) potassium concentration is, considerably, high with a mean value 1194.4 for (B) and 856 mg/l for (D). In section (A) potassium show moderate positive correlation with chloride (0.5145, p = 0.156) (Table 7.1.56) 7.2.1.11.3. Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg) : Calcium and magnesium concentration for section (A) and (C ) are at the acceptable ranges, with a mean value of 72.42 mg/l for calcium and 23.704mg/l for magnesium (Table 7.1.33). For section (C) the mean value of calcium is 16.4254 mg/l and that for magnesium is 9.538 mg/l. Calcium concentration of 45 - 55 mg/l and magnesium concentration 20 - 25 mg/l was reported by PCR Engineering Consultants (1981 ) at Bara. IFAD (2003) reported 132 mg/l calcium and 51.03 mg/l magnesium at El- Murra. This study conclude a 77.4 mg/l and 1 14 mg/1 calcium in samples (7) and (8) and 24.06 mg/l and 59.36 mg/l magnesium in sample (7) and (8) from El-Murra wells. IFAD (2003) also reported 192 mg/l calcium and 130.2 mg/l magnesium at Karima. For section (B) and (D) magnesium shows, a significantly, higher concentrations of calcium. The mean concentration of calcium is 56.73 mg/l for section (B) and 21.63 mg/l [bi• section (D). Magnesium mean concentration value is 25.55 mg/l for section (B)and 39.72 mg/I for section (D). 181 7.1.1.11.2. Potassium (K) : For section (A) potassium concentration is ranging from 0.64 to 4.00 mg/1 with a mean value of 2.126 mg/1 for section (C ) potassium ranges from 1.20 to 6.02 mg/1 with a mean value of 2.589. IFAD (2004), has reported a 12 mg/1 potassium at Karima (Mahalit Um-Garfa). For section (B) and (D) potassium concentration is, considerably, high with a mean value 1 194.4 for (B) and 856 mg/1 for (D). In section (A.) potassium show moderate positive correlation with chloride (0.5145, p = 0.156) (Table 7.1.56) 7.2.1.11.3. Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg) : Calcium and magnesium concentration for section (A) and (C ) are at the acceptable ranges, with a mean value of 72.42 mg/1 for calcium and 23.704mg/l for magnesium (Table 7.1.33). For section (C) the mean value of calcium is 16.4254 mg/1 and that for magnesium is 9.538 mg/1. Calcium concentration of 45 - 55 mg/1 and magnesium concentration 20 - 25 mg/1 was reported by PCR Engineering Consultants (1981) at Bara. IFAD (2003) reported 132 mg/1 calcium and 51.03 mg/1 magnesium at El- fvlurra. This study conclude a 77.4 mg/1 and 1 14 mg/1 calcium in samples (7) and (8) and 24.06 mg/1 and 59.36 mg/1 magnesium in sample (7) and (8) from El-Murra wells. IFAD (2003) also reported 192 mg/1 calcium and 130.2 mg/1 magnesium at Karima. For section (B) and (D) magnesium shows, a significantly, higher concentrations of calcium. The mean concentration of calcium is 56.73 mg/1 for section (B) and 21.63 mg/1 for section (D). Magnesium mean concentration value is 25.55 mg/1 for section (B)and 39.72 mg/1 for section (D). 181 This may be due to the higher solubility of magnesium sulphate with respect calcium sulphate which is, partially, soluble. S.A. El-Khateib (1993) reported that the in Arid-zone groundwater may contain 250 - 1500 mg/l calcium and 500 mg/l magnesium ; and also suggested that for the deep well calcium carbonate concentration is about 250 mg/l and magnesium is 75 mg/l as CaCCE and MgCO;,. Magnesium in section (A) shows strong correlation with nitrate (0.6962, p = 0.037), nitrite (o.7352, p = 0.024) and sulphate (0.9049, p = 0.00!). It shows weak inverse negative correlation with fluorite (-0.6002, p = 0.154). Calcium in section (A) shows positive correlation with nitrate (0.8478, p = 0.002), nitrite (0.5836, p = 0.077), and sulphate (0.6357, p = 0.048) (Table 7.1.56) 90 80 7 70 60 £ 50 c 40- S 30 ^ 20 10 0 / 7 Bicarbonate Sulphate Chloride Sodium Potassium Magnesium Scries 1 1.068 80.2 48.69 1.19435 0.255528 Minerals Fig. 7.11. Macro-Minerals Concentration means (g/1) Section (B) • Sodium • Potassium • Calcium 9.538 • Magnesium 16.4254 2.589 50.6667 Fig. 7. 12. Macro-Cations Concenlraton Means (mg/1) Section (C) Minerals Fig. 7.2.13. Macro-Minerals Means Concentration (g/1) Section (D) Table (7.1.37) : Determination of Barium (Ba) of Section (A) and (B) Samples Sample Method Section (A) Sample Method Section (B) Number Number 1 1.54 mg/1 1 1 2.16 mgd ~> 1.47 mg/1 12 1.94 mg'l ~\ 1.53 mg 1 13 1 1.92 nm 1 i i 1.65 mg ! 1 -1 T2! mu! 5 1.53 nm'l 15 2.48 mg'l 6 1.21 nm'I 16 1.42 mg'l 7 1.13 mg/1 17 2.22 nm/1 8 1.21 mgd 18 1.12 mg'l 9 1.15 nm'l 19 1.32 mg'l 10 0.95 mg'l 20 2.38 mg 1 Table (7.1.38) : Determination of Barium (Ba) of Section (C) and (D) Samples Sample Method Section ((') Sample Method Section (1) ! Number Number 2! : 0.20 me ! o o^ m;> | ">•> '0.2 nmd 36 T" • o.2o mg 1 —- • 0.20 me 1 0.50 nm 1 24 0.20 um 1 38 0.00 mg 1 25 "0.20 nm 1 ~t " 39 "nTpJTmg i 26 • 0.20 nm 1 40 ! 0.50 nm 1 27 <0.20 nm'l 41 0.46 nm 1 28 <0.20 nmd 42 0.31 mg/1 29 <0.20 mg/1 43 0.30 nm/1 30 <0.20 mg/1 44 0.39 mg/1 31 <0.20 nmd 45 0.55 nm'l 32 0.20 nm'l 31 O.20 nmd 3• 4- 0.69 (0.20) mg/1 187 Table (7.1.39) : Concentration of Chromium (Cr) of Section (A) and (B) Samples I Sample Method Section (A) ! Sample 1 Method | Section iH) L I Number I J 1 ____ ] Number J ' / 0.00 mgd ( 1 1 | 0.00 mg 1 1 0.00 mg/l ' 12 0.00 mad 3 0.00 mg/l 13. 0.00 ma/1 4 0.00 mg/l 14 0.00 ma/1 ! 5 0.00 ma/1 15 0.00 ma/! 1 6 0.00 mg/l 16 0.00 mgd J 7 0.00 mgd 17 0.00 mad 8 0.00 mg/l 18 J 0.00 mgd ! 9 0.00 mad 10 0.00 ma 1 0.00 mad 20 ! «> J . 0.00 ma 1 Standard 2 ppm 2.0085 Standard 3 ppm 2.9819 mg/l Standard 2 ppm 1.9944 mg/l Table (7.1.40) : Concentration of* Chromium (Cr) of Section (C) and (D) Samples Sample Method Section (C) Sample Method 1 Section (I)) [ Number | Number , J _ i <0.06 mad 35 j -0.06 mg 1 1 7~) • :0.06 mg/l 36 ! • -0.06 mgd 23 ••0.06 ma'1 57 j ' 0.06 ma I 0.00 mg 1 38 0.06 ma ! 0.06 ma ! 39 0.06 nig i -0.06 mal 40 ! -0.00 ma 1 27 i A).06 mgd j 41 1 0.06 ma i 28 | <0.06 mgd 42 i 0.06 ma 1 29 | <0.06 ma/1 ' 43 1 | "0.06 mg ! 30 <0.06 mg/l 44 . 1 • 0.06 ma 1 31 0.06 mal 45 1 ••"0.06 ma I 32 <0.06 mg/l J J <0.06 ma/1 34 <0.06 mg/l 188 Table (7.1.41) : Concentration of Manganese (Mn) of Section (A) and (B) Samples Sample Method Section (Al Sample Method Seel ion \\\) Number Number 1 AAS 0.01 mg 1 1 1 1.35 mgl \ i 0.49 mud 12 1.96 mg/1 "j -I -1 0.00 mud 13 1.33 mg/1 4 0.00 mud 14 0.48 mg/1 ~"j 5 O.01 mgd 15 0.38 mg/1 j 6 0.00 mgd 16 0.06 mg/1 7 •A).01 mgd 17 0.55 mgd 8 0.00 mg/1 18 0.04 mg/1 j 9 0.00 mud 19 0.02 mg/1 j 10 A).01 mgd 27 1 0.45 mgd i Table (7.1.42) : Concentration of Manganese (Mn) of Section (C) and (D) Samples • Sample Method Section Kd Sample Method Section 11) i i Number Numbei" 21 <().() 1 mu/l 35 0.47 mu/l ->-) <().() 1 mu/l 36 0.12 mu/l 23 <0.01 mu/l r 37 0.47 mg.'l 24 i •0.01 mu 1 38 0.01 mg 1 25 ! -0.01 mud .1 9 0.01 mu 1 26 •A).01 mud 40 7)221 mu7 " •' 27 <().()! mg/1 41 1.98 mg.'l 28 <0.01 mg/1 42 0.44 mu/l S i 29 <().() 1 mg/1 43 0.95 mui 1 ! 30 <().() 1 mud 44 0.93 mg'l 31 •0.01 mg.'l 45 0.83 mg'l ; V i •:().()! mg/1 : 1 33 •4).01 mu 1 1 34 0.03 mg/1 189 Table (7.1.43) : Concentration of Iron (Fe) of Section (A) and (B) Samples Sample Method Section (A) Sample Method Section (B) Number Number 1 0.08 mg/1 11 j 0.11 mg/1 2 0.01 mg/1 12 j 0.41 mgd < 0.06 nmd 13 !0.19nm! 4 0.07 mg/1 | 14 | j 0.34 mgd 5 0.08 mgd 15 ! io.Mnml 6 0.02 nmd 16 | 3.95 mg/1 ? 0.04 mg/1 17 0.73 mg/1 8 0.02 mg'l 18 2.97 mg 1 9 <().()6 mg/1 19 0.81 m»;l 10 <0.06 nm/1 20 S 1.14 mud Table (7.1.44) : Concentration of fron (Fe) of Section (C) and (D) Sample Sample Method Section (c) Sample Method Section Number Number L ...... (19) > .v> 21 0.06 mg'l j {).{)() jjjld i -n j 0.06 nmd 56 •;M').07 mg i ^3 j :;: 0.06 mg 1 0.06 mg 1 24 0.06 mg'l 3 8 O.OCi mg i ^5 0.1 1 mg 1 39 N).23 mg i 26 0.86 nm'l 40 •'0.06 mgl 27 <().()6 me. 1 41 •0.059 mgd 28 <0.()6 nm 1 42 • .0.057 mu 1 29 <0.()6 nm/1 43 <0.06 mu/'l 30 *0.06 nm/1 44 <().()6 mg/1 31 <0.06 mu/l 45 <0.06 mg/1 S= 32 <0.06 mg/1 i "> ——"•• ————• *0.74 mg/1 j 34 * 1.77 mu/l i 190 Table (7.1.45) : Concentration of Cobalt (Co) of" Section (C) and (D) Sample Sample Method Section (C) Sample Method Section (1) Numbei" Number 1 21 <0.06 mg/l , 35 M).06 mg/l 22 <0.06 mg/l 36 <0.06 mg/l 1 aa <0.06 mg/l 37 <0.06 ma/1 i 24 <0.06 mg/l 38 <0.06 mg/l i 25 <0.06 ma/1 39 <0.06 mg/l 1 26 | <0.06 ma'l 40 <0.06 mg 1 1 41 mg ! 27 i -.-0.06 mgl ~ o.oo T " | 28 ! A).06 mud 42 0.00 mg 1 ! 29 0.06 mg I -t3 • '0.06 ma i i 30 <0.06 mad 44 ] --0.06 mgd i 31 • 41.06 mad ' 45 p 0.06 mg 1 ! ^ i -->_ A).06 mg 1 i a a -.0.06 mg/l | ! 34 -0.06 mad Table (7.1.46) : Concentration of Nickel (Ni) of Section (A) and (B) Samples Sample Method Section (A) Sample Method 1 Section (B) Number Number ; 1 " 0.3070 mg 1 ((,()(»75 me 1 0.1912 ma 1 12 0.4020 mg 1 "> [ 0.2793 ma 1 !3 0.2AS8 ma 1 a i 4 0.2694 mad j 0.3677 mg'! r 0.2796 m»/l 0.5974 mad ! 5 1 6 0.3008 mg/l 16 0.2171 ma/1 i 7 0.0460 mg/l 17 0.4562 mad I 8 0.2442 mg/l 18 J 0.0183 mg/l ! 9 0.0458 mg/l 19 | 0.2887 mg/l ! io 0.1544 mg/l 20 0.4814 mg/! 191 Table (7.1.47) : Concentration of Copper (Cu) of Section (A) and (B) Samples Sample Method Section (A) Sample Method Section (B) Number Number 1 A AS <0.03 mad 1 1 A AS • 0.03 mgd i <0.03 nm/1 12 j 0.04 mg'l ~\ J <0.03 mg/1 13 <0.03 mg'l 4 <0.03 mg/1 14 <0.03 mg,1 5 H.0 3 mg/1 15 <0.03 mgd 6 <0.03 mg/1 16 -0.03 mg/1 7 <0.03 mg/1 17 <0.03 mg/1 8 <0.03 nm/1 18 <0.03 mg/1 9 <0.03 mg/1 19 <().()3 nmd 10 <0.03 nm/1 20 ••-0.03 nm'l Table (7.1.48) : Concentration of Copper (Cu) of Section (C) and (I)) Samples Sample Method Section ((') Sample Method Section Number Number (D) 21 • 0.03 nmd 35 1 • 0.059 nm 1 IT 0.03 mgd 36 0.04 mgd 23 -0.034 mg/1 37 0.03 nm/1 24 0.03 mg/1 38 0.04 nm'l 25 0.03 nm/1 39 0.04 mg/1 26 0.03 nm'l 40 j 0.03 mg/1 27 0.04 mg'l 41 0.05 mg 1 28 0.04 nm 1 42 0.5 mg"~l 29 0.04 nm/1 43 0.03 mgl 30 0.04 nm/1 44 0.03 mg/1 31 0.05 nm/1 45 -'0.03 nm'l 32 0.04 mg.'l i 0.04 mg/1 34 <0.03 mg/1 192 Table (7.1.49) : Concentration of Zinc (Zn) of Section (A) and (B) Samples Sample Method Section (A) Sample Method Section (B) Number Number 1 0.01 mg/l 1 1 .0.01 mg/l i 0.00 mgd 12 0.01 mg'l ~t 0.00 mgd 15 ! 0.01 mg'! 4 0.00 mud 14 0.00 me 1 5 0.00 mgd 15 0.01 ma 1 6 0.00 nm/1 16 0.01 mg/l 7 <0.01 mg/l 17 0.03 mg/l 8 0.00 mg/I 18 0.01 mad 9 <0.01 mg/l 19 0.01 mg'l 10 0.06 mud 20 0.02 mg'l Table (7.1.50) : Determination of Zinc (Zn) of Section (C) and (D) Sample Method Section ((') Sample Method Section Number Number 21 ! -'"0.01 ma 1 55 AAS 0.01 mg 1 n ••-0.10 mg/l 36 0.01 ma i 23 - "0.1 0 mg/l 57 0.01 ma 1 24 <0.1 0 mgd 38 "(lb 1 mg T 25 A'UO mgl 39 '0.01 mg ! 26 | 0.10 mg'l 40 • 0.01 mg i 27 -0.10 mg/l 41 • .0.01 mg 1 28 <().!() mg/l 42 <0.0I ma 1 29 <0.10 mad 43 -0.01 mg'l 30 <0.10 mg/l 44 <().() 1 mg/l 31 <0.01 mad 45 <'().() 1 ma/1 32 <0.01 mg/l -i -> i <0.01 mg'l u i -0J0 ma / 193 Table (7.1.51) : Concentration of Cadmium (Cd) Section (A) and (B) Samples Sample Method Section (A) Sample Method Section (B) Number Number 1 0.02 mg/1 1 1 0.02 ma/I 2 0.00 mg/1 12 0.02 mud ~> 1 <0.02 mg/1 13 0.01 mg/1 4 <0.02 mg/1 14 0.00 mgd 5 0.00 mg/1 15 0.01 mg/1 6 <0.02 mu/l 16 0.00 mud 7 <0.02 mg/1 17 0.01 mgd 8 •••0.02 mud 18 0.00 mud 9 0.01 mu/l 19 0.00 mg/1 10 <0.02 mg/1 20 0.00 mu 1 Table (7.1.52) : Concentration of Cadmium (Cd) of Section (C) and (D) Samples Sample Method Section (CO Sample Method |~ Section Number Number 21 0.02 mu/l 55 0.02 mg'l ">? 0.02 mgd 56 0.02 mg 1 1 ~> _0 7).02 mg'l .3 7 " 05)2 nig ! -4 i ~0.U2 nig 1 5X"~" 0.ii2 mu 1 25 0.02 mu 1 39~~" 0.02 mu i 26 0.02 mg 1 40 0.02 mg 1 27 0.02 mu 1 41 MJ.02 mu ! 28 0.02 mud 42 0.02 mu 1 29 0.02 mgd 43 0.02 mg 1 30 0.02 mgl 44 0.02 mu 1 31 0.07 mg'l 45 0.02 mu 1 32 0.02 mu/l . 0.02 mu/l 34 0.02 mu/l 194 Table (7.1.53) : Concentration of Silver (Ag) of Section (A) and (B) Samples Sample Method Section (A) Sample Method Section (B) Number Number . I AAS 0.006 mud 11 0.009 mg/l i 0.018 mad 12 A)T02 mu 1 A 0.007 mad 13 0.03 1 mu 1 4 0.011 mal 14 0.021 mad 5 0.005 mg/l 15 Aa\7H797i^ 6 0.014 mg/l 16 0.01 1 ma/I 7 0.015 mg/l 17 0.016 mg/l 8 0.017 mad 18 0.023 mg/l 9 0.024 mg/l 19 0.017 mad 10 0.005 mg/l 20 0.008 mal 195 Table (7.1.54) : Concentration of Lead (Pb) of Section (A) and (B) Samples Sample Method Section Sample Method Section (B) Number (A) Number 1 0.05 mu/l 11 0.09 mu/l Id 0.38 mgl . 3 i 0.10 mgl 13 ' 0.40 mg 1 4 0.16 mu/l 14 " ' nNN mg ! 5 ' 0.24 mg/1 15 0.46 mu/l 6 0.15 mg/1 16 0.48 mu/l 7 0.27 mg/1 17 0.43 mg/1 8 0.22 mg/1 18 0.43 mud 9 0.23 mg/1 19 | 0.41 mg 1 10 0.30 mg/1 20 0.42 mg/1 Table (7.1.55) : Concentration of Lead (Pb) of Section (C ) and (D) Samples Sample Method Section ((.') Sample IYvTe7hod Section (1)! Number Number | j 21 j 0.1 2 mg 1 35 _ 0.27 mg i 0.14 mg 1 56 0.23 mg | 0.13 mu 1 .3 7 0.28 mg 1 i 24 0.12 mu 1 5.S ' 0.25' mu I 25 0.1 7 mud 59 " ().2 7 mgl 26 0.23 mg'l 40 0.26 mu 1 27 0.21 mud 41 0.29 mg I ~J 28 0.23 mg/1 42 "().26mgl 19 0.24 mud 45 j 0.29 mg.'l ! 30 0.22 mud 44 0.22 mg/1 ! 31 0.23 mgd 45 0.25 mg 1 32 0.25 mu/l i -1 ~> 0.24 mu/l 1 34 • 0.22 mu'l 196 Table (7.1.56) Correlation between cations unci anions of section (A) samples Cations Anions NO/ NO;' CO, nco. T SO," 01" Sodium -0.293 -0.2423 - 0.0608 -0.1745 -0.3384 -0.45of (Na+) p = 0.411 p = 0.5 p = 0.868 D - 0.548 P = 0.373 p = 0.25 Potassium 0.2598 0.1118 0.128 0 ^'S6 I *n o j> i K-1 /' • . ~5'; I Maunesium ! -0.6962 f :;:(».755. -0.7157 4).0049 • 0.54 i i -;-" i P = 0.037 P = 0.024 P- 0.031 : l> = 0.001 J P - 0.160 : !» - o. 1 5 i ' •'' \ Calcium --0.8478 * 0.5 83 6 0.3661 -0.6357 j 0.389 -0.4A i i l p = n ! 1 p = 0.002 p — n ->o 1 " " " ' «. -0.0489 -0.2894 i Iron (Fe) " Ao;o329 ; -u. 14444 j -0.5 I4N o ! 1 ^ 1 P = 0.893 P = 0.417 - - p = o ()50 ' P - 0.198 P 0.308 . P o.""S< I Mangenese -0.4139 -0.0622 aT/22 ! -0.285 T -0.104 . -o.uo; 1 (Mn++) P =0.234 P = 0.864 - - p = 0.541 P = 0.425 | P --• 0.774 j P u.Xuj : | Barium 0.120 -oToo . . ! ui.5I2 -0,199 -o.^io --i' '•'•••• | UeadfPbi \oA.A"1 O.A)2 i 0,462 0.535 0.424 ' ' I j P 0.148 P 0.544 ; P u.222 i P = 0.350 i P = 0.596 197 7.1.12. Micro Cations 7.1.12.J. Barium : Mukhtar, (2001) repotted significant Barium concentration of 15 mg/! in shallow aquifer zones of Kheiran area The guide line value for barium in drinking water according to WHO, (1993) is 0.7 mg/i. SSMO (2002). maximum limit is 0.5 mg/l. EPA describe the maximum limit as 1.0 mg/l. In this study barium concentration for section (A) samples is greater than the permissible maximum limit. The concentration ranges from 0.95 to 1.54 mg/l with a mean value of 1.34 mg/l. For section (C) barium concentration in all samples is less than 0.2 mg/l with one exception at well No. (34) us 0.69 mg/l with the mean \aluc ol 0.2 nig.'l. Section (B) shows higher barium concentration varying from 1.12 to 2.4S mg/l with a mean value of 2.01 7 mg/l. Section (D) shows lower concentrations ranging from 0.90 mgd at well Nn. (38) to 0.67 mg/l at well No.(35). The MCLG and MCL for barium are 5 mg/l based on the hypertension among humans (EPA, 1 991 f). In the presence of high sulphate content free barium ions are not expect in drinking water since barium sulphate is insoluble and unahsorhublc sail. But drinking water according to the results of this study can be described as sulphate and chloride waters. Barium chloride is highb soluble. I herelore. further studies concerning barium occurrence in drinking water should be investigated. Health risk of barium concentration is not less than that of nitrate. All samples from El-Kheiran area sources show barium ion content of.around 0.2 mg/l Barium in section (A) shows strong negative correlation with barium content in section (C) (-0.928, p = 0.000) (Table 7.1.56) 198 7.1.12.2. Chromium . WHO (1993) consider the guide line value of 0.07 mg/1 for drinking water, which is considered to be protective from acute and long term exposure to chromium. Mark J. Hamenerd (1981) referred to the maximum chromium level standard of EPA to be 0.05 mg/1 for drinking water. SSMO (2002) suggests a maximum permissible limit of chromium concentration in drinking water of 0.04 mg/1. In this study chromium concentration is zero in section (A) and (B) samples (Table 7.1.39, 7.1.40) and less than 0.06 mg'l for section (C) and (D) samples. Generally, chromium contamination is expected in areas near industrial and mining activities. In Bara basi.n according to this study, it possible to suggest that ground water is chromium diffident. This may results from the geological formation of the area. 7.2.1.12.3. .Vlangane.se (Mn) : Manganese concentration for drinking water sources of section (A) and (('; range from zero, in many samples, to 0.49 mg/1 (in sample No (2) which is from a borehole, for section (C) samples in general, manganese concentration is less than o.ol mg/'l. In sample No (34) it is 0.03 mg I. International standards for drinking water according to WHO. (1971 Geneva) consider 0.05mg/l as a minimum and 0.5 mg/1 as a maximum permissible limits for manganese. SSMO (2002) maximum limit is 0.5 mg !. The guideline value for manganese in drinking water is 0.5 mg 1 (WHO, 1993). For those two sections manganese concentration is less than the maximum permissible values, with a mean concentration of 0.053 mg/1 for (A) and 0.0114 mg/1 for (C). Section (B) and (D) show higher manganese content, ranging from 0.01 mg/1 to 1.98 mg/1, with mean value of 0.66 mg/1 for (B) 199 and 0.5818 mg/l, for (D). USEPA consider the allowable level to be 0.2 mg/l (Valezques and Du, 1994). US Public Health Service, drinking watei standards give desirable maximum manganese concentration to be 0.05 mg/l. Manganese in section (A) shows strong correlation with manganese content in section (B) (0.6970, p = 0.025). (Table 7.1.56) 200 Cations Fig. 7.14. Micro-cation mean concentration (nig/1) Section (A) Cations Fig. 7.15. Micro-Cations Means Concentration (mg/l) Section (B) 0.3 -i /—r • 0.25 g> 0.2- • mm 0.15 o c o •111 G u o WM c 0.1 o U 0.05- Barium Chromium Mangenese Iron Cobalt Copper Zinc Cadmium Lead El Series 1 0.2 0.06 0.0114 0.2914 0.06 0.0357 0.0886 0.0236 0.1962 Cations Fig. 7. 16. Micro-Cations Means Concentration (ma/1) M Barium 0.2655 0.3709 • Chromium • Mangenese 0.257 • Iron • Cobalt • Copper • Zinc • Cadmium • Silver 0.0581^0.06^0.076 0.5818 • lead Fi<*. 7. \% Micro-Cations Means Concentration (mg/l) Section (D) 7.1.12.4. Iron . For section (A) and (C) samples, as representatives of drinking water source, iron concentration ranges from 0.02 10 0.08 mg/1 for section (A), with a mean value of 0.05 mg/1, for section (C) it range from 0.06 to 1.77 mg/1 with a mean value of 0.2914 mg/1. WHO (1993) proposed no guideline value for iron in drinking water. SSMO (2002) maximum level is 0.3 mg/1 for drinking water. The secondary standard for iron based on discoloration and metallic taste is 0.3 mg 1 (Waker, et al.. 1998). Magid 1. N. and Bashir M.H. reported a\ erage of 0.01 to 0.1 mg/! for drinking water. IFAD (2003) reported 0.02 mg/1 iron at El-Mura and 0.07 mg at Karima. This study reports an iron concentration of 0.04 mg/1 and 0.02 mg/1 for samples (7) and (8) from El-Mtira and showed maximum values of 0.07mg ! and 0.08 mg/1 of sample No. (I) and No. (4), respectively, for section ((') ten samples show iron concentration less than 0.06 mg/1. Samples No. (25). (26), (33) and (34) in this section showed iron content of 0.11 mgd. 0.86mg/|. 0.74 mg/1 and 1.77 mgd respectively. Saved A. Elkbateib (Egypt ) reported 0.06 mg ! of iron at (.'ape Ooral groiii.d water al Florida (USA) as example for saline ground water. For section (B) show a significant]) high iron concentration ranging from 0.1 1 - 3.95 mg/1 with a mean value of 1.096 mg/1. For section (D) iron ranges from 0.057 to 0.23 mg I with a mean value of 0.076 mg/1. With consideration to the high (d^DS) content for section (B) and (D) samples some higher iron content may be expected. A.A.S. and XRF analysis of soil samples from these two section show high iron content, with a mean of 15.1 % w/w. (Fig 7.1.16) (Table 7.1.69) 205 7.1.12.5. Copper : Copper (Cu) shows low concentrations in the four sections of the studied area, ranging from 0.03 to 0.04 mg/l. These concentrations are \ery low with respect to the guideline value (1.3 mg/l). These values did not agree with same results obtained by IFAD (2003 - 2004), at El-Mura village 2.1 mg/l. EPA secondary standards for recommended contaminants levels consider 1 mg/l of copper in drinking water. SSMO (2002) consider 1.5 mg/l of copper to the maximum permissible limit. WHO (1993) referred to 2 mg/l of copper for drinking water as a provisional health based guideline value. IFAD (2004) reported copper concentration of 0.5 mg/l at Karima (Dug well at Um Garfa) within the basin. According to this study, the area can be classified as copper deficient. 7.1.12.6. Zinc (Zn) : Zinc (Zn) shows very low concentration in till samples of ground water from the study area. Section (A) shows detectable values ranging from 0.01 to 0.06 mg I. with a mean value of 0.009 mg/l. Section (C) samples show the highest zinc content values, ranging from 0.1)1 to 0.30 mg I with a mean value of 0.0886 mg. 1. The high salinity zones of sections (B) and (D) show almost similar zinc concentration ranging from 0.01 to 0.03 mg/l. The mean values are 0.012 mg/l for (B) and 0.010 for (D). The mean concentrations of zinc in the four section are 0.009, 0.012, 0.0886 and 0.010 mg/l for A. B. C, and D respectively. SSMO zinc level likely to give rise to consumer complaints is 3 mg/l in drinking water. JECFA (1982) proposed a provisional maximum 206 tolerable daily intake for zinc of 1 nig/kg of badly weight. WHO (1993) considered that drinking water containing zinc at levels above 3 mg/1 may not be acceptable to consumers. WHO also reported that zinc levels in surface and ground water do not exceed 0.01 and 0.05 mg'l for each. USEPA has a maximum zinc content in drinking water of 5mg/l (EPA. 1979, 1988b) zinc levels in the four sections are, therefore, at the permissible range or less. Zinc level in samples of section (B) and (D) showed no effect with the high (TDS) content. There are some water sources especiall) in section (A) can be classified as zinc deficient (Table 7.1.49). 7.1.12.7. Cadmium (Cd): For section (A) cadmium ranges from 0.00 to 0.02 mg/1. For section (C) the concentration is generally around 0.02 mg/1 with one exception in sample No. (31 ) where it is 0.07 mgl. Fifty percent (50°..) of section (B) --.ample . show no delectable cadmium, the rest of sources has cadmium content of 0.01 to 0.02 mg/1. All section (D) samples show 0.02 mgd cadmium, d'he mean value are 0.015, 0.007, 0.0236 and 0.02 mg/1 lor section (A). (B) (< ) and (D) respectively although the value seemed to be very low. the concentration is significant!) high with respect to the maximum standard limit, which is 0.005 mg/1 (5 ug/l). This may indicate a risk of cadmium concentration of drinking water in large parts of the area. This is expected to be a result of geological formation of the area.Gibla (2001 ) reported such cadmium concentration in salt lick samples from the area. Lmil 1 . Chanlcti (1973) classified cadmium within the toxic substance s which are the basic for rejection of water supply, and suggested 0.01 mg/1 as the indicator level of that. The guideline value for cadmium is 0.003 mg/1 (WHO. 1993). SSMO (2002) standard is 0.003 mg/1. 207 7.2.1.12.8. Lead : Lead content with a mean value of o. 181, 0.415, 0.1962 and 0.2655 mg/l for section (A), (B), (C) and (D) respectively, is, significantly, high compared with the permissible ranges. Sudanese Standards and Meterology Organization maximum permissible limit for lead is 0.007 mg/l for drinking water (SSMO, 2002). The health based guideline value for lead is 0.01 mg/l (WHO, 1993). The mean values for section (A) and (C) which represent drinking water sources can be expressed as 0.2 mg/l for each and the mean lead values for secton (B) and (D) as sources of brine water are 0.40 and 0.3 mg/l (round figure). Therefore, we can conclude that lead concentration increase with (TDS) increase in the areas. Accordingly the high lead concentration ma)' be due to geological composition. Lead in section (A) show's positive correlation with fluoride (0.5(3. p ~ 0.124), with lead content of section (B) (0.520, p = 0.124) and section ((') (0.718, p = 0.019) 208 Table (7.1.57) : Elemental Analysis of soil Samples Determination of Calcium (Ca) Sample Number Concentration of Calcium in ppm Percentage '"ow'w) 1 503.608 15.09020 2 320.000 16.00000 -> J 334.000 16.70000 4 617.770 15.44425 5 565.513 1 1.638275 6 488.783 12.219575 7 309.958 07.74895 8 258.296 06.45740 9 889.679 22.241975 10 775.457 19.586425 11 | 653.785 10.544625 12 i 060.764 15.494100 13 1 862.497 21.562425 Table (7.1.58) : Elemental Analysis of soil Samples Determination of Magnesium (M«) Sample Number Concentration of Magnesium in ppm Percentage (" »\\ w ) 1 38.926 r 0.97315 42.144 1.0556 101.309 2.552725 ~! 4 30.108 0.7527 5 34.483 o78o2o7 35.495 0.887575 98.690 2.4(^4 57.951 0794X775 9 55.165 0.879125 10 36.844 0.9211 11. 37.046 0.92615 12 36.328 0.9082 13 38.263 0.956575 209 Table (7.1.59) : Elemental Analysis of soil Samples Determination of Potassium Sample Number Concentration of potassium in ppm Percenlaue (" <>\\A\) ,—. ^ . 1 12.1330 0.303325 12.0090 0.500225 1 21.6779 'JM54J907 5 4 9.9550 0.248875 5 13.2670 0.331675 6 15.6180 0.390450 7 06.6790 0.166975 8 06.2550 0.156375 9 05.8970 0.147425 " 10 07.3580 0.185950 '11. 10.2210 0.255525 12 11.7710 0.294275 13 8.360 0.209000 Tilhle C.1.60) : Flvmcntnl Ana/y sis a( soil Samples Determination of" Sodium Sample Number Concentration ol" sodium in ppm Oereenlaae (" «\\ \\ 1 17.887 0.4471 75 18.271 0.450775 3 13.856 0.346400 4 17.147 05.616 0.140400 h 07.998 0.199950 7 33.1 16 } 0.82790(1 8 49.000 ! 1.220.500 9 ^ 03.414 0.085550 10 1 03.074 0.070850 11. 04.469 0.1 1 1725 12 11.497 0.287425 13 10.822 0.270550 210 Table (7.1.61) : Elemental Analysis of soil Samples Determination of Chromium Sample Concentration of Percentage Cone, in Number chromium in ppm (%\\Av) mg/kg 1 ND 0.000 j 2 0.000 i -> A 0.000 .j 4 0.000 i j 5 0.000 j 1 6 0.000 7 ND 0.000 j i 8 0.000 i 9 0.000 i 10 0.000 11. 0.000 12 0.000 ! 13 0.245 0.0006125 06.10 | Table (7.1.62) : Elemental Analysis of soil Samples Determination of Manganese Sample Number Concentration of Manganese in ppm Percentage ("o w w ) 1 7.4380 0.18595 8.8546 '"0.221565 -1 1 1.7835 02945875 4 04.7566 '"04 789lA 5 06.2033 0.150825 6 05.9538 0.148845 7 02.0973 0.0524325 8 04.4201 0.1105025 ! 9 02.6860 0.06715 . 10 03.6576 0.09144 11. 02.2557 0.0563925 12 03.8457 0.0961425 13 02.6833 0.0670825 j 211 THIS PAGE IS MISSING IN THE ORIGINAL DOCUMENT RECEIVED BY IAEA Table (7.1.65) : Elemental Analysis of soil Samples Determination of Nickel Sample Concentration of Percentage (%\\/\v) Cone. ! Number Nickel in ppm mg/kg 0.344 8.6 XI (A 086.00 i 2 0.316 7.9 X10° 079.00 | 0.200 7.25 XKA 072.50 iJ 4 0.505 0.014875 148.80 | 5 0.086 2.15 X10° 021.50 ! 6 0.317 7.92 X10"J 079.20 | 7 0.137 3.425 X10° 034.30 ! 0.226 5.65 X1(T 056.50 | 9 0.181 4.525 X10° 04520 | 0.160 4.0 XI (A 040.00 11. 0.206 5.15 XI(A 051.50 12 0.336 8.4 XI (A 084.00 13 0.230 5.75 XHA 057.50 Table (7.1.66) : Elemental Analysis of soil Samples Determination of Copper 1 Sample Concentration Percentage Cone, in Number ol" Copper in ppm {"/() \Y/\V) mu. ku : 0.012 3.0 X10"4 5.0 ; 2 0.013 3.25 XUC 1 • 3 4).010 4 -0.008 5 -0.048 0 -0.0j0 7 -0.021 8 -0.026 9 -0.012 1 10 -0.009 1 i 11. 0.003 7.5 XI (A 1 12 0.001 2.5 XI (A i 13 0.005 1.25 XUC 1 .3 ! Table (7.67.) : Elemental Analysis of soil Samples Determination of Zinc Sample Concentration Percentage Cone, in Number of Zinc in ppm (%\\Av) nm/'ku 1 0.2846 7.115 xur 71.20 "> 0.! 466 5.665 X10" 36.70 j-> 0.1438 3.595 XIO'-' 36.00 4 0.1267 3.1675 XI0° 31.70 5 0.1579 3.9475 XI (T 39.50 6 0.1206 3.015 X10'J 30.20 7 0.1363 3.4075 XIO'"' 34.10 8 0.1068 2.67 X10° 26.70 9 0.1474 3.685 X10° 36.90 10 0.1095 2.7375 XI0° 27.40 11 0.1972 4.93 X10° 49.30 12 0.1324 3.31 X10"J 33.10 13 0.1276 3.19 XI0"-* 31.90 Table (7.68.) : Elemental Analysis of soil Samples Determination of Cadmium Sample Concentration of Percentage Cone, in Number Cadmium in ppm (%\\7\v) nm'ke 1. 0.0123 3.075 X10~4 3.1 0.0138 3.45 X10~4 3.5 j. 0.0074 1.85 X10"4 1.9 4. 0.0188 4.7 X10"4 4.7 5. 0.0063 1.575 X10"1 1 .6 6. 0.01 1 1 2.775 Xltr4 2.8 7. 0.0068 1.7 X10"4 1.7 8. 0.0148 3.7 X10'4 3.7 | 9. 0.0069 1.7 X10"4 1.7 | 10 0.0041 1.025 X10"4 id ! 11. 0.0033 8.25 XI (T4- 1 8.3 : 12. 0.0041 1.025 X10"4 1.0 13. -0.0171 4.275 xnr4 4.3 214 Table (7.69.) : Elemental Analysis of soil Samples Determination of Lead Sample J Concentration of Percentage (. one. m | Number Copper in ppm (%vv/w) mu/ku 0.59291 0.01482275 148.20 1 0.3815 9.5375 XUP 095.40 ^ ~» A . 0.3738 9.345 XHP 093.50 4. 0.3612 9.03 X10'"' 090.30 5. 0.4569 0.01 14225 1 14.20 6. 0.3282 8.205 XHP 082.10 7. 0.3604 9.. 01 XKP 090.10 8. 0.4568 0.01 142 114.20 9. 0.3568 8.92 XKP 089.20 10. 0.2696 6.74 X10" 067.40 H. 0.3233 8.0825 XKP 080.80 12. 0.2491 6.2275 XIO" oo2 A) T)T\77~~ 079.40 Atomic Absorption Speetrometric analysis of soil samples show high concentrations of calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), Potassium (K), and Magnesium, and low content of sodium (Na), copper (Cu), and chromium (Cr). (Fig. 7. 16 and 7.17) 215 511.47 Fig. 7.}g. Macro-cations Mean concentration (ppm) in soil Samples (AAS) Cation ig. 7.19. Micro-cations Means Concentration (ppm) Soil Samples (AAS > Table (7.70.) : X-Ray- Fluorescence Analysis \ Sample N. eode Concentration of trace elements in ppm ! l£lemcnts\ XRF1 XRF2 XRF3 XRF4 XRF5 XRF 6 XRF7 K 733 5500 5153 6233 1100 1 466 25466 Ca 104476 98088 180103 137241 2884 l~5563 3709 Cr 60 510 240 180 150 120 300 Mn 2050 1419 828 433 077 295 3 74 Fe 128994 51639 23902 ~>4->cp 1 01 8 853 32903 Co 67 co - 16 13 I 15 Ni 1 6 19 8 "i ~> 30 19 Cu 9 10 8 8 12 9 14 Zn 37 37 49 61 17 19 64 Br -> ii 13 9 554 256 „ i 8S Rb 21 1 1 48 38 i 8 Sr 362 426 552 407 99 " 1 15 " 237 Zr 93 247 125 166 if ~17 22S Pb 25 20 26 20 23 50 X-ray fluorescence analysis shows high concentrations of iron (Fe). calcium (Ca). manganese (Mn), potassium (K) and strontium (Sr). Cobalt concentration is at the standard level of soil content Bromide (Br) shows high concentration in salt samples and low- concentrations in soil and rock samples. Low- concentration were shown by nickel (Ni) and copper (Cu) (Fig.7.17 and Fig. 7.18). Cation ( nlion Some Cations Mean concentralon in soil samples using Fig. 7.21. Micro cations MeafiWficentration in soil Samples using X-ray Fluorescence specrometer (XRF) (mg/kg) 4— Table 7.1.71. : Radio Activity Values Isotope Ac-228 Sample Aetivity(Bq/kg) h'rror Gl 064A10 0.75 G2 8.5665 0.83 G3 22.0658 1.001 . G4 15.6007 1.179 1 G5 3.9058 0.544 G6 • 4.5024 0.306 Table 7.1.72. : Radio Activity Values Isotope Bi-212 Sample Activity(Bq/kg) Fjtoi" Gl 1 1.3649 2.369 G2 1 1.5795 2.255 G3 20.242 1.37 G4 17.4864 2.605 G5 ND 06 4.6531 2.527 Table 7.1.73. : Radio Activity Values Isotope Cs-137 Sample ActiGtx (Ikpkg) l-'.rror ! en 02.1003 0.269 G2 4.5789 "1 0.39 1 i G3 10.9785 0.50 1 *~ G4 ' 10.1801 (1.632 G5 ND G6 0.275 0.079 Table 7.1.74. : Radio Activity Values Isotope Pb-214 Sample Activity(Bq/kg) laaor Gl 13.0288 0.752 G2 15.3948 1.959 G3 18.4134 0.777 ; G4 17.2215 0.946 G5 1.7365 0.524 G6 2.1569 0.179 I Table 7.1.75. : Radio Activity Values Isotope Ra-223 Sample Activity(Bq/kg) Error 01 05.344 1.156 G2 4.6135 1.247 CO < 11.1872 0.818 G4 7.8458 1.387 05 ND G6 1.6947 0.344 Table 7.1.76. : Radio Activity Values Isotope Ra- 224 Sample Activity(Bq/kg) Hrror Gl 195.213 1 0.363 G2 m ^ 1 1.457 G3 303.1469 54.094 G4 344.1336 16.284 G5 NI) 06 ND Table 7.1.77. : Radio Activity Values Isotope Ra-226 Sample AcO\ it_\(lk| kg) 1 ' I'l'lU 0.855 | 02 16.8214 1.114 G5 16.7844 0.764 04 16.6222 T048 " " 05 1.8809 0.561 06 2.0079 0.199 Table 7.1.78. : Radio Activity Values Isotope Tl-224 Sample Activity^ Bq/kg) Error Gl 5.3546 0.404 G2 ND G3 ND 04 NI) I G5 ND j 06 ND 111 Table 7.1.79. : Radio Activity Values Isotope Zn-65 Sample Activity(Bq/kg) liri'or Gl 1.3223 0.496 G2 ND G3 ND G4 ND G5 ND G6 ND Table 7.1.80. : Radio Activity Values Isotope TI-208 Sample Activity! Bq/kg) l.ii or Gl ND 0.407 G2 5.2639 0.502 G5 1 1.751 1 0.557 G4 6.0944 0.557 G5 0.5766 0.192 G6 1.3899 Table 7.1.81. : Radio Activity Values Isotope Ta-182 Sample Activity! Bq'kg) brror Gl ND G2 7.4975 0.963 G3 7.7415 0.556 G4 ND G5 1.3551 0.574 G6 Nl) Table 7.1.82. : Radio Aetis it\ Values Isotope Pa-140 Sample Activity! Bq'kg) hrror Gl ND G2 ND G3 ND G4 1.8797 0.88 G5 ND G6 ND Table 7.1.83. : Radio Activity Values Isotope Th-228 Sample Activity! Bq'kg) l-'rmr Gl ND G2 ND G3 ND G4 ND G5 ND G6 1.1843 1.124 Table 7.1.84 : Radio Activity Values Isotope Th-230 Sample Activity(Bq/kg) Error Gl ND G2 ND G3 ND G4 ND G5 ND G6 708.202 445.5 35 Table 7.1.85. : Radio Activity Values Isotope Zr-97 Sample Aeti\ il\ (Bq/kg) 1 a'i'or Gl ND G2 ND G3 ND (14 ND G5 0.3402 0.102 G6 ND With exception of isotopes Ra-224 in most samples and isotope Th 230 in sample G6 radioactivity background appear to be normal 224 Fig. 7. 22 Radioactivity mean values for some soil sample (Bq kg) > O CVS Csl37 TI224 /n65 TI208 Tal82 Pa 140 Zr97 5.6222 5.3546 1.3225 5.6152 5.55 14 1.8797 0.492 Raclioacti\'c isotpcs Fig. 7.2> Radioactivity mean values for some soil sample (Bq/kg) 7.2. XRD results : Fig. (6.1) XRD-1 shows X-ray analysis results for sample XRD1 is a homogenized mixture of five soil sample from Sharshar west, ['he results show a high content of quartz (Si02) and Calcite (CaC03). indicating a sandy clay formation of the soil. The presence of Muscuvite (KAF[AlSiA)|())(OH)2 and annorthite (CaAFSFO.A as a feldspar minerals and mica group minerals indicate that the area is igneous rock area. Fig. 6.2 for Sample XRD2 is single soil sample from Sharshar west, it shows that the most available minerals, the soil is composed of quartz and calcite us well as Muscuvite (KAF| AISi;On>j(OFI)2), in addition it shows a significant a! hi to content (Na.AISi;()s) instead of annorthite. It should be mentioned here that Ca~ can easilx replace \'a in fcldshnr minerals, since die ionic radius of C'a" ion ( 100pm) and lha: .*,« >dh;;:. iAn is (102 pm). The electrical naturalit\ of the cr\stal is maintained b\ substituting a second element of different oxidation state in the mineral, where aluminium ion AF (39pm) replace silicon Si 4 (42 pm). This may enhanced by the easy leaching of sodium from soil, indicated b\ low sodium concentration in Sharshar soil according to (AAS) analysis of soil samples in this study. Sample XRD3 (Fig. 7. 3.) is a homogenized mixture of three soil samples from Sharshar west It shows similar mineral composition to that of XRD1 (Fig. 7.1). quartz (Si02), Calcite (CaCO.O, museovite (KAl:LAISi;,0|„|(()H): and annorthite. But simply can be noted that the calcite peaks are less than that of sample XRD1 (Quantitative and qualitative). 22f XRD4 (Fig. 7.4), is a homogenized mixture of five soil samples from Alga'ah, shows the sandy clay formation of Alga'ah soil, high quartz and ealeite content as well as annorthite mineral. But showed NO \luseu\ite and albite. And this may be difference between the two mineralization zones at Sharshar and Alga'ah. XRD5 (Fig. 7.5) is a mixture of five salts samples of fire evaporized saline water from Sharshar. This figure may gives a clear chemical composition of Sharshar locally produced salts, which is noted also in sample XRD6 (Fig. 7.6) which is a salt sample of solar evaporised saline water. Sharshar salt therefore, can be descriped mainly as halite rock mineral (NaCI) with a considerable thenardite content (Na:S(M and some quartz impurities. XRD7 (Fig. 7.7) is a mixture of Alga'ah salt samples. It shows a high halite content with some amount of thenardite. In comparison with Sharshar salts samples |(.\R1)5 : big. 7.5 and XRI)6 : Fig. 7.6)| show highly pure sail a>. sodium chloride. XRD8 (Fig. 7.8) : The rock samples mixture show high quartz content as well as a considerable content of muscovite (KAFfAlSi A)i»](OI 1): and albite (NaAlSi;,0N) minerals. It differ from Alga'ah soil composition by showing no calcite (CaCCF) or annorthite (CaAFSFOA minerals. This may explain the higher concentration of sodium and potassium in ground water samples of section (B) and (D). and the relatively low- concentration of calcium ions (Table 7.1.29, 7.1.30. 7.1.31. 7.1.32., 7.1.33. and 7.1.34) 232 Central Petroleum Laboratory (CPL) Ministry of Energy and Mining. Khartoum, Sudan Graph: Sample No-5 . 14/03/2006 12:46 counts/s 14000- 12000 6O0O- 2 8 2 s to s 70 °2Theta 05-0628 Halite, syn 74-2036 Thenardlte 86-1629 Quartz low SlO.2 _ _ Sample No 5 (M) Halite, syn X'Pert PRO XRD I- io. ":._\S. \ Rl)5 : Salt Sample 23 s >\M>AMU counts^* 160004 1400CH 1200CH 1000CH 800CK 6000-i ••tOOCK a 2O0XH s a > > I ~1—1 0^ 10 20 70 •2THETA 05-0628 Halite, ayn NaCI 74-2036 Thenardite _NA2S04_ 83-0539 Quartz ^102 Sample No 6 (M) Halite, ayn (R) (R) QUARTZ X'Pert PRO XRD Ha. .29. \kl)6 : Sail Sample Central Petroleum Laboratory (CPL) Ministry ot Energy and Mining, Khartoum, Sudan 2rrjh Sample No-7 .—_ 14/03/2006 12:59 counts/s 50000-] 400004 3000CH to 200004 10000H St to 70 °2Theta 05-062B HalSe. syn ..Nag! 74-2036 nrenardtte Na2SQ4 Sample No 7 (M) Halite, syr. (R) X'Pert PRO XRD f ! Ground water sample in the two saline zones showed high magnesium ions and significant concentration of fluoride ion but the salt sample and rock sample gave no indication to the presence of minerals containing such ions. The high Na2S04 and NaCl in salt samples and the absence of other minerals that appeared in soil and rock samples suggest that the source of salinity of ground water at Sharshar and Alga'ah is due to bed-rock formation which is mainly of halite and thenardite minerals. Another prediction is to say that the water bearings in these zones, evaporite sediments which are mainly sodium chloride and potassium chloride and this may be enhanced by the significantly high concentration of sodium, and potassium ions shown b\ atomic absorption analysis (Table 7.1.5K. and 7.1.59.). Evaporites also contain CaSO,. CaSOj.21 IT) and MgCf.blfO. and the Spectrophotometry' analysis in this stud) showed \ er\ hieh Miiphaic concentration in section (H) and (I.)) as well as considerable concentration <>| Mg' and Ca~ showed by AAS analysis. 237 7.3. Conclusion The analysis show general suitability of fresh ground water at section A and C samples from physical and chemical characteristic point of view. The study shows a significant concentration of nitrate (NOD- Cadmium and iead ions. Total disseised solids content appeared to problematic m some areas e.g. Elmurra and Sharshar east. Relativly low pH values were observed in section (C) samples and it may be due to high CO: content causing carbonic acid -bicarbonate buffering. The literature survey shows inavailablility of information about brine ground water chemistry in general and in the case of Sharshar and Fl-Ga'a specially. Previous studies concerning salinity do not include any detailed information about water quality from chemistry point of view e.g. deficiency and toxicity of sonic mineral ions. Also there is no available information about die iocaiix produced salt irom die two brmcs /i-nc wluGi i> w idv F used by animal brcadcrs as a major salt lick. So a lota! eeo-;\ Mem -amux m be needed in this area. Soil analysis from Sharshar and f lAia'a show no direct relationship between huh salinity of section (R) and (D) ground water samples. Bui low sodium content of soil and high content in ground water may be due lo easy sodium leaching. The high salinity of ground water at Fl-Ga "a and Sharshar may ho due to presence of evaporate layers (ancient harried sea or saline kike) or due to basement fracture bed rocks. The chemical composition of water and sab. samples Aiongiy enhance such postuhition. The salinitv content of ground water on moving from the center of Bara basin towards the boundaries (Fl- Mazroub, El-Gaat, Um-Garfa, Greigikh and Jebel Kon areas). 238 Ground water of high quality e.g. at El-kairan, Damira and Uni-Gazira was observed. The population of the study area depend mainly in hand-dug wells as source of water for drinking and domestic tise. Such sources can readily be affected by environment eomtaminants. Salinity of drinking water sources appear to be mainly of chloride sulphate and bicarbonate ions. Most of the soil samples show a significant radioactivity specially isotopes Ra-223 (2 -11 Bq/'kg) and Ra - 224 ( I95-.U4 Bq kg). R.a-226 (2 -17 Bq/kg). Latter isotope is a toxic radionuclide and il ;.. a bo;-.*, seeker with half-life 1 620 vears (Osman. 1991 ). 239 Suggestions : ::: The area may need a furdier total environmental and ecosystem study from authorities of different specialization. * The huge amount of ground water can be employed for a real agricultural development. * The serious occurrence of nitrate, lead and cadmium ions may need further studies determining if there is actual effect to conctimers. ;,!: The use of some water sources such as El-Mura should be stopped. :;: Salt lick production at Sharshar and Al-Ga"a should be developed using better techniques for evaporation and purification. ::: Further chemical analysis may be needed from vetrenary point ol view to determine the suitability of such salt licks for stipplimalion of ssential ions In animal diet. :: Further studies may also be needed to determine the possihi!ii\ .A purifying such salt for tise as alternative table salt. * Further research may be required for determination of lloride and iodide content in drinking water. ::: Altimium content may need to be determined since the XRl) aualwa- showcd many aluminium containing minerals such as feldspar and others * Medical survey may be needed in the area to determine, if the inorganic minerals in water are problematic or not. ;;: Further studies may be needed to cheek radioactivity background. 240 References 8. 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