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Home , Alain Calmat, Alfred Berger, Barbara Ann Scott, Carol Heiss, Cecilia Colledge, Compulsory figures

“The Golden Age of American Skating” Fourteen Remarkable Years

By James R. Hines

The years after Second World War, from 1946 until 1961, Weld, one of six women representing four countries, the year of the plane crash that took the lives of the entire won the bronze medal behind two Swedish skaters, World team en route to the and Svea Norén.8 But the first American championships in , has been called “The Golden figure skater to compete in an Olympic competition was Age of American Skating.” American men dominated the Irving Brokaw who placed sixth in a field of twelve men sport, and the women did likewise through the latter at the 1908 Games.9 half of the period.1 Collectively they claimed six of eight Prior to First World War, the World Championships, Olympic gold medals as well as most of the world titles. based on participation, were, in effect, a second The origin of the sobriquet is unknown, but competition European Championship because all entrants were results confirm its appropriateness.2 A survey of the years from Europe.10 That changed after the war. Skaters from 1908, the year of the London , the from the United States appeared at eight of the sixteen first to include figure skating, through 2002, the year of interwar championships held in Europe and competed the Salt Lake City Olympic Winter Games, remembered in all three disciplines, a combined twenty entries. They especially for the judging scandal following the pairs carried home five medals, three silver and two bronze.11 competition, provides a backdrop against which the Canadian skaters competed in 1928 and 1936, but won no phenomenal postwar years can be appreciated. A medals. larger statistical base for analysis has been achieved by The World Championships were held twice in North including results from the World Championships as well America during that period: in 1930 and as at the Olympic Games.3 Montreal in 1932. Twenty-two entries in 1930 – nine Figure skaters from the United States have competed Americans, six Canadians, and seven Europeans – totaled at all Olympic Games at which winter sports were two more than the number in Europe the previous contested, an accomplishment matched by only one year, but the small number of European entries – three other country, Great Britain.4 The Americans did not men, two women and two pairs – was disappointing. compete at the World Championships, however, until Participation increased significantly in 1932, undoubtedly 1924 and not continuously until 1936.5 The United States a result of the Olympic Winter Games being held two Figure Skating Association (USFSA), which enters skaters weeks earlier at Lake Placid, New York. At the World in international competitions but not the Olympics, was Championships, thirty-two entries included eight not founded until 1921 and did not join the International Americans, eight Canadians, fourteen Europeans, and Skating Union (ISU) until 1923.6 two Japanese; at the Games, thirty-four entries included Beatrix Loughran, the ladies silver medallist at the ten Americans, six Canadians, sixteen Europeans, and United States Championships in 1922, traveled to , two Japanese.12 The cost of transportation, time involved , for the 1924 World Championships and carried in ocean travel, and the poor worldwide economy home the bronze medal. It was America’s auspicious made it difficult for skaters to cross the Atlantic in either beginning in world competition. She competed in a field direction. of seven talented women, including Herma Szabó of Europe’s best skaters were sent to compete in North , the reigning world and Olympic champion; and America. of Norway, Karl Schäfer of Austria, an eleven-year-old from Norway destined to become a ten-time world and three-time Olympic champion, James R. Hines | is a professor emeritus in musicology Sonja Henie. Just two weeks earlier, Loughran had from Christopher Newport University in Newport News, competed at the Olympic Games in Chamonix and won Virginia, United States. His interest in figure skating, dating from his teen years as a roller skater, evolved more recently the silver medal behind Szabó in a field of eight women into the history of skating on ice. A comprehensive book, representing six countries.7 Figure Skating: A History, published by the University of Loughran was not the first American lady to win an Press in 2006, has been internationally acclaimed as the definitive history of the sport. Three additional books have Olympic figure skating medal. At the Antwerp Games followed. in 1920, a year before the USFSA was founded, Theresa

44 and pair skaters Andrée and Pierre Brunet of until war was declared in September 1939. They were competed at both World Championships and the Lake then closed owing to blackout regulations enacted in Placid Games, and they won all of the gold medals. anticipation of German air raids, although some were The Americans did well, winning one silver and three allowed to reopen, when the Battle of Britain did not bronze medals at the two World Championships and begin until August 1940. National championships were one silver and one bronze medal at the Lake Placid not held during the war years. Games, but prior to Second World War, the world’s top The end of the war in Europe was celebrated on figure skaters were all Europeans.13 8th May 1945. Almost a year later, on 6-7 th May 1946, Throughout the history of international figure skating, Great Britain held its first postwar figure skating specific countries have dominated the sport for a period championships.15 The gold medallists included two of time, often in just one discipline, but none has prewar champions, and Graham Sharp, maintained that dominance over the long term. It was but a new generation of skaters appeared as well, most Swedish skaters before First World War, primarily the men notably Jeannette Altwegg, who would became a world who were bolstered by ’s Olympic gold and Olympic champion in 1952, and the brother and medal and ten World titles. After the war, the Austrians sister pair, Jennifer and , who would become dominated until the late 1930s when British men and world champions in 1953.

Karol and Peter Kennedy, America’s best pair skaters after Second World War, present their forward inside spiral. Far left: Gretchen ­Merrill floated through the air with exuberance and the newfound ­artistry ­associated with in the postwar years.

Photos: Courtesy of the World ladies surfaced. Only once has a country been dominant Austria also suffered the devastation of an air war. Figure Skating Museum and in all disciplines simultaneously, a feat Austrian skaters Heavy bombing of , the country’s major skating Hall of Fame. accomplished for five years after the war. Except for the center, began in 1944. The city was bombed fifty-two ten years of unmatched success by Norway’s Sonja Henie times. Before the Allied bombing campaign began, in ladies skating, Austrian dominance continued through Austria managed to hold regional competitions through the Olympic Winter Games in 1936.14 1943 and, like Britain, was able to resume its national British figure skaters won two Olympic titles in 1908 and championships in 1946, one year after the war.16 Austrian four World titles between 1906 and 1912 but had claimed skaters reappeared internationally in 1948, an Olympic no additional titles after First World War when suddenly year, with all three disciplines represented. Their their success resurfaced following the Garmisch- combined sixteen entries at the Games and the World Partenkirchen Games in 1936. During the last three years Championships was the largest number for any country. before Second World War, 1937-1939, they won 40 percent Eva Pawlik won silver medals at both competitions, and of the medals and 44 percent of the titles at the World Edi Rada, one of just four returning prewar competitors, Championships. The reason for a country’s dominance is claimed the Olympic bronze medal.17 not always clear, but it happens in other sports and in held wartime championships through artistic and cultural endeavors as well. 1944, but as a result of the severe damage caused by intensive aerial bombing of its major cities, national The Second World War championships were not held again until 1947, and German figure skaters did not reappear in international It was inevitable that change would occur after Second competition until 1951. Horst Faber, the only prewar World War. Europe, the epicenter of figure skating, had skater to compete that year won the silver medal at the been devastated by six years of war. In Britain, which European Championships. dominated the sport just before the war, twenty-six ice German entries at the World Championships included rinks opened during the 1930s and operated profitably three ladies, one man, and three pairs. Most important

JOH 1 | 2016 “The Golden Age of American Skating” Fourteen Remarkable Years 45 MEDALS WON AT THE WORLD CHAMPIONSHIPS AUT BEL CAN CZE GER GBR HUN NOR SUI SWE USA 1936-1939 9 0 0 0 7 14 1 1 0 2 2 1947-1950 2 3 3 3 1 4 6 0 2 0 12

Dick Button led the and the Jenkins Brothers way to the expanded athleticism associated Richard T. (Dick) Button set the stage for the new with America’s golden American school, displaying the increased athleticism age. His trademark associated with the golden age. At his first international stag jump was a competition, the 1947 World Championships, held in ­popular move of the , he placed second behind Hans Gerschwiler period. of , an outstanding skater who represented the way things were.20 Skating historian Nigel Brown described Gerschwiler’s skating as having “a powerful charm about it,” noting that it was “performed to well-nigh perfection.”21 He could have referred to it more accurately as “old world charm.” The judges’ placements show clearly Button’s strength and although it was not yet realized the direction figure skating was to take in the postwar era.

were Gundi Busch and the pair of Ria Baran and Paul Hans Gerschwiler Falk. The young and talented Busch, age 15, placed 1 1 1 1 2 tenth. Three years later she became world champion. free skating 2 2 2 2 2 Baran and Falk competed internationally for just two years and were never defeated. The couple, married in Dick Button the autumn of 1951, won world titles in 1951 and 1952 compulsory figures 2 2 2 2 1 and Olympic titles in 1952. free skating 1 1 1 1 1 Those three countries – Great Britain, Austria, and Germany – were dominant in figure skating during the late 1930s as is shown by the chart at the top.18 All five judges placed Button first in the free skating; Collectively, they won thirty of thirty-six medals all except the American judge placed Gerschwiler first awarded at the World Championships from 1936 through in the compulsory figures. Because Gerschwiler had 1939, and the numbers were similar at the 1936 Olympic a commanding lead after the compulsories, which Winter Games where they won six of nine medals.19 counted 60 percent, he claimed the title, but reports Dramatic change occurred after the war, particularly in about the young American “phenom” reverberated the increase in the number of countries winning medals. rapidly through the European skating community, Most notable was the emergence and dominance of the especially Button’s athleticism. A glowing review from United States, which claimed twelve medals from 1947 a Stockholm newspaper praised him as “the best since through 1950, including four of each colour, representing Gillis Grafström,”and stated that his technique was all three disciplines. Three of the gold medals were “superior to the great Swedish skater.” The public, won by Dick Button, the fourth by the pair of Karol and it reported, “was completely staggered before such Peter Kennedy. “The Golden Age of American Skating” phenomenal talent.” Button was called “a great had arrived. Although American skaters had won a master.”22 This comparison to Grafström, one of the finest few medals before Second World War, there were no figure skaters of all times, a native son, and a three-time world or Olympic titles. After the war, a group of young Olympic champion provided an amazing testimonial.23 skaters matured in their sport, taking it to the next level Button’s rise in the ranks of competitive figure skating athletically and artistically. Five of them, Dick Button, the began during the war years. He won the US novice title Jenkins brothers, Hayes and David, , and in 1944, the junior title in 1945, and the senior title in , reached the pinnacle of success as Olympic 1946, and he is the only skater in United States history champions, and they all won multiple world titles as to win those titles in consecutive years. Guided by his well. Let’s survey their competitive records and identify Swiss coach, , Button’s skating was most briefly what each of them brought to the sport. assuredly a balance of Old World discipline and New

46 Hayes Jenkins free skating, which ­continued in the path of Dick Button, was described as “the ­ultimate combination of athletic skill and ­artistic achievement.” Far left: David Jenkins expanded the in­ fluence of American figure skating with performances that demonstrated the ­artistic athleticism evolving during the 1950s.

World enthusiasm.24 Reflecting later on the beginning became junior champions, Hayes in 1948 and David in of the new American school, Button wrote: “Eileen 1953. As seniors, Hayes became a four-time national Seigh and I as novice champions and strong advocates champion beginning in 1953 and David did likewise of this new school, stood as leaders of a new skating beginning in 1957. Button and the Jenkins brothers were generation.”25 in turn national champions from 1946 through 1960, Button defeated Gerschwiler in 1948 at both the America’s golden age, and their international records World Championships and the Olympic Winter Games, show similar results. Both of the Jenkins brothers won and with his superior athleticism, he proceeded to win Olympic titles, Hayes in 1956 and David in 1960, as well every competition entered through the remainder of as consecutive world titles. Hayes won four, 1953-1956; his amateur career while continually raising the bar David followed with three, 1957-1959, but elected not to athletically. At the Games in 1948, Button became the compete in 1960.27 first skater to land a double Axel Paulsen jump and at Like Button, the Jenkins brothers offered balanced the Games in 1952 the first to land a triple jump, a triple skating, solid compulsory figures and flowing free loop. He was also the first to do a “triple double,” a skating presented with exceptional athleticism and fine sequence of three double loop jumps, and is credited artistry. Skating historian and official Benjamin T. Wright with inventing the flying , sometimes called wrote that “Hayes Jenkins as a competitor represented, the “Button camel.” His explosive athleticism stood out in the view of many, the ultimate combination of in those performances, but his programmes were always athletic skill and artistic achievement.” About his skated artistically and with meaningful musicality. brother he wrote, “David Jenkins demonstrated an Button coupled his groundbreaking free skating with outstanding ability to interpret and express his music, well-executed compulsory figures. The legendary while at the same time carrying to new levels the British commentator Captain T. D. Richardson, writing in athleticism of skating.”28 1951, stated concisely that Button “is in my opinion the This trio of Button and the Jenkins brothers won greatest skater in the world today,” a view substantiated collectively all four Olympic titles and all but the first and by his record.26 For five years, from 1948 through 1952, he last world titles from Second World War through 1960, but won by unanimous decision every competition entered the strength of the American school was augmented by and on just two occasions did an individual judge not the depth of its field. For a period of eight consecutive place him first in both the compulsory figures and the years, 1951-1958, three fine skaters, , free skating. Ronald Robertson, and Tim Brown in turn placed second Button was followed in 1953 by the Jenkins behind Button or one of the Jenkins brothers at the World brothers, Hayes Alan and David, who continued the Championships, and on three occasions, in 1952, 1955, now established American style of outstanding free and 1956, American men swept the medals.29 Collectively skating. Hayes first appeared on the national scene in they claimed seven of twelve medals at the Olympic 1946. David, who was three years younger, appeared Winter Games and twenty-six of forty-two medals at the in 1949. Neither of them won the novice title, but both World Championships.

JOH 1 | 2016 “The Golden Age of American Skating” Fourteen Remarkable Years 47 Tenley Albright and Carol Heiss followed in 1953 and 1955, and she won her Olympic gold medal in 1956. A reviewer for the London Times in The story of America’s golden age would be incomplete describing Albright’s Olympic free skating programme without the ladies. Brown, writing in 1959, credited reported that her “exquisite performance kept us the “showy exhibitions” of with spellbound with its delicacy of footwork, its effortless providing “some inkling of a new refreshing breath speed over the ice, together with its superb jumping that was shortly to burst upon the skating world.”30 He and spinning.”36 Albright accomplished in ladies figure was identifying with historical perspective a second skating what Button had accomplished in the men’s and equally important aspect of the American school: discipline eight years earlier, an ideal balance between its artistry. Merrill was the bronze medallist at the artistry and athleticism, and she coupled it with strong World Championships in 1947, a respectable showing, compulsory figures. although that placement does not indicate adequately Albright’s successor, Carol Heiss, won the novice title at the significance of her skating or the newfound artistry age 11, in 1951, the junior title a year later, and beginning it represented. The silver medallist was Daphne Walker in 1957, she followed Albright as a four-time senior of Great Britain, a prewar skater who had won the champion. As Albright had done four years earlier, Heiss claimed, in 1956, the silver medal in her first Olympic Carol Heiss (left) the effort, and that same year, she won the first of five silver medallist and consecutive World titles.37 Heiss was strong athletically, Tenley Albright the one of few skaters who could jump equally well in both gold medallist cele- directions. She was also an outwardly charismatic brated their successes skater and is remembered especially for her artistry and at the 1956 Olympic femininity. Her performance at Squaw Valley in 1960 Winter Games in was enjoyed by a greatly expanded audience when for ­Cortina, Italy. the first time the Olympic Winter Games were televised. Heiss was honoured as the athlete selected to take the Olympic oath. American ladies, like the men, enjoyed a remarkable depth of talent during the golden age. They won a combined total of six bronze, seven silver, and nine gold medals at the World Championships and the Olympic bronze medal eight years earlier at age fourteen.31 The Winter Games, 40 percent of those awarded. In addition gold medal was claimed by ’s tremendously to Albright and Heiss, the medallists included Gretchen popular whose decisive victories were Merrill, , Sonya Klopfer, Virginia Baxter, always won by commanding margins.32 At the Games a and Barbara Roles.38 year later, Scott won Canada’s first Olympic gold medal American men and women won collectively six of in figure skating. Her classic style represented skating eight Olympic titles and twenty of forty-two world titles perfection, and she was viewed by many as the epitome during the golden age. This success occurred in singles of a skating princess. Brown described her as “like a doll skating, but there is the third discipline of . to be looked at [and] not to be touched.”33 The only American medallists during the period were the Other lady world champions in the postwar era sister and brother pair, Karol and Peter Kennedy, who include Alena (Aja) Vrzánová of who competed for six years beginning in 1947. They won silver followed Scott for two years, 1949 and 1950. She too medals at the World Championships four times, became was a balanced skater whose success resulted from world champions in 1950, and won silver medals at the high scores for both the compulsory figures and free Winter Games in 1952. Continuing to the present, the skating.34 During the next four years, ladies from four United States has not won an Olympic pairs title and only different countries won world titles: Jeannette Altwegg once, in 1979, an additional world title.39 of Great Britain in 1951, Jacqueline du Bief of France in It was perhaps appropriate that the Winter Games of 1952, Tenley Albright of the United States in 1953, and 1960 were held at Squaw Valley in the United States. Gundi Busch of Germany in 1954. Altwegg was also the David Jenkins and Carol Heiss ended their competitive Olympic champion in 1952. careers that year as Olympic champions unaware that Tenley Albright won the novice title at the US with their retirement America’s golden age would come Championships in 1949, the junior title in 1950, and to an end. Talented young skaters were waiting in the beginning in 1952, five consecutive senior titles. She first wings with dreams of winning medals and continuing competed internationally at the Olympic Winter Games America’s success of the past fourteen years, but those in 1952 and claimed the silver medal.35 World titles dreams were shattered a year later, on 15th February

48 1961, when Sabena Airlines flight 548, carrying the tremendous variety in artistry while rewarding the ever entire United States World team - skaters, coaches, increasing difficulty in athleticism. Brown recognised the officials, and parents - crashed in en route to variety possible within the system when he compared the championships in Prague. Although America was the postwar American and Canadian ladies, stating that able to rebound relatively quickly, it would never again “there was the American school, spectacular, showy, dominate the sport so completely. and predominantly athletic, and the Canadian school, polished, charming, and supple.”43 He appreciated Athleticism and Artistry the beauty of both styles, acknowledging that one was simply more traditional than the other. The Canadians, What were the underlying tenets of America’s golden like the Europeans, tended to be more classic; the age? Athleticism is most often mentioned, but Americans more romantic. artistry is an equal partner. Throughout the history Can we then separate athleticism from artistry in of figure skating, dating back to figures skated in figure skating? The answer is probably “no,” but it is this the eighteenth century and continuing through the subjectivity that provides the beauty of the sport and sport’s evolution in the nineteenth century, a balance creates the difficulty in judging it. between athleticism and artistry had always been at What separated the postwar American skaters from the forefront of the sport’s development. But with the their prewar predecessors in Austria, Germany, and beginning of free skating, first contested competitively Britain? It was primarily the emergence of an abundance at the World Championship in 1892, this balance took of natural talent among those who came to prominence on new importance. Technically difficult programmes during and just after Second World War, skaters who constructed in a meaningful way demanded it, and lacked a direct connection to European conventions judging criteria were established to assure it. Rules in the sport. Through a combination of athletic ability published for the 1908 Olympic Games in London and artistic suave, they tended to modernize the sport. followed those already adopted by the ISU and can serve An appropriate term to describe their skating would be as an example: “The free skating is marked (a) for the “artistic athleticism.” This defined America’s golden contents of the programme performed (difficulty and age, but artistic athleticism once established became the variety); (b) for the manner of performance (harmonious new norm, and it is the legacy of the American school. composition, sureness, carriage and movement, etc.).”40 The influence could be seen already in the champions of Scores for the two parts counted equally, and this the , including among others of prescribed equality between athleticism and artistry Austria, of the Netherlands, and in pairs remained fundamental to the sport until the adoption of Lyudmila Belousova and of the Soviet a new judging system more than a century later.41 Union. But the sport could not remain stagnant. Figure Competitive figure skating before 1892 was typically skating had to continue evolving, inevitably more in the presentation of a selected number of figures athleticism than in artistry. judged separately with the scores added together. Beginning with the establishment of the ISU that year, The charismatic competitions were divided into two parts, compulsory Carol Heiss, figures and free skating, a combination that continued ­remembered for nearly a hundred years until the ISU abolished the ­especially for her compulsories in 1990. Historically, the compulsory figures ­artistry and represented a continuation of the old, the free skating ­femininity, ­displayed implementation of something new, specifically the the high level of direction figure skating would take over the long term. achievement attained From its beginning in 1892 and continuing through the by American figure years of America’s golden age, the ISU placed greater skaters during the numerical value, 60 percent, on the compulsory figures, golden age. but after the golden age and partially a result of its influence, successive changes reduced gradually both the number of figures skated in competition and their scoring value. The first, in 1967, was a reduction in their value to 50 percent, an equalizing factor between the compulsories and the free skating.42 Judging of free skating itself was always based on two equally scored components, eventually called technical merit and artistic impression, a system that allowed for

JOH 1 | 2016 “The Golden Age of American Skating” Fourteen Remarkable Years 49 Other countries came to dominate the sport after 1960, the titles and medals. After 1960, American skaters, now especially the in pair skating following an established and respected part of the international Belousova and Protopopov’s first Olympic title in 1964. A scene, continued to compete well. Because the men decade later Soviet skaters began dominating ice dancing and women have always been more successful than the as well.44 Among other countries, the German Democratic pairs, statistics are given for them separately as well as Republic (East Germany) had a period of notable success combined with the pairs. during the and 1980s. By the end of the century, America’s golden age resulted from a generation Asian countries, and China, had begun producing of unusually gifted figure skaters who matured and champions, and in the newer discipline of synchronized surfaced after the war. They expanded athleticism and skating, not yet an Olympic sport, the Scandinavian with youthful enthusiasm did so while displaying a countries, and Finland, dominated beginning new flair for artistry. Skaters, judges, officials, and fans with the first World Championship in 2000. throughout the world took notice of the exuberance they brought to the sport, a clear break from the older The Americans after 1960 and somewhat more rigid prewar style. This did not represent a sudden change in skating technique America has continued to produce fine figure skaters, or practices but rather a new freedom in skating especially among the ladies. In 1966, just five years after performance, one that reflected the mood of postwar the plane crash, won the first of three society in general. It was a major step towards figure consecutive world titles, and she capped her career with skating as we know it today. • Olympic gold in 1968. Other Olympic champions include in 1976, in 1992, Tara 1 It is acknowledged that today females are most often referred to Lipinski in 1998, and in 2002. Two men as “women,” but in the sport of figure skating, from the eight- have won Olympic titles, Scott Hamilton in 1984 and Brian eenth century to the present; the term “ladies” has been employed ­almost exclusively for women. A discussion held at an ISU congress Boitano in 1988. In addition to the Olympic successes, ­confirmed that in figure skating but not speed skating there are only American men and ladies claimed twenty-seven world men and ladies. In an attempt to be historically correct, the term titles during the years from 1962 through 2002. “ladies” has necessarily been used throughout this article. 2 Benjamin T. Wright used the term for chapter titles in Skating in The following chart of medals and titles won by America: The 75th Anniversary History of the United States Figure Americans at the Olympic Games and the World Skating Association. Chapter 8 is titled: “The ‘Golden Age’ of Ameri- Championships shows through percentages the bubble can Skating Begins (1946-1948);” chapter 11 is titled “The Golden Age Ends (1957-1960).” In response to my query regarding the origin of created during the golden age. The columns designate the term, Wright responded in an email of 19th February 2015: “I do the time divisions employed for this article: the pre- not remember the author of it. However, I do remember that it came Second World War years, the golden age, and the into use mostly after the crash in 1961 as a way to remember the leg- acy that had been transferred to those who were lost in the crash.” period after 1960. The United States produced talented He suggested, “Tee (Theresa Weld) Blanchard, the longtime editor of skaters before Second World War, but there were no Skating magazine could have been the author of it.” 3 The other major international figure skating championships, the world or Olympic champions and just a few medallists. European Championships and the North American Champion- During the golden age, a new generation of Americans ships, were intended specifically for those continents. American redirected free skating into a more perfect balance ­competitors appeared at the European Championships twice before Second World War and again in 1947 and 1948, after which the cham- between athleticism and artistry while offering solid pionships were closed to them. European skaters never competed at compulsory figures, and they won a huge percentage of the North American Championships.

PERCENTAGES OF MEDALS AND TITLES WON BY AMERICAN SKATERS OLYMPIC GAMES 1908-1936 1948-1960 1964-2002 Medals won (men, ladies, and pairs) 9% 38% 21% Medals won (men and ladies only) 11% 50% 28%

Titles won (men, ladies, and pairs) 0% 50% 21% Titles won (men and ladies only) 0% 75% 31%

WORLD CHAMPIONSHIPS 1908-1939 1947-1960 1962- 2002 Medals won (men, ladies, and pairs) 3% 39% 23% Medals won (men and ladies only) 4% 51% 28%

Titles won (men, ladies, and pairs) 0% 47% 22% Titles won (men and ladies only) 0% 67% 32%

50 4 Figure skaters from six countries competed at the London Games in champion in 1945. Her best placement as a senior was third in 1947. 1908: Argentina, Germany, Great Britain, , Sweden, and the Internationally, she placed fourth behind Gretchen Merrill at the United States. Winter sports were not included at the Stockholm World Championships in 1947, largely a result of a poor showing in Games in 1912. the compulsory figures. Her free skating scores were significantly 5 The first World Championship was held at St. Petersburg, Russia, in better than Merrill’s. Seigh’s only other international appearance 1896. was at the Olympic Winter Games in 1948 where she placed eleventh. 6 The shortened form, U. S. Figure Skating, has been used since 2003. Merrill placed eighth. 7 The competitors listed in order of placement were Herma Szabó 26 RICHARDSON, Capt. T. D. “Impressions,” Skating magazine, 6th May (Planck-Szabó, Jarosz-Szabó) of Austria, Beatrix Loughran, of the 1951. United States, Ethel Muckelt of Great Britain, Theresa Weld Blanchard 27 Medallists at the World Championships in 1960 were Alain Giletti of of the United States, Andrée Joly of France, Cecil Smith of Canada, France, gold, Donald Jackson of Canada, silver, and of of Great Britain, and Sonja Henie of Norway. France, bronze, all of whom had placed behind David Jenkins and 8 Theresa Weld was married that year after which she competed ­under other Americans but would now in turn become World Champions. her married name, Blanchard. This remarkable skater collected a Giletti in 1960, Jackson in 1962, and Calmat in 1965. ­total of thirty-two medals in national and international competi- 28 WRIGHT, Benjamin T. “Hall of Fame Scrapbook,” Skating magazine, tions during her career. The ladies who competed at the Antwerp November 1976, 23-24. Games in order of placement were Magda Julin and Svea Nore´n of 29 The American sweeps were accomplished by Dick Button, James Sweden, Theresa Weld of the United States, of Great ­Grogan and Hayes Jenkins in 1952, and by Hayes Jenkins, Ronald Britain, and Margot Moe and Ingrid Gulbrandsen of Norway. Robertson, and David Jenkins in 1955 and 1956. 9 The competitors listed in order of placement were Ulrich Salchow, 30 BROWN, 179. and Per Thorén of Sweden, John Keiller Grieg and 31 Walker was the youngest of a triumvirate of British ladies – Cecilia Albert March of Great Britain, Irving Brokaw of the United States, and Colledge, , and Walker – all of whom began skating Horatio Torromé of Argentina. ­internationally at age 11, but Walker, who was five years younger 10 The European Championships date back to 1891, the year before the than her compatriots, had her career disrupted by the war. At age ISU was founded. The championship that year was for compulsory figures only. The 1892 championship was the first held under ISU 21 when competition resumed in 1947, she was challenged by a governance, and it is the first championship to include free skating younger generation of ladies but won the bronze medal at the World in addition to the compulsories. ­Championships after which she retired. 11 The medallist were Beatrix Loughran, bronze in 1924, , 32 Eight of the nine judges placed Scott first. The only dissenting judge, silver in 1928, Hedy Stenuf, bronze in 1938 and silver in 1939, and from Great Britain, placed Walker first. Scott’s impressive com- , silver in 1931. It is noted that Stenuf competed for three petitive record includes four national titles. Her international titles different countries: Austria in 1935, France in 1936 and 1937, and the ­include North American titles in 1945 and 1947, European titles in 1947 United States in 1938 and 1939. and 1948, world titles in 1947 and 1948, and an Olympic gold medal 12 Japan, the first Asian member, joined the ISU in 1926. Prior to Second in 1948. World War, it twice sent competitors to the World Championships, 33 BROWN, 177. 1932 and 1935, and twice to the Olympic Winter Games, 1932 and 34 Vrzánová refused to return to Czechoslovakia after the 1950 World 1936. Japanese competitors did not appear after the war until 1951. Championships in London and was given political asylum in the 13 The Canadians won two silver and one bronze medals at the two United States. She became a popular show skater, touring with the World Championships and one bronze medal at the Lake Placid and for a total of 17 years. Retiring in New York Games. City, she died there in 2015 at age 84. 14 During the first six years after First World War, 1922-1927, Austrian 35 At that time, the US Championships were held after the World gold medallists at the World Championships include Herma Szabó ­Championships and the Olympic Winter Games. (Planck-Szabó, Jarosz-Szabó) five times, Fritz Kachler once, and 36 “Miss Albright’s Title” quoted from the London Times, 3rd February Willy Böckl three times. Pair skaters included Helene Engelmann and 1956, in Skating magazine, April 1956, 14. twice and Herma Szabó and Ludwig Wrede twice. The 37 Heiss is the only American lady to do so consecutively. Michelle Austrians claimed thirteen of the eighteen titles. Kwan later won five world titles over a period of eight years, 1996, 15 The Open Professional Championships, also sponsored by the 1998, 2000-2001, and 2003. Prior to Second World War, Herma Szabó th ­National Skating Association, had been held a month earlier, on 9 (Planck-Szabó, Jarosz-Szabó) of Austria won five consecutive world April. titles, 1922 through 1926, and Sonja Henie of Norway followed with 16 Some publications refer to these regional competitions as “national ten, 1927 through 1936. championships,” but after the Anschluss in 1938, Austria ceased to 38 Medallists at the World Championships include: Gretchen Merrill,­ exist as an independent country until the end of the war in 1945. bronze in 1947; Yvonne Sherman, silver in 1949 and bronze in 1950; 17 Rada withdrew from the World Championships after the compul- Sonya Klopfer, bronze in 1951 and silver in 1952; Virginia Baxter, sory figures at which time he was in fourth place. Other prewar bronze in 1952; and Barbara Roles, bronze in 1960. Roles also won ­competitors who competed in 1948 were Helnut Seibt, Helmut May, the bronze medal at the 1960 Games. and Martha Musilek-Bachem. 39 and Randy Gardner won the world title in 1979. They 18 The chart is taken from: HINES, Figure Skating in the Formative Years, provided the USA with hope for winning an Olympic title in 1980, Urbana, Illinois, The University of Illinois Press, 2015, 110. but owing to a groin injury suffered by Gardner, they were forced to 19 The medal count at the Garmisch-Partenkirchen Games was Austria withdraw. 3, Germany 2, Great Britain 1, Hungary 1, Norway 1, and Sweden 1. 40 The Fourth Olympiad: being the Official Report of The Olympic Games 20 Gerschwiler, whose international career was disrupted by the war, of 1908, London, The British Olympic Association, 563-564. was ten years older than Button. He first competed internationally at the European Championships in 1939 and placed fifth. 41 The International Judging System (IJS) was established and ­adopted 21 BROWN, Nigel, : A History, New York, A. S. Barnes and after the judging scandal at the Salt Lake City Games in 2002. See: Company, Inc., 1959, 178. “International Judging System” in HINES, James R., Historical 22 BUTTON, Dick, Dick Button on Skates, Engelwood Cliffs, New Jersey, ­Dictionary of Figure Skating, Lanham, Maryland, Scarecrow Press, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1955, 35. Inc., 2011. 23 Grafström was the Olympic champion in 1920, 1924, and 1928. He 42 For addition information on changes in and reduction of the number competed in the World Championships selectively but won all three of compulsory figures skated in competition, see “compulsory entered, 1922, 1924, and 1929. ­figures” in HINES. 24 Gustave Lussi of Switzerland moved to the United States to teach 43 BROWN, 181. skating after suffering a skiing accident. He was among the first 44 Ice dancing became a World Championship discipline in 1952 and coaches to analyze jumping and spinning from the standpoint of an sport in 1976. Because it had little influence on physics, which led to significantly increased athleticism. America’s golden age, it has not been considered in the discussion 25 BUTTON, 21. Eileen Seigh was the novice champion in 1944 and ­junior or included in the statistics presented in this article.

JOH 1 | 2016 “The Golden Age of American Skating” Fourteen Remarkable Years 51