The evolutionofsheep and goathusbandry in centralAnatolia

Benjamin S.ARBUCKLE BaylorUniversity Departmentof Anthropology,ForensicScience,and Archaeology One BearPlace#97173,Waco,TX76798-7173 (U.S.A.) [email protected]

AliyeÖZTAN AnkaraUniversity,Dil veTarih-Cog ˘ rafyaFacültesi Arkeoloji Bölümü,Ankara(Turkey)

Sevil GÜLÇUR IstanbulUniversity,EdebiyatFacültesi PrehistoryaAnabilim Dalı,Istanbul(Turkey)

Arbuckle B.S.,ÖztanA.&Gülçur S.2009. —The evolution of sheep and goathusbandry in centralAnatolia. Anthropozoologica 44(1):129-157.

ABSTRACT Thispaperexplorestheevolution ofsheepandgoathusbandry in central Anatoliathrough theanalysisofnewandpublished faunaldatafrom Neolithic, Chalcolithic, andBronzeAgesitesin theregion. Themajor KEYWORDS patternsofchangeovertimein thepastoralsystemarediscussed including the Pastoralism, herdmanagement, beginningsofherding,theappearance ofthepractice ofyoung malekill-off, sheep, andthetiming oftheonsetoftheintensiveuseofsecondary products.Results, goat, including thediscovery oflongstanding differencesin themanagementof domestication, Neolithic, sheepandgoats aswell assynchronicdifferencesin herding strategies,have Chalcolithic, importantimplicationsforunderstanding theroleofanimalhusbandry BronzeAge, centralAnatolia, in centralAnatoliancommunitiesandindicatethatthehistory ofpastoral Turkey. production in theregion iscomplexandmulti-faceted.

RÉSUMÉ L’évolution del’élevage desmoutonsetdeschèvresenAnatolie centrale Cetarticleaborde l’évolution de l’élevagedesmoutonsetdeschèvresen l’Anatoliecentraleàtravers l’analysededonnéesnouvellesetpubliées

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) ©PublicationsScientifiquesduMuséumnationald’Histoirenaturelle,Paris. 129 S.ArbuckleB.,ÖztanA.&Gülçur S.

provenantde sitesde larégion datantduNéolithique, duChalcolithiqueet MOTS CLÉS de l’âgedeBronze.Lesprincipaux modesde changementdansletempsdu Pastoralisme, systèmepastoralsontexaminés,depuislesdébuts de l’élevage, l’apparition gestion dutroupeau, de lapratiquedel’abattagedesjeunesmâleetlemomentde l’apparition mouton, chèvre, de l’utilisation intensivedesproduits secondaires.Lesrésultats,ycompris domestication, ladécouvertededifférencesdurablesdanslegestion desmoutonsetdes Néolithique, chèvresainsiquededifférencessynchroniquesdanslesstratégiesd’élevage, Chalcolithique, ontd’importantesimplicationspour lacompréhension durôledel’élevage âgeduBronze, Anatoliecentrale, danslescommunautésd’Anatoliecentrale.Ilsmontrentquel’histoiredela Turquie. production pastoraledanslarégion est complexeetmulti-facettes.

INTRODUCTION aparticularfocus on examining evidence forsheep andgoathusbandry in centralAnatoliafrom the Asoneofthemost importantsocioeconomicsystems Neolithicthrough theBronzeAge.Despitearapid in theancientandmodernNearEast,pastoralism, increasein studiesdetailingthenatureofanimal theherding ofdomestichoofed ungulates,whether economiesin centralAnatolia( e.g. ,Boessneck& practiced bynomads,agro-pastoralists,within ega- Wiedemann1977,von denDriesch&Boessneck litariantribesorstratified states,hasbeenamajor 1981,Hongo1993; 1998;1999;2004,Zeder& focus ofanthropologicalresearchformorethanahalf Arter1994,Buitenhuis1996; 1997; 1999,De century(de Planhol 1958, Barth1959,Irons1969, Cupere&Waelkens1998, Howell-Meurs 2001; Salzman1971;2004,Dyson-Hudson 1972,Irons Martin etal. 2002,Atıcı 2003; 2005,Carruthers &Dyson-Hudson 1972,Bates1973,Garthwaite 2003,DeCupere&Duru2003,von denDriesch 1978, Tapper1979,Beck1986,Black-Michaud &Pöllath2004,Russell &Martin 2005,Russell, et 1986,Galaty &Johnson 1990,Borgerhoff Mulder al. 2005,Martin &Russell 2006)therehavebeen &Sellen1994,Azarya1996). Archaeologists have fewattempts tolook atthebroad patternsofchange beenparticularlyinterested in addressing three broad overmultiplechronological/culturalperiodsandto questionsrelated topastoralismincluding:1) the synthesizeresults from multiplesites(although for originsofsheepandgoatherding,whichrepresents theNeolithicperiodsee Martin etal. 2002). Asa thefirst successfuldomestication ofafoodanimal result,acentralcomponentoftheculturalhistory (Helmer1992,Harris1996,Horwitz etal. 1999, oftheregion remainspoorlyknown. Peters etal. 1999,Zeder&Hesse2000,Vigne et Byfocusing on theevolution ofpastoralproduction al. 2005),2)thedevelopmentofhighlyproductive, in the longuedurée,thegoalofthispaperistopre- milk andfiberproducing herds(Sherratt 1981, sentabroad pictureoftheevolution ofsheepand Greenfield1989),and3)theappearance oflarge goathusbandry patternsin centralAnatoliaandto scale, mobilepastoralsystemsknownfrom histori- address importanttransitionsincluding theinitial calperiodsin theregion (Barth1961,Irons1975, appearance ofpastoraleconomiesaswell asthe Matthews 1978, Beck1986,Bar-Yosef &Khazanov developmentofmoreintensivepastoralmanagement 1992,Zeder1994b, Bar-Yosef &Meadow1995, strategiesincluding theuseofherdsforsecondary, Grigson 2000,Fleming 2004,Greenfield&Fowler orantemortem,products ( i.e. ,milk,fiber)(after 2005). Itiswidelyrecognized thateachofthese Vigne&Helmer2007). Inaddition torepresenting transitionsrepresents majortransformativeevents animportantincreasein theproductivepotential in theculturehistory oftheNearEast (Sherratt ofancientherds,thislast featureisoftenseenasa 1981;1983,Bar-Yosef &Khazanov1992). necessary precondition forthedevelopmentoflarge Inthispaperwedescribe thebroad patternsofchange scale, specialized andmobileformsofpastoralism, overtimein thiscentralsocioeconomicsystemwith thedevelopmentofwhichisalsoaddressed.

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Thefollowing discussion isbased on abodyofnew BACKGROUND andpublished faunaldatafrom sevensitesin central Anatoliarepresenting Neolithic, Chalcolithicand Inordertoaddress questionsconcerning pastoral BronzeAgesettlements (Fig. 1;Table1). Although production wefocus on acombination ofageand chronologicalcoverageisnotcomplete, thecurrent measurementdataforsheepandgoats.Agedata, sampledoesprovide avaluablemeanstoaddress based on thestateoffusion oftheepiphysesoflong majorquestionsofchangeovertimein systemsof bonesandtheeruption andwearofmandibular caprinehusbandry in thisregion. teeth,canbe used tointerprettheagecomposi-

F IG.1.—MapofTurkeyshowing the location of sitesmentioned in the text.A  I=A  ıklı;ERB =Erbaba;ÇAT=Çatalhöyük; SUB =Suberde;K  K=Kö  kHöyük;GÜV =Güvercinkayası;ACE =Acemhöyük.

T ABLE 1. —Approximatechronologicalrelationshipsof the primary sitesmentioned in the text aswell asthe frequencyof caprines and the ratio of sheep togoatin eachassemblage (from Perkins&Daly1968,Buitenhuis1997,Cessford2001,Thissen 2002,Martin &Russell 2005,Arbuckle 2006).

SiteApprox.datecalBC %caprinesSheep:goatratio

A  ıklı Höyük8200-7500 84 4.0:1 Suberde 7400-7000 825.6:1 Çatalhöyükpre-XII toIV 7400-6200 65-757.0:1 Erbaba 6500-6000 77 4.6:1 Kö  kII-V6200-5500 60 3.5:1 Kö  kI5200-4800 833.2:1 Güvercinkayası5200-4800 81 4.3:1 AcemhöyükII-III 2000-1800 651.7:1

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tion oftheanimalschosenforslaughter(Hesse& chosenforslaughterwithgeneralgoalsofpastoral Wapnish1985,Davis1987,Lyman1994).Theseare production. Thelink betweenthesevariableshas oftenpresented in theformofsurvivorship curves, beendiscussed bymanyresearchers ( e.g. Higham whichvisuallyrepresentthefrequencyofanimals 1967,Ducos1968, Redding 1981;1984,Zeder surviving increasinglyoldagecategories,beginning 1991;2001,Helmer1992,Vigne&Helmer2007) with100%atagecategory 1andending withnone but hasbeendescribed most influentiallyin the surviving past agecategory X(Payne1973,Levine formofpredictivemodelsbyPayne(1973). These 1983,Lyman1994). Although thereareseveral modelsdefinethebasicrelationshipsbetweenthe methodsforgenerating survivorship curves,this goalsofherdmanagement—whetherfocused on paperfollows thelife tablemethodcommon in maximizing theproduction ofprimary (orpost- thewildlife literature(Deevey1947,Quick1963, mortem) products suchasmeatorsecondary (or Caughley1966,Lyman1994) in whicheachsur- antemortem) products suchasmilk orfiber—and vivorship value(sometimesdenoted as“lx”)repre- thesexandagecomposition oftheanimalschosen sents anestimateofthepercentageofindividuals forslaughter. surviving atthebeginning ofagivenagecategory. Briefly,themeatmodelpredicts thatwhenthegoal Inarecentpaperfocusing on theinterpretation of ofproductionisprimarilymeat,most youngmales mortality data, VigneandHelmer(2007:20-21) will be killed whentheyreachanoptimumpoint suggest thatwhencalculating mortality profiles, in weight-gain —between18-30 months(Payne acorrection factorshouldbeapplied in orderto 1973:281-82; alsoDigard1981,Redding 1981, accountforthevarying lengthsoftimerepresented by Black-Michaud1986,Salzman2004). Theageat themost commonlyused agestages(Payne’s (1973) whichmaleswill be slaughtered within thisrange MandibularWearStagesA-I). However,since mor- (orevenoutside ofit)mayvary depending on a tality datain thispaperarepresented in theformof variety offactors including thecost/availability of survivorship curves,thissuggested correction factor fodderandgraze, theavailability oflabortosupervise isnotutilized.Since eachsurvivorship (lx)value herds,theimmediatefinancialorotherneedsof represents anestimateofthepercentageofanimals theherder,environmentalconditions,andcultural/ surviving atthebeginning ofagecategoryX, differences marketpreferencesforlamborthemeatofother in thelengthofeachcategory (ifwithin reason) are specificdemographicgroups.Thismodelpredicts relativelyunimportant.However,whenmortality thatwhenmeatistheprimary goalofproduction, values(dxvaluesin wildlife studies)representing theresulting survivorship curvedropsprecipitously thenumberofdeathsin aparticularagecategory formalessometimein thefirst 2.5 years whilefemale arepresented asthefocus ofanalysis(astheyare survivorship declinesmuchmoregraduallythrough in VigneandHelmer2007)thenitmakesmore adulthood.Asaresult,in themeatmodelthevast sensetoaddress thevarying lengthsofeachage majority ofanimalssurviving intoadulthoodare category withacorrection factor(alsosee Payne females(80-98%based on ethnographicexamples 1973:Table3,figures15 and16). (Bates1973:147,Redding 1981)). Inthispaper,measurementdataincluding those Thefibermodelpredicts thatwhentheprimary derived from bothfused andunfused specimensare goalofproduction iswool orhair,herders shift used toidentifysizediminution associated withthe theirmanagementstrategytowardsculling adult process ofdomestication (Bökönyi1969,Ducos individuals(Payne1973:282). Asaresult,this 1978, Uerpmann 1979,Davis1987,Meadow1989, modelpredicts thatwhenfiberistheprimary goal Zeder2006)and, in combination withsurvivorship ofproduction,themajority ofanimalswill survive curves,todeterminetheproportionsofmalesand well intoadulthood, and, in contrast tothemeat femalesslaughtered within specificagegroups model,theadultpopulation will consist ofboth (Hesse1978, Zeder&Hesse2000,Zeder2001). femalesandmales(oftencastrated)since bothare Inordertousethesesourcesofdatatointerpretthe effectivefiberproducers.Identification ofbothof goalsofpastoralproduction,wefocus on models thesefeaturesiscriticaltotheidentification ofthe thatlink theageandsexcomposition ofanimals fibermodelandfordistinguishing fiberproduction

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from ameatprofilein whichthejuvenileshavebeen thenon-intensiveproduction ofherdsformilk in deleted bytaphonomicfactors. addition tomeatmaybe indistinguishablefrom the Payne’s thirdmodeldescribesthemanagementexpec- rangeofvariation expected within themeatmodel. tationswhenthegoalistheintensiveproduction Finally,theinterpretation ofdairy production from ofmilk. Thismodelpredicts thatwhenmilk isthe mortality profilesischaracterized bytheproblemof primary goalofproduction herders will slaughter equifinality.Likeall archaeologicalpatterns,mortality most malesasyoung lambssoastomaximizethe profilessimilartothemilk modelcouldpotentially milk availableforhumanconsumption. Thismodel be explained byahost ofbehaviors otherthandairy isdistinguishablefrom themeatmodelinits focus production (Halstead1998). Inparticular,produc- on theslaughterofmalesin theyoungest agecate- tion systemsfocused on very young tendermeat, gories.Ofall oftheproduction modelstherehas thepresence ofhigh infantmortality (asin casesof beenthemost discussion concerning theapplication crowded penningandstalling),orsamplingfrom ofthemilk modeltoarchaeologicalcontexts (see areascontaining high proportionsofinfantremains Halstead 1998andreferencestherein). Arguments ( e.g. ,shrinesortemples)couldproduce morta- havetended tofall intothree categories. lity patternsthatmimicthemilk model. Halstead First,although slaughterofsurplus animalsin the (1998: 14) haspointed out thatwhiletaphonomic first 6-8weeksfollowing birthiscommon practice biases,particularlythoseaffecting theremainsofthe among moderndairy producers andacts tomaxi- youngest individuals,arelikelytomaskarchaeological mizethemilk availableforhumanconsumption, evidence forintensivemilk production ( e.g. ,Munson somehaveraised doubts astowhetherprimitive 2000),theyareless likelytoartificiallycreateit(also domesticbreedscouldproduce milk in theabsence Vigne&Helmer2007:16). However,asdiscussed ofaninfant(Clutton-Brock1981,McCormick above, convergentmortality patternsresulting from 1992,Balasse2002). IsotopicworkbyBalasseand differentmanagementstrategies( e.g. ,subsistence Tresset(2002)hassuggested thatthismayhave production ofmilk vs intensivemeatproduction) beenthecaseforNeolithiccattlein Europe, which remain amajorobstacletotheinterpretation ofthe appeartohavebeenweaned at6-9 monthsrather goalsofpastoralproduction. thaninthefirst weeks.However,thisissueofmilk Moreover,Halstead hasalsorightlypointed out let-downmaybe aless serious issueforcaprines thefundamentalweakness in mortality evidence (Halstead 1998: 5-6). fordairying:thatwhiletheintensiveculling of Secondly,Payne’s milk modeldescribesasystem surplus lambsdoes“implythatherdmanagement ofhighlyintensivemilk production focused on enhanced the potential forproduction ofmilk rather producing forlarge-scalemarkets andits applica- than[otherproducts]”(Halstead 1998: 7,original bility toprehistoricsocioeconomiccontexts has emphasis),itdoes not provethatmilk wasactually beenquestioned.Halstead (1998)hassuggested exploited.Asaresult,multipleinterpretationsare thatthistypeofmanagementsystemisprobably always possibleandmilk production remainsoneof most likelyunderconditionsin whichherders are themost difficultmanagementsystemstoidentify highlydependentupon animalproducts,havelarge archaeologically. herds,andarehighlyintegrated intoamarketeco- Payne’s three modelsrepresenttheoreticalconstructs nomy( i.e. ,specialized pastoralists). Smallerscale, thatdescribe patternsofherdmanagementexpected subsistence-oriented producers aremorelikelyto underoptimizing conditions.Asaresult,theyare space theslaughterofsurplus ramsout overan best viewed asheuristicdevices,whichserveasa extended periodofmonthsorevenyears sacrifi- starting pointfrom whichtointerpretarchaeolo- cing thequantity ofmilk availablebut providing gicalpatterns,whichthemselvesarenotexpected a“walking larder” asahedgeagainst futurepoten- torepresentoptimization (Halstead 1998: 4-5). As tialinsecurities(see Redding (1981) foradetailed Payne(1973:282)noted, herders rarelyfocus on a discussion ofriskreduction asaherding strategy). singleproductandmust instead balance between Thisdelayed slaughterofsurplus lambsislikelyto conflicting requirements represented bymanage- look very muchlikePayne’s meatmodelandthus mentformultipleproducts,aswell asin response

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toahost ofsocial,political,andenvironmen- a“tendermeat” model. Incontrast toPayne’s model talvariables.However,instead ofrepresenting a (termed the“typeAmilk”model),the“typeBmilk” weakness,thetheoreticalnatureofthesemodels modelischaracterized bythedelayed slaughterof isalsotheirgreatest strength,asitisthrough the lambsthroughout theirfirst yearsimilartothe process ofidentifying deviationsfrom optimality situation described abovefornon-intensivevillage thatwebegin tointerpretthecomplexmanagement herders (Halstead 1998: 9,alsoPayne1973:282). behaviors ofherders. Thismodelproducesmortality peaksamong older Although rarelydiscussed, Payne(1973:282)pro- lambs,from 6-12months,andthenagain foradult videsseveralexamplesoftheinterpretation ofdevia- femalesbetween2-4 years.The“tendermeat” model tionsfrom hisoptimization modelsillustrating how predicts akill-off ofyoung ramsbetweentheagesof multipleproduction goalsmightbe balanced.For 6-12monthsratherthanbetween18-30 monthsas example, ifbothmeatandmilk areproduced and in Payne’s meatmodel(alsosee Payne1973:282). milk isofprimary importance andeitherlaboror Thesemodelsarepresented tofill perceived gaps wintergraze/fodderisrestricted orexpensive, then in thePaynemodelsandrepresent“intermediate” most malelambswill slaughtered beforetheirfirst managementstrategies,whicharethenused by winterat6-9 months.Iftheproduction ofmeatis VigneandHelmertointerpretcomplex“mix- ofgreaterimportance, ifwinterfeeding posesfew tures” ofdifferenttypesofproduction goalsinclu- problems,andiflaborisavailablethensurplus males ding tendermeat+typeBmilk,orfiber+meat, arelikelytobe slaughtered in theirsecondandeven based largelyon thelocation ofmodalmortality thirdyears.However,ifwinterfeed isexpensiveor age.Although thedevelopmentofmoredetailed unavailableandlaborisin short supplythensurplus modelswithwhichtointerpretmortality data lambsmayagain be slaughtered beforetheirfirst isbeneficial,onemust always be mindfulofthe winter.Inthisway,deviationsfrom theexpected inherentweaknessesin theuseofmortality data modelscanbe interpreted in termsofvariables tointerpretmanagementstrategies.Perhapsthe including mixed production goals,costs offodder, most importantofthese—asdiscussed earlieras availability ofwinterpasture, availability oflabor, acriticismofPayne’s milk model—isequifinality, aswell astheinfluence ofmarkets. boththrough thelikelihoodthatmultiplestrategies VigneandHelmer(2007 andreferencestherein) withdifferentproductiongoalscanproduce similar haverecentlymade animportantcontribution to mortality profiles( e.g. ,tendermeat,typeBmilk, theinterpretation ofmanagementstrategiesbypro- mixed meatandmilk) asherders makecomplexand posing twonewmodelsin addition tothosedefined oftenconflicting managementdecisionsin response byPayne.Theseinclude a“typeBmilk”modeland todynamicsocialandenvironmentalconditions,as

Table 2.—Summary of the relationship between modalslaughterage and the goalsof herdmanagement.

Modal slaughter age (months)

0-2 2-6 6-12 12-24 24-48 48+

Dairy Fiber Type Bmilk Meat andmilk

Tender Meat meat

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well asthrough thealteration ofmortality profiles SITES AND DATA through taphonomicprocesses. Thesuiteofmodelsdiscussed aboveprovidesthe Thesitesexamined in thispaperrepresentarange frameworkforinterpreting managementgoalsfrom ofsettlementtypesincluding largeandsmall mortality profileswiththefull acknowledgement NeolithicandChalcolithicagriculturalvillages oftheirinherentshortcomings.Togethertheypro- aswell asonelargeBronzeAgecenter(Fig. 1; vide severalpoints along acontinuumofpossible Table1). Ageandmeasurementdatafrom these managementstrategieseachfocused on increasingly sitesallowustoaddress thecharacterofsystems aged animals(see Table2). Thesemodelsarenot ofcaprinehusbandry in theregion andtheir viewed asthefinalanswers toquestionsofpastoral changeovertimefrom theearliest Neolithicto production but instead areused assuggested points theBronzeAge. ofentryintotheprocess ofinterpreting themana- gementdecisionsofancientherders. A 5 IKLI H ÖYÜK Therearetwoadditionalissuesthatmust alsobe AıklıHöyükisalargemoundsitelocated in addressed wheninterpreting mortality evidence for themountainous region ofCappadocia(Esin & herdmanagement.Thefirst istheissueofmobility Harmankaya1999) (Fig. 1). Thesiterepresents an andthefactthatmortality dataderived from one earlyphaseofthecolonization ofcentralAnatolia sitemayreflectanincompletesampleofahus- bysedentary farmers in theAceramicNeolithicand bandry system(Meadow1980). Ifmanagement datestothelateninthandearlyeighthmillennia strategiesinclude seasonalmovements toandfrom calBC (middlePPNBin theLevant)(Table1) summerpastures,forexample, thenthearchaeolo- (Thissen2002). gicalpatternsderived from eithersummerorwinter Buitenhuis(1997)foundthattheanimaleconomy residence siteswill representatruncated mortality atAıklıwasdominated bycaprines(Table1). profilereflecting onlyaportion ofthecomplete However,questionsremain concerning howcaprines system(e.g. ,Cribb 1984,Vigne&Helmer2007: wereexploited atthissite, andwhethertheywere 22). AsVigneandHelmer(2007)pointout this herded orhunted (Vigne etal. 1999,Martin et represents asignificant“trap”forarchaeologists that al. 2002). Survivorship curvesbased on epiphy- canbe addressed onlythrough regionalsampling sealfusion indicatethattheAıklıcaprineswere ofdifferenttypesofsites( e.g. ,Helmer etal. 2005). slaughtered primarilybetweentheagesof1-3years, Thesecondissueisoneofprovisioning. Particularlyin withrelativelyfewanimalssurviving past theageof thecontext ofcomplexsocieties,theprovisioning of fusion ofthedistalradius (c.36 months)(Fig. 2). settlements withmeat,oftenbyspecialized producers, Inaddition,Buitenhuisnoted thepresence ofa canhaveasignificantimpacton theinterpretation of mortality data( e.g. ,Stein 1987,Wapnish&Hesse 1988;1991,Crabtree 1990; 1996,Zeder1991). 100 90 GaGanjnj DarehDareh

Urbansystemsareoftencharacterized bysystemsin 80 whichruralproducers provision urbanconsumers. 70

Stein (1987)hascontrasted “consumer” mortality (%) 60 KöskKö  k A Asıklı ıklı ip profilescharacterized byarelativelynarrowrange 50 Suberde 40 Suberde

ofagesand“producer” patterns,whichareexpected survivorsh 30 toinclude adearthofmarket-aged animals.Thus 20 themovementofanimalsofparticulardemographic 10 groupstoandfrom producerandconsumersites 0 03612 24 36 hasthepotentialtocreatemortality profilesthat age (months) primarilyrepresentsystemsofdistribution rather F IG.2.–Survivorship curvesbased on epiphysealfusion for thanproduction (Zeder1991) andmust be taken sheep/goats forA  ıklı Höyük(n=2806)(from Buitenhuis1997), intoaccountwheninterpreting mortality data, par- Kö  kHöyükI-V(n =473),Suberde (n =95) (from Arbuckle 2008a)and wild sheep from Ganj Dareh (n =2112)(from Hesse ticularlyin (but notlimited to) complexsocieties. 1978).

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significantnumberofneonatalcaprineremains in concentrationsoflargemales(see Fig. 3:Ganj in theassemblage.Thefocus on culling animals Dareh) (Helmer1988, Helmer etal. 2005,Rus- within anarrowagerangeiscommonlyassociated sell &Martin 2005). Thissuggests thatsheepand withhumanmanagement,whilehunting often(but goats werelikelysubjecttodifferentexploitation certainlynotalways)results in higherproportions strategiesatAıklı. of“prime-aged”adultindividuals(Stiner1990) Recentanalysisofcarbon andnitrogenisotope (comparecurvesforKö4kandGanj DarehinFig. 2). valuesfrom Aıklıcaprineremainshasindicated Moreover,theremainsofneonatalanimalsare thatbothsheepandgoats werecharacterized bya notuncommon atNeolithicandlaterperiodsites homogeneous and“restricted”diet(Pearson etal. characterized byherding economies,but theycan 2007:2178),whichwasinterpreted aspossibly alsobe anindicatorofspring hunting ( e.g. ,Davis reflecting anearlystagein themanagementofthe &Fischer1990). Together,thesemortality data caprinepopulations.However,thelimited variation havebeenused tosuggest thattheAıklıcaprines in CandNvaluesin theAıklıcaprinesisiden- were“appropriated”resources(Vigne&Buitenhuis tified as“unusual”whencompared tothewider 1999:58, Martin etal. 2002)andweresubjectto spread ofvaluescharacteristicoflaterNeolithicsites anearlyformofherdmanagementthatBuitenhuis including Çatalhöyük(Pearson etal. 2007:2178), (1997)referred toas“proto-domestication”. whileasimilarpatternoflimited variation hasbeen Moreover,Buitenhuishasargued thattheAıklı identified in ancientwildungulatepopulationsin caprinesrepresentamorphologicallywildpopula- thesouthernLevant(Makarewicz2007; personal tion, i.e. ,theyexhibitno evidence foradecreasein communication 2008). Thus isotopedataadd to sizeorothermorphologicalchangesoftenassociated thepicturethatcaprineexploitation atAıklıwas withtheprocess ofdomestication,throughout the significantlydifferentfrom laterNeolithicmana- occupationalsequence ofthesite, aperiodspan- gementstrategiesbut donotclarifythenatureof ning c.400 years.Although morphologicalchanges thosestrategies,whichmayhavebeenmoresimilar arenotexpected tocharacterizetheearliest stages towildlife managementthanintensivehusbandry. ofhumanmanagementoveranimalspopulations (Zeder&Hesse2000,Zeder2006),thelackof S UBERDE evidence forthedevelopmentofmorphological ThesiteofSuberde islocated in aninter-montaine changesoverthisextended periodoftimeisinte- basin in theBeysehir-Suglaregion ofsouthwestern resting andsuggests thatanimalsmaynothavebeen centralAnatolia(Fig. 1). Suberde represents the underintensivehumanmanagementand/orwere remainsofasmall villagesettlementofthelatest notreproductivelyisolated from localwildcaprine AceramicNeolithicandistheearliest excavated populations(Arbuckle2005). Neolithicsettlementin theBeyehirregion. Radio- Inaddition,Buitenhuis(1997:659) reportsthat carbon datesindicatethattheNeolithicoccupation thesexratio forsheepatAıklıisslightlybiased in ofSuberde spanned thesecondhalfoftheeighth favoroffemales,whileforgoats itisskewed towards millenniumcalBC (Bordaz1965;1966; 1969;1973, males.Theseresults areevidentin thedistribution Bordaz&Alper-Bordaz1977,Arbuckle2008a). ofastragalus measurements presented in Figures3 Although originallyinterpreted asrepresenting a and4. Forsheep,thesemeasurements areskewed “Neolithichunters’village”(Perkins&Daly1968), slightlytowardstheleftindicating anabundance recentreanalysisoftheSuberde assemblagehas ofsmallerindividuals(females),whilethegraph shownthatbothsurvivorship curvesandmetrical forgoats isskewed towardstherightindicating a datasuggest thatsheepandpossiblygoats were concentration oflargermales.Thesetwopatterns underhumanmanagementatthissite(Arbuckle areoftenassociated withdifferentexploitation sys- 2008a). Survivorship curvesfortheSuberde caprines temswithherding practicesoften(but notalways) indicatethatthevast majority ofanimalswere producing sexratiosskewed towardssmallerfemales selected forslaughterbetweentheagesof1-3years, (see Figs3:Çatalhöyük,Kö4k;4:Ganj Dareh),and withdentalweardataindicating apeakbetween hunting strategiesoften(but notalways)resulting 12-24monthsaspredicted bymodelsofmeator

136 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) Theevolution ofsheepandgoathusbandry in centralAnatolia

Fig. 3.—Greatest lengthofthe astragalus (GLl) forsheep from Ganj Dareh (n =34) (from Hesse1978),A ıklı Höyük(n=470), Suberde (n =21),Çatalhöyükpre-XII toIV (n =56)(from Russell &Martin 2005),Erbaba (n =95) and Kö  kI-V(n =137). Triangles representmeanvalues.

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) 137 S.ArbuckleB.,ÖztanA.&Gülçur S.

F IG.4.–Greatest lengthofthe astragalus (GLl) forgoats from Ganj Dareh (n =170)(from Hesse1978),A ıklı Höyük(n=87),Suberde (n =4),Çatalhöyükpre-XII toIV (n =10)(from Russell &Martin 2005),Erbaba (n =30),and Kö  kI-V(n =50). Trianglesrepresent meanvalues.

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meatandmilk exploitation (Fig. 2). However, 100 unlikethecaseatAıklıwhereno morphological 90 changesareevident,measurementdatasuggest that 80 70 ÇaÇatalhöyüktalhöyük sheepexhibitadecreasein sizewhencompared to OO/C/C (%) 60 ip morphologicallywildpopulationsin theregion 50 ÇaÇatalhöyüktalhöyük suchasAıklı(Mann-WhitneyUtest,U=7119.0, 40 OOvisvis Kö  kII-V

survivorsh Kösk II-V p=0.004) andKarain B,anEpi-paleolithicsiteon 30 Ovis Ovis theTurkishMediterraneancoast (L.Atıcı personal 20 communication 2006)(see Fig. 3). Inlightofthe 10 0 mortality dataitseemsreasonabletointerpretthis 02612 24 36 48 72 96 decreasein sizeasbeingassociated withcaprines age (months) living andbreeding underconditionsofhuman F IG.5.–Survivorship based on mandibulartoothwearforsheep management(Davis1987,Meadow1989,Arbuckle (n =61) and sheep/goat(n =143)from Çatalhöyüklevelspre-XII through IV (from Russell &Martin 2005) compared tothatfor 2005). Although thedecreasein sizeandthefocus Kö  kII-Vsheep (n =44). on culling young caprinesisstrong evidence that Suberde caprineswereherded, thereiscurrently no evidence tosuggest thatyoung maleswerethe theagesof1-3years.Although thesmall number focus ofkill-off (Arbuckle2008a). Thus although ofgoatmandiblesdoesnotallowaseparatesurvi- theageatwhichcaprineswereselected forslaugh- vorship curveforgoats tobe generated, survivorship terfits withmodelsofherdmanagement,thelack forcombined sheepandgoats ishigherthanthat ofevidence forslaughtering surplus males—a forsheep,suggesting thatgoats wereslaughtered fundamentalfeatureofherding economies(Zeder atolderages(Fig.5). Thefocus on cullingyoung &Hesse2000,Salzman2004,Vigne etal. 2005: caprinesfits well withtheexpectationsofmodels 8)—isapuzzling characteristicofcaprineexploi- formeatormeatandnon-intensivemilk produc- tation atSuberde. tion in whichsomeolderlambs(6-12months)are slaughtered but withkill-off focused on animals Ç ATALHÖYÜK in theirsecondyear,andthencontinuing through ThesiteofÇatalhöyükislocated on thesemi-arid years three andfour.Thissuggests thattherewas KonyaPlain on thefloodplain oftheÇarsamba no greatsocialdemandfortheproduction ofyoung river(Fig. 1). Thesiteisaunique‘mega-village’ lamb, oroflargequantitiesofdairy products,and knownforits largesize, denselypacked architec- thatlaborandfodder/grazewerewidelyavailable ture, andelaboratelydecorated rooms,sometimes tosee surplus animalsthrough theirfirst winter. referred toas“shrines” (Mellaart 1967,Hodder& Thewide rangeofCandNvaluesidentified in the Matthews 1998, Hodder2005). Thelong occupa- bonesofsheepandgoats (Pearson etal. 2007)fits tionalsequence atthesitedatesfrom themideighth withthisinterpretation suggesting thatherdshad millenniumcalBC (pre-XII levels)toc.6000 cal access toawiderrangeofplantresources,including BC (levelsI-II)(Cessford2001). C4plants,thaniscommon formanywildungu- Intheiranalysisofthefaunalremainsfrom the latesandmayreflecttheemergence offoddering pre-XII levelsthrough levelIV, Russell andMartin practicesin centralAnatolia(Makarewicz&Tuross (2005) haveconvincinglyargued thatthecaprines 2006,Makarewicz2007). atÇatalhöyükrepresentdomesticated populations, However,comparison ofthedistalbreadthoffused likelyfrom theearliest levelsofthesettlement.The andunfused metacarpals,measurements which location ofthesiteon theKonyaPlain,outside the canbe used toidentifytheproportionsofmales naturalhabitatofwildcaprines,aswell asunambiguous andfemalesamong unfused young (<24months) evidence forsizediminution (see Figs3and4) andfused older(>24months)individuals,does clearlysupport thisinterpretation. notsuggest thatyoung maleswerethefocus of Survivorship curvesforsheepbased on toothwear slaughter(Fig. 6). Instead, themeanvaluesfor indicatethatmost caprineswereslaughtered between fused andunfused specimensareindistinguishable,

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) 139 S.ArbuckleB.,ÖztanA.&Gülçur S.

F IG.6.–Bargraphsshowing distributionsof measurements of the distalbreadthofsheep metacarpalsforfused (black) and unfused (grey)specimensfrom Çatalhöyükpre-XII toIV (n =28) (from Russell &Martin 2005),Erbaba Höyük(n=27),Kö  kI-V(n =77), Güvercinkayası(n=21),and Acemhöyük(n=44). Meanvaluesforfused and unfused specimensareindicated byblackand grey triangles.

140 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) Theevolution ofsheepandgoathusbandry in centralAnatolia

indicating thatbothlarge(male)andsmall (female) 100 Suberde 90 specimensarewell represented among bothyoung Catalhoyuk andoldanimals,andproviding no evidence for 80 Erbaba Ko kII-V 70 thepractice ofyoung malekill-off.AsatSuberde, Ko k I thislackofevidence forpreferentialslaughtering (%) 60 GK Acem ofsurplus malesispuzzling. Itsuggests eitherthat 50 modernmanagementstrategiesdonotprovide 40 adequateanalogsforthoseoftheearlyNeolithic, survivorship 30 orthatthemortality datafrom Çatalhöyükdonot 20 representacompletesystemofcaprinemanagement. 10 0 Addressing thelatterpossibility,thepresence of 02612 24 36 48 72 96 small temporary camp-sitessuchasPinarbaıA/B age (months) on theKonyaPlain (Baird2003)mayindicate thatlargeportionsofthelandscapesurrounding F IG.7.–Survivorship curvesbased on mandibulartoothwear forsheep from Suberde (n =17),Çatalhöyükpre-XII toIV Çatalhöyükwereutilized in anextensivesystemthat (n =61) (from Russell &Martin 2005),Erbaba Höyük(n=68), wasatleast partiallyresponsibleforprovisioning Kö  kII-V(n =44),Kö  kI(n =133),Güvercinkayası(n=79),and thisNeolithicmega-village. AcemhöyükII-III (n =205).

E RBABA H ÖYÜK 100 Erbaba Erbaba Höyükislocated on alluvialdeposits on 90 theeast side ofLakeBeyehir,c.50kilometers Ko kII-V 80 Ko kI northwest ofthesiteofSuberde (Fig. 1). Thesite GK 70 Acem represents theremainsofasmall agriculturalvillage (%) 60 hip

ofthePottery Neolithicperioddating tothemid ors 50 tolateseventhmillenniumcalBC (Bordaz1970; viv sur 1973,Bordaz&Alper-Bordaz1977; 1978;1979; 40 1982,Arbuckle2006). 30 RecentreanalysisoftheErbaba assemblagehasshown 20 thatsheepandgoats arethemost abundanttaxa 10 0 withsheepoutnumbering goats ataratio of4.6:1 02612 24 36 48 72 96 (Table1). Survivorship curvesindicatethatkill-off age (months) atErbaba wasconcentrated on animalsbetween theagesof6-12monthsdecreasing graduallyto F IG.8.–Survivorship curvesbased on mandibulartoothwear forgoats from Erbaba Höyük(n=24),Kö  kII-V(n =17),Kö  kI senility (Figs7and8). Inaprevious analysisof (n =47),Güvercinkayası(n=37),and AcemhöyükII-III (n =179). theassemblage, theprevalence ofadultcaprinesin thesecurvesled Perkins(Bordaz&Alper-Bordaz 1976; 1979) toargueforanearlyshifttowards Erbaba fits withtheexpectationsfortheproduc- theuseofherdsforsecondary products atErbaba. tion ofmeatoracombination ofmeatandmilk. However,measurementdatasuggest thatbothlarge Inaddition,therearedifferencesin survivorship wildandsmall domesticcaprinesarerepresented betweensheepandgoats atErbaba withgoats exhi- in theassemblage(Figs3and4) (Arbuckle2006; biting highersurvivorship forevery agecategory. 2008c). Since hunting strategiesoftentargetadult Although difficulttointerpretduetothecombina- individuals,itisexpected thatthepresence ofwild, tion ofhunting andherding strategiesrepresented hunted caprinesin theassemblagehastheeffectof in theassemblage, thesedifferencessuggest that increasing overall survivorship,resulting in anoveres- sheepandgoats weresubjecttobroadlydifferent timation ofsurvivorship forthedomesticcaprines, exploitation strategies(Arbuckle2006; 2008c). especiallyin theolderagecategories.Thepresence Although evidence foryoung malekill-off isdifficult ofasignificantnumberoflambsandyearlingsat toaddress duetothepresence ofmultipleexploitation

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) 141 S.ArbuckleB.,ÖztanA.&Gülçur S.

strategiesatErbaba, measurements offused and 65% ofthefaunalassemblage(Table1). Survivorship unfused metacarpalsdoprovide someindication of curvesbased on toothwearindicatethatsheepwere howdomesticherdsweremanaged atthesite.The slaughtered atvery young ages,withkill-off prima- lackofmeasureable, unfused metacarpalsforgoats rilytaking place between6-12monthsandthen makesinterpretation ofgoatmanagementdifficult. secondarilybetween12-24months(Fig. 7). These However,forsheep,themeanvalueformeasure- results fitwiththeexpectationsofthe“tendermeat” ments ofunfused distalmetacarpals,representing andmixed meatandmilk modelsandsuggest that young sheep,islargerthanthatforfused specimens, Kökherders typicallydidnotallowsurplus lambs representing adultsheep,andthelargest specimens tolivethrough theirfirst winter.Thisstrategycould areunfused (Fig. 6). Thisindicatesthatlargemales be related toavariety offactors including alack aredisproportionatelyrepresented among those ofavailablelaborformanaging youngramherds, sheepslaughtered young,whereassmallerfemales alackoffodderorlimited availability ofwinter arerepresented almost entirelybyfused, adult graze, and/orahigh socialdemandforlamband/ specimens.Although thepatternisweakened by ordairy products. theoverprintofhunting (Student’sT-test,df=26, Survivorship forgoats isconsistently15-20 percen- p=.146),thesedatasuggest thatyoung,domestic tagepoints higherthanthatforsheepindicating that ramswerelikelysubjecttointensiveculling in their goats weresubjecttoavery differentmanagement first twoyears.Based on thecurrentdataset,this systemthatwasnotfocused on theproduction of represents theearliest identification ofthestrategy tendermeat(Fig. 8). Goats wereslaughtered ata ofyoung malekill-off in centralAnatolia. variety ofageswithsomeslaughtered asolderkids (6-12months)andwithkill-off continuing through K Ö 5 K H ÖYÜK theirsecond, third, andfourthyears (Mandibular KökHöyükisamoundsitelocated atastrategic WearStageG). Theslaughterofasignificantnum- pointon theeasternmargin oftheBorPlain and berofgoats asolderadults fits withthepredictions in closeproximity totheresource richTaurus and ofthefibermodelandsuggeststhatin additionto Melendizmountains(Fig. 1). Thelowerlevelsof meatandmilk,hairmayhavebeenanimportant thesite(II-V)datefrom c.6200-5500 calBC and goalofgoatmanagement. representalateNeolithicvillageknownforwell- Metacarpalmeasurements forsheepindicatethat preserved architecture, distinctiverelief-decorated unfused (young) specimensprimarilyrepresentlarge pottery,andthepractice ofremoving andplaste- males,providing exceptionallyclearevidence that ring humanskulls(see Silistreli 1989,Öztan2002; young ramswereintensivelytargeted forslaughter 2003; 2007,Bonogofsky2005,Arbuckle2006 for (Fig. 6). Forgoats,thepatternisless clearwith summary of14Cdates; 2008b). Theupperlevelof theonemeasureable, unfused specimenlocated in thesite(levelI)datestotheperiodfrom c.5300- thesizerangeofsmall females(Fig. 9). Thenear 4800 calBC (EarlyChalcolithic)and, although absence oflargefused specimenssuggests thatmale exhibiting amaterialcultureclearlyrelated tothe goats werepredominantlytargeted forslaughterin lowerlevels,includesevidence formajorchanges theirfirst andsecondyears.Theabsence ofunfused in theinternalorganization andfunction ofthe specimensrepresenting young malegoats ismore settlement(Öztan2003; 2007,Öztan&Faydalı difficulttointerpret.Ifitreflects ahusbandry 2003). Thesechangesinclude theabandonment strategy,itcouldsuggest thatkidswerenotkept oftheagglutinativearchitecturalplantypicalof in thevicinity ofthesiteandwerenotavailablefor thecentralAnatolianNeolithic(Duru2002)in consumption. Thisstrategyseemsunlikelygiven favorofdistinctivelinearbanksofhouses,aswell theabundantevidence forlambsatKök,and asincreased variation in housesize, whichmaybe theabsence ofmayinstead reflectacombination linked withincreasing levelsofsocialdifferentia- oftaphonomicloss ofdelicateunfused partsand tion within andbetweendescentgroupsatthesite. small samplesize. InthelowerlevelsatKök,morphologicallydomestic IntheupperlevelatKökI,caprinesincreasein caprinesarethemost abundanttaxa, representing frequencyto83%ofthefaunalassemblage(Table1).

142 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) Theevolution ofsheepandgoathusbandry in centralAnatolia

Fig. 9. –Bargraphsshowing distributionsof measurements of the distalbreadthofgoatmetacarpalsforfused (black) and unfused (grey)specimensfrom Erbaba Höyük(n=5),Kö  kI-V(n =14),Acemhöyük(n=19),and metatarsalsfrom Güvercinkayası(n=9). Meanvaluesforfused and unfused specimensareindicated byblackand greytriangles.

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) 143 S.ArbuckleB.,ÖztanA.&Gülçur S.

Inaddition,thesurvivorship dataindicateanincrease AsatKökI,domesticcaprinesrepresentover in theageatwhichsheepwereslaughtered compa- 80%ofthefaunalassemblageatGüvercinkayası red totheintensiveculling oflambscharacteristic withsheepoutnumbering goats bymorethan4:1 oflevelsII-V(Fig. 7). Goatsurvivorship remains (Table1). Demographicdataindicatethatboth unchanged in KökIfrom previous levels(Fig. 8). sheepandgoats wereslaughtered atrelativelyold Metricaldataindicateacontinued focus on the ageswithsurvivorship declining onlygraduallyfrom slaughterofyoung males,forbothsheepandgoats, sixmonthstosixyears (Figs7and8). Following asin previous levels. theslaughterofyoungmalesaged 6-12months, Thecombination ofanincreasein theimportance kill-off focused on animalsin theirthirdtosixth ofcaprinesatthesiteandtheincreasein theage years toanextentnotseenatearlierorcontempo- ofslaughterofsheepsuggests thattheChalcoli- raneous sitesin theregion. Thisemphasison older thicmanagementsystemdiffered from thatofthe animalssuggests thatsecondary,orantemortem, Neolithic.IntheChalcolithic, lambsandyearlings products wereacentralgoalofpastoralmanage- werethefocus ofslaughter,astheywerepreviously, mentatGüvercinkayasıandfits theexpectations but thefrequencyofanimalsslaughtered in their ofboth“typeBmilk”andfiberproduction models thirdyearoroldermorethandoublesindicating (Buitenhuis1999,Arbuckle2006). anincreased desirefortheproducts ofadultsheep, Metapodialmeasurements forbothsheepandgoats whichinclude milk andwool aswell asmeat.This indicatethatunfused specimensarelargerthanfused patternfits theexpectationsofthe“typeBmilk” specimensproviding clearevidence thatyoung males modelinwhicholderlambsandyearling malesare weretargeted forslaughter(Figs6and9). Thus slaughtered whiletheremainderrepresentfemales despitegenerallyhigh survivorship,thereislittle in theirthird, fourth,andfifthyears whosepro- evidence tosuggest thatmalecaprineswereallowed ductivity hasdeclined. tosurviveintoadulthood.Thissuggests thatfiber Thesechangesin theageofslaughtermaybe related wasnottheprimary goalofpastoralproduction at toanincreasein theavailability oflabortomanage Güvercinkayasıbut thatmanagementwasinstead largerherdswithlargernumbers oflambs,increased likelygeared towardstheproduction ofacombi- availability offodderandwintergrazewhichmay nation ofproducts including milk,meat,andfiber. havemade intensiveslaughteroflambsunnecessary, Ratherthanrepresenting adirectreflection ofsys- oradeclinein thesocialdemandforlambanda temsofcaprineproduction,itispossiblethatthe desireforincreased production ofdairy.These concentrationsoftheremainsofolderanimalsat changesmayreflectashifttowardsmoreintensive, Güvercinkayasımayalsoreflectinvolvementin specialized, andmobileformsofsheephusbandry in aninter-siteprovisioning system. Following the theChalcolithic(Arbuckle2006),whichcoincide predictionsofStein’s (1987)producermodel,the withtheevidence forofamorecomplexandhete- dearthoftheremainsof1-2yearoldcaprinesat rogeneous socialenvironmentin centralAnatolia Güvercinkayasımayindicatethattheseanimals atthistime(Gülçur 1999). wereproduced forconsumption elsewhere( e.g. , atlargersiteslikeKök). Alternately,although less G ÜVERCINKAYASI likely,itisalsopossiblethat,in addition tosome ThesiteofGüvercinkayasırepresents theremains localproduction indicated bythepresence ofsmall ofasmall MiddleChalcolithicvillagesettlement numbers oflambsandkids,Güvercinkayasıwas located on asteeprockybluff overlooking the itselfprovisioned withtheremainsofoldercaprines Melendizrivervalleyin theregion ofCappadocia whoseusefulness in milk andfiberproducing herds (Fig. 1). Thesiteiscontemporaneous withthelevelI had waned.Eitheroftheseinterpretationswould occupation atKökandalsoexhibits evidence for suggest thatGüvercinkayasıparticipated within a increasing levelsofculturalcomplexity andinter- muchlargerandmorecomplexregionalsocioeco- naldifferentiation (Gülçur 1997; 2004,Gülçur & nomicsystemthanhaspreviouslybeensuggested Kiper2003,Gülçur &Fırat2005,Kiper&Gülçur (see Arbuckle2006:514-520). However,given 2005,Arbuckle2006). increasing evidence foreconomiccomplexity,sett-

144 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) Theevolution ofsheepandgoathusbandry in centralAnatolia

lementhierarchy,mobility,andregionalinterac- vast majority ofadultgoats werefemalesandthat tion within thecontemporaneous Halaf sphereof young maleswerethefocus ofslaughter(Fig. 9). influence (Watson &Leblanc1990,Akkermans& Thecombination ofextended survivorship and Verhoeven1995,Kansa&Campbell 2004,Özbal measurementdatasuggesting thepresence oflarge etal. 2004),thepotentialpresence ofintra-regional numbers ofadultmales(andpossiblywethers)isa economicintegration andproductivespecialization strong indication thatthesystemthatprovisioned isalsoworthconsidering forthelatesixthmillen- theelitecenterofAcemhöyükwithmeatdrew niumcalBC in centralAnatolia. individualsfrom herdsmanaged intensivelyfor theproduction ofwool (andprobablysecondarily A CEMHÖYÜK II-III milk aswell). Dataforgoats indicatethat,although Acemhöyükisalarge(100 hectare)moundsiteloca- survivorship wasalsohigh andkill-off focused ted on theAksarayplain in easterncentralAnatolia on adultanimals,thereisno evidence thatlarge (Fig. 1) (Özgüç1977). Itrepresents theremains numbers ofmalegoats wereallowed tosurviveinto ofapowerfulpoliticalcenterthatdominated the adulthoodandused intensivelyfortheproduc- region formuchoftheBronzeAge(Özgüç1979, tion ofhair.Theabsence ofyoung malegoats at Veenhof1995,Öztan2000; 2001). Faunalmate- Acemhöyükindicatesthattheywerenotavailable rialswereanalyzed from theMiddleBronzeAge toconsumers in theurbancenterandsuggests that levelsII andIII (c.2000 calBC)andderivefrom young malegoats wereprobablyconsumed by bothdomesticandpalatialcontexts on thecentral producers in otherlocations.Asaresult,thegoat mound(Arbuckle2006). Since thesiterepresents a mortality profileatAcemhöyükclearlyrepresents largeurbancenter,itisexpected thatmortality data onlyaportion ofalargermanagementsystemand will primarilyreflectthenatureoftheprovisioning itisdifficulttointerprettheoriginalgoalsofgoat system,andthatmanagementgoalswill be more management. difficulttoidentify. Asisoftenthecaseforurbancenters,themetric Caprinesrepresent65% ofthefaunalassemblage andmortality datafrom Acemhöyükreflectthe atAcemhöyükandthesheeptogoatratio isthe natureofsystemsofbothcaprineproduction and lowest among sitesexamined at1.7:1(Table1). Sur- provisioning. Theyindicatethatwool wasthe vivorship curvesindicatethatthecaprinesconsumed centralfeatureofsheepmanagement,afactsup- on themoundsettlementoverwhelminglyrepresent ported bytexturaldatafrom contemporary sitesin theremainsofadultanimalsbetweentheagesof Anatoliaandneighboring regions(Veenhof1972; 3-7years withvery lowfrequenciesoflambs,kids 1995,Matthews 1978, Yener1982,Fleming 2004), oryearlings(Figs7and8). Thispatterndoesnot whilegoats werenotsubjecttothesameintensive fitwell withStein’s (1987)modelofaconsumer production strategyemployed in themanagement mortality profile, whichhepredicted wouldinclude ofsheepherds.Theyalsoindicatethatsystemsof primarilysurplus malesin theirfirst andsecond urbanprovisioning need notfocus on themeatof years (alsosee Wapnish&Hesse1988;1991),but young surplus males,ashasoftenbeenassumed instead suggests thatthepalace wasprovisioned (Stein 1987,Wapnish&Hesse1988;1991),as withthemeatofoldsheepandgoats. themeatofyoung caprinesseemsnottohave Metacarpalmeasurements forsheepindicatethat beeninvolved in provisioning theelitecenterof thefewunfused (young) specimensarelargeand Acemhöyükatall. clearlyrepresentmales,whilefused specimens canbe divided twogroupsbased on size(Fig. 6). Thefirst group(between23-27 mm) likelyrepre- DISCUSSION sents small-bodied females,whilethesecondgroup (between28-29mm) mayrepresentwethers, i.e. , Thedatapresented aboveprovide auniqueoppor- castrated males.Whilelargerthanfemales,wethers tunity toaddress themajorchangesin pastoral areoftenmoreslenderthanrams(Davis2000). For production in centralAnatoliafrom theearlyNeo- goats,metacarpalmeasurements indicatethatthe lithictotheBronzeAge, including thenatureofthe

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) 145 S.ArbuckleB.,ÖztanA.&Gülçur S.

Table 3.—Summary of taphonomicindices.See text forexplanations.

Erbaba Kö  kII-VKö  kIGüvercin. Acem. Humerus index12.310.79.612.38.5 Completeness index3.91 3.974.293.793.97 Digestion %2.8 53.25.30.1 Gnawing %4.5 4.6510.5 0.5 earliest systemsofherdmanagementin theNeo- thanculturalfactors suchasbutchery.Aswiththe lithic, andtheevolution ofmanagementpractices humerusindex,thisindexindicatessimilarcom- in laterperiods,particularlytheappearance ofthe pleteness valuesacross assemblages. strategyofyoung malekill-off andtheintensive Finally,Table3alsopresents datadescribing the useofantemortemproducts. frequencyofevidence forcarnivoregnawing and digestion in theassemblages.Theseresults indicate T APHONOMY thatdogshad animpacton bonesurvivalinevery Beforeaddressing theinterpretation ofcaprinehus- assemblage.However,thereissomevariation as bandry in centralAnatoliawebrieflyaddress the carnivoreshad thegreatest potentialimpacton the impactoftaphonomicprocesseson themortality Güvercinkayasıassemblage, andtheleast impacton patternsdescribed above.Theprimary issueisto theassemblagefrom Acemhöyük,wherecarnivore identifytheextenttowhichthepatternsidentified damageisrare. in thearchaeologicalrecordcanbe explained asthe Wheredifferencesin taphonomicbiasesareevident, resultoftaphonomicprocesses,particularlythe suchasin theimpactofdogsatGüvercinkayası loss oftheremainsofyoung individuals.Tothis andAcemhöyük,theyarerelativelyminorandmay end, summariesofseveralimportanttaphonomic affectthestrengthwithwhichmortality patterns indicesarepresented in Table3forErbaba, Kök, areexpressed —eitherincreasing ordiminishing Güvercinkayası, andAcemhöyük. them—but theyareunlikelytogenerateentirely Thehumerusindexdescribestheabundance of newpatternsthemselves.Manyofthepatternsof fragments oftheproximalhumerus,whichischa- variation betweenassemblagesuchasthepresence of racterized bylowbonedensity values,asapercen- perinatalcaprinesatAıklıandtheintensiveslaugh- tageofthetotalnumberofspecimensrepresenting teroflambsatNeolithicKökshowupdespitea boththeproximalanddistalhumerus,whichis presumed biasagainst theseagegroups,whichare characterized byhigherbonedensity values.In characterized bylowbonedensity valuesandare every assemblagetheproximalhumerusishighly vulnerabletodeletion bytaphonomicprocesses. under-represented indicating thatdensity media- Inaddition,increasesin survivorship evidentat ted destruction ofskeletalpartsisanimportant KökIandAcemhöyükaredifficulttoexplain taphonomicissueatevery site. solelyastheresultofthedeletion oftheremainsof Thecompleteness indexdescribesthecompleteness youngercaprinessince thereisno indication that ofall mediummammalastragali,secondphalanges, theseassemblageswereaffected moreseverelyby andpetrosalsusing fivecategories:(1) 0-25% taphonomicprocesses. complete;(2)25-50%;(3)50-75% complete;(4) Overall,theseindicesindicatethateachassemblage 75-99% complete;and(5) 100%complete(after wassubjecttoaroughlysimilarsetoftaphonomic Marean1991). Since theseelements arerelatively processesresulting in thedifferentialdestruction of small anddonotcontain significantnutritional low-density skeletalparts.Asaresult,eachassemblage value, damagetothemislikelytoreflectnatural seemstosufferfrom similarbiases,suggesting that transformationfactors suchasdog gnawing,abra- taphonomicprocess aloneareunlikelytoexplain sion,andchemicalweathering within thesoil rather thevariationsin mortality profilesdescribed above.

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E ARLYSYSTEMS OF HERD MANAGEMENT earliest herders in centralAnatolia.Itispossiblethat Datafrom Aıklı, Suberde, ÇatalhöyükandErbaba thisistheresultofsampling biases,taphonomic provide awindowintothenatureofearlycaprine factors,orthepresence ofgeographicallyextensive husbandry systemsin centralAnatoliaaswell as herdingsystemsthatprovisioned siteslikeSuberde theirevolution from theearlytothelaterNeolithic andÇatalhöyükwithanimalsrepresenting awide andbeyond.Thesystemofcaprineexploitation rangeofdemographicgroups.Inthelattercasethe in theearliest NeolithicatAıklıHöyükremains lackofevidence fortheslaughterofyoung males unclear.ThefactthattheAıklıcaprinesexhibitno mayrepresentthenatureofsystemsdesigned to evidence formorphologicalchangesoveraperiod provision earlyvillagesratherthanproviding a ofmorethanfour centuriessuggests thattheywere directreflection ofstrategiesofherdmanagement. notsubjecttointensivehumancontrol and/orwere If, however,thispatterndoesreflectmanagement notreproductivelyisolated from wildpopulations decisions,asmightbe expected ifherding were (Arbuckle2005). However,theclearlyselective organized primarilyasasystemofvillage-based harvesting ofspecificagegroupsandthepresence pastoralism,thenthissuggests thatearlyNeolithic ofperinatalremainsmaysuggest someformof herders mayhavepracticed aformofpastoralmana- intentionalmanagement,whichregularlybrought gementwithout modernanalogs.AtÇatalhöyük, animalstothevicinity ofthesite(Buitenhuis1997, wherethereisabundantevidence thatanimalsand Vigne etal. 1999,Pearson etal. 2007). Moreover, theirphysicalremainswerehighlyimbued with based on apparentdifferencesin sexratios,itislikely symbolicmeaning (see Russell etal. thisvolume), thatsheepandgoats wereexploited in different perhapstheslaughterandconsumption ofadult ways atAıklı.However,whetherthesesystemsof malecaprines,withtheirprominenthornsand exploitation weremoreakin toherding oraform largesize, played animportantrolein socialand ofwildlife management(orsee Ingold(1980)for ritualoccasionsmaking young malekill-off disad- anotherpossibility)isdifficulttoaddress with vantageousin thesocialrealm despiteits efficiency thecurrentdata.Whatisclearisthatthecaprine asaneconomicsystem. Whatevertheexplanation, exploitation systempracticed atAıklıwasquite thissystemwhichmayrepresentanadaptation to differentfrom thoseoflaterperiods. theuniquesocialandenvironmentallandscapes Representing thelatest AceramicNeolithicandearly associated withinitialagriculturalcolonization, Pottery Neolithicperiods,Suberde andÇatalhöyük wasreplaced in thePottery Neolithic(c.6500 (pre-XII through IV)provide thefirst evidence for calBC)byamoreintensiveandefficientpastoral morphologicallydomesticcaprinesin centralAnato- systemthatwascharacterized byyoung malekill- lia.Bothsitesprovide evidence forsizediminution off (Arbuckle2008a, c),whichthenbecamethe thoughttobe associated withlivingandbreeding dominantcaprinehusbandry strategyin theregion. underconditionsofhumanmanagement,although thisismuchmoreclearlyevidentatÇatalhöyük. A NTEMORTEM P RODUCTS Thefocused culling ofyoung caprinesatthese Addressing thetiming andscaleoftheuseofante- sitesfits withtheexpectationsofmodelsofherd mortem,orsecondary products,suchasmilk and managementwiththegoalsofmeatormixed meat fiberhasbeenamajorfocus ofarchaeologicalinquiry andmilk production. However,evidence forthe since Sherratt’s(1981;1983)influentialworkonthis harvesting ofsurplus young males—anearuni- topicin the1980s (Chapman1983,Davis1984, versalcharacterofherding strategies—appears to Greenfield1988;1989,Kohler-Rollefson 1992, be lacking atbothSuberde andthelowerlevelsof Halstead 1996; 1998, Grigson 2000,Greenfield& Çatalhöyük. Fowler2005,Vigne&Helmer2007). Incontrast Although presentatErbaba atc.6500 calBC,and toSherratt’s originalidea thattheuseofarange atevery subsequentsiteexamined in thisstudy, ofsecondary products becameprominentonlyin thereisno evidence thatyoung malekill-off,the thefourthmillennium,increasingly,researchers managementpractice oftenthoughttobe atthe haveargued thatmilk andfiberwerepart ofNeo- coreofpastoraleconomies,waspracticedbythe lithicsubsistence strategiesandthereforeweren’t

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‘secondary’in achronologicalsenseatall (Russell olderlambs,again suggesting thatproduction was 1988 from Hesse1993:99,Köhler-Rollefson 1992, oriented towardseithertheproduction ofmeat Meadow1992:264,Hesse1993:99,Evershed et (following Payne’s model) oracombination of al. 2004,Copley etal. 2005,Helmer etal. 2007, meatandmilk. However,thelackofevidence for Vigne&Helmer2007). theslaughterofyoung malesisapuzzling aspect Particularlyimportantin regardstotheidenti- oftheseearlymanagementsystemsandmakesthe fication oftheoriginsofthewidespread useof interpretation oftheirmanagementgoalsuncertain. antemortemproducts hasbeenthedevelopmentof Evidence fortheintensiveslaughterofyoung rams newmethodsfortheanalysisofchemicalresidues isfirst evidentatErbaba wherethepresence ofolder in pottery thatcanprovide directevidence forthe lambsandyearlingsconformstothepredictionsof presence ofruminantdairy fats in archaeological Payne’s meatandcombined meat/milk models.In contexts ( e.g. ,Copley etal. 2005). Thesemethods thelateNeolithicatKök,sheepproduction involved arestarting toshowevidence thatdairy waswidely theintensiveculling oflambsandyearlingsindica- used in theNeolithicin Europeandprobablythe tingmanagementwasfocused on theproduction NearEast aswell (Evershed etal. 2004;Schoop oftenderlambanddairy aswell. Since imagery 1998;see VigneandHelmer2007:13andreferences suggests thatcattleweremilked atthistimeatKök, therein). Inaddition,imagery on twosherdsfrom itislikelythatdairy wasanimportantpart ofthe NeolithicKökapparentlyshowing cattlebeing caprinehusbandry systemaswell. Thepresence of milked suggests thatdairy production wasafact ahigh proportion ofinfantileandjuvenileremains oflife atleast bythelateseventhmillenniumcal from thecontemporaneous occupation ofÇatal- BC in Anatolia(Silistreli 1985a: 130;1985b: 200, höyük’s West Moundsuggeststhatavery similar Öztan2007:fig. 16). Thus itseemsmoreandmore strategyofmanagementfortenderlambanddairy likelythatantemortemproducts werebeing used mayhavebeenpracticedthereindicating thatthis throughout theNeolithicperiod(see Helmer et managementstrategymayhavebeenwidespread al. 2007,Vigne&Helmer2007)although the across centralAnatoliaatthistime(Gibson etal. intensity oftheiruseisdifficulttogauge.There 2004:Chart I). remains,however,afundamentalambiguity when IntheChalcolithicperiod, faunaldatafrom KökI using faunalevidence toaddress theuseofthese andGüvercinkayasıindicateashiftin sheepmana- products,particularlywhenaddressing theirorigins. gementcharacterized byanincreasein theeconomic Faunaldatado,however,provide auniqueand importance ofcaprinescompared toothertaxa, effectivemeanstoaddress patternsofdiachronic andanincreased emphasison culling adultewes. changein managementstrategies,whichbecomes AtKökI,themortality datafitthepredictionsof amoreimportantquestion ifsecondary products “typeBmilk”production whileatGüvercinkayası wereused throughout theNeolithic.Thesedia- theemphasison adultfemalessuggest acombination chronicpatternsareexplored below,first forsheep of“typeBmilk”andfiberproduction aswell. There thenforgoats. isno evidence thatsheepweremanaged intensively forwoolasramsseemtohavebeenslaughtered pri- M ANAGEMENT OF SHEEP marilyasyearlingsindicating thatproduction goals Overall,mortality dataindicatethatsystemsof weremixed ratherthanfocused on asingleproduct. sheepproduction in centralAnatoliawerecharac- Thepresence ofall agegroupsincluding lambsand terized bysignificantchangesovertime(Fig. 7). In adultewessuggests thatsheephusbandry atthe theearliest NeolithicatAıklıtheextenttowhich KökIvillagewasorganized primarilyasasystem caprineswereunderhumancontrol isunclearbut ofvillage-based herding utilizing extensivegrazing most wereselected forslaughterbetweentheages areassurrounding thesite.However,itispossible of1-3years whichfits withmodelsofmeatand thatthedominance ofadultewesatGüvercinkayası possiblynon-intensivemilk production. AtSuberde reflects thatsite’s incorporation intoalargerecono- andin thelowerlevelsofÇatalhöyükthefocus micsysteminwhichGüvercinkayasıherders either wason culling yearling sheepalong withsome produced lambandyearlingsforconsumption

148 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA •2009•44 (1) Theevolution ofsheepandgoathusbandry in centralAnatolia

elsewhereorelsereceived olderanimalsaspart of withherders moving betweenspatiallydistinct provisioning system. Eitheroftheseinterpretations summerandwintergrazing zones.Thistypeof suggest thatGüvercinkayasımayhavebeenpart of seasonalmovementwoulddecreasetheavailability amorecomplexandlarger-scalesystemofsheep oflambsatvillagesitesandincreasetherepresen- husbandry thanexisted previouslyin theregion. tation ofadultewes.Thepatternofincreasing Finally,bytheMiddleBronzeAgeatAcemhöyük survivorship maythereforereflectchangesin the thereisclearevidence forahighlyintensiveand, complexity,scaleandspatialorganization ofsheep likely,highlyspecialized systemofsheepherding husbandry in theChalcolithicin addition to,or, focused on theproduction ofwool andprobably perhaps,ratherthan,adramaticreorientation of alsodairy.Texturaldatafrom neighboring regions managementgoalsthemselves. confirmthatwool wasanimportantcommodity at thistimeandsuggest notonlythatpastoralproduc- M ANAGEMENT OF GOATS tion wasfocused on producing textilesforregional Thepatternofdiachronicchangeforgoats isquite markets but thatitmayhavebeenorganized by different.Goats exhibitelevated survivorship in every highlyspecialized andnomadic, tribalpastoralists assemblageforwhichdataareavailableandshowlittle (Matthews 1978, Fleming 2004). evidence formajorshifts in managementthrough Oneofthemost prominenttrendsin thesheep time, suggesting thatantemortemproducts may mortality dataisanapparentincreasein theave- havebeenanimportantpart ofgoatmanagement rageageofslaughterovertimein centralAnatolia. since theNeolithic(Fig. 8). Although itisnotclear Regionalstudiesoftheevolution ofcaprinehus- ifgoats wereherded atAıklıandsamplesizesare bandry haveidentified broadlysimilardiachronic notyetlargeenough toaddress goatmanagement patternsin theLevant,Iran,andtheBalkansaswell atSuberde, withtheappearance ofmorphologically (Davis1984,Greenfield1988, Grigson 2000). This domesticgoats atÇatalhöyük,theseanimalsseem patternhasoftenbeeninterpreted asreflecting an tohaveconsistentlybeenculled atolderagesthan increased reliance on theantemortemproducts of sheep. Thispatternispresentatevery subsequent adultanimals,particularlymilk andfiberin theLate sitein theregion until theBronzeAgewhensheep NeolithicandChalcolithic(Bordaz&Alper-Bordaz wereraised primarilyforwool. 1976; 1979,Levy 1983,Davis1984,Greenfield Theconsistentlyhigh survivorship ofgoats in 1988;1989,Zeder1994a, Schoop 1998;2005, contrast tothatforsheepindicatesthatsheepand Campbell etal. 1999,Grigson 2000,Abdi2003, goats weremanaged withfundamentallydifferent Özbal etal. 2004) (although see Köhler-Rollefson production goalsandthatthesedifferencesin 1992,Hesse1993). Grigson (2000)hassuggested managementextendwell backintotheNeolithic thatthisrepresents atwo-stepprocess bywhich (alsosee Hesse1978, Vigne etal. 2003,Vigne& firstmilkandthenfiberwereincorporated into Helmer2007). Ingeneral,surplus malegoats were managementsystems. slaughtered asolderkids,from 6-12months,and However,simplyequating anincreasein survivorship asyearling. Thepeakofslaughter,however,took withanincreasein antemortemproducts usageis place among femalesin theirthird, fourth,fifthand problematic, particularlysince theintensiveuseof sixthyears.Thisfits theexpectationsofacombi- herdsfordairy may,in fact,resultin theslaughter nation ofthe“typeBmilk”andfiberproduction ofahigh frequencyoflambs( e.g. ,NeolithicKök). models.Inaddition,thegenerallyhigh ratio of Thesebroad changesmayinstead reflectthedeve- sheeptogoats atsitesin centralAnatoliasuggests lopmentofincreasinglycomplexandlarge-scale thatthescaleofgoatmanagementwasconsistently pastoralsystemscharacterized bygreaterdegrees smallerthanthatforsheep. Thiscombination of ofmobility aswell asanintensivefocus on ante- small-scaleherding,elevated survivorship,andlack mortemproducts.Itispossiblethattheincreased ofchangeovertimesuggests thatgoats weresub- frequencyofadultcaprinesin Chalcolithicsitesin jecttoahighlyconservativeandmulti-functional Anatoliaandelsewherereflects anincreasein the managementsystemthatincluded theproduction scaleandseasonalmobility ofhusbandry systems ofmilk andhairin addition tomeat.Thissystem

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isclearlyidentifiablefirst atLateNeolithicKök temproducts wasacomplexandmulti-faceted but ifelevated survivorship isanindication,itmay process thatproceeded along twodistinctive haveits roots in AceramicNeolithicsitessuchas historicalthreads.Onethread represents strate- Çatalhöyük. giesforthemanagementofgoats.Goats seemto havebeenused fortheconservativeandsmall- scaleproduction ofmeat,milk andhairfrom CONCLUSION theearlyNeolithiconwards,withlittleevidence forchangeovertimein managementstrategies. Sheepandgoatherding hasplayed acentralbut Theotherthread represents systemsofsheep poorlyunderstoodrolein every periodofcentral management,whichweremuchmoredynamic Anatolianprehistory.Inthispaperwehaveattempted overtime.Withtheappearance ofmanagement toaddress thismajorgapinour understanding of strategiesthatincluded theculling ofyoung rams culturaldynamicsin centralAnatoliabyproviding in thePottery Neolithic, sheepherding appears thefirst broad synthesisaddressing themacro-scale tohavefocused on producing meatandpoten- patternsofchangeovertimein sheepandgoat tiallymilk. BythelatePottery Neolithicatsites husbandry in theregion from theNeolithicto suchasKökandpossiblyalsoÇatalhöyüksheep theBronzeAge.Although thetaskisbyno means werelikelymanaged intensivelyforacombina- completewehaveprovided afirst outlineofthe tion oflambandmilk. IntheChalcolithic, the evolution ofthisimportantculturalsystem,which sheepmanagementsystemchanged again withan providesafirmfoundation formoredetailed future increased focus on theproduction ofadultewes workfocusing on inter-sitesynchronicvariation representing ashifttowards“typeBmilk”and andinter-regionalcomparison. wool production andpossiblytheemergence of Thisstudyhasargued that,although thenature moremobileandspecialized formsofpastoralism ofcaprineexploitation in theearliest Neolithicat in theregion. FinallybytheBronzeAge, sheep AıklıHöyükremainsunclear,systemsofsheep managementwascharacterized bytheintensive andgoathusbandry seemtohavebeeninplace at production ofwool forregionalmarkets,likely Suberde andtheearly(pre-XII)levelsofÇatalhöyük byaspecialized pastoralsector. bythelatterhalfoftheeighthmillenniumcalBC. Whilevaluableandlargerherdsofsheepwereused Interestingly,theseearlypastoralsystemsprovide toproduce wealthandprestigethrough theproduc- no evidence forthecommon pastoralpractice of tion ofmutton,milk andwool,theprimary role culling young males,whichmakesits first appea- ofgoats seemstohavebeentoprovide subsistence rance atErbaba HöyükinthePottery Neolithic security andtohedgeagainst theuncertaintiesof (c.6500 calBC),andsubsequentlybecomesthe valuablebut potentiallyvulnerablesheepherds dominantmanagementstrategyin theregion. (see Redding 1981). Thesedifferencesin theuse Theapparentlackofsexbiased culling atthese ofsheepandgoats haveimportantimplications earlysitesmayrepresentanearlystagein thedeve- forunderstanding thecomplexandmultifaceted lopmentofpastoralmanagementstrategiesin the natureofsystemsofpastoralproduction andmust region in whichmanagementdecisionswerenot be thefocus offurtherresearch. Moreover,these focused on maximizingtheproductionofmeator differencesalsoreaffirmthatfactthatthecommon anyotherproductbut ratherseemtohavebeen practice ofcombiningsheepandgoatremainsinto directed bysocialrequirements foranimalsofspe- asinglecategory of“sheep/goat” or“ovicaprid”can cificagesandsexes.Thismayindicatethatearly be highlyproblematic.Since sheepandgoats were strategiesofanimalmanagementwerecharacterized clearlymanaged withdifferentproduction goals byahigh degree ofvariation,whichrepresents an combiningsheepandgoatcategoriesislikelyto importantandcontinuing focus forfutureresearch produce results thataccuratelydescribe theexploi- (Redding 2005). tation ofneithertaxa. Finally,datafrom centralAnatoliaindicatethat Asmoredatabecomeavailableithasbecomeappa- theemergence ofstrategiesutilizing antemor- rentthatthehistory ofsheepandgoathusbandry

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Submitted on 7December2007; accepted on 5July2008.

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