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Holocene Sedimentary History of Chilliwack Valley, Northern Cascade Mountains

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Holocene Sedimentary History of Chilliwack Valley, Northern Cascade Mountains Holocene Sedimentary History of Chilliwack Valley, Northern Cascade Mountains by Jon Francis Tunnicli®e B.A. (Hons), University of Western Ontario, 1995 M.Sc, University of Northern British Columbia, 2000 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF Doctor of Philosophy in The Faculty of Graduate Studies (Geography) The University Of British Columbia (Vancouver, Canada) January, 2008 °c Jon Francis Tunnicli®e 2008 Abstract I seek to reconstruct the balance between sediment storage and yield across multiple drainage basin scales in a large (1 230 km2) watershed in the Northern Cascade range, British Columbia and Washington. Chilliwack Valley and surrounding area has been the site of numerous studies that have detailed much of its Quaternary sedimentary history. In the present study this information is supplemented by reconstruction of the morphodynamic trajectory of the river valley though the Holocene Epoch, and development of a sediment transfer model that describes the relaxation from the Fraser glaciation. The total Holocene sediment yield is estimated from basins across several scales using ¯eld and remotely sensed evidence to constrain the historical mass balance of delivery to higher order tributary basins. Rates of hillslope erosion are estimated using a di®usion-based rela- tion for open slopes and delimitating the volume evacuated from major gully sources. Digital terrain models of paleo-surfaces are constructed to calculate total sediment erosion and de- position from tributary valleys and the mainstem. Chilliwack Lake has e®ectively trapped the entire post-glacial sediment load from the upper catchment (area = 334 km2), allowing to compare this `nested' system with the larger catchment. Rates of lake sediment accumu- lation are estimated using sediment cores and paleomagnetism. These are compared with accumulation rates in the terminal fan inferred from radiocarbon dating of fossil material, obtained by sonic drilling in the apex gravels. A sediment budget framework is then used to summarize the net transfer of weathered material and glacial sediments from the hillslope scale to the mainstem. The long-term average sediment yield from the upper basin is 62 § 9 t/km2/yr; contemporary yield is approximately 30 t/km2/yr. It is found that only 10-15% of the material eroded from the hillslopes is delivered to mouths of the major tributaries; the remaining material is stored at the base of footslopes and within the fluvial sedimentary system. Since the retreat of Fraser Ice from the mouth of the valley, Chilliwack River delivered over 1.8 § 0.21 km3 of gravel ii Abstract and sand to Vedder Fan in the Fraser Valley. In the sediment budget developed here, roughly 85% of that material is attributed to glacial sources, notably the Ryder Uplands and glacial valley ¯lls deposited along the mainstem, upstream of Tamihi Creek. In tributary valleys, local base-level has fallen, leading to the evacuation of deep glacial sedimentary ¯lls. Many of the lower reaches of major tributaries in upper Chilliwack Valley (e.g. Centre and Nesakwatch Creeks) remain primarily sediment sinks for slope-derived inputs, since base-level fall has not been initiated. In distal tributaries (Liumchen, Tamihi and Slesse creeks), paraglacial fans have been incised or completely eroded, entrained by laterally active channels. A transition from transport-limited to supply-limited conditions has been e®ected in many of these reaches. Slesse Creek has struck an intermediate balance, as it continues to remobilize its considerable sediment stores. It functions today as the sedimentary headwaters of Chilliwack Valley. Using grain size data and ¯ne-sediment geochemical data gathered from Chilliwack River over the course of several ¯eld seasons, a simple ¯nite-di®erence, surface-based sediment transport model is proposed. The aim of the model is to integrate the sediment-balance information, as inferred from estimates of hillslope erosion and valley storage, and physical principles of sediment transport dynamics to reproduce the key characteristics of a system undergoing base-level fall and reworking its considerable valley ¯ll during degradation. Such characteristics include the river long pro¯le, the river grain-size ¯ning gradient, the percentage of substrate sand, and the diminution of headwater granite lithology in the active load. The model is able to reproduce many of the characteristics, but is not able to satisfy all criteria simultaneously. There is inevitably some ambiguity as to the set of parameters that produce the \right" result, however the model provides good insight into long-term interactions among parameters such as dominant discharge, grain size speci¯cations, abrasion rates, initial topography, hiding functions, and hydraulic parameters. iii Table of Contents Abstract .......................................... ii Table of Contents ..................................... iv List of Tables ....................................... viii List of Figures ....................................... x Acknowledgements . xxvi 1 Introduction ...................................... 1 1.1 Problem Statement . 1 1.2 The Study Basin . 5 1.2.1 Physiography . 8 1.2.2 Regional Studies . 9 1.3 Thesis Structure . 11 2 Hillslope and Tributary Sediment Stores .................... 13 2.1 Introduction . 13 2.2 Data Sources and Associated Errors . 15 2.2.1 The Magnitude of Error . 15 2.3 Network Structure and Process Domains . 17 2.4 Sediment Deposition in Lower-Order Catchments . 21 2.5 Sediment Source Areas . 26 2.5.1 Large Bedrock Failures . 26 2.5.2 Gullies and Di®usive Slope Processes . 27 2.5.3 Sediment Source Areas: Sur¯cial Materials and Gullied Terrain . 28 iv Table of Contents 2.5.4 Sediment Source Areas: Open Slopes . 33 2.6 The Fluvial Domain: The Lower Tributary Valleys . 38 2.6.1 Lower Tributary Valley Fills . 41 2.7 Discussion . 43 3 Chilliwack Lake .................................... 46 3.1 Study Area . 47 3.2 Seismic Methodology . 49 3.3 Interpretation of the seismic record . 50 3.4 Fan Deltas . 54 3.5 Ground Penetrating Radar Surveys . 56 3.6 Lake Cores . 61 3.6.1 Lake Core Descriptions . 62 3.6.2 Tephra and Other Disturbance Layers . 63 3.6.3 Magnetic Parameters . 64 3.6.4 Palaeomagnetism . 69 3.7 Rates of Sediment Accumulation in the Holocene Epoch . 70 4 Evolution of Chilliwack Valley Mainstem .................... 77 4.1 Initial Conditions . 78 4.2 Mid Valley Fill . 81 4.3 Glacio-Lacustrine Deposition . 82 4.4 Lower Valley Fill . 85 4.4.1 Ryder Lake Upland Moraine Complex . 86 4.5 Vedder Fan . 90 4.6 Architecture of the Vedder Fan . 92 4.7 Well-log database . 95 4.8 Apex Gravels - Core Descriptions . 95 4.9 Chronology and Volumetric Estimation . 99 4.9.1 Isopach Diagrams . 102 4.10 Discussion . 105 5 Characterization of Valley Sediments . 108 5.1 Introduction . 108 v Table of Contents 5.2 Sampling of Tributary and Mainstem Gravels . 109 5.2.1 Fining Patterns . 114 5.3 Lithology and Geochemistry . 119 5.3.1 Coarse Clast Lithology . 119 5.4 Silt Geochemistry . 123 5.4.1 Methods . 123 5.4.2 Factor Analysis . 126 5.5 Summary and Conclusions . 131 6 A Morphodynamic Model of Postglacial River Evolution . 133 6.1 Introduction . 133 6.2 One-dimensional representation . 136 6.2.1 The Degrading River Valley System . 137 6.2.2 Bed Shear Stress Distribution . 139 6.2.3 The Active Layer . 140 6.3 Model Development . 140 6.3.1 Grid Resolution and Hydraulics . 141 6.3.2 Abrasion . 144 6.3.3 Mass Balance . 145 6.4 Boundary Conditions . 146 6.4.1 Basin Hydrology . 147 6.4.2 Stratigraphy and Bedrock . 150 6.4.3 Upstream Feed and Tributary Inputs . 152 6.4.4 Time and Intermittency . 156 6.5 Model Performance . 158 6.5.1 Long-Pro¯le Adjustments . 160 6.5.2 Textural Response . 164 6.5.3 Clast Fining and Abrasion . 165 6.5.4 Subsurface Sand Content . 167 6.5.5 Growth of Vedder Fan . 169 6.5.6 Suspended Load . 172 6.6 Discussion and Conclusions . 173 vi Table of Contents 7 Conclusions ...................................... 178 7.1 Process Domains . 179 7.1.1 Terminal Deposits of Chilliwack Valley . 181 7.1.2 Mainstem Deposits . 182 7.2 Textural Evolution of the Mainstem . 183 7.3 Models of the Holocene Fluvial System . 184 Bibliography ........................................ 186 vii List of Tables 2.1 Estimated volumes eroded from gullied morainal and colluvial cover . 33 2.2 Estimated volumes eroded from planar to convex slopes . 37 2.3 Volume of glacigenic ¯ll evacuated from major tributaries. 43 3.1 Volumetric estimates for catchment erosion and fan deltas bedload delivery since deglaciation, not including outwash stores. 58 3.2 Radiocarbon ages from Chilliwack Lake. 62 3.3 Sediment delivery to Chilliwack Lake: Volumetric estimates . 74 3.4 Mineral sediment delivery to Chilliwack Lake: Late Holocene (<2 000 years BP) estimates based on core chronology. 74 4.1 Net bulk volume eroded from the mainstem between Chilliwack Lake and Borden Creek . 81 4.2 Estimated bulk erosion volumes for three di®erent assumed topographic con- ¯gurations in the.
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