TOWARDS A SPECIES SONGBOOK: ILLUMINATING THE VOCALISATIONS OF THE AUSTRALIAN PIED BUTCHERBIRD (CRACTICUS NIGROGULARIS)

Hollis Taylor

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

University of Western Sydney School of Communication Arts Sydney, Australia September 2008

For Jon Rose, my rock/paper/scissors Acknowledgements

The thesis owes a great deal to many people. First, I wish to acknowledge Vicki Powys, sound editor of the Australian Wildlife Sound Recording Group. She rallied the group’s members to share their extant pied butcherbird recordings with me; Jenny Beasley, Harold Crouch, Sydney Curtis, Stuart Fairbairn, Bill Flentje, Peter Fullagar, Gloria Glass, Andree Griffin, Helen Horton, Tony Howard, John Hutchinson, Gayle Johnson, David Lumsdaine, Howard Plowright, Vicki Powys, Bill Rankin, Andrew Skeoch, Dave Stewart, Bob Tomkins, and Fred Van Gessel contributed. The thesis is indebted to their recordings, correspondence, and support. Vicki Powys, Sydney Curtis, and David Lumsdaine were devoted and thought-provoking correspondents who pushed this work to a higher level.

My heartfelt thanks goes to Professor Michael Atherton, my supervisor and friend. His enthusiasm, encouragement, vision, generosity, and considered comments have guided the thesis to its completion. I am also grateful to my co-supervisor, Dr. Garth Paine. His esprit, knowledge on technical matters, and attention to detail as a reader were greatly appreciated.

Early discussions with François-Bernard Mâche were crucial to this work, as were those with Dario Martinelli, Magnus Robb, and René Van Peer. The following ornithologists offered noteworthy assistance: Alan Gilanders, Andrew Horn, Gayle Johnson, Gisela Kaplan, Carol Probets, Alan Taylor, and Stephen Yezerinac. Others who advised include Andrew Bell, Neil Boucher, Roger Dean, Neville Fletcher, Aleks Kolkowski, Mary O’Kane, Alan Powers, Cate Stevens, Ofer Tchernichovski, and Joe Wolfe. Thanks to the composers who assisted me in including their works: Charles Bodman Rae, Emily Doolittle, Mark Hansen, David Lumsdaine, Christine Mercer (for Henry Tate), and Ron Nagorcka.

On Magnetic Island, Chris Corbet, Andy Frost, Cecily MacAlpine, Charlie McColl, Delphine Turnbull, and Eric Vanderduys went out of their way to share their knowledge of the island’s birds. Also thanks to Patrick Centurino, Ranger in Charge, Magnetic Island National Park. On the mainland in Townsville, Jo Wienecke, Kevin and Joyce Cameron, and Rosemary Payet supported the project.

The assistance I have received from the library staff at the University of Western Sydney was of superior quality; I would like to express my personal gratitude in particular to Cheryl Harris, Susan Robbins, and Tracy Donelly. Thanks to Gordon Grant for technical support. Thanks for the general support of the University of Western Sydney and the Research Committee for the School of Communication Arts for supporting my fieldwork. My appreciation also goes to John Davis and Judith Foster from the Australian Music Centre and to Robyn Ravlich and Jane Ulman from ABC Radio National. Jane accompanied me on a fieldtrip to Alice Springs and was a major boost to the study.

Finally, a round of thanks is not enough for the support Jon Rose provided me throughout this inquiry; it was sage, unflinching, and incomparable. Statement of Authentication

The work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, original except as acknowledged in the text. I hereby declare that I have not submitted this material either in full or in part, for a degree at this or any other institution.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART ONE Dedication Acknowledgements Statement of Authentication Table of Contents i List of Figures iv List of Tables ix Abbreviations x Glossary xi Abstract xv

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

Chapter 2 Background to Study 7 2.1 Introduction to the study of bird song 8 2.1.1 The study of bird song by biologists 8 2.1.2 Limitations to the study of birdsong by biologists 12 2.2 Zoömusicology 14 2.3 Composers’ appropriation of birdsong 18 2.4 Composers’ appropriation of pied butcherbird song 21 2.5 Songbirds 29 2.5.1 Study species: an overview 29 2.5.2 Study species: voice 36 2.6 Summary 43

Chapter 3 Design and Methods 44 3.1 Research Tools 45 3.1.1 A trained ear 45 3.1.2 Instrumentation 48 3.1.3 Collection of extant recordings 48 3.1.4 Limitations of extant recordings 50 3.2 Fieldwork 50 3.2.1 Study sites 51 3.2.2 Recording times 55 3.2.3 Recording procedures and observational methods 55 3.2.4 Limitations of fieldwork 56 3.3 Sonographic analysis 57 3.3.1 Sonogram generation and evaluation 57 3.3.2 Limitations of sonographic analysis 62 3.4 Notation and data analysis 62 3.4.1 A brief history of music notation 62 3.4.2 A history of birdsong notation 67 3.4.3 Notation and data analysis of pied butcherbird song 80 3.4.4 Limitations to notation and data analysis 83 3.5 Summary 83

i Chapter 4 Phenomenology of Pied Butcherbird Vocalisations 85 4.1 Introduction 86 4.2 Note Structure 87 4.3 Calls 91 4.4 Calls in Song 95 4.5 Pied butcherbird song mutualisms with human music 99 4.6 Female song and antiphonal song 114 4.7 Mimicry 116 4.8 Summary 126

Chapter 5 Long Songs, Repertoire, and Organisational Structure 127 5.1 Diurnal song 130 5.1.1 A diurnal song on Magnetic Island 130 5.1.2 Individual phrases of a diurnal song 131 5.1.3 A diurnal song considered as a whole 147 5.1.4 A diurnal song compared to other recordings from the area 153 5.2 Pre-dawn song 162 5.2.1 A pre-dawn song in Alice Springs 162 5.2.2 Individual phrases of a pre-dawn song 162 5.2.3 A pre-dawn song considered as a whole 167 5.2.4 A pre-dawn song compared to other recordings from the area 170 5.3 Discussion 177

Chapter 6 Critical Reflection and Analysis 181 6.1. Aesthetic considerations and inclinations 182 6.2 Compositions for improvisers 184 6.3 Composition for video and toy piano 189 6.4 Compositions for strings 191 6.5 Discussion 194 6.5 Portfolio of compositions (paired with field transcriptions): Cumberdeen Dam V & T 196 Lamington Plateau 205 The bass of Broken Hill 211 Banana paper 215 Ormiston Gorge: A canonic manipulation 218 Gowrie Creek 226 Black and white miniatures 228 Pied butcherbird suite 237 Bird-Esk 262

Chapter 7 Conclusion and Future Directions 289 7.1 Key questions 290 7.2 Specific new contributions 292 7.3 Future directions 294 7.4 Conclusion 297

ii PART TWO The pagination recommences for Part Two.

Appendices: A Notation of a diurnal long song from Magnetic Island 2

B Phrases of a diurnal long song from Magnetic Island segmented by type 86

C Supplementary analysis of a diurnal long song from Magnetic Island 128

D Notation of a pre-dawn long song from Alice Springs 153

E Supplementary analysis of a pre-dawn long song from Alice Springs 155

F Notations of sonic geographies of difference 168

G Chapters 4 and 5 sound source derivations 212

H Extant recordings with field notes and correspondence 217

I Samples of supplemental analysis sheet and summary sheet 275

J Notation method developed by Skeoch 278

K Bibliography 280

L Compact disc (CD) recording details 301

M Digital video disc (DVD) details 303

iii LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Examples of transcribed pied butcherbird song from the 22 notebooks of Henry Tate, as edited and annotated by Mercer.

Figure 2.2 An excerpt from Tate’s “Morning in the gully” (1924). 23

Figure 2.3 This Lumsdaine excerpt makes use of the pied 24 butcherbird species call.

Figure 2.4 A comparison of a pied butcherbird call in Messiaen’s 25 score and in his field transcription reveals an exact match for rhythm and pitch in the top line of the flutes.

Figure 2.5 This Dixon excerpt displays a close match in matters of 26 contour, pitch, and rhythm with a pied butcherbird call.

Figure 2.6 An early written description of the pied butcherbird by 30 Gould (1848).

Figure 2.7 An early drawing of the pied butcherbird by Gould 31 (1848: fol., vol. ii. pl 49), from an undated reproduction.

Figure 2.8 Australian Aboriginal names for the pied butcherbird 33 (Cracticus nigrogularis).

Figure 2.9 Australian Aboriginal names for butcherbird (Cracticus). 34

Figure 2.10 A pied butcherbird featured in a warning poster used by 35 the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service during spring nesting season when birds can become aggressive.

Figure 3.1 A pied butcherbird at Wogarno Station, WA. 46

Figure 3.2 Example of entries in the bulk discography of extant pied 49 butcherbird recordings collected in this inquiry.

Figure 3.3 Example of the first stage of analysis of personal field 51 recordings.

Figure 3.4 A shorthand system for notating pied butcherbird 79 phrases developed by Glass.

Figure 4.1 Basic note types of the pied butcherbird. 88

Figure 4.2 Pied butcherbird short repeated notes. 89

Figure 4.3 Pied butcherbird notes suggesting mnemonic catchwords 91 or electronic-sounding signals.

iv Figure 4.4 Pied butcherbird call notes. 92

Figure 4.5 Pied butcherbird species calls from three different birds. 93

Figure 4.6 An adult delivers the species call, followed by a juvenile. 94

Figure 4.7 A group of pied butcherbirds and an Australian magpie 94 involved in mobbing.

Figure 4.8 A group of pied butcherbirds mobbing an Australian 95 raven.

Figure 4.9 Antiphonal song (S1) with species call: two birds. 96

Figure 4.10 Pied butcherbird species call notes (SC) incorporated in 96 solo song (S2).

Figure 4.11 An immature pied butcherbird subsong excerpt. 97

Figure 4.12 Eight variants of the short-long descending second 98 (SLD2) motif.

Figure 4.13 The SLD2 motif, followed by an aggressive “prew” rattle. 98

Figure 4.14 Crescendo/decrescendo. 101

Figure 4.15 Fanfares from seven different pied butcherbirds. 102

Figure 4.16 “The Singing Lesson.” 103

Figure 4.17 Pied butcherbird (PBB) ostinato whilst a grey shrike- 104 thrush (GST) rings out its phrase.

Figure 4.18 Phrase endings with rhythmic reduction. 105

Figure 4.19 Phrase endings with a drop in pitch. 105

Figure 4.20 Phrase endings with smaller intervals. 105

Figure 4.21 Phrase endings with other suitable differentiations. 106

Figure 4.22 A catchy “hook” from a pied butcherbird. 106

Figure 4.23 Scalar motion in two different pied butcherbird songs. 107

Figure 4.24 Scalar motion in the top staff of a pied butcherbird duo. 107

Figure 4.25 A descending and an ascending pied butcherbird “scale” 107 from two separate pied butcherbirds, both demonstrating accelerando.

v Figure 4.26 Shape and balance in four consecutive phrases of pied 108 butcherbird song, with rests inserted between phrases to show approximate delivery.

Figure 4.27 Line one displays a sense of proportion and balance in 108 one pied butcherbird song as the human ear might hear it; line two displays other phrases the bird delivers that interrupt the proportion with an unexpected leap, a truncated phrase, and a downward resolution instead of the more common ascent.

Figure 4.28 Line one displays a sense of proportion and balance in a 108 pied butcherbird song as the human ear might hear it; line two displays other phrases the bird delivers that interrupt the proportion with variations in phrase length and augmentation of motives.

Figure 4.29 Pied butcherbird subsong including mimicry and the 110 species call (SC).

Figure 4.30 Three examples of extreme timbre contrast in pied 112 butcherbird song.

Figure 4.31 An example of extreme timbre contrast in pied 112 butcherbird song.

Figure 4.32 Two pied butcherbirds in a duet with dissimilar phrases: 115 sonogram.

Figure 4.33 Two pied butcherbirds in a duet with dissimilar phrases: 115 notation.

Figure 4.34 Two pied butcherbirds in a duet with similar phrases. 116

Figure 4.35 Pied butcherbird masterlist of birds mimicked. 118

Figure 4.36 Pied butcherbird mimicry masterlist of sounds other than 119 birds.

Figure 4.37 Mimicry: a pied butcherbird and the signal of a reversing 119 truck in the bird’s territory; example of possible mimicry: a pied butcherbird and the signal of a ringing telephone audible from outdoors in its territory.

Figure 4.38 Three examples of pied butcherbirds (PBB) incorporating 120 alien species’ motives into their phrases: sonogram.

Figure 4.39 Three examples of pied butcherbirds (PBB) incorporating 121 alien species’ motives into their phrases: notation.

Figure 4.40 Intensive mimicry cycle of a pied butcherbird. 123

vi Figure 4.41 Intensive mimicry of a pied butcherbird continues. 124

Figure 4.42 Intensive mimicry of a pied butcherbird continues to end. 125

Figure 4.43 Extreme warbling notes from a pied butcherbird mimicry 126 cycle.

Figure 5.1 A typical example of phrase A as delivered by the bird, 132 followed by a simplified version.

Figure 5.2 Phrase A terminal decoration, with a retrograde delivery 132 of the earlier ascending leap from a C#6 to an A6.

Figure 5.3 Nine different deliveries of phrase A. 133

Figure 5.4 A typical example of phrase B as delivered by the bird, 134 followed by a simplified version.

Figure 5.5 A typical example of phrase C as delivered by the bird, 135 followed by a simplified version.

Figure 5.6 A typical example of phrase D as delivered by the bird, 136 followed by a simplified version.

Figure 5.7 A typical example of phrase E as delivered by the bird, 139 followed by a simplified version.

Figure 5.8 A partial catalogue of phrase E variants, presented in 140 order of increased complexity in order to allow visual inspection of potential “chunking” boundaries for motives.

Figure 5.9 Augmentation by way of a trill. 141

Figure 5.10 Phrase F as delivered by the bird. 141

Figure 5.11 The two deliveries of phrase G as delivered by the bird. 142

Figure 5.12 Two typical examples of phrase H as delivered by the 143 bird, followed by simplified versions.

Figure 5.13 The highest note in the entire song, indicated by a box. 144

Figure 5.14 A typical example of phrase I as delivered by the bird, 144 followed by a simplified version.

Figure 5.15 A typical example of phrase J as delivered by the bird, 145 followed by a simplified version.

Figure 5.16 A typical example of phrase K as delivered by the bird, 146 followed by a simplified version.

vii Figure 5.17 Phrase K contains the lowest notes and the longest note 147 in the song.

Figure 5.18 Four new phrase J variants delivered near the end of the 148 song.

Figure 5.19 Ratio of delivery for phrases. 150

Figure 5.20 Summary of main rattle types by phrase. 151

Figure 5.21 A pied butcherbird pre-dawn song ending with mimicry, 155 part one.

Figure 5.22 A pied butcherbird pre-dawn song ending with mimicry, 156 part two.

Figure 5.23 Three recordings from Magnetic Island displaying 158 extensive use of the descending perfect fifth/tritone motif seen in Two Tree’s phrase D.

Figure 5.24 A summary of all pied butcherbirds recorded in 160 Townsville and environs including Magnetic Island.

Figure 5.25 All variants and hybrids of phrase A in a pied butcherbird 163 pre-dawn song.

Figure 5.26 All variants and hybrids of phrase B in a pied butcherbird 164 pre-dawn song.

Figure 5.27 All variants of phrase C in a pied butcherbird pre-dawn 165 song.

Figure 5.28 All variants of phrase D in a pied butcherbird pre-dawn 166 song.

Figure 5.29 All variants of phrase F in a pied butcherbird pre-dawn 167 song.

Figure 5.30 Ratio of delivery for phrases. 169

Figure 5.31 Three phrases from three nearby birds bear similarities 172 but present no exact matches.

Figure 5.32 A comparison of 2006 and 2007 recordings from the 173 junction of Ross and Stuart Highways.

Figure 5.33 A summary of all pied butcherbirds recorded in Alice 176 Springs and environs.

Figure 5.34 A continuum of pied butcherbird song conventions and 178 preferences.

viii LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Spring 2005 fieldwork study sites. 52

Table 3.2 Spring 2006 fieldwork study sites. 53

Table 3.3 Spring 2007 fieldwork study sites. 54

Table 3.4 Autumn 2008 fieldwork study sites. 54

Table 4.1 Mnemonic catchwords. 90

Table 4.2 Pied butcherbird song and mimicry: own phrases and 122 some mimicry.

Table 4.3 Pied butcherbird song and mimicry: own phrases and 123 intensive mimicry 1.

Table 4.4 Pied butcherbird song and mimicry: own phrases and 124 intensive mimicry 2.

Table 4.5 Pied butcherbird song and mimicry: own phrases and 125 intensive mimicry 3.

Table 5.1 Construction of phrase D variants (excluding hybrids). 137

Table 5.2 Construction of phrase D variants and hybrids. 138

Table 5.3 Ratio of phrase delivery in a diurnal long song. 150

Table 5.4 Ratio of hybrid phrases in a diurnal long song. 152

Table 5.5 Ratio of phrase delivery in a pre-dawn long song. 169

ix ABBREVIATIONS

The following abbreviations are used in the text:

12TET Twelve-tone equal temperament AS Alice Springs AWSRG Australian Wildlife Sound Recording Group B Bubbly sound BC Beak clap BL Blip or blop sound CD Compact disc CD-ROM Compact disc read-only memory CE Common Era CH Chip sound CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation DVD Digital video disc GPS Global positioning system HANZAB Handbook of Australian, New Zealand & Antarctic birds HR Hollow-sounding rattle Hz Hertz IPI Inter-phrase interval kHz Kilohertz M Mimicry MD Mini-disc MIDI Musical instrument digital interface NSW New South Wales NP National park NT Northern Territory PBB Pied butcherbird QLD Queensland QR Quasi-rattle R Rattle SA South Australia SC Species call sec. Seconds SLD2 Short-long descending second motif T Tik or tok sound T/O Turnoff TV Townsville VIC Victoria W Wow sound WA Western Australia WH Whoop, woop, or what sound

x GLOSSARY

amplitude A measurement of the intensity of sound pressure. Loudness is the subjective assessment of amplitude. antiphonal song An overarching term describing two or more birds performing in alternation or together. biomarker A physical trait that can indicate the condition of a living organism. biophony The voices of living things (Krause, 2002: xii). breeding song Song performed in the spring, presumably by the male. call, call notes Usually short, simple vocalisations associated with the general maintenance activities of feeding, flocking, contacting, migrating, and reacting to predators. canon A polyphonic texture created by two or more voices performing the same or similar material at a temporal, spatial, or intervallic distance. complex tone A sound with broadband energy in multiple frequencies. conspecific A living organism belonging to the same species as another. counterpoint Two or more simultaneous melodic lines. continuous singer A bird that sings more or less non-stop. contour The upward and downward pattern of a melody. countersinging Two birds singing back and forth at one another. crystallized song The culmination of song development (after subsong and plastic song) when stereotypy is achieved. dawn chorus A period of high singing activity for a number of species of birds just before and at sunrise. day song, daytime song Equivalent to diurnal song. discontinuous singer A bird that sings with an inter-phrase interval that is as long as or longer than the phrase itself. diurnal song A song delivered during the daytime, including the dawn chorus (although the songs or phrases could differ between the dawn chorus and the rest of the daytime).

xi duet A coordinated vocal performance by two birds of the same species, whether synchronous, alternating, or overlapping. eventual variety A pattern of singing in which a bird repeats a phrase multiple times before switching to another. frequency A physical measurement of the number of cycles per second of a sound. One vibration per second=1 Hertz (Hz); 1000 Hertz=1 kHz. Pitch is the subjective assessment of frequency. fundamental The lowest frequency at which a sound vibrates. geophony Non-creature sounds, such as thunder, rain, and wind (Krause, 2002: xii). harmonic The sound energy produced simultaneously with and above a complex tone. The first harmonic in a complex tone is the fundamental. imitation Imitation, or mimicry, is the ability to reproduce, to a varying degree, sounds other than those of the species in question, including environmental sounds. immediate variety A pattern of singing when successive phrases are different. klangfarbenmelodie A melody formed and perceived through timbral transformation, often of a single pitch. matched When two birds are singing back and forth at one another countersinging and one preferentially sings a phrase from a common repertoire that best matches what the other is singing. melisma Embellishment of one note of a melody by way of portamentos. mimicry Imitation, or mimicry, is the ability to reproduce, to a varying degree, sounds other than those of the species in question, including environmental sounds. mobbing Harrassment of a potential predator by a group, often by multiple species, via swooping and harsh calling. motif A coherent subsection of a phrase. octave Two sounds where one is twice the other, they have an equivalent quality, and they are assigned the same note name. oscine True songbirds; a suborder of passerines.

xii ostinato A simple, repeated, and unchanging pattern in the midst of other changing sounds. overlapping When phrases of birds overlap in time. passerine The order of Passeriformes, or perching birds, which includes oscines and sub-oscines. phrase A recognisable and orderly group of notes separated by pauses, which are generally of the order of several seconds. pitch A subjective assessment of frequency. plastic song The intermediate stage of song learning, where the notes are more structured than subsong, yet still unstable and highly variable. portamento Audibly connecting pitches by passing through all intervening tones, often mistakenly called glissando (which implies production on an instrument with fixed semitones, such as the piano or harp). quiet song Phrases uttered at a very low volume, used synonymously with whisper song by some while others make a distinction that quiet song is directed at an individual and whisper song is undirected. rattle A rapid succession of short and harsh or hollow sounding notes. repertoire size The total number of phrases including variants in a bird’s vocabulary. song A sustained singing performance. song bout A clearly defined song delivered in its entirety. songbirds Oscines; a suborder of passerines. Also called “true songbirds.” song type A particular category of song. sonogram, sonagram, A graphic representation of sound that plots time on the spectrogram horizontal x-axis, frequency on the vertical y-axis, and relative amplitude as a grey-scale. sotto voce Singing quietly or in less than full voice. soundmark The auditory counterpart of a landmark (Truax, 2001).

xiii subsong The first tentative and poorly structured notes of learned birdsongs; also refers to soft, rambling adult song bearing little or no resemblance to natural song. syrinx A bird’s vocal mechanism, consisting of a valve in each bronchi just below the junction with the trachea. timbre Those parts of a sound other than loudness and pitch, but can also include them to a degree. It carries information about its source and the environment through which the sound has travelled. transition versatility The likelihood of successive songs being different. trill An alternation of two different, though near, pitches. unmatched When birds are singing back and forth at one another and countersinging one avoids repeating what the other just sang. variant A modification of a phrase. warbling A sound that fluctuates widely in pitch. whisper song Phrases uttered at a very low volume, used synonymously with quiet song by some while others make a distinction that quiet song is directed at an individual and whisper song is undirected. x-axis The horizontal axis in a sonogram representing time. y-axis The vertical axis in a sonogram representing frequency. zoömusicology The study of the aesthetic use of sounds among nonhuman animals (Martinelli, 2001: 3).

xiv ABSTRACT

Is musicality a capacity Homo sapiens shares with birds? The pied butcherbird (Cracticus nigrogularis) is suggested for a zoömusicological case study on how birdsong might be like the human animal’s music (whether homologous or analogous). The thesis includes a critical reflection on an accompanying portfolio of music compositions (scores paired with field transcriptions and a CD recording) that are integral to the analysis process.

The study of birdsong by biologists and the appropriation of birdsong by composers are reviewed, with a primary focus on how composers have used the song of the pied butcherbird in their works. To date there has been no systematic study of the vocal behaviour of the study species, and much remains to be illuminated. While the collection of extant recordings is essential, conducting fieldwork to secure original recordings and experience pied butcherbird vocal behaviour firsthand are central to the research.

Portamento as an impediment to “off-the-shelf” musicology in the case of birdsong analysis is discussed. It is proposed that the employment of different types and levels of description could facilitate the most fecund survey and analysis. Hardware and software choices are detailed, along with recording methods and data analysis techniques.

A survey on how pied butcherbirds use notes, calls, and song is presented, including sonograms and standard music notation, followed by an elucidation of an extensive repertoire of procedures found in both human music and pied butcherbird song. Building on this, repertoire, general principles, and overarching matters of form and structure are interrogated through the analysis of two long songs, one diurnal and the other pre-dawn. Many components from their rich and nuanced repertoire are subject to recasting, some via elaborate strategies. Transcriptions and analyses from nearby pied butcherbirds at both study sites serve to increase the sample size, situate the targeted singers, and assist in the determination of whether phrases are improvised or part of an established convention. Pied butcherbird songs are found to be dynamic and in a constant state of change.

The creative compositional component informs and becomes the final step in the analysis process. The portfolio of compositions demonstrates in a practical application, as the investigation in prior chapters does through a range of other analytical methods, how the species has been successful in creating and re-creating a culture with clear and unequivocal links to the experience of human music.

Specific new contributions are itemised in the final chapter, and recommendations are made for those areas that could be most productive for further research into pied butcherbird song. It is concluded that pied butcherbirds’ elaborate song culture overreaches biological necessity, indicating an aesthetic appreciation of sound is present in the pied butcherbird.

xv

Chapter 1

Introduction

1

Chapter 1

Of course viewing culture as something which originates in a natural function, and imagining that it turned out to bring a new end beyond pure survival, may look heretical both to a large majority of biologists and to many musicians as well. … I can only say, as a composer, that Cracticus nigrogularis, the pied butcherbird, is a kind of colleague (Mâche, 2000: 479).

Introduction The search for a simple declarative sentence to pin down the moving target of music in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, along with the quest for a succinct list of universals in music, grants particular appeal to the human cutoff point in a definition of music. Despite the word’s polysemous function, music as a uniquely human activity is a recurring theme in the literature—witness Merriam’s “Music sound cannot be produced except by people for other people” (1964: 6); Sessions’ “music is created by human beings” (1950/1974: 11); Kolinski’s “Music has been created by man” (1967: 1); Harrison’s “non-linguistic sound, when used (with some degree of intention) by human beings” (1977: 30); Blacking’s “humanly organized sound” (1995: 10); Bowman’s “a product of human minds” (1998: 69); Cook’s “humanly generated sounds” (1998: 4); Cross’ “a peculiarly human phenomenon… quite outside the repertoire of behaviors of other species” (2003: 109-110); and Borgo’s “an emergent property of humans attending to organized sounds in time” (2007: 65). List frames ethnomusicology as “the study of humanly produced patterns of sound,” and thus “bird song lies without the province” (1979: 1). Kivy attacks the issue obliquely, invoking the pseudo-linguistic model:

For to say we hear bird songs as if they had syntactical properties is not to ascribe syntactical properties to them, any more than we are describing a monster when we say of someone that it is as if he had eyes in the back of his head. However, as soon as we take being able to hear bird noises as music to imply that therefore they are music, we are saying that they literally have syntactic properties; and that is a conceptual impossibility. A natural object cannot, as a matter of logic, have syntactic properties, whether it is a bird’s “song” or anything else (1990: 24-25).

Equating object with an animal is problematical. Are songbirds mere curiosities within the landscape, interchangeable with a children’s bird whistle or a music box? More to the point, biologists regularly remark on the coding rules of syntax in

2 animal vocalisations (Richman, 1987: 201; Balaban, 1988: 3657; Bradbury and Vehrencamp, 1998: 461, 494; Doupe and Kuhl, 1999: 571: Rogers and Kaplan, 2000: 86). Birdsong is not haphazard, “random handfuls of notes” (Hartshorne, 1958: 422)—but neither is it a language. In fact, music is not a language. It has “no evident, immediate fixed consensual reference” (Stevens, 2004: 433). Mâche, who coined the word zoömusicology in 1983 (1983/1992: 95-160), warns of the classic syllogism: “Language distinguishes man, and music is a kind of language, therefore music is a purely human cultural fact” (ibid.: 73).

Martinelli imagines zoömusicology as the study of the “aesthetic use of sounds among animals” (2001: 3) and elsewhere as the “aesthetic use of sound communication among animals” (2002: 7); such is the scope of the birdsong study herein. For the purpose of this investigation, it is not necessary that birdsong cross that final hurdle and be classified music. Having avoided the yoke of Merriam’s “White Knight Concept,” this researcher does nonetheless admit to his “Duty of Preservation Concept” (1963: 207), music or not. For those inclined towards an aesthetic appreciation of birdsong as music, including perhaps the birds themselves, the connection seems obvious. For others, it is a line that cannot be crossed (until inter alia we have a theory of mind for animals). “It is best to keep an open mind about the possibility of consciousness in all animals that exhibit versatile behavior or communicate in ways that suggest they may be expressing thoughts or feelings” (Griffin, 1992: 4). Since we have no “general theory” of human cognition, it is understandable that scientists who study animal behaviour avoid this subject. Little is known, but it would seem anthropomorphic not to entertain the possibility of animal consciousness.

This proposal celebrates and records the voice of an indigenous “Australian” normally overlooked. Just as food plants and folk tunes have been winnowed down and refined by thousands of trial and error experiments, so too has the robust, flexible, and adaptive song of the pied butcherbird. While musical analysis traditionally implies ultimate access to and understanding of the creative process in question, my critical position is that of an outsider—a non-participant in the world of avian vocalisations, but nevertheless as a musician/composer, perhaps a co- conspirator. “To my mind the most universal characteristic of music is its non- universality as a means of communication. Whatever it communicates is 3 communicated to the members of the in-group only, whoever they may be” (List, 1971: 399). Would I get in?

Beginning in Chapter 2, several formalities are set in place. The first use of a key term will be in italics, indicating a definition is placed in the glossary at the beginning of this document; when relevant, these terms will be amplified later. Those aspects of pied butcherbird vocal behaviour that have clear or intriguing overlaps with human musical conventions are highlighted via shaded boxes. All notes, phrases, songs, and calls presented in notations and/or sonograms are attributed to their recording source and detailed in Appendix G. The chapters to come follow this trajectory:

Chapter 2: Background to Study. The field of birdsong study went largely unclaimed by musicians. When sonographic analysis of birdsong recordings became possible, biologists apprehended the subject, although not with a trained ear so much as a trained eye. This chapter focuses on what biologists have learned about avian vocal behaviour, with emphasis on the process of song acquisition. While the function of song is routinely dismissed as serving solely for survival utility or reproductive opportunity, there is a noteworthy undercurrent among scientists that inventiveness in song surpasses biological necessity. The possibility of the aesthetic treatment of sound by birds is reviewed, whether under the rubric of zoömusicology or some other field of research. This is followed by a review of the appropriation of birdsong by composers, with particular emphasis on the pied butcherbird. The approach that I propose differs from those few musicians who have transcribed birdsong in that it encompasses a total involvement and empathy with one species and meticulous transcription and analysis. The chapter concludes with a literature review of what is known about the study species, particularly concerning voice and vocal behaviour.

Chapter 3: Design and Methods. My experiences and intuitions as a practising musician and composer augment and complement the study of birdsong. Thus, the research tools include a trained ear as well as technology, both of which are reviewed here. The next section details the collection methods of extant recordings of pied butcherbird song. An accounting of fieldwork study sites, recording procedures, and observational methods follows. My search for software to deliver 4 reliability and validity in the measurement of birdsong under sonographic analysis is chronicled. Without a ready-made template from similar inquiries, I designed an analytical toolkit drawing from crossover methods best suited to this interdisciplinary study. The chapter continues with a brief history of music notation, with special reference to the history of birdsong notation. In the last section, my notation and data analysis methods are explained. Limitations to each aspect of the research design and methods are presented.

Chapter 4: Phenomenology of Pied Butcherbird Vocalisations. Pied butcherbird sound sequences exhibit structure that can be described in terms of various components ranging from individual sound units, through motives and phrases, to the song itself. In this chapter, I strike comparisons between human musical behaviour and pied butcherbird vocalisations that are particularly relevant to an understanding of musicality in both species, at least from the perspective of the human ear. Some examples of musicality are revisited in Chapter 6, where they are the subject of composition and the analysis inherent in that process. The last section highlights special cases of pied butcherbird vocal behaviour and ability, such as female song, antiphonal song, and mimicry.

Chapter 5: Long Songs, Repertoire, and Organisational Structure. While Chapter 4 identifies and elucidates musical materials of pied butcherbird vocalisations in particular manifestations, Chapter 5 interrogates song repertoire, general principles, and overarching matters of form and structure. I cast myself as an avian cartographer, tracing phrases from two long songs—one diurnal, the other pre- dawn—across chill deserts, snake-infested paddocks, and arid islands in the dark of night in order to deduce principles of design. This chapter is a repository for quantitative descriptions of song types, song conventions, and rules of song succession.

Chapter 6: Critical Reflection and Analysis. Numerous components of pied butcherbird songs lend themselves to reframing within the human animal’s tradition and are fruitful compositional catalysts in matters of melody, rhythm, form, and wonder. A portfolio of compositions based on their extraordinary vocalisations commences as a means of putting birdsong on display, but quickly extends its reach: composition informs and becomes the final step in the analysis 5 process. These compositions celebrate, as the analysis in prior chapters does, the success of the species in creating and re-creating a musical culture with compelling and intriguing links to human music.

Chapter 7: Conclusion and Future Directions. In this final chapter, I review the questions I have raised, the answers the birds have revealed, and what, with time, may be accomplished by me and others. Chief among my conclusions is that pied butcherbirds possess a complex vocal behaviour, which is characterized by plasticity of vocabulary and numerous overlaps with human concepts of musicality. I have demonstrated how they attend to sound, create and make choices over it, and vary these choices (preferring some and altering others, while some solutions are ignored outright), and that this overreaches biological necessity and indicates an aesthetic use of sound.

6

Chapter 2

Background to Study

7

Chapter 2

But now it occurred to me that there was another way to approach the evolution of dinosaur intelligence, and one that would not necessarily lead to the conclusion that the more intelligent an organism became the more it began to resemble human beings. You could look at how smart birds have become. True, most birds, chickens for example, appear to be only as smart as they need to be, and chickens don’t need to be very smart. … But there’s a simpler explanation. Birds, being descended from dinosaurs, have been evolving intelligence in an unbroken line for 200 million years. Wouldn’t it make sense if they thought in different ways from us? … I held out my hand and chickadees gripped my fingers. My heart hardly dared beat. I did not receive the impression that I was being mistaken for a tree, that my fingers were being taken for twigs. I felt I was being reconnoitred, sampled, assayed and, inevitably, found wanting (Grady, 2000: 225-226).

2.1 Introduction to the study of bird song A bird’s song can function as deed to his territory—an auditory “keep out” sign—or as a “come hither” to his female counterpart. It can serve as a group password (Fitch, 2006: 186). In fact, “Why do birds sing?” involves a complex web of many correct answers (ibid.: 174) and as many unanswered questions (Rothenberg, 2005). Although not intended for incidental human eavesdroppers, birdsong has inspired artists of all stripes throughout the centuries, as well as philosophers and just plain folk; occasionally humans even propose their own imagined translation of a bird’s song or “mood.” Composers have appropriated the melodic inventions of birds, but musicians have mostly neglected to pursue serious interrogations into the musical life of birds. At the point when technology evolves that might assist musicians to notate the notoriously difficult songs of birds, musicians neglect to take up the challenge; developments must take place outside the bounds of musicology, and they do. The advent of the tape recorder, followed by further technological advances such as digital recording and computer analysis programs, has allowed biologists to leapfrog over musicians and develop the study of avian acoustics and its concomitant behaviour. A groundswell of activity followed.

2.1.1 The study of bird song by biologists Vocal learning is rare. Aside from the human animal,1 evidence for it is confirmed only in oscine songbirds, parrots, and hummingbirds, while circumstantial evidence for it exists among some marine mammals and bats (Rendell and Whitehead, 2001;

1 The balance implied in the terms “human animal” and “nonhuman animal” is indebted to Martinelli (2002). 8 Wilbrecht and Nottebohm, 2003: 135) and possibly elephants (Talbot, 2008: 72). The predisposition for perception and learning evolved three separate times in birds (Doupe and Kuhl, 1999: 573).

Whether song in birds and the human animal is homologous (the process deriving from the genes of a mutual ancestor) or analogous (unrelated genes brought to bear for a similar result) is a subject better approached by an evolutionary biologist, such as Fitch, than a musicologist. “It was clear to Darwin,” he posits, “and has remained unargued ever since, that bird song is analogous, not homologous, to human song (our common ancestor, a Paleozoic reptile, did not sing), and the same can be said for whale and seal song” (Fitch, 2006: 183). However, Martinelli contends that a concept for music exists in nonhuman animals and thus “sound manifestations in nonhuman animals are homologous to musical manifestations in humans. They are not simply analogous” (2002: 106-107). Whatever the vote on “same” or “different” when applied to origin and function, clearly all agree that birdsong is “like” the human animal’s music in that it involves learning.

The process of song acquisition for songbirds, pioneered in studies by Thorpe and Marler, follows a trajectory from the first tentative and poorly structured notes (subsong), to the intermediate stages (called plastic song by biologists because although the notes are more structured, they are still unstable and highly variable), to the mature adult stage when stereotypy is achieved (crystallized song) (Thorpe, 1958; Thorpe and Pilcher, 1958; Marler and Peters, 1982b; Hultsch and Todt, 2004). Subsong is “an almost amorphous, soft and rambling twittering bearing little or no resemblance to natural adult song” (Marler, 1990: 111).2 Plastic song sees themes over-produced and gradually subjected to attrition in several stages (Marler, ibid.). “Birdsongs are probably the most complex patterns of motor activity known from the natural behavior of animals” (Marler, 1981: 88).

No species is equally ready to acquire new songs at any phase of its life; instead, there are one or more sensitive periods, with most learning accomplished in the

2 Subsong is delivered by adults as well, and in this context it is considered “a non-social solo performance without intended receivers” (Dabelsteen, McGregor, Lampe, Langmore, and Holland, 1998: 100). Subsong is often used synonymously with quiet song, subdued song, whisper song, low volume song, chatter song, and twitter song; however, Dabelsteen et al. make the distinction that quiet song, unlike subsong, is directed at another bird (ibid.: 101). 9 first year of life (Marler, 1990: 109). Memorisation and production are not simultaneous; the long-term storage of song phrases often precedes their first rehearsal. In their study of swamp sparrows (Melospiza georgiana), Marler and Peters find explicit rehearsal of learned songs arrived, on average, 240 days after the final exposure to the training song (1982a: 479). Some species are open-ended learners (Nottebohm, 1989: 56; Marler, 1981: 93). Learning allows for variety and complexity not possible in innate song. Learning is accomplished via cultural transmission and can be vertical (learning from parents), horizontal (learning from members of the same generation), and oblique (learning from unrelated birds of different generations) (Marler and Tamura, 1964; Lynch et al., 1989: 634; Baptista and Gaunt, 1997: 24-25).

Mimicry, or imitation, is the ability to reproduce, to a varying degree, sounds other than those of the species in question (Lemaire, 1975: 95), including environmental sounds. Its function in birds is poorly understood, and no single explanation appears to suffice (Chisholm, 1946; Marshall, 1950; Baylis, 1982; Kroodsma, 2004: 128-130). Therefore, the definition given is a descriptive rather than a functional one.

Birdsong is a biomarker, providing information on the health of individuals and the habitat in general to both humans and other birds. For a female, a male’s song might indicate the presence of a potential mate, his location, his territory, his species and individual identity, his readiness to breed and provide for offspring (Konishi, 1985: 129), and as well as indicate motivational factors (Boughey and Thompson, 1976: 64). To another male, it may advertise the ownership of territory and indicate species and individual identity, but also neighbour versus stranger (Marler, 1961).

When two males are singing back and forth at one another, one may choose to sing a phrase from their common repertoire that best matches what the other is singing (matched countersinging), or may avoid repeating what the other just sang (unmatched countersinging) (Kroodsma, 2005: 12, 250). A bird that regularly repeats a phrase before moving to another is said to sing with eventual variety; the opposite delivery style is termed immediate variety (Kroodsma, 2004: 7.86).

10 Birdsong is often presented as a contest between rival males or between the skilled salesmanship of a male versus the equally well-developed sales resistance of a female3 (Williams, 1966: 184). This functional definition glosses over the fact that females sing much more than is usually recognised (Smith, 1991: 248). Females may sing solo or in duets (Langmore, 1998) and are known to sing to attract mates (Langmore, 1998, 2000). Their repertoire may be as large or larger than males (Brown and Farabaugh, 1991: 270-271).

Just over 200 of the world’s approximately 9,000 bird species are known to duet (Hall, 2002-2003: 53). The function of a duet, like that of female song, remains puzzling, although various hypotheses have been explored, such as pair bond maintenance, mutual stimulation, contact, cooperative territorial defense, and mate guarding (Thorpe 1972; 1973: 73; Grafe, Bitz, and Wink, 2004: 181; Hall 2004; Rogers, Langmore, and Mulder, 2007). Baptista distinguishes duet singing against territorial rivals from greeting duets delivered after mate separation (1978: 99). Duets may affect a pair’s reproductive behaviour (Todt and Hultsch, 1982). Duets may be alternating, which implies considerable speed and precision in the delivery of motives (Power, 1966: 314), or overlapping, which understands more flexibility. Each bird may learn the other’s contribution (Thorpe, 1966: 351).

Call notes are associated with the general maintenance activities of feeding, flocking, contacting, migrating, and reacting to predators (Thorpe, 1964: 740) and thus occur neither spontaneously nor regularly but in response to certain stimuli (Konishi, 1985: 126). The repertoires of songbirds normally range between five and ten calls (Marler, 2004: 31). Some, such as alarm calls and those indicating the discovery of food, are considered to have a semantic content, functioning similarly to words (Seyfarth and Cheney, 2003). (The genesis of both music and language are thorny fields separately and together; the argument for parallels between birdsong and human speech behaviour are outside the scope of this inquiry. This is not to contend that birdsong has no parallels with language and its acquisition, but merely to assert that the parallels between birdsong and the human animal’s music are the focus herein.)

3 The concepts of female resistance and female selection acknowledge the taste of the consumer as affecting what the composer produces. Birdsong is more than technique; it is a set of relations. 11 “While the differences between songs and calls are occasionally blurred, most of the time they are clear and unequivocal,” Marler maintains (2004: 32). Compared to songs, birdcalls tend to be shorter, simpler, and innate. The word “innate” recalls the dichotomous thinking of the nature/nurture debate, over which much ink has been spilled. Ornithologists now rely less on the words “learned” and “innate,” which imply strict boundaries, and have gradually replaced them with concepts such as an “inherited tendency” (Thorpe, 1958: 557), “instincts for inventiveness” (Marler, 1994: 614), “learning preferences” (Marler, 1997: 503), “song templates” (ibid.), and “auditory templates” (Adret, 2004: 306). The antithetical classical debate nature or nurture has evolved into nature and nurture, complementary activities often now viewed as a continuum from biology to culture.

Birds do not just sing songs; they also receive and interpret songs. Their hearing is acute in both low- and high-frequency ranges, their acoustic acuity and temporal discrimination is similar to human animals, and they are able to discriminate the songs of other species, even at the level of individuals, with precision (Greenewalt, 1968: 138; Dooling, 1982; Dooling, 1989). Absolute pitch perception, relative pitch perception, pitch contour, and pitch ratio (interval) have been found in some, but not all, birds studied. (Few empirical studies have been conducted to date.) For example, European starlings possess absolute pitch and show a preference for learning pitch patterns on that basis (Hulse and Page, 1988), while in the case of black-capped chickadees a melody can be retained with a change of key (Weisman, Ratcliffe, Johnsrude, and Hurly, 1990).

2.1.2 Limitations to the study of birdsong by biologists Otto Koehler (1954) in Germany and William Thorpe (1954, 1961) in England were the first to study birdsong development under controlled laboratory conditions. Laboratory results can be problematic, unable to reflect accurately what happens in the wild, and now have begun to be questioned by some biologists. Kroodsma cautions that “laboratory studies can at most show only what a bird is capable of doing in an environment never before encountered in the species’ evolutionary history” (1996: 4). Further limitations of laboratory studies are found in Baptista and Petrinovich (1984, 1986) and Beecher, who observes, “Not only did the laboratory studies fail to identify critical variables in song learning, but they 12 also showed patterns of learning that differed greatly from those we had observed in the field” (1996: 61).

The use of wax cylinders and later shellac discs and magnetic tape were new tools allowing biologists to capture and study birdsong, although reliance on human transcribers continued. In the first breakthrough, Brand developed a method for photographing birdsong on motion picture film for microscopic study (Brand, 1935; Ingraham, 1938). Later, Thorpe pioneered the use of the sound spectrograph, invented at Bell Telephone Laboratories, in birdsong studies (Thorpe and Lade, 1961). A sound spectrogram (or sonogram) is a graphic representation of sound.

Sonographic analysis by biologists in now the standard, but reliance on the visual may be problematical. Galison writes about the impact of modern technology on science, including how “the pictorial (image) tradition” influences science’s bottom line (1997: xix). Dependence on the sound spectrogram, or sonogram, shifts the focus of birdsong from ear to eye. (This is echoed in Western classical music with the score becoming privileged above the sonic experience.) The sonogram does not represent what the human ear (and likely the bird’s ear) hears. Hold points out “the gap between objective sound-picture and psychologically-plausible notation” (1970: 163), while suggesting a combination graph/stave notation, which is detailed in Chapter 3. An image drawn by the human hand implies more extensive involvement by the ear. Another potential shortcoming of visual analysis is that the image in the sonogram window can be altered; we adjust it, imagining the act as an objectification of perception, until we see what we want (Rothenberg, 2005: 90).

Once establishing the basic song learning cycle, biologists went on to refine their knowledge. Many studies are given over to songs as social signals and what these signals communicate. Hypotheses concerning the motivation of song focus on survival utility and reproductive opportunity, failing to explain all contextual bases in which song occurs. Space does not permit a further examination of this subject, nor does this writer prefer to cite studies that depend on the deafening of hatchlings, the separation of mated pairs, the playback of taped conspecific song, and the “harvesting” of bird brains for neurological research, where songbirds serve as stand-in humans for researchers. Suffice it to say that much remains to be discovered and very few species have been studied in depth, so that much of what 13 we think we do know is based on several “white rats” of the bird world (Baptista, 1975: 1).

2.2 Zoömusicology With a few notable exceptions (Craig, 1943; Sotavalta, 1956; Armstrong, 1973; Baptista and Keister, 2005), the studies of most ornithologists concern biological and evolutionary questions (the ontogeny and function of song, for example), rather than musical ones. Whatever their preoccupations and methodological constraints, ornithologists are given to comments on the possible aesthetic use of sound by birds. The song complexity of passerines that appears to transcend biological requirements is the most frequent area of bewilderment. In a field known for its concise statements, consider just a few of these comments: “leaves us to puzzle over the resulting richness and variety” (Catchpole and Slater, 1995: 191); “Sometimes it is clear that birds indulge in a process of improvisation, first memorizing and replicating a theme, and then subjecting it to a series of systematic transformations, as though assuaging an appetite for novelty” (Marler, 1981: 92); “but the far more complex songs of versatile songsters, the songs of songsters which possess large individual repertoires, sometime appear to be so variable as to dramatically violate the requirement of song invariance for species distinctiveness” (Boughey and Thompson, 1976: 5); and finally, from Thorpe: “In a number of cases among song birds, particularly those in which songs of unusual richness and variety are known, we frequently encounter what appears to be musical ‘invention’. This includes (1) re-arrangement of phrases, both innate and learnt, and (b) the invention of really ‘new’ material” (1966: 354).

Jellis also makes the point that some birdsong far exceeds what is necessary for survival and reproduction:

This is another feature of long-distance signalling: a change in the signal reawakens attention. But it is also a musical principle: tension followed by relaxation, changing rhythms and dynamics, dissonance and resolution. … But it is fair to ask whether these two principles, of redundancy and variety, are enough to account for the degree of elaboration and variation that has been found. It seems unlikely (1977: 196).

14 Likewise, Klopfer anticipates the increased willingness by scientists to address the possible presence of aesthetics in nonhuman animals:

If we consider esthetic preferences to mean a liking for objects or activities because they produce or induce particular neural inputs or emotional states, independently of overt reenforcers, can we attribute esthetics to animals other than man? The significance of an affirmative answer lies, of course, in the support this would lend to the belief that there is a biological basis to esthetics. And should our answer be affirmative, that animals can, for instance, have “art,” it will become important to enquire into the basis therefore: what are the historical or ultimate reasons for the development of an esthetic sense: by what mechanisms is the development of the species- characteristic preferences assumed? (1970: 399).

Musicians have no such barriers in discussing aesthetics in birdsong, whether under the rubric of zoömusicology or some other designation. As introduced in Chapter 1, both Mâche, who coined the term, and Martinelli, whose working definition is used herein, have written extensively on the subject. Theirs, however, are theoretical and not empirical accounts. Few studies of the aesthetics of animal sounds exist to compare and contrast solely within that system. Zoömusicology “is too young to transcend human music as a point of reference” (Martinelli, 2007: 133). He contends the field “has very little to do with admiring birdsong and considering it music simply for that reason. Zoomusicology is rather concerned with thinking that birds possess their own concept of music” (2002: 98).

While Martinelli is a zoösemiotician who composes, Mâche is a composer first and foremost; he frames the issue differently, privileging those birds that sing best to his ear.

Of some 8700 species of bird, around 4000 or 5000 are songbirds. Of these, 200 or 300 are of special interest to the musician through the variety of their signals. It may be said en passant that this is a ratio 50-100 times higher than that of professional musicians in relation to the total population of France (Mâche, 1983/1992: 96).

Mâche, as evidenced in the title Musique au singulier (2001), traces the natural musical archetypes and kinds of organisation known in the human animal’s music to various birdsong vocalisations, suggesting that the origins of music have a fundamental basis in the biology of living things.

15 Doolittle has emerged as another voice in the field. Her thesis investigating the relationship between human music and animal songs concludes that, while there are close connections, the relationship is analogous: “Though it is not impossible that the [common] reptilian ancestor could have been musical, no evidence suggests this” (2006: 168). She differs from Mâche, contending, “There is no single music,” but rather “many” (ibid.: 175).

The nature of musical cognition is complex and problematical, with no assumed simple fit between cultures or individuals (Walser, 2003: 223)—or species. Thus, it is outside the province of this study to make a case for zoömusicology as an entire field. Nonetheless, intriguing work is being done in its name, and interdisciplinary collaborations on birdsong have begun by those able to manoeuvre between the crumbling twin pillars of scepticism and romanticism.4

I contend that biology and zoömusicology are not mutually exclusive; the field of zoömusicology could contain anyone who investigates the aesthetic use of sound in nonhuman animals.5 While the field’s decorum and range are still being formally set, we find activity dates back for decades. The American biologist Wallace Craig grapples with the aesthetic in his study of the song of the wood pewee (Myiochanes virens Linnaeus) as early as 1943:

Our entire study leads to the conclusion that bird songs are true music, they are esthetic art and we believe that this is the essence of the concept, because it is the characteristic which is found in all bird songs and is not found in the other utterances of the bird; also, it is the characteristic which is found in highest degree in the best singers and in those songs which are most distinctly songs and not mere calls (169).

In 1956, Sotavalta combines his training as a zoölogist with his gift of perfect pitch to notate and analyse the songs of two Sprosser nightingales (Luscinia luscinia) (see Chapter 3.4.2). Hungarian musicologist Peter Szöke writes on ornitomuzikológia in

4 The first conference dedicated to zoömusicology, Symposium in zoomusicology: The nightingale song between art and research, was held in Jäärvenpää, Finland, on June 12-13, 2008. Convened by Martinelli, the conference was attended by scientists and musicians who addressed the song of the nightingale from a multitude of perspectives. 5 Indeed, the field of zoömusicology finds competing terms and overlapping territories with “ornithomusicology,” “biomusicology,” “bioacoustics,” “acoustic ecology,” “neuromusicology,” and “evolutionary musicology,” to list but some. It remains to be seen which terms will find the widest acceptance, which will be subsumed into others, and which will fade altogether. One thing is clear: the music of nature has the potential to offer intriguing insights into the nature of music. 16 1963. A decade later, British naturalist Edward A. Armstrong entitles a chapter “Bird Song as Art and Play” (1973: 231).

Hartshorne compares birdsong to human music, proposes methods for describing and notating birdsongs, and analyses song structure following six dimensions he developed: loudness, complexity, continuity, tone, closure, and imitativeness (1973). His monotony threshold principle concludes that birds have a threshold for persistent repetition, with repetitious (nonversatile) singers tending to be discontinuous and continuous singers tending to be versatile (ibid.: 119-136). He includes an elaborate formula for rating birds worldwide. Halafoff’s survey of birdsong, published in a respected ornithological journal, also displays a foothold in both biology and musicology (1968: 21-40). He employs sonograms and music notation, and he speaks of notes in terms of both frequencies (as he measures kilocycles per second in the range of various birds) and pitches (“A ‘pedaled triplet’ in the song of the same bird contains two intervals; Ab – E and C – E”) (ibid.: 24). Philosopher and ethologist Dominique Lestel finds a strong analogy between birdsong and human music:

Compte tenu du fosse énorme qui sépare la vie de l’homme et celle de l’oiseau, une telle intelligibilité musicale entre les deux èspeces reste incontestablement étonnante (2001: 219).

Baptista and Keister explore the similarities of birdsong and human music, cataloguing the capabilities of birds as vocalists, instrumentalists, and composers and marvelling that:

As humans, we can never really achieve what the bird accomplishes, because part of the magic of its song is found in the miracle of the bird itself (2005: 441).

While passing over the word “zoömusicology,” Rothenberg is another voice in the field, challenging researchers to be “simultaneously aesthetically daring and rigorous” (2005: 110). Finally, we cannot depart from the subject without acknowledging Darwin, who a century earlier credits birds “with strong affections, acute perception, and a taste for the beautiful” (1871/1981: Vol. II, 108).

17 2.3 Composers’ appropriation of birdsong While not all musicians would agree that birdsong can be cast as music or that in it lays the very origins of music, birds have been muses to composers through the ages, offering up “radical inspiration” (Rothenberg, 2005: 9). Catalogues of such works abound (such as Giddings, retrieved 12 January 2008; Doolittle, 2006: 4-5 and 2008; Rothenberg, 2005: 188-208; Baptista and Keister, 2005; Urquhart, 2004: 101-129; Rothenberg and Ulvaeus, 2001; Austern, 1998; West and King, 1990; Jensen, R. d’A., 1985; Mâche, 1983/1992; Schafer, 1977; Hold, 1970: 155); a repeat of such catalogues is not within the scope of this inquiry.

However, lest I be accused of merely cataloguing the cataloguers, I will make a list. From my reading, situated as it is, certain composers keep coming up: Janequin and Handel, Vivaldi and Messiaen, and also “Anonymous”—who penned many folk tunes based on birdsong, some still notable, others lost. Works come up: the Pastoral symphony (Symphony no. 6 in F major, Op. 68, by Beethoven, completed in 1808), Oiseaux exotiques by Messiaen (1955-56), and Cantus Arcticus, Rautavaara’s symphony for orchestra and taped birdsong from inside the Arctic Circle (1972). Birds come up: the nightingale, canary, cuckoo, starling, mockingbird, skylark, and lyrebird, for example. Native peoples come up: the Koyukon of Alaska (Nelson, 1983); the Kaluli of Papua New Guinea (Feld, 1990); and the Suya Indians of central Brazil (Seeger, 1979).

Why do we bother with birdsong? The various accounts detail a range of strategies employed by composers in the appropriation of birdsong. Some works see more than one strategy. Imitation is listed, whether direct quotation (with or without added accompaniment) or by way of poetic inspiration, as are examples of imitation recast as “improvement” on the bird. Humour—“sonic cartoons” (Feld, 2000: 272) or vulgarity can be introduced via animal imitations. Some birdsongs are incorporated into cadenza-like sections (Hold, 1970: 155). For many years, the Italian national radio station RAI broadcast a birdsong collage by Pierre Schaeffer and Pierre Henri as its off-air call signal (Giddings, retrieved 12 January 2008). Some call upon birdsong to bridge the gap between Homo sapiens and other species:

In cultures where people interact intensively with the natural world, music is often used to communicate with non-human animals, 18 whether for practical, spiritual, playful or other purposes (Doolittle, 2008: 1).

A number of works present an affinity for or an excursion into nature, and birds provide an obvious point of reference for these simulated voyages. Audio recordings of birds, when featured in compositions, also betray a programmatic purpose: the first was probably Respighi’s Pines of Rome (1924), whose score includes a recording of a nightingale (Doolittle, 2006: 5). That same year, cellist Beatrice Harrison encouraged nightingales by performing in a Surrey wood in the first live outdoor radio broadcast, which came to be known as the Cello and Nightingale Sessions.6 Sound is no respecter of space; interspecies collaborations, whether wittingly or not for either birds or the human animal, have a long tradition and an apparent future.

Occasionally birds turn the table on things, appropriating human music and other sounds into their vocabulary. (Space does not permit a complete survey, but a mention seems warranted in light of Chapter 4’s survey of mimicry.) Hartshorne had predicted, “Bird judgment of human music must indeed be hopelessly ‘subjective’ or, to invent a word, ornithomorphic (1973: 8). However they might judge it, birds do seem able to replicate the human animal’s music. The earliest published manual for training of singing birds dates from c. 1700 (Stainer, 1899: 671); one is still in print, The bird fancyer's delight (Godman, 1955/1717), used to train canaries, nightingales, starlings, and other birds given to the human animal’s sense of musicality.

In his article “Experiments and observations on the singing of birds,” the ornithologist Daines Barrington includes Composition for two piping Bullfinches by “Mr. Zeidler, who plays the violincello at Covent Garden theatre” (1773-1774: 271). Barrington finds this “ingenious” composition well suited to birds:

I have before observed, that by attending to a nightingale, as well as a robin which was educated under him, I always found that the notes reducible to our intervals of the octave were precisely the same; which is another proof that birds sing always in the same key. ... As birds however adhere so stedfastly [sic] to the same precise notes in the same passages, though they never trouble themselves about what is called time in music, it follows that a composition may be formed for two piping bulfinches [sic], in two parts, so as to constitute true

6 Retrieved 9 August 2008, from http://musicandnature.publicradio.org/features/#nightingales. 19 harmony, though either of the birds may happen to being, or stop, when they please (ibid.: 270-271).

The ornithologist identifies the stages of learning that a young bird passes through as “chirp,” “call,” and “recording” (ibid.: 250). His experiments include hanging caged birds of various species together to determine how they might influence one another, all “intended to determine, whether birds had any innate ideas of the notes, or song, which is supposed to be peculiar to each species” (ibid.: 259). In a wide- ranging article, Barrington takes to task composers who “introduce the cuckow [sic] notes in a sharp third” rather than a flat third (ibid.: 269); describes the difficulties of birdsong notation as arising from three causes: the rapidity of the singing, the highness of the pitch, and their use of intervals smaller than a semitone (ibid.: 266); and announces that human musical intervals are “originally borrowed from the song of birds” (ibid.: 269). His table of British singing birds of merit rates mellowness of tone, sprightly notes, plaintive notes, compass (or range), and execution (ibid.: 282). He concludes that:

The notes of many birds are certainly very pleasing, but can by no means stand in competition either with the human voice or our worst musical instruments; not only from want of the striking effects of harmony in many excellent compositions; but because, even when compared to our simple melody, expression is wanting*, without which music is so languid and inanimate. *The nightingale, indeed, is perhaps an exception to this general observation (ibid.: 288).

One is left to wonder what Barrington would have made of the powers of the lyrebird. Both species of Australian lyrebirds appropriate human sounds, but the case of the “superb flute-playing lyrebirds of Dorrigo” is of particular relevance (Curtis and Taylor, 2008: publication in process). In the 1920s, a juvenile superb lyrebird (Menura novaehollandiae) in captivity, unable to hear adult lyrebirds, modeled his singing on the practice routine of a flute student. When released back into the wild, he continued his flute songs while also picking up songs and mimicry used by the local population. His flute songs and flute-like timbre were then culturally transmitted, spreading through the lyrebird population and replacing the original territorial song. It holds to this day.

The twentieth century finds a change in motivation, with composers seeking to absorb avian idioms in a wider sense than melody. Birdsongs are thought of as potential models. With musicians increasingly capable of realising variable rhythms 20 and other complexities of notation, deeper structures are incorporated in the birdsong-derived music of Messiaen, Mâche, and others.

2.4 Composers’ appropriation of pied butcherbird song Appropriation of birdsong by Australia’s composers in the Western classic tradition did not coincide with white settlement. Tate (1873-1926) was the first to encourage birdsong as an overlooked and nationalistic resource:

The Australian composer, searching for native peculiarities to build a national music upon, must soon give attention to the very essential matter of striking and characteristic rhythms. … [our bird calls] are with us always, and they supply us with an unfailing reservoir of varied and charming rhythms. The paltry imitation of the calls in any exact way is too cheap a device to be worth consideration. Indeed, the actual notes of some of the carols go outside the resources of any conceivable musical system. The rhythms of many of the bird calls, however, are so definite and clear that they may be easily used for the basis of fantastic dances, and so added to the Australian composer’s store of ideas for transformation and elaboration. The butcher bird, among his numerous chants, gives us a grave and gentle measure, not very marked, it is true, by novelty, but readily combinable with other calls in an artistic ensemble. … While we are lamenting the absence of dance forms as a source of national musical inspiration, the birds in their green palaces are tapping out dainty measures without stint, which, when we have ears to hear them, we shall reproduce with effect in the internal pulsations of our Australian music (1923: 20).

Tate again emphasised the pied butcherbird as potential source material several pages later, this time singling out the butcherbird:

At least two of our birds will suggest worked-out melodies, as contrasted with the broken morsels of melody known as ‘figures.’ The slow and dreamy prelude of the butcher bird naturally expands into musical sentences of the meditative type. … These and many other calls are eminently suitable for imitation, but by any means ‘the simple expedient of imitating the bird calls,’ but imitation ‘in the technical sense of the repetition of a motif or phrase,’ one of the most effective devices known to musicians (ibid.: 22).

21 Many of Tate’s compositions are lost or left in fragments. Eight transcriptions of pied butcherbird song survive and were edited and annotated from his notebooks by Mercer.7 Figure 2.1 details Tate’s transcription of pied butcherbird song.

Butcherbird 4: (MFPC: Tate 1909, 2.iii: BB4).

Butcherbird 5: (MFPC: Tate 1910, 2.iii: BB5).

Butcherbird 6: Notated at Ferntree Gully, Victoria for ‘Morning in the Gully’ for Suite Joyous (MFPC: Tate 1924, 2.iii: BB6).

Butcherbird 7: Motif used in Bush Miniatures (1902–24) (MFPC: Tate 1904, 2.iii: BB7; Programme 1925, [4]).

Butcherbird 8: Motif used in Dawn: A Symphonic Rhapsody (1922) (MFPC: Tate 1910s, 2.iii: BB8; Programme 1926, [5]).

Figure 2.1. Examples of transcribed pied butcherbird song from the notebooks of Henry Tate, as edited and annotated by Mercer.

Figure 2.2 displays an excerpt from his composition “Morning in the gully” (Tate, ibid.: 66). The left-hand part is a transposed variant of the birdsong from the transcriptions in Fig. 2.1. These transcriptions show Tate equally at home with (or puzzled by) the barline in a number of positions.

7 Mercer, a PhD. candidate at the University of Melbourne on the topic of Tate’s music, is married to Tate’s nephew. Annotation numbers and numerals are Mercer’s, who writes that “MFPC” refers to where the collection is held (C. Mercer, personal communication, 11 August 2008). 22

Figure 2.2. An excerpt from Tate’s “Morning in the gully” (1924). The arrow indicates a transposed variant of the pied butcherbird song notated in the original transcriptions.

Mercer explains that Tate uses grace notes to indicate portamentos. She has also traced pied butcherbird song to Tate’s Bush miniatures and Symphonic rhapsody, showing Tate took his own advice to seek musical material from native Australian birdsong. It remains unclear whether this “song” is actually the species call (detailed in Chapter 4), but since it is stereotyped across several (albeit nearby) sites and follows its pitch contour, that is my conjecture.

The music of David Lumsdaine (b.1931, Sydney) embodies his experience of the Australian landscape. He has recorded environmental sound as the basis for compositional material. “Pied butcherbirds at Spirey Creek” is the first track of a CD (1996) of composed Australian field recordings. Lumsdaine appraises the song as follows:

The Pied Butcherbird is a virtuoso of composition and improvisation: the long solo develops like a mosaic, through the varied repetition of its phrases. In the course of the song, some elements remain constant, some elements transform through addition and elimination. The bird is a virtuoso of decoration: there is an extraordinary delicacy in the way it articulates the harmonic course of its song with microtonal inflections, or places its cadences with a bird's equivalent of tremolandi and flutter-tonguing.

I've made a number of recordings of Pied Butcherbirds, and many of them are technically better than this set; but, beautiful as they may be, none of them matches the performance by these particular birds. Serendipity plays a large part in determining the musical quality of a soundscape—there are no retakes in the wild (1996, liner notes).

Lumsdaine’s recording was the basis for a London dance concert, Bird song (2004), by the Siobhan Davies Dance Company. Mandala 4 for string quartet (1991) is Lumsdaine’s recasting of the recording as an instrumental work and is dedicated “to

23 the Buddha of Spirey Creek” (Hall, 2003: 78). In addition to the song of the pied butcherbird, Lumsdaine makes use of the species call (discussed in detail in Chapter 4), as seen below (Fig. 2.3).

Figure 2.3. This Lumsdaine excerpt makes use of the pied butcherbird species call.

The call is delivered three times in succession, bars 261-266. “There is no attempt to imitate the original songs, but their gestures, contours and harmony are the heart and the taking off point for all the music,” Lumsdaine notes in the score.

Yet another outcome for the field recording of this bird is the book/CD The book of music & nature (Rothenberg and Ulvaeus, 2001). Rothenberg explains that this recording stands out from all the hours of nature recordings he listened to:

This is a bird singing, but it sounds like human music. The pied butcherbird sings a recognizable melody, easily perceivable to human ears. Then he varies it slightly, returns to the theme, then changes it again, all with a logic and form that can easily be discerned. … This bird is a musician. He’s improvising, playing around (ibid.: 231-232).

Melbourne-born Don Harper (1921-1999) was a jazz violinist and conductor of big bands, as well as a composer of music for film and television. Harper’s Images of Australia (1991) for string quintet (including double bass) consists of 16 movements, the second of which is based on the song of the pied butcherbird. Entitled “Butcher birds,” the subtitle penned on the score reads “at Spirey Creek,” indicating the thematic provenance to be Lumsdaine’s “Buddha” again. However, the 18sec. of field recording that begin the work as heard on the CD (Harper, 1997) are from a different Lumsdaine field recording, one from Lamington Plateau. (Coincidentally, it serves as the basis for one of the compositions herein, “Lamington Plateau” for flute, which will be discussed in Chapter 6. I had not heard the Harper piece when I wrote mine.) No use or development of the bird’s thematic material is apparent in Harper’s score. That both of these birdsongs receive multiple outcomes speaks not

24 just to the rarity of pied butcherbird recordings but to the way some birds strike humankind as more musical than others.

Mark Hansen’s (b.1960) CD Australian birdsong improvisations (1997) features eight “new age” piano musings, two of which are based on pied butcherbird song. A single phrase is extracted from a birdsong recording and pasted several times in close succession in a rhythmic framework; as the piano enters, the bird fades.

The Pied Butcherbird recording that I have has two calls of contrasting moods, which I took and created a sad and reflective piece, and also an uplifting, bright, and cheery song” (M. Hansen, personal communication, 10 August 2008).

The recording is consistent with a number of works suitable for yoga classes or meditation. This type of outcome, suggesting a harmonious oneness with nature, is a recurrent theme in birdsong appropriation (Navickaite, 2008).

Messiaen’s (1908-1992) use of pied butcherbird song comes in the final work of his life, Éclairs sur l'au-delà (published in 1998). “Les étoiles et la gloire,” movement VIII, is the longest of the work and marks the first entrance of the entire orchestra (and of the double basses). The pied butcherbird entrance (page 19 of the score) is annotated on the score in typical Messiaen fashion and appears to be an instance of the transposed species call incorporated into song (described in Chapter 4). The top line of the flutes matches a Messiaen field transcription in rhythm and pitch.8

A comparison of the score and the field transcription is below (Fig. 2.4).

Figure 2.4. A comparison of a pied butcherbird call in Messiaen’s score and in his field transcription reveals an exact match for rhythm and pitch in the top line of the flutes.

8 Notebook #23159, page 65, line 11 (lines 10-12 are indicated as pied butcherbird song), held at the Fonds Messiaen in the Bibliothèque nationale de France. This page, dated 13 June 1988, is from a fieldtrip with ornithologist Sydney Curtis and is marked “Tamborine Mountain” on the upper right- hand corner. 25

The motif D#7 E7 E7 circled in the score is a match with the field transcription, but also notice the slur in the flutes in bar 1, indicated with an arrow, leading up to the first note of bar 2. This replicates the pied butcherbird strategy of a “zip” up to the first note of the species call (discussed in more detail in Chapter 4). Messiaen probably heard this in the field or in other pied butcherbird recordings.

Composer, performer, and naturalist Ron Nagorcka (b. 1948) spent his childhood exploring music and the natural world on a sheep farm in Western Victoria. Artamidae (2004) is his five-movement suite celebrating a family of Australian songbirds: the grey butcherbird, Australian magpie, black currawong, pied butcherbird, and grey currawong. He writes:

You will hear in the Artamidae piece that I've used a just intonation scale, and the electric guitar in particular (a fretless instrument) imitates the bird with some pretty subtle tonal shifts. This brings me to my theory that birds sing in JI (they certainly don't stick to 12 tone ET), and a further question then arises. When they don't seem to be spot on are they singing "out of tune" or is such a concept ridiculously anthropomorphic? Still, may not "in-tuneness" be something a female listens for in order to choose a prospective male for breeding? (I am assuming here that just intervals are the benchmark of in-tuneness.) (R. Nagorcka, personal communication, 23 September 2005)

Nagorcka’s thoughts on intonation are pursued in Chapter 3.

Composer Hugh Dixon (b.1927, Sydney) has resided in New Zealand since 1940. He set The blue wrens and the butcher-bird (2004) for soprano voice and piano to a poem by Wright. The pied butcherbird notes (Fig. 2.5) appear to be an imitation of their species call, identified in Chapter 4. Contour, pitch, and rhythm are close matches.

Figure 2.5. This Dixon excerpt displays a close match in matters of contour, pitch, and rhythm with a pied butcherbird call. 26 This two-bar phrase is repeated immediately in the piano for a total of six iterations. The species call appears to be strongly emblematic of the pied butcherbird’s voice and stands as a musical identity marker in the minds of those who have heard the bird. Meanwhile, the lyrics (also published in a volume on Australian birds [Wright, 2003: 10-11] are a telling summary of the virtues and vices of the species, as observed from the human vantage point:

Sweet and small the blue wren whistles to his gentle hen, “The creek is full, the day is gold, the tale of love is never told. Fear not, my love, nor fly away, for safe, safe in the blackthorn-tree we shall build our nest today. Trust to me, oh trust to me.”

Cobwebs they gather and dry grass, greeting each other as they pass up to the nest and down again, the blue wren and the brown wren. They seek and carry far and near, down the bank and up the hill, until that crystal note they hear that strikes them dumb and holds them still.

Great glorious passion of a voice— sure all that hear it must rejoice. But in the thorn-bush silent hide the nest-builders side by side. “The blue wren’s nestlings and his wife, and he himself, that sprig of blue, I shall kill, and hang them safe— the blackthorn spears shall run them through.”

Still and still the blue wren sits beside his cowering hen. There they wait like stone by stone until the butcher-bird is gone. Then soft and sweet the blue wren twitters to his anxious hen, “Trust to me, oh trust to me; I know another blackthorn-tree.” --Judith Wright

Australian Brett Dean’s (b.1961) Pastoral symphony (2000/rev. 2001) for chamber orchestra incorporates an accompanying recording. The pied butcherbird is featured for several bars intermittently. Dean comments: 27

Sure, we all "love" nature, but what we love more are all the trappings of modern living... certainly more than the desire to stop and bask in the glory of a single butcherbird, perhaps the most magical sound found on the whole Australian continent. This piece, then, is about glorious birdsong, the threat that it faces, the loss, and the soulless noise that we're left with when they're all gone.9

British-born Charles Bodman Rae (b.1955) resides in Australia. He appropriated several species of birds in his String quartet no. 2 (2003). The first movement splits antiphonal birdcalls between the two violins. He also draws upon a pied butcherbird theme he hears from his garden in the Adelaide foothills.

The original melody was always in C minor: B, D, D / Eb, C / G, D, D / Eb, C. Clearly, this bird had perfect pitch! You will find various transformations and transpositions of this bird theme, particularly in the first and fourth movements where it appears flautando (C. Bodman Rae, personal communication, 15 May 2008).

The minor thirds are harnessed into the human composer’s personal aesthetic.

Canadian composer Emily Doolittle (b.1972) has an ear for the microtonal possibilities of pied butcherbird song:

Music for magpies (2003) is a collection of transcriptions of real and imaginary birdsongs. Pied butcherbird song was what inspired me to write this piece. I heard that recording, and it was so musical/composer-like that I wanted to transcribe the song to get closer to it. The transcriptions of the real bird songs are based on recordings from Jean C. Roché’s Les grands virtuoses: Les plus beaux chants d'oiseaux. I ended up quite interested in the musical result, so then I transcribed the hoopoe lark song. (The pied butcherbird transcription is quite exact—the hoopoe lark transcription is farther away from the actual birdsong. The others I wrote with what I perceive to be a bird-like grammar and language, but not are based on the song of any particular bird.) The piece was originally intended for performance on viola da gamba with quarter-tone frets, but can also be performed on cello or viola (E. Doolittle, personal communication, 22 June 2008).

Doolittle’s “Pied butcherbird” is the first movement in a five-movement work. The Roché recording she appreciates also finds its way onto “A zoomusicological essay,”

9 Retrieved 9 August 2008, from http://www.boosey.com/cr/music/Brett-Dean-Pastoral- Symphony/3968. 28 track two of Kuljuntausta and Martinelli’s CD (2005). In this blend of Kuljuntausta’s often dense electronic textures with field recordings collected by Martinelli, Roché’s pied butcherbird enters at 5:30 in for an essentially solo presentation until 8:00, where the recording is sampled and developed. Several seconds from the Roché recording also appear as thematic material for the pied butcherbird stuffed toy.10 This song makes prominent use of the pied butcherbird wow sound detailed in Chapter 4.

Again, we see a pattern developing where the musicality of certain birds so captures the human imagination that the song sees multiple outcomes. The pied butcherbird canon has commenced, and Tate’s vision of composers tapping into Australia’s birdsong resources is slowly coming into its own.

2.5 Songbirds The origins of music are much contested, with no shortage of speculation (including that humans acquired music from songbirds) and no clear answer likely (Wallin, Merker, and Brown, 2000; Pont, 199811). Intriguingly, Eastern Gondwana (Australia and Papua New Guinea) is implicated as the birthplace of songbirds in recent papers citing DNA sequence data (Edwards and Boles, 2002; Ericson, Christidis, Cooper, Irestedt, Jackson, Johansson, et al., 2002). Songbirds (Order Passeriformes—the passerines or “perching birds”) constitute about 4,600 of the world’s approximately 10,000 bird species (Podulka, Rohrbaugh, Jr., and Bonney, 2004: 7.25). Order Passeriformes songbirds display a wide range of vocal abilities in their two subdivisions, suboscines and oscines (or “true songbirds”) (Johnson, 2003: 2). Oscines are known to be behaviourally flexible (Greenberg, 1987).

2.5.1 Study species: an overview The pied butcherbird (Cracticus nigrogularis) is a medium-sized oscine belonging to the Family Artamidae, which also includes various woodswallows, currawongs, the

10 The toy’s label reads, in part: “Wild Republic Birds with real bird calls! … Authentic bird calls provided by CEBA, Centre Bioacoustique Alpin, recorded in September 1974, near Lamington National Park, Australia. Typical male song.” 11 The author gratefully acknowledges conversations with the esteemed scholar Graham Pont on the subject of birdsong contour and other zoömusicological matters. 29 Australian magpie, and other butcherbirds—grey butcherbird (Cracticus torquatus), black butcherbird (Cracticus quoyi), and black-backed butcherbird (Cracticus mentalis) (Higgins, Peter, and Cowling, 2006: 8). Figure 2.6 reproduces an early written description of the species by Gould (1848) as photographed from an undated reproduction (S. Curtis, personal communication, 10 August 2008).

30 Figure 2.7 details a drawing from the same document (ibid.).

Figure 2.7. An early drawing of the pied butcherbird by Gould (1848: fol., vol. ii. pl 49), from an undated reproduction.

31 “Butcherbird” derives from their habit of impaling prey, such as smaller birds or lizards, on twigs and thorns for later consumption from their larder (Serventy and Whittell, 1976: 449). Alternative English names for pied butcherbirds in include crow-shrike, break-o’day-boy, jackeroo, organ-bird (Higgins et al., ibid.: 516), black- throated crow-shrike (Gould, 1865/1972: 180), and black-throated butcherbird (Serventy and Whittell, 1976: 450). Gould identified a second species, the pied crow-shrike (Cracticus picatus) (Gould, 1865/1972: 180-182), which has since been subsumed into the same species classification as Cracticus nigrogularis.

Higgins et al. (2006: 8) present 19 Australian Aboriginal names for the pied butcherbird (from the more than 200 indigenous Australian languages12) but do not list language, ethno-linguistic group affiliations, or geographic area for the names. The catalogues of Aboriginal names for pied butcherbird (Cracticus nigrogularis) (Fig. 2.8) and the more generic butcherbird (Cracticus) (Fig. 2.9) were augmented with assistance from other scholars, as indicated. Healey discusses the uneven reliability inherent in recorders of such wordlists, cautioning that Aboriginal names are not necessarily equivalent to Linnaean categories (2007). A case in point: in their survey of the Yanyuwa people, Bradley et al. (2006: 152) find the same name applied to the pied butcherbird and Australian magpie, with possible relevance to the black butcherbird as well.

The Koyukon of Alaska named the slate-colored junco with a word that describes and resembles their call (Nelson, 1983: 118). Some Australian bird names resemble their calls (currawong, peewit, and koel come to mind). Might an onomatopoeic basis for a majority of the pied butcherbird entries emerge, suggesting that the apparently universal species call (discussed in Chapter 4) was the basis for naming? In northwest New South Wales, “booboorboo” and “buubuurrbu” (Fig. 2.8) bear vague similarities to “break-o’day-boy” and “jackeroo,” although it is not documented if the English names are onomatopoeic devices to capture the species call.

Additionally, McEntee advises that in the two Australian Aboriginal languages he has studied, nouns are not passive and could change with action (J. McEntee,

12 The Australian Government Culture and Recreation Portal website estimates the Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages to be over 200. Retrieved 1 August 2008, from http://www.acn.net.au/wsd/1145.htm. 32 personal communication, c. 2003). I am neither acquainted with the pronunciation systems of these languages nor qualified to comment on the results and merely collate them here as a record for future research. Jones notes she does find some basis for onomatopoeic naming (footnote 14). Aboriginal Citation name Source peoples, location, or language source albuta albuta Central Australia6 1, 6 alpirtaka NW and N SA6 1, 6 alpwertew-alpwert Central Australia6 6 angwurrirda Anindilyakwa of Groote Eylandt, Gulf 1, 5, 6 of Carpentaria, NT5; E Arnhem Land, SW Gulf of Carpentaria, 6 and Groote Eylandt bindigaru NE and lower N regions of SA6 1, 6 booboorboo6 or Yuwaalayaay language, NW NSW and central west NSW6; NW 6, 8 buubuurrbu8 NSW, including Tamworth, Gunnedah, Narrabri, Inverell, Moree, Collarenebri, Lightning Ridge8 cockaraboota Jigalong2 1, 2 coolburra Wooleen2 1, 2, 6 cudgeego Yandanooka2; Gascoyne region, including Shark Bay6 1, 2, 6 dini wilgu-wilgu SW NSW6 6 djobboh Top end, including Darwin area, NT6 1, 6 goolool NW slope and NW plain regions, NSW6 1, 6 gorradada Kimberley division, WA6 1, 6 gura Top end, including Darwin area, NT6 1, 6 gurrwaru 1 jalburrurru Yanyuwa people of Yanyuwa country (970km SE of Darwin, 3 NT)/Mambaliya clan3 kakaraputa Pilbara region, WA6 6 karrara Eastern Nullabor plain, WA6 1, 6 kurpantji Pilbara region, WA6 6 kurparu Pilbara region, WA6 6 lobarloba; Wardaman of Flora River region, SW of Katherine, NT5 5 jorlborrman ngakngak Top end, including Darwin area, NT6 1, 6, 9 pititjaku-pititjaku Great Victoria Desert, SA6 1, 6 urbura NW and N SA and Central Australia6 1, 6 urrpara kuka Arrernte people of Central Australia, NT4 4 wakurlajirri Tanami Desert, WA6 1, 6 wudwud SE QLD and NE NSW6 1, 6 wurukuli Flinders Ranges, Yorke Peninsula, Adelaide Plain, Mount Lofty 1, 6 Ranges, and Fleurieu Peninsula, SA and NE and lower N, SA6 yakurlajirri Tanami Desert, WA6 6

Figure 2.8. Australian Aboriginal names for the pied butcherbird (Cracticus nigrogularis). Source 1: Higgins et al., 2006: 1962; Source 2: Serventy and Whittell, 1976: 450; Source 3: Bradley et al., 2006: 152; Source 4: Cohen, 2006; Source 5: Healey, 2006; Source 6: Peter, 2006: 70-71; Source 7: Sullivan, 1931: 135; Source 8: Jones, 2006; Source 9: Goodfellow, 2005: 129. More complete citations and other details from Cohen,13 Healey,14 and Jones15 are footnoted.

13 H. Cohen, personal communication, 2 July 2006, citing Rosenfeldt, D. (undated). Eastern and Central Arrernte picture dictionary. Alice Springs: IAD Press. 14 C. Healey, personal communication, 1 July 2006, citing the following sources: “1. /angwurrirda/ Name used by Anindilyakwa of Groote Eylandt, Gulf of Carpentaria, Northern Territory (This name is actually included in HANZAB, but not from the following source: Waddy, J. A. (1988). Classification of plants and animals from a Groote Eylandt Aboriginal point of view (2 vols). Darwin: Australian National University North Australia Research Unit Monograph; 2. /lobarloba/ and /jorlborrman/ Name used by Wardaman (Flora River region, SW of Katherine, Northern Territory. Source: Mrs E Raymond, Julai Blutja, Lily Gin.gina, Michael Raymond, Oliver Raymond, Lindsay 33 Aboriginal Citation name Source peoples, location, or language source a-guruwuduk E Arnhem Land, SW Gulf of Carpentaria, and Groote Eyland 6 jalburrurru Yanyuwa of Borroloola/Vanderlin Islands, southern Gulf of 5 Carpentaria5 goolool NW slope and NW plain regions, NSW7 7 gooranggool Kimberley division, WA6 6 gulgurun SE QLD and NE NSW6 6 guluu NW slope and NW plain regions, NSW6; NW NSW, including 6, 8 Tamworth, Gunnedah, Narrabri, Inverell, Moree, Collarenebri, Lightning Ridge8 gurudugurudu E Arnhem Land, SW Gulf of Carpentaria, and Groote Eylandt6 6 jadbururu E Arnhem Land, SW Gulf of Carpentaria, and Groote Eylandt6 6 jurdabuwinda Gulf Country, including offshore islands and non-coastal parts of 6 north-central QLD6 uyunpuru SE Gulf of Carpentaria and Cape York Peninsula, NT6 6 wudhwadh SE QLD and NE NSW6 6

Figure 2.9. Australian Aboriginal names for butcherbird (Cracticus). Source 1: Higgins et al., 2006: 1962; Source 2: Serventy and Whittell, 1976: 450; Source 3: Bradley et al., 2006: 152; Source 4: Cohen, 2006; Source 5: Healey, 2006; Source 6: Peter, 2006; Source 7: Sullivan, 1931: 135; Source 8: Jones, 2006. For more complete citations and other details from Cohen,11 Healey,12 and Jones,13 see footnotes for Figure 2.8.

The study species possesses sharply contrasted black and white plumage and a black hood and bib (Higgins et al., 2006: 516).16 The blue-grey bill is finely hooked at the tip. Males and females are generally indistinguishable in the field. Juvenile plumage is pale brownish grey for the first year. Although dull and ill-defined, the diagnostic hood and bib appear in dark brown, echoing the adult’s glossy black patterning.

Raymond, Jessie Brown, Queenie Morgan, Donna Jackson, Nicholas Smith & Glenn Wightman 1999. Wardaman ethnobiology: Aboriginal plant and animal knowledge from the Flora River and south-west Katherine region, north Australia. Darwin: Centre for Indigenous Natural and Cultural Resource Management, Occasional Paper No. 2, Northern Territory University and Northern Territory Botanical Bulletin No. 25, Parks and Wildlife Commission of the Northern Territory; 3. /jalburrurru/ Name applied by Yanyuwa of Borroloola/Vanderlin Islands, southern Gulf of Carpentaria to Pied Butcherbird, Black Butcherbird and Australian Magpie. Source: John Bradley, Miles Holmes, Dinah Norman Marrngawi, Annie Isaac Karrakayn, Jemima Miller Wuwarlu and Ida Ninganga 2006. Yumbulyumbulmantha ki-awarawu: All kinds of things from country: Yanyuwa ethnobiological classification. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies Unit Research report series Vol 6, University of Queensland.” 15 C. Jones, personal communication, 3 July 2006: “I have gleaned the following about words for pied butcherbird (in languages around north-west NSW; of course the languages differ greatly in different areas). The word does seem to be onomatopoeic. Just consulted the new dictionary for the Gamilaraay, Yuwaalaraay, and Yuwaalayaay languages of north-west NSW (this area includes towns such as Tamworth, Gunnedah, Narrabri, Inverell, Moree, Collarenebri, Lightning Ridge): Ash, A., Giacon, J., & Lissarrague, A. (eds.) (2003). Gamilaraay, Yuwaalaraay, & Yuwaalayaay dictionary. Alice Springs: Institute for Aboriginal Development. In the dictionary, there is one word for ‘butcherbird' (guluu in Yuwaalayaay) and two words for ‘grey butcherbird’ (garriguwin.guwin in Yuwaalayaay; guwaaydjiidjii in Yuwaalaraay and Yuwaalayaay). There is also a word recorded from one source specifically for pied butcherbird (Cracticus nigrogularis): buubuurrbu (in Yuwaalayaay).” 16 A more expansive field description, as well as additional details of habitat, distribution, food, social organisation and behaviour, breeding, and plumage, is to be found in Higgins et al. (2006), upon which this basic overview is based. 34 The species is non-migratory, and its territory includes much of mainland Australia to a greater or lesser extent, as well as several coastal islands, with a notable absence from the southern coast, Tasmania, and the driest desert areas. Pied butcherbirds display a marked preference for open eucalypt forests, acacia woodlands, and shrublands. Only occasionally have they been recorded in less open rainforests and mangroves. They can often be found in modified habitats such as parks, playgrounds, playing fields, golf courses, gardens, cemeteries, and farmland (especially when freshly-ploughed (Nielsen, 1961: 193).

Aggressiveness is a trait regularly mentioned with this species, particularly around the nest (Pizzey, 1980: 404). White reported: “Pied Butcher-Bird.—Several nests found with three and four eggs. At one the birds savagely attacked me, repeatedly striking me on the head” (1922: 116). Bourke’s experience was similar: “Three species of Butcher-bird (Grey, Pied and Black) have, at various times and places, struck me with sufficient force to draw blood. In each case I was examining a nest containing young birds” (1958: 94). Curtis was attacked outside a Brisbane restaurant (S. Curtis, personal communication, 28 March 2008).

Figure 2.10. A pied butcherbird featured in a warning poster used by the New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service during spring nesting season when birds can become aggressive. (Used with permission from DECC (Department of Environment and Climate Change), undated. PO Box A290 Sydney South NSW 1232.)

35

Like a stern officer of the watch the shrike makes his rounds, an overbearing and resented presence. He arrives quietly but spurns concealment, perching in view, rocking now and then to ease his balance, ‘like a cop on a New York corner,’ commented an American guest (Bell, 1956: 90).

He writes about the grey butcherbird, but the observation applies equally to the pied.

2.5.2 Study species: voice

A “beguiling song… and the habits of a fiend” (Watson: 2007-2008: 18).

Most of what is written about pied butcherbirds refers to their voice, which has been described in turns as rich, clear, mellow, beautiful, magnificent, glorious, superb, melodious, delightful, wonderful, musical, a full-throated gipsy melody, a lasting joy, the dominant note on this property, a rich mellow note, something to remember, a marvellous musical chuckle or bubbling note, and most beautiful of all (Carter, 1903: 90; Chisholm, 1937: 711; Cleland, 1932: 133; Crossman, 1909: 89; Fleay, 1953: 263; Hartshorne, 1953: 118; Higgins et al., 2006: 522; Hindwood and McGill, 1951: 237; Hyem, 1969: 123; Keast, 1944: 185; McGilp, 1935: 175; Morse, 1922: 36; Pizzey, 1980: 404; Serventy and Whittell, 1976: 450; Sullivan, 1931: 134; Tarr, 1961: 138; Thomas, 1951: 165; and Thomson, 1935: 77).17

Pollock is particularly enthusiastic:

If the bird of the world were ranked according to their singing ability as sportsmen are ranked for their sporting skills, then the Pied Butcher-bird would receive a very high ranking indeed. This lively, black and white fellow has an extraordinary variety of flute- like calls which he often renders form the top of a tall, dead tree. Larger than the English Starling, the Organ-bird, as it is often called, sometimes sings a duet with a mate, one bird’s song complementing the other’s. They bow and spread their wings as they sing in charming fashion. … The National Audubon Society and Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology of the U.S.A. recently produced an excellent record they called Beautiful Bird Songs of the World. On

17 In the general interest of readability and due to adjectival overlap among a number of accounts including multiple descriptions proceeding from some writers, this citation does not attempt to link entries to authors. 36 the record they featured fifty of the songs of birds from all over the world. The song of the Pied Butcher-bird you hear in this record was chosen as one of the three Australian representatives. If a vote was taken on the most accomplished vocalist featured in Beautiful Bird Songs of the World I think our Pied Butcher-bird would win rather easily, but then my opinion may be somewhat biased (1979: 7).

The metaphor of a piping flute, a cornet, or an organ is often noted, as indicated by one of the bird’s alternative names, “organ-bird.” Best…, finest…, most…—the list of superlatives recommending the voice in the literature is considerable. In his survey of musicality in Australian songbirds (with the human animal’s standard as his measuring stick), Hartshorne describes the pied butcherbird as “the true ‘magic flute’, the perfection of musical tonality coming from a bird” (1953: 118). He continues, “I doubt any European will have heard anything so richly musical from birds” (ibid.). Their song impressed Olivier Messiaen, who incorporated pied butcherbird song into his last work, Éclairs sur l’au-delà (1988-1992):

I listened at length to the Australian birdsongs, and I even tried to notate them. They are all most interesting, especially the pied butcherbird and grey butcherbird, who are marvellous. [HT trans.]

J’ai écouté très longuement ces chant d’oiseaux Australiens, et j’ai même essayé de les noter. Ils sont tous d’un grand intérêt, specialement Pied Butcherbird et Grey Butcherbird, qui sont marveilleux.18

The Australian ornithologist Ivan Kinny was also in correspondence with Messiaen. Kinny sent Messiaen some of his own birdsong notations, commending in particular the musical possibilities of the Australian butcherbirds (Hill and Simeone, 2005: 365-366):

The bird is carnivorous and gets its name because of its practice of making a larder, impaling its prey on a thorn or wedging it in the fork of a tree to eat later. There is a grey variety (cracticus torquatus) and a black-and-white species (cracticus nigrolatus) [sic], which are among the finest bird singers. Their calls are very tuneful and diatonic and the sound is bright and pure, like a flute (ibid.).

Three types of song are detailed in the Handbook of Australian, New Zealand & Antarctic birds (Higgins et al., 2006: 522): breeding song, day song, and whisper song,

18 Personal communication dated 21 June 1989 from Olivier Messiaen to Australian ornithologist and lyrebird expert Sydney Curtis. 37 although the differences among them are insufficiently described. Only the male is thought to sing pre-dawn breeding song (Glass, 1992: 19). Higgins et al. report Johnson’s observations that “Day Songs usually overlapped with last few minutes of Breeding Song, and were initiated by another bird, presumably mate of first bird” (ibid.: 522). “Whisper song” in Higgins et al. becomes “subsong” in the respected field guide of Graham Pizzey: “accomplished mimicry, as part of quieter subsong” (1980: 404). This is not merely an equal exchange of nomenclature, as documented above in section 2.1.1; terminology and categories lack clarity across publications.

Although the HANZAB is a state-of-the-art, multi-volume, and recent document, certain deficiencies must be noted, particularly since this study refers to it on a number of occasions. Australian birds are not well studied in general. One sees how this applies to pied butcherbirds in particular when encountering the first entries after certain rubrics: “SOCIAL ORGANIZATION: Poorly known;” “SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR: Poorly known;” “BREEDING: Not well known” (ibid. 521; 521; 523, respectively). Secondly, this researcher has on file each of the journal articles, books, or reports cited under the VOICE rubric. As bird observers, the informants are of uneven ability and the reportage is often anecdotal or in the form of inventories of birds by geographic area, rather than tested hypotheses. The accounts of mimicry appear to be particularly vulnerable to errata; this will be taken up in Chapter 4.

Of course, the flavour of the various informants’ reportage is of interest for more than hard facts concerning pied butcherbirds. Some informants write of birds in turns admired and then killed or captured for pets (“I heard their beautiful notes… I shot them both [Carter 1903: 90-91]). Such accounts could merely reflect acceptable practice at the time and cannot be dismissed offhand as issuing from untrained informants. Nonetheless, no indication is given of the peer-review process in the various journals cited, which appear to be of unequal esteem. This is not to dismiss the value of collating these accounts in one volume, but to signal this researcher’s reluctance to accept certain pronouncements as fact, such as three categories of song. Rather than building on a three-song-type premise, this study set about, in part, to investigate song types. These results are in Chapter 5.

Consensus appears to exist on certain basic parameters. Common song perches for day song are overhead wires, high television aerials, or the highest branch of a dead 38 tree, while whisper song is reported to occur in a more sheltered position or lower branch of a tree. Day vocalisations, including during the dawn chorus, are sung by both sexes, either in solos, duos, or choruses, and may occur in flight (Chisholm, 1937: 711; Lumsdaine, 1996). “The distinctive duet of a mated pair of Pied Butcher- Birds is among the sweetest music of bush birds. While performing, the pair courtesy to each other, and at the same time are answering other songful pairs, so that the woodland resounds, as it were, with a round of music” (Campbell and Barnard, 1917: 38). Keast (1944: 185), Frith (1969: 46), and Carter (1903: 90) reported some vocalisations to be ventriloquial, making the bird particularly difficult to locate. Carter also noted that pied butcherbirds “are kept occasionally by the settlers for the beauty of their notes” (ibid.).

Day song is not constant. While prominent in the dawn chorus (Milligan, 1905: 154; Sedgwick, 1947: 377; Serventy and Whittell, 1976: 450), their vocalisations are heard less afterwards (Miller, 1928: 131). Miller went on to record that they “reminded one somewhat of a piano-tuner harmonising notes” (ibid.). Mathews concurred on the sudden drop in vocalisations after the dawn chorus from his fieldtrip to Napier Broom Bay in Northwest Australia. “This is certainly a King of Songsters, and as soon as the first dawn appears, his clear notes ring out,” observed Mathews, (1918: 179); “for the rest of the day he appears to be silent.” Cleland’s experience in Central Australia was similar:

A beautiful songster that woke us nearly every morning at the first streak of day, but ceased his song before sunrise and was not seen or heard by us at all during the rest of the day, turned out in the end, when at last sleepy eyes located him, to be a Jackaroo, or Pied Butcher-Bird (1931: 18).

Cleland reported the following year from Central Australia that although heard occasionally in the early morning, “Thereafter during the day, as was the case last year, the birds kept quiet, and were only occasionally disturbed and seen for a few moments amongst the branches of the red gums” (1932: 133). Thus, three behaviours make these birds potentially difficult to locate: they are often silent; they spend scant time on the ground; and their song can be ventriloquial.

Morse noted in his cataloguing of birds of the Moree district in the extreme northwest boundary of New South Wales, “I always think the note of this bird is 39 the most beautiful of all our songsters, but it is heard to advantage only at daybreak in the spring” (1922: 36). Doyle observed that the pied butcherbird “in these parts remains silent for at least two months of winter, and used to make me think it had departed (1953: 333).

Tarr noticed the song morning, evening, and night:

The beautiful, bubbling, flute-like song of the Pied Butcher-bird is heard at its best in the late evening and early in the morning and also on moonlit nights. At certain times these birds become very noisy and utter a great variety of calls (1961: 138).

No location or season is specified for Tarr’s notes. Other observations of nocturnal song, particularly on moonlit nights, come from Carter (“one of the birds commenced to utter its rich flute-like notes in the very early hours of the morning, between two and three o-clock” (ibid.); Morcombe, (1986: 432); Pizzey (1980: 404); Robinson (1956: 283); Sedgwick (1947: 377; 1951: 266); Serventy (1929: 197); and Shilling (1948: 72). This nocturnal or very early morning song is apparently breeding song.

Finally, we come to whisper song. “Whisper,” whether in the voice of the human animal or the bird, implies a weaker signal, an altered vocal timbre, and perhaps a modulation of communication strategy. Pied butcherbirds are accomplished mimics (Cayley, 2000: 131), and their whisper song may or may not include mimicry. Sedgwick found no mimicry in an individual he encountered during his Northern Territory survey: “One individual, at a hillside camp at Batchelor, was much given to singing a ‘whisper song’, and would perch in a tree for long periods softly warbling with great variety and harmony. I could detect no mimicry in its calls” (1947: 377).

Whisper song including mimicry has been well documented, including Chisholm, who noted, “The best time to hear the bird mimicking is on a windy day. Then it will sit in a tree, or perhaps on a verandah rail, and warble for possibly half an hour in a whisper-song” (1937: 711). Lord twice-reported this preference for a windy day in Murphy’s Creek, Queensland, first in this account:

40 The mimicry of the Pied Butcher-bird is given in a whisper song when the bird is resting. They prefer a windy day for their performance, when they perch in some suitable place, usually not far above the ground. The imitative capacity of the Pied Butcher-bird is remarkable, as they run from one bird call to another with not the slightest error, but often mingling their own varied calls with those of the birds imitated (1941: 90).

Later, Lord again reported, “They are accomplished mimics, especially when perched in a sheltered place on wet or windy days” (1956: 128). This final example adds a hot afternoon to windy and wet days as potential opportunities to hear pied butcherbird whisper song:

Mr. White related an experience of mimicry in which he heard a bird which he successively thought to be a Yellow-throated Miner, a Ring-neck and a Brown Honeyeater. It proved to be a Black-throated Butcher-bird indulging in a whisper song on a very hot day (Sedgwick, 1949: 181).

Cameron observed whisper song without identifying it by name: “Once I saw a juvenile imitating bird calls. He did parrot and Miner calls and a Magpie’s warble, as well as call of his own kind, but they were muffled and soft” (1971: 79).

As we have seen, whisper song can or cannot include mimicry. Holes in the knowledge appear. Is mimicry ever delivered in full voice? Is mimicry a separate song type? Does mimicry appear in pre-dawn breeding song and/or day song, or only in whisper song? Mimicry will be explored in more detail in Chapter 4. For now, we shall undertake a brief overview of mimicry as seen in the literature. The pied butcherbird is a known mimic of numerous other birds (Lord, 1941: 128, 1956: 90; Chisholm, 1937: 711, 1947, 1950: 233; McDonald, 1940: 299-300; Sedgwick, 1949: 181; Serventy and Whittell, 1976: 450), “probably in both sexes” (Higgins et al., 2006: 522), and is reputed to have mimicked a human whistling, a lamb bleating, and a dog barking (Chisholm, 1946: 13). Elsewhere, Chisholm reports, “Mr. Lord pays a warm tribute to the mimetic powers of the handsome Pied Butcher-bird—he says he once heard two adults and two young birds mimicking in company the notes of some twenty species, including the boobook owl and the owlet nightjar” (1950: 233).

McDonald proves himself an astute listener to mimicry in this account: 41 Butcher-bird Mimicry.—As a mimic I find the Pied Butcher-bird (Cracticus nigrogularis) an adept, although it is only on rare occasions that the bird indulges in such pastimes. Quite recently I enjoyed the privilege of hearing the bird performing on two occasion (two consecutive days), and I found, as with all, or most, feathered mimics, the “concert” consisted largely of its own clear calls. Next to its own songs it chose to imitate the jubilant carolling of the Magpie. During these performances I noticed that the bird never became excited and voluble, as do most mimics, neither did it seek an exposed position, but rather preferred a leafy bough upon which to rest whilst it “whispered” the calls and melodies of various local birds. The calls of the Noisy Miner were often repeated, whilst those of the Pale-headed Rosella, Pied Currawong, Galah, Spiny-cheeked Honeyeater and the little Owlet-Nightjar followed.

On one occasion the resting bird began the opening chuckle of the Kookaburra, which appears to be the stumbling-block of many individual mimics. Another interesting fact is that the harsh scream of the Owlet-Nightjar is most usually on the “programmes” of nearly all Australian bird mimics. Perhaps that is because this night-bird’s cry is so often heard during the still of the bush nights when the day- birds are resting and not necessarily always sleeping.—N. H. E. McDonald, Charleville, Qld., 131/8/39 (1940: 299-300).

A full list of pied butcherbird mimicry is presented in Chapter 4.

Hyem introduces the possibility of “accent” in the pied butcherbird, which was a favourite of his, although none lived in his immediate area. In the spring of 1961, a nest was found in a nearby area where the birds were plentiful. Three eggs were removed and placed in a grey butcherbird’s nest. Two birds were successfully reared.

It had been my hope we would have the pleasure of hearing the beautiful notes of the pied butcher-bird about the place, at least for a while. But things did not turn out that way. When the young birds started to call, it was with the voice and notes of their foster parents. The young male gave an excellent imitation of the grey male’s rollicking song but it could be distinguished from the foster parent’s partly by the tone and partly by an extra note put in at the end. Similarly, the young pied female joined in the choruses with the female’s part of the “grey’s” song… Perhaps the performance could be described as ‘speaking grey butcher-bird with a slight pied accent (Hyem, 1969: 123).

The anecdote underlines that the pied butcherbird voice is a cultural phenomenon learned from conspecifics and adaptable to circumstance. 42

With my assistance, Powys traces song phrases and variations across years and territories, concluding that each location studied has a unique repertoire (2007: 9- 12). A totally new repertoire evolved at the Spirey Creek (Warrumbungles National Park, New South Wales) site within two years (ibid.: 11) and phrases from Green Lake, Victoria were not at all similar over a 13-year period (ibid.: 10). Ormiston Gorge, Central Australia saw a total of:

… 5 main phrases that had endured for at least 8 years, with a balance of 11-12 main phrases (with 30+ variations) that were only heard in any one year. This seemed to suggest that Pied Butcherbird songs do change over a number of years (ibid.).

This subject will be taken up in depth in Chapter 5.

The literature on pied butcherbird calls is scanty. It has been reported that they have species-specific alarm calls for the citing of an owl or a goanna (Cameron, 1970: 22). According to Crossman, their alarm calls (“of a chattering kind”) are not as harsh as that of the grey butcherbird (1909: 89). However, Frith reported that the alarm note was “a strident reek” (1976: 574). Pied butcherbird alarm calls are, in fact, classified as harmonic, that is “calls that contained harmonics with superimposed noise” (Jurisevic and Sanderson, 1994: 71). Their study measured one individual’s alarm call as follows: peak frequency: 6.1 kHz, mean frequency: 1.4 kHz, frequency range: 4.7 kHz, and with a duration of 0.152sec. (ibid.: 70).

2.6 Summary Much remains to be learned about the function and aesthetics of birdsong, whether by biologists, musicologists, or zoömusicologists. Composers have begun to appropriate the song of the pied butcherbird, indicating that the human sense of musicality overlaps with the musical constructs of the bird. Otherwise, surprisingly, despite the wide distribution and noted singing ability of this species, no detailed studies have been undertaken of pied butcherbird song or their behaviour, save one thesis on communal breeding by Robinson (1994).

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Chapter 3

Design and Methods

44

Chapter 3

“Viewing nature objectively makes it an object” (Nollman, 1997: 14).

This chapter bookends personal empirical knowledge as an equal partner and occasional substitute to “objectivity” (Polanyi, 1958). Typically, a design and methods chapter will display a sense of logic and inevitability from the outset. I did not impose a pre-conceived design. As described in Chapter 2, the young discipline of zoömusicology is still a pioneer enterprise, one requiring at least passing familiarity in a number of areas as well as real expertise in several others. Pre- existing models or templates for this research were absent or at minimum insubstantial. The various tasks at hand were the collection of extant recordings, the recording of pied butcherbirds in the field, sonographic analysis, and notation. Chapter 3 chronicles a reconnaissance for the tools, procedures, and methods that would be put into service in illuminating the musicality of the pied butcherbird.

3.1 Research tools 3.1.1 A trained ear I entered this study with an acculturated aesthetic. Moving from a fixed position as a violinist/composer trained in the Western classical music tradition, I spent 35 years transcribing music of the American vernacular, from fiddle tunes to jazz, from country to blues. Residencies in Budapest, Paris, and the Dominican Republic allowed me to extend my research to eastern European folk music as well as the music of the Caribbean, Greece, Turkey, and North Africa. While some of these styles I actively performed in, more often the purpose of my research was to expand my “toolkit” as a composer and improviser. My expertise lay in transcription.

I first encountered the pied butcherbird in 2001 at Wogarno Station in the outback of Western Australia. Their songs, which somehow match their perceptual world, also matched mine. They captivated me. Shortly thereafter, I determined to compile their phrases into a composer’s compendium of natural forms for my use and others. My existing “toolkit” would guide my approach to this new material. A centrepiece in my consideration was to examine the musicality of their songs (musicality on 45 human terms) and in the process, if not reclaim the field of birdsong study for musicians, at least to participate in the discussion. (This difference in approach between biologists and musicologists, as described in Chapter 2, is reminiscent of the tug-of-war in ethnomusicology between anthropologists and musicologists [Merriam, 1969].) Of course, the avian voice is more than a commodity awaiting full realisation by the composer. My instincts suggested I should develop this composers’ catalogue not to improve on pied butcherbird song, nor to mimic it, but to immerse myself in their musical landscape and emerge with a substantive knowledge of the acoustical constructs of another species with which we share this planet.

Figure 3.1. A pied butcherbird at Wogarno Station, Western Australia. Photograph by Chris Tate, October 2008, used with permission.

As introduced in Chapter 2, the Australian composer and music critic Henry Tate had prefigured this birdsong notebook.

The use of bird calls as the basis for evolving new musical scales was a theme to which [Henry Tate] returned again and again. One of his most specific proposals was for the cultivation of a scale rationalized from the calls of the butcher bird, a bird which, despite a perhaps unprepossessing name, is certainly the equal in musical eloquence and beauty of such celebrated singing birds as lark and nightingale. Tate felt that a scale abstracted from the musical language of the

46 butcher bird could have a flattened second, a major third and a minor sixth. He perceived not only the modal affinities of this scale but also its relation to the contemporary practice of Bartók—an act of perception which, in 1922 (the date of the essay in which the reference occurs), put him approximately thirty years ahead of the majority of his fellow musicians. Whether or not Tate reproduced the calls of the butcher bird accurately is open to doubt: he admitted that the flattened sixth he proposed for this scale was his own notion of what would be in sympathy with the butcher bird’s flattened second. But details of this kind are less important than the practice that might grow from such an observation. Olivier Messiaen’s extensive cultivation of bird song as a linguistic source for many of his own compositions has rescued Tate’s theories from all suggestions of impracticability or oddity and has shown that a composer of genuine individuality does not lose that individuality in the pursuit of some apparently arbitrary or naturally occurring melodic pattern: the precise nature of the stimulus is of much less account than the fact that it is a stimulus. No Australian Messaien has yet made bush bird calls the systematic basis of a method of composition (Covell, 1967: 104-105).

This suggested the task at hand: to notate their song phrases and then proceed to analyse their underlying principles of organisation, in the process confirming or correcting Tate’s deflected scale, all leading towards composition based on substantive analysis.

The danger in any convention rests in its ability not to seem like one. Pitch (and its concomitant feature, frequency) was by default the most significant quantifiable characteristic as well as the starting point for insight into musical structure. (Ethnomusicology and musicology are filled with studies that would collapse without a pitch reference.) Pied butcherbird song is largely melodic in nature and often delivered in a slow and regular way, suggesting a straightforward path. Microtones outside the equal-tempered scale were expected. The ear is generous and flexible in matters of pitch discrimination (Sethares, 1999: 75; Sundberg, 1999: 171-214; Sundberg, Prame, and Iwarsson, 1996: 291-306; Siegel and Siegel, 1977; Seashore, 1938/1967). The intention was to limit notation to the pitches available on the staff, supplemented by arrows placed atop noteheads pointing up or down to indicate those occasional microtonal pitches that the ear would not smooth out, or quantize, into something approaching 12TET (twelve-tone equal temperament). Wolf makes the case that traditional Western staff notation “is not twelve-tone equal temperament specific” and that just intonation could also appear on the staff (1996: 15). My ears are trained in 12-TET, and all notations reflect this bias. The 47 goal was to produce readable, non-specialised notation for my monograph: Notes from the songbook of the pied butcherbird. This longing became formalised as a research thesis, and the following design commenced.

3.1.2 Instrumentation For fieldwork, I employ a Sennheiser ME67 shotgun microphone covered with a Rycote “softie” windshield, a Sony portable high definition minidisc recorder, binoculars, and a GPS indicator to note location and altitude. Recordings are monaural. The batteries of my high definition minidisc recorder allow for recording up to four hours nonstop (the discs will hold up to seven hours); the recorder is small and light, providing portability and speed of set-up. Since pied butcherbirds are seldom visible when singing, I may change locations a number of times over the course of a morning; breakdown and re-setup time needs to be minimal. I purchased a parabolic reflector/microphone set as well, but the combined weight makes them a second-choice. The shotgun microphone allows me to pinpoint the bird at a distance; this is essential if I do not have easy access to the bird or if it moves to a second more distant song post. Ease and speed of operation are the prime motivators, since I am not making “art” recordings.

3.1.3 Collection of extant recordings The objective of obtaining a copy of every extant pied butcherbird field recording possible required a number of telephone calls, letters, and emails (along with offers to reimburse copying and shipping costs). When successful, thank-you notes and follow-up questions were issued. The sources were generous. Ornithology is perhaps the only science where amateurs contribute serious and respected work. Contact with Vicki Powys, sound editor of the Australian Wildlife Sound Recording Group, was a key step in introducing this project to recordists who might have pied butcherbird song in their archives. Many members of the group did have such field recordings, usually paired with notes containing a range of details surrounding the recording. The correspondence that developed with this group of individuals significantly informed this research, both in establishing optimal fieldwork procedures and in the subsequent analysis phase.

48

Aside from the AWSRG members, all individuals, groups, and institutions that might have extant pied butcherbird recordings were contacted, including the British Library Sound Archive19 and Macaulay Library at Cornell Lab of Ornithology.20 The Australian National Wildlife Collection Sound Archive held at CSIRO includes a number of pied butcherbird field recordings on digital audio tape (DAT) and other tape formats.21 Unfortunately, despite repeated attempts over a five-year period, these were not made available to this study due to their format; however, the Ray Swaby collection held there is digitized and was provided to this study.

Commercially-available recordings were purchased, as was the pied butcherbird stuffed animal described in Chapter 2. Figure 3.2 shows one example from this bulk discography. This study’s entire collection of recordings and accompanying field notes, related correspondence, and commercial CD liner notes are itemised in Appendix H.

CD ID Track Duration Location Date/Time Recordist Notes 006-Curtis2 05 03:34 Christmas 01/10/88 Syd Curtis “I recorded butcherbirds up Creek flows out no time recorded the ridge to the south of the of the SW part camp in 1988. I was of Lamington attending a meeting of the NP. There is a Wildlife Preservation Society, national fitness and the recording was again camp/hostel a just causal as I climbed the few km ridge early morning to see downstream what was there. However, it from the park is an interesting recording, (about 30 km S for at one stage, one bird of Beaudesert moves away and doesn’t QLD). take part in the next song. Then in the last duet, because it is further away, its notes are softer, so you can tell which notes are sung by A and which by B. (Don’t know which is male and which female, however.)”

Figure 3.2. Example of entries in the bulk discography of extant pied butcherbird recordings collected in this inquiry (complete discography located in Appendix H).

19 The catalogue of the Wildlife Section of The British Library Sound Archive can be accessed at http://www.bl.uk/soundarchive. 20 The catalogue of the Macaulay Library at Cornell Lab of Ornithology can be accessed at http://birds.cornell.edu/MacaulayLibrary/. 21 The Australian National Wildlife Collection Sound Archive can be accessed at http://www.csiro.au/places/anwc.html. 49

3.1.4 Limitations of the use of extant recordings Most of the extant recordings were made by recordists astute in matters of bird behaviour and scientific method. Nevertheless, the recordings were often short tracks of one to several minutes in duration. One could only speculate on whether the bird had sung longer but the recordist had missed it or not recorded it for some other reason. Without a complete song bout, a number of assessments are called into question. This assumes that a “complete song bout” is in some way important to the bird and, if so, that it would be assessed by the bird in the same manner as by a human. For a bird, a “complete song” could encompass an entire day’s or season’s singing or comprise instead only a single phrase. These parameters are unknown at present and not testable within the scope of this study. The most one can hope for is a degree of accuracy in the matters about which measurements are taken, and the interpretation of these numbers would, in part, await further knowledge of bird behaviour. In any case, without the recording of a complete song bout, estimating repertoire size is problematic. The calculation of singing rate (songs per minute) is hampered, since this could vary over the period of the song bout. Range and highest and lowest frequency sung are also less reliable numbers without a complete sample. Another deficiency of the recordings is that few recordists parsed out the antiphonal song; unless the birds are spread apart in a stereo recording, this task is difficult to accomplish with certainty after the fact. Nevertheless, these recordings played a key role in the examination of assorted phrase types by different birds in various territories over a number of years, as well as occasionally illuminating the extreme margin of vocal gymnastics and diversities of which the pied butcherbird is capable. Additionally, certain calls heard only in rare social situations were found on these extant recordings.

3.2 Fieldwork I needed to go out to hear—and see—how birds behave in their natural environment, as well as fill in the deficiencies of and otherwise complement my collection of extant recordings. Although I did not realise it then, I also needed to see pied butcherbird “savagery” firsthand. On a sleepy Sunday morning in the outback town of Hay, I followed a pair of pied butcherbirds on their morning

50 singing route. They outlined their territory over a several-block radius, singing from this tall tree, that tall building, and then a high TV aerial. They sang well, and I was pleased to have found them. I had the pure delicate filigree of their phrases ringing in my head. Next, a pied butcherbird flew into a bush right in front of me, grabbed a nestling, and gave it a sharp shake. Its parents flew out and wildly circled the pied butcherbird, who whacked the nestling on the sidewalk and flew off. Musician… bird… musician/bird… I needed to think about the emotional lives of birds, about the singing lives of birds, about the contingent lives of birds, and about anthropomorphism—and I needed to think about these by living them in the moment.

3.2.1 Study sites Details of study sites, including GPS location, are catalogued in the accompanying DVD (under the rubric “Original fieldwork recordings with preliminary analysis”), along with minute-by-minute analysis of the recording at hand. An example is below (Fig. 3.3).

Magnetic Island/Townsville 2007 MD2007.1 Track 2007.1.10. Magnetic Island: September 19, 2007; * Florence Bay 5:45 a.m. from begin, incorporates asc slide of the real bird at :40-:43, 3:20, 3:33 better, 3:40—Chris listen, 6:22 flies – 6:34 resumes, 8:08 similar to 3:40?, =figbird?—check HANZAB 8:50 new phr, 9 very asc slide, 9:32-9:59 curras, 11:13 asc slide, 11:25 asc slide *, 11:44 new phrs, 13:34 new phrs, 15:19-25 asc slide curra, 16:29-34 cur asc sl, 18:15-hear other pbb, 19:53 new phr, 20:44 other pbb, 22:24 other pbb? vf, 22:37 new phr, 23:19 new phr?, 23:31 other pbb?, 23:35 dur. also kookas present, another pbb end of beach, early on—clicking—imitation? 2:56 or cicada; sometimes slide is faster than others—two different imitations?

Figure 3.3. Example of the first stage of analysis of personal field recordings (complete analysis and its legend on electronic deposit in the DVD).

Fieldwork recording sites are summarised in the four tables below. Table 3.1 details the first year of fieldwork (2005), designed to familiarize me with the pied butcherbird and the recording equipment, as well as to identify favorable study sites for future years. Pre-dawn breeding song, which figures only minimally in the

51 collection obtained from other recordists, was a prime target. Additionally, seeing two or more of birds sing antiphonal song promised the benefit that individual parts could to be parsed out.

The 2005 car trip began in Sydney and continued up Australia’s east coast as far as the Atherton Tablelands near Cairns, and then down a more inland route back to Sydney. The focus of this trip was Magnetic Island. The only arid island in the Great Barrier Reef, Magnetic Island is eight kilometres north east of Townsville.22 It is covered with open eucalypt woodland, and hoop pines are common. Local residents and tourists compete with birds and other animal species, and the island is seeing increasing development.

Two short fieldtrips were also made in 2005 to Warrumbungle National Park in north central New South Wales.

Table 3.1 Spring 2005 fieldwork study sites Brisbane, QLD Magnetic Island, QLD Townsville, QLD Yungaburra, QLD Atherton Tablelands, QLD Clairview, QLD Banana, QLD Goondiwindi, QLD Tamborine Mountain, QLD Lamington National Park, QLD Warrumbungle National Park, NSW

Table 3.2 details recording sites in the second spring of fieldwork, 2006. In 2005, pre-dawn breeding song was neither heard nor recorded. Antiphonal song was observed, recorded, and parsed out. I planned a return to Magnetic Island, the most productive site in the previous spring. Birds from Townsville23 west towards Charters Towers along the Flinders Highway were another the target, chosen (as

22 “Magnetic Island: World Heritage,” an undated brochure from the Queensland Government’s Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service. 23 As Jones and Wieneke report, “the pied butcherbird, detected only in the woodland outside the city in 1980-81, was not seen in the present study. This species, although abundant on nearby Magnetic Island, has never been common in the Townsville suburbs and may be declining there” (2000: 57). Although the species is not common in Townsville, every effort was made to find those few pied butcherbirds for comparison purposes. 52 the closest mainland birds) for comparison with Magnetic Island’s pied butcherbirds.

A trip to Newcastle, New South Wales for other purposes allowed for several days’ recording of the pied butcherbirds in residence there on “Butcherbird Hill” at the suburban Tuxford Park.

I undertook a drive from the Blue Mountains, New South Wales to Alice Springs and environs in Central Australia, with recording planned each morning along the way. Again, pre-dawn breeding song and daytime duos/antiphonal song were prime objectives.

Table 3.2 Spring 2006 fieldwork study sites Magnetic Island, QLD Townsville and environs, QLD Newcastle, NSW Dubbo, NSW Broken Hill, NSW Uluru, NT Wattarka, NT Trephina Gorge, NT Emily Gap, NT Alice Springs, NT Ormiston Gorge, NT Mildura, VIC

A third year of fieldwork in 2007 (Table 3.3) concentrated on the two most productive areas of the previous year, Magnetic Island/Townsville/environs and Alice Springs/environs. I obtained pre-dawn breeding song at both areas the previous year; the goal for 2007 was to look for signs of individual, geographic, and annual variation. Recording excerpts from these two study sites were excerpted over the three-year period for Magnetic Island/Townsville/environs and over the two-year-period for Alice Springs/environs. These were then ordered by location in order to trace song phrase commonalities and differences down roads and down their counterpart lines on a map, seeking overlaps and attempting to “read” the geography via birdsong.

53 In a similar vein, Feld imagines auditory culture(s) as “sonic geographies of difference” (2003: 223). Analysis of these differences is reviewed in Chapter 4. Transcriptions are deposited in Appendix F.

A trip to outback New South Wales for other purposes allowed for recordings at Mungo National Park, part of the Willandra Lakes World Heritage Area, and downtown Hay, a town in the western Riverina region of southwestern New South Wales.

Table 3.3 Spring 2007 fieldwork study sites Magnetic Island, QLD Townsville and environs, QLD Mungo National Park, NSW Hay, NSW Trephina Gorge, NT Emily Gap, NT Jesse Gap, NT Alice Springs, NT Ormiston Gorge, NT Ross River Resort, NT Gemtree, NT

In 2008, I planned a final trip to investigate whether singing activity took place in the autumn, as suggested by Bell: “Butcher-birds set aside the theory that song is a vernal ‘Keep Out’ notice; autumn is their finest hour for fluting, warbling and whistling. The performance is loud, mellow and rich—unstudied, impulsive music” (1956/1969: 90). No pre-dawn breeding song was expected, but it was hoped that antiphonal diurnal song, including at the dawn chorus, would be recorded. Table 3.4 itemises the southeast Queensland study sites for fieldwork the autumn of 2008.

Table 3.4 Autumn 2008 fieldwork study sites Springfield, QLD Maleny, QLD Witta, QLD Biloela, QLD Banana, QLD Moura, QLD Taroom, QLD Condamine, QLD Esk, QLD

54 3.2.2 Recording times Birds were recorded throughout the day whenever they were singing and I was present (rather than driving), but particularly at the dawn chorus. “Australian birds follow the documented routine of birds generally, of maximum vocalisation around sunrise, minimal levels in the middle of the day and an increase towards sunset” (Keast, 1994: 178). Pied butcherbirds were normally not the first entrants into the dawn chorus. Pre-dawn breeding song was successfully recorded from 3:45 a.m. to sunrise, particularly on moonlit nights, as detailed in the fieldwork analysis sheets. Inclement weather such as heavy wind or rain usually curtailed singing for its duration. Although they were noted, no evaluation of geographic correlations including altitude, latitude, and vegetation were undertaken.

3.2.3 Recording procedures and observational methods When recording, I speak the following information into the microphone, usually at the beginning of the recording session and for each additional track as needed: species name, date, time, location, weather and approximate temperature, habitat description, and distance to bird. On a long recording, I announce the finishing time at the conclusion of the recording as well. Details concerning the recording equipment are omitted from the announcement, since they are constant.

Music is embedded in other activities. Thus, I add brief comments throughout as necessary, particularly on behavioural context, and also on whether the bird is visible, the number of individual pied butcherbirds present, and the activities of other birds. If circumstances do not allow for the totality of behavioural observations to be spoken during the recording, I place observations at the end of the recording or hand-write them in a notebook in the field. When the song is antiphonal and the birds are visible, their various movements indicate when their part commences and ends; these I sing or announce into the recording just as the birds finish. In the case of two birds singing antiphonally but at a distance from each other, I hold to one microphone position, rather than attempting to alternate between the two birds—that is, I record one bird close-up and the other in the background. This assists in parsing out the duo.

55 Mini-discs are numbered sequentially by year/mini-disc #/track #, respectively (e.g. MD2005.1.1); track numbers are automatically inserted onto the mini-disc. When the material is later digitised and divided up onto CDs, these ID numbers continue as the identifier tag, no matter what track it might be on the CD. This provides each cut with a unique ID, which also becomes its file name. The mini- discs are digitized on a MacBook Pro computer version 10.4.11 using the software Audacity 1.2.4b.24 I have taken into consideration several hundred hours of recordings made by others and me.

3.2.4 Limitations of fieldwork Since pied butcherbird territory does not extend to where I live, the most obvious limitation to fieldwork is the financial constraint imposed by the cost of travel. An unexpected difficulty was the timing of fieldwork. Breeding and nesting occurs between August and December (Tarr, 1961: 140), but pre-dawn breeding song is not given throughout these months in a predictable way. My various contacts suggested that the timing of nesting is more weather- and particularly precipitation-dependent than date-dependent. If a trip was planned far in advance and there had been no spring rain in the Alice Springs area, for example, it would be conceivable that the birds would not be singing.

Next, the human body’s inherent intelligence and how it manifests in the physicality of performance can be a means towards musical understanding. Le Guin speaks of “carnal musicality” (1999). Movement could prove an interesting repository of information concerning pied butcherbird song and song function. While it is impossible to account for the visible in pre-dawn song, it would be possible at times to film duets as a means of matching body posture to singing. One film of five pied butcherbirds singing on a picnic table is in my library, and additional filming warrants further investigation. Aside from parsing antiphonal song, visual analysis is beyond the limited province of this current inquiry.

Another limitation is access to potential recording areas. Usually, I require a road into the site, even with a 4-wheel drive vehicle, but a road implies the presence of

24 Audacity is a free, open source software for recording and sounding edit and is available at http://audacity.sourceforge.net/. 56 other people and the attendant noise, private property, and safety issues. I conduct nocturnal and pre-dawn recording in complete darkness (unless there is some moonlight), avoiding long hikes at such hours when possible. Snakes, spiders, ticks, dogs, disease-bearing mosquitoes, and the human animal make up my chief safety concerns. Wild dingoes hunting in the pre-dawn hours, wild camels, and a herd of 27 running cattle have all approached me. I have never, however, been attacked by a pied butcherbird.

3.3 Sonographic analysis 3.3.1 Sonogram generation and evaluation Although I possess absolute pitch, I consistently received advice to double-check all frequencies with computer-based methods, so the results would be “scientifically” acceptable. I carried out sonographic analysis on a personal computer using the software Amadeus II, version 3.8.7.25 The sound pitch, or frequency, is plotted on the vertical axis (y-axis) and time is plotted along the horizontal axis (x-axis). The loudness, or relative amplitude, of each part of the sound is partially indicated by the darkness of the marks plotted, and revealed more precisely in an accompanying waveform, which is consulted as needed. Sonograms are printed using the software Raven 1.2.26 Amadeus’s vertical frequency axis displays no numbers; however, by clicking anywhere in the sonogram, a pop-up window appears, showing the frequency corresponding to the location of the mouse, as well as the note that is closest to that frequency and the standard reading for that note: e.g. 1313.53 Hz, E6 (1318.51 Hz). Both Amadeus II and RavenPro provide waveforms for study and analysis as well.

As an adjunct to the project, Dr. Andrew Bell suggested I take frequency measurements to examine if pied butcherbirds sing in simple integer ratios, something approaching just intonation:

I am interested in birds' musical abilities. Perhaps, given your thesis work, you can answer a question I have. Although bird song is obviously musical, to the best of my knowledge no work had been

25 The software Amadeus is available at http://www.hairersoft.com/ (retrieved 10 April 2008). 26 The software Raven is specifically designed for the analysis of animal acoustics and is available at http://www.birds.cornell.edu/brp/raven/Raven.html (retrieved 1 August 2008). 57 done on quantifying the accuracy of the musical ratios they employ. I would like to know how well their musical ratios conform to the simple integer ratios employed in human music. I think the question is important in understanding if musical abilities are innate—both in us and in animals. I suspect that the cochlea may be involved in determining musical ratios, so I would like to know how universal musical abilities are throughout the animal kingdom. Do you know of any work that has been done in accurately analysing the frequency ratios employed in birdsong?27

The intriguing question seemed within the scope of the thesis, since I intended to measure frequencies in any case. Methodical quantification was a key strategy in order that the study be taken seriously by biologists, and thus I commenced a search for software that would deliver reliability and validity required in such a precise measurement of birdsong. I spent considerable time investigating how to best detect “exact” frequency (Taylor, 2006), comparing the software Audacity 1.2.4b, Amadeus II v3.8.7, AudioSculpt, PRAAT, and Raven 1.2. The process produced inconclusive results. For all software tested, a human element is involved in clicking in a sonogram window or otherwise choosing the area to be measured. “Of course, no data are truly raw; all are dependent on editing by the human animal or his instruments” (Bateson, 1972/1987: xx). Whether by indicating the area of the most intense signal or requiring me to draw a square around the note in question, the results produced inconsistent numbers on multiple measurements of the same material.

The detailed results are not included here for reasons of brevity and because they became a moot point, as detailed below. However, subsequent meetings with Dr. Neil Boucher28 (Maleny, QLD, Australia) and Dr. Ofer Tchernichovski29 (Laboratory of Animal Behavior, City University of New York, USA) alerted me to the fallibility of sonograms. Extra information may be contained in them, while other information is omitted. Both scientists have created refinements to the mathematical processing of sonograms specifically for the analysis of birdsong.

27 Dr. Andrew Bell, Research School of Biological Sciences, The Australian National University, personal communication, 26 January 2006. 28 Dr. Neil Boucher, personal communication, dated 9 May 2008, reads in part: “Pied butcherbirds amplitude modulate their ‘notes’ in ways that cannot be heard by us and that the software would not (in its present form) distinguish very well. It may be that their individuality is expressed in this AM modulation.” He raises the question of whether they imprint their signature on the call, a question that is not in the scope of this thesis but nevertheless is an intriguing hypothesis that should be tested in the future. 29 Sound Analysis Pro can be downloaded at http://ofer.sci.ccny.cuny.edu/html/sound_analysis.html (retrieved 5 August 2008). 58 While their work indicates that sonogram software can be improved, for the purposes of this analysis I decided to hold to the original software for consistency of results. Aware that the sonogram is not the full story, in fact that no artefact or representation of music is ever the whole story, I balanced the limitations of a sonogram by other approaches. That said, the best possible tools and the best use of these tools remained paramount.

As indicated above, in the process of surveying software capable of consistently measuring frequency, another obstacle surfaced making the search for “exact” frequency less relevant. Although pied butcherbird song seems to consist largely of discrete pitches, closer examination reveals that rarely to be the case. Portamento is omnipresent. Sometimes termed a “frequency-modulated tone” or “slur” by biologists, portamento is also often mistakenly called “glissando” (which implies production on an instrument with fixed semitones, such as the piano or harp, while “portamento” does not distinguish the intervening notes in its glide) (Boyden and Stowell, 2007).

Those cultures whose music relies upon pitch bends, portamentos, microtones, blue notes, and arabesques of ornament and decoration may find the fixed pitches of Western art music’s equal-tempered system limiting. While pitch glides and microtonal strategies could “work” for an audience member from any culture, I hoped to come across a majority of discrete pitches for more reasons than ease of melodic notation. Burton encountered similar difficulties in notating Native American songs with portamento, bemoaning the “vagueness” (1909: 22). Likewise, Bartók found notation lacking:

The recording of songs on the phonograph is extremely helpful as a method for the gathering of songs, because sometimes—in our attempt to accurately transcribe a folk songs—we lack the appropriate musical signs corresponding to those whimsical gliding effects from one series of sounds to the next, which are known in music as glissando, and can be properly interpreted only through phonographic reproductions (1997: 1).

With few fixed reference points and more often a pitch continuum, the relational aspects of pitch that ensue after measuring individual notes, from the simplest inter- tone relationships to the hierarchical relationship among the tones such as

59 intervals, scales, melodic contour,30 tonality, structure—these key components of the typological research appeared to be slipping away. Upon hitting this roadblock, that of making “scientific” measurements on the one hand and capturing the essence of the music on the other, I sought advice from the composer François-Bernard Mâche. An avid transcriber of birdsong himself, Mâche responded:

You have reason to first trust your ear, then measurements. For complex sounds, like most of those of birds, our ear generally defines a subjective pitch that sonograms do not reveal, particularly when there are portamentos. The exact transcription is unusable for a musician, and the subjective transcription is unusable for a biologist. This is one of the ambiguities of our work. I believe that it is best to first define the goal of the analysis, which will then determine the type and degree of simplification of the acoustic terrain. What is pertinent for the musician will not always be so for the acoustician, and what the ear picks up on is not always present in a sonogram. I used to make my transcriptions too precise, rendering them nearly illegible to others. These days, I simplify. [HT trans.]

Vous avez raison de vous fier d'abord à l'oreille, puis aux mesures. Pour les sons complexes comme la plupart de ceux des oiseaux, notre oreille définit en général une hauteur subjective, que les sonogrammes ne font pas apparaître, et en particulier lorsqu'il s'agit de sons glissés. La transcription exacte est inutilisable pour un musicien, et la transcription subjective est inutilisable pour le biologiste. C'est là une des ambiguités de notre travail. Je crois qu'il faut bien définir d'abord le but de l'analyse, en fonction duquel cette analyse choisira le type et le degré de simplification des réalités acoustiques. Ce qui est pertinent pour le musicien ne le sera pas toujours pour l'acousticien, et ce qui est pertinent pour l'oreille n'apparaît pas toujours dans l'imagerie. Autrefois je faisais des transcriptions trop précises, peu lisibles par les interprètes. Aujourd'hui je simplifie (F.-B. Mâche, personal communication, 10 August 2006).

Fearful of breaching the canon of scientific objectivity, my earnestness had allowed me to slip into the netherworld of an “unmarked category.” I needed to come out and be a musician, acknowledge my trained ear, and turn it towards pied butcherbird song, and I also “had to learn to resist the easy solutions my tonal theory training had given me” (McClary, 2000: x).

30 In a chapter contemplating the influence of birds on the origins of music, Pont (1988: 29-35) describes a preliminary statistical study of melodic contour preferences and proposes the comparison of human and avian pitch profiles as tools for the investigation of possible regional co-variation. 60 Science excels in the telling; music suggests. Haraway relates the dangers of the neutral zone between them collapsing into two ways of knowing that are deaf to one another:

Nor must we lightly accept the damaging distinction between pure and applied science, between use and abuse of science, and even between nature and culture. All are versions of the philosophy of science that exploits the rupture between subject and object to justify the double ideology of firm scientific objectivity and mere personal subjectivity (1991: 2).

As Haraway suggests, facts can be deficient. Science’s instruments, software, and experiments enumerate and explicate, but machine knowledge is partial. We know from physics that many aspects can neither be definitively tested nor accounted for; that does not mean they do not exist. I became determined to confront musical issues and not technological ones. I had survived the “lure of numeracy” (Gourlay, 1978: 26). I felt sure that a musician, one well trained and with a broad experience of music, has essential insights to offer biologists.

Game theory tells us that the best approach is to have a mixture or range of strategies from which to choose, some perhaps more often than others, rather than a single strategy (Siegfried, 2006). After the first blind alley, seeking out several concurrent paths of description seemed sensible, with the concern that pursuing only one way of knowing could not only result in another blind alley but could also create an imbalance. Multiple ways of knowing were required for the fullest picture possible. I was now nudging things along, operating on guesswork—hopefully, the inspired guess. At least one scientist also embraced this modus operandi.

The English, who have developed their government in this direction, call it “muddling through,” and although a rather silly, stupid sounding thing, it is the most scientific way of progressing. To decide upon the answer is not scientific. In order to make progress, one must leave the door to the unknown ajar (Feynmann, 1999: 115).

Notation was the obvious link to the unknown, but what form it would take required further reflection.

61 3.3.2 Limitations of sonographic analysis As discussed in Chapter 2, sonograms can be adjusted to reveal what the researcher is seeking. We can find ourselves interpreting images and not sounds. These sonogram limitations and biases (and those of recording equipment) could differ from the limitations and biases of the bird’s or the analyst’s ear. Krause cautions about the piecemeal use of spectrograms by tuning out the elaborate acoustic fabric to focus merely on one part (2002: 21-36). Shafer suggests the flipping of the soundmark with the ambient sounds around it, in a reversal of figure and ground (1977: 152). Tuning in to other species and other environmental sounds that pied butcherbirds might be responding to provided thought-provoking results, as detailed in later chapters.

3.3 Notation and data analysis 3.3.1 A brief history of music notation Gardner Read is not the first to challenge the tired axiom, “Music is the international language”—he dismisses it as “myth perpetuated” (1979: 3). However, in his manual on modern notation practice, Read does not forego the concept of “universality.” He argues that “the written symbols of western musical notation are universally understood wherever western culture has developed”(ibid.). Despite his Eurocentric view of music and culture, his point has some validity. Western music notation does cross borders and languages with ease, and, although many tablatures only work for one instrument, standard Western music notation is a lingua franca for many musicians who choose to read music. Since the system adopted in this study is the conventional one of Western culture, no history of other systems, even those that predate this one (China’s would be an obvious case in point), is summarised. I conducted a brief look into the origins of Western musical notation as part of imagining possible notation strategies for this research, and, as such, this is a compressed and admittedly incomplete chronicle.

Read’s genealogy begins with the pre-Christian Greeks, who worked with four or more different notation systems based on alphabet letters. By the middle of the fourth century CE, these had expanded to over 1600 various signs, symbols, and letters (ibid.: 5). Signs called neumes “gradually replaced alphabet letters in the 62 plainchants of the Christian church” (ibid.: 5). From there a number of other systems of letters, heavy dots, small curved lines, diamond shapes, and squared-note forms gradually found their way onto staff lines. Lines were added and taken away; some lines were coloured. Read describes the movement toward a systemized method of notation as “leisurely—even erratic” (ibid.: 12).

I imagine that the process moved at the speed the music required of it; the flexible melody of a plainchant, for example, typically spanned no more than an octave. It is possible the reverse was true—that composers could not pen complex instrumental music until a system of notation could realise it, though this would seem to discount the abilities of human memory. Or perhaps the answer lies somewhere in the middle, where, as the distance between composer and performer grew, the need for a more codified notation increased, to the point where composer and performer were strangers, connected via notation (Sachs, 1948: 365). Interconnectivity is a recurring theme in this thesis, so my predisposition is to hold with the latter. As Karkoschka notes,

The technical possibilities of a notation system also influence the act of composing—the entire musical way of thinking of all musicians— so that the aural image of a musical work in every epoch is characteristically related to its visual configuration (1966/1972: 1).

The flow should be multi-directional, so the authority of the notation takes on a collaborative aspect.

Two significant developments shifted notation towards a codification of practice. First, the scholar-monk Guido d’Arezzo systematized staff lines and clef signs in the eleventh century. Next, musical works began to be printed c. 1480, shortly after the Gutenberg Bible in 1455; Read points out that the invention of the printing press both expedited the printing of music and slowed to a near halt the evolution of orthochronic notation, which might have continued to change or improve if not standardized by the printing press (ibid.: 23). Changes did not completely stop from that time forward, but that is not in the province of this thesis.

“Notation conserves music… but it conceals as much as it reveals,” observed Cook (1998: 56). Just as in previous centuries, notation also maintains music, placing

63 subtle and sometimes not-so-subtle limits on what can be written, and thus heard. It acts as a filter, a bouncer at the door deciding who—or in this case what—gets in and what stays out. The twentieth century saw new notations come and go in fits and starts, most of them reflecting the priorities and interests of individual composers rather than proposals for new universal systems. Karkoschka’s survey of twentieth-century developments traces the movement away from exact pitch and rhythm structures towards the independence of material structures best suited to graphics. Meant to inspire the “aesthetic imagination” (1966/1972: 2), graphic scores represented a return to the flexible.

Most of what is written about notation comes from specialists, including from the avant-garde who look upon the subject from a “reforming viewpoint” and ethnomusicologists (Cole, 1974: 1), but also from birdsong experts. Ethnomusicologists have struggled with the issue of whether to force the music of their study areas into this “universal” notation system. I consulted a number of key articles, including Roberts, 1932; Lomax, 1956; Seeger, 1958; McCollester, 1960; McLean, 1964. Garfias, 1964; Kolinski, 1964; List, 1964, 1974; Rhoades, 1964; Jairazbhoy, 1977; Beaudry, 1978; Charron, 1978; Brandily, 1982; Abraham and von Hornbostel, 1994; Woodfield, 1994; and Lee, 2006. After decades of debate, consensus is notably lacking. Many researchers split the difference with modifications to conventional notation or supplements such as text, graphics, and annotations. Roberts uses standard notation, modifying it where necessary, and cautions against new inventions that could only appeal to a handful of specialists (1932). Likewise, McLean employs conventional notation with added symbols for his analysis of Maori chants (1964). Brandily does not notate small inaccuracies of intonation, “as they would have rendered the notation unnecessarily dense and are superfluous for the purpose of this analysis” (1982: 381).

Ethnomusicologist John Blacking chose conventional notational for his analysis of the musical life of the Venda people and contented himself with pitch values that were near enough for practical purposes (1970: 4). However, it is his theory rather than his notation that made a particular impression on me. I can imagine replacing “Venda music” with “pied butcherbird song” in Blacking’s hypothesis that Venda music is “systematic and logically organized, but not necessarily like any other musical system” (ibid.: 1). And again, when he discusses how musical capacities 64 reside in deep structures in the mind and body waiting to be brought out (ibid: 2), one is reminded of the bird’s “instinct to learn” or “song template” discussed in Chapter 2.

Charles Seeger, the American pioneer in ethnomusicology, turned his attention away from manual transcription. He invented the melograph, an instrument capable of indicating the minutiae of individual performance such as pitch, timing, and dynamics. His suggestion was “to employ the notation and the graph concurrently” (1958: 188). However, as Cook points out, “the resulting graphs are so complex that nobody has ever really figured out what to do with them” (1998: 62). Notation must omit some things.

Seeger was moderator of the 1964 symposium where four eminent ethnomusicologists (Garfias, Kolinski, List, and Rhoades) were asked to notate a Hukwe song with bowed accompaniment. Garfias employs standard notation for the bowed part but a graphic treatment of the voice. List chooses standard notation for both parts. Kolinski works in standard notation, although he adds a stave for the overtones of the bowed part and supplies a number of annotations. Rhoades’ work is straightforward notation. A cursory glance at the four transcriptions reveals four separate pieces. While List makes the point that this in no way invalidates any one or all of the transcriptions, something is missing in the concept of the event. First, the search for an exact, or at least accurate, notation for an inexact performance is doomed to failure. “The more refined the scores, the more certainly the essence of the exotic music escapes through the lines and spaces,” warns Lomax (1956: 48). Moreover, knowing that transcription must omit some details, but without a keen familiarity with a style of music, a transcription will always be a hit-and-miss affair. Prolonged and intimate contact is not interchangeable with copious deskwork. “It would not be that much of an exaggeration to say that the whole art of performance lies in the interstices of notation, in those parts of the music that the score cannot reach” (Cook, 1998: 63). In those interstices lies the nuanced knowledge that is learned by working with a sizeable corpus of the material, and the more a style is based on “continuous variability” (Bartók and Lord, 1951: xii), the more familiarity is required in order to evaluate and notate the music.

65 Ethnomusicological grappling with the notational map pre-dates this 1964 symposium and continues to this day. In addition to the issues of “universality,” “adaptability,” and “accuracy” summarized by Reid (1977: 416), the cultural baggage inherent in the choice of notation method enters the literature. Agawu turns the table on Read, arguing, “The problem of notation is a universal one” (1995: 390) (my italics). He makes the case that our current system of notation suffers inadequacies for even Western art music.

Notation has always been prescriptive, and it will continue to be prescriptive because it involves the translation of actions, the reading of codes, the deciphering of signs, and ultimately, the subjectivizing of meaning. Notation therefore relies importantly on the role of a supplement (ibid.).

Does it show more respect for African music (or pied butcherbird song) to drop it into standard music notation or to create a wholly new template for it? Agawu holds with the former, and his supplement to standard Western notation echoes my inclination.

This argument on essence versus detail could not take place without recordings. Kunst puts the stakes higher, with the entire field of ethnomusicology in debt: “Ethnomusicology could never have grown into an independent science if the gramophone had not been invented” (1974: 12). Recordings provide more than just a second check on the ear; they provide an opportunity for the collection of a vast amount of data and potentially for great familiarity with the subject. They also allow the researcher to content themselves with “homework” rather than “fieldwork.”

As for the artefact itself, whether in the form of cylinder, disc, or file, the recording is now perceived from many, some hostile, viewpoints. For those in electronic, pop, and DJ cultures, the recording tends to be accepted as the music, score, performance, and representation, arriving in a complete bundle, whereas many performers of improvised music maintain scepticism about recordings not being “the real thing”—they are merely a frozen snapshot in time (and thus in terms of a transitory medium like music, a false representation). For a history such as jazz, the contradiction is palpable; the record has documented its aural transformations from its beginnings in a way not possible by the written page. 66 3.4.2 A history of birdsong notation In Chapter 2, it was noted that musicians have often appropriated birdsong. This survey examines specialists who primarily devoted themselves to notating birds’ vocalisations and whose purpose was the elevation of birdsong to the status of music or proto-music and/or the identification of birds by their song. We encounter a large body of those who invent onomatopoetic mnemonics, many of which were adopted as the popular names for birds, followed by a roll call of birdsong notaters. Although he fits none of these categories, we cannot omit the contribution of Jesuit polymath Athanasius Kircher. He was the first to present complex transcriptions of birdsongs, c. 1650 (Rothenberg, 2005: 19).

William Gardiner’s monograph The music of nature (1840) is armed with a substantial subtitle: An attempt to prove that what is passionate and pleasing in the art of singing, speaking, and performing upon musical instruments, is derived from the sounds of the animated world. He claims to make a faithful transcription of nature’s voice in the various birdsong and other animal notations (such as the canter of a horse). The sounds of cackling hens are traced to compositions by Rossini and Beethoven, while the nightingale is spotted in a few bars of Handel, all in a convoluted volume that also surveys leading singers of the time, orchestral instruments, and linguistics. His short, rudimentary transcriptions of animals seem insignificant when placed beside the numerous musical examples of the human animal, mostly piano scores. One comes away, if converted at all, believing that whereas sound derives from the natural world, it is left to the human animal to make something of it.

Although James Edmund Harting’s The birds of Middlesex (1866) is more a contribution to natural history than a study focussed on a bird’s song, some of his field descriptions are accompanied by notation. A whistle facilitates this:

It frequently happens that we become aware of the presence of a bird long before it is seen, merely by its note. This is more especially the case with the waders. In order to distinguish birds when at a distance, we should be well acquainted not only with their flight but also with their note; and on this account, wherever it has been practicable, I have reduced the notes to a key by means of a small whistle.* The musical expression thus obtained I have introduced into the text, but the reader must not attempt to interpret these notes by the piano; for by this means he will not obtain the faintest notion of the sounds which they are intended to convey. The reason 67 of this will be obvious; the pipe of a bird is a wind instrument, the piano is a stringed one. A flute or flageolet will give the proper sound, but the most perfect expression will be obtained with a small whistle, two and a half inches long, and having three perforations, similar to the whistle used by the Sardinian Picco who performed so wonderfully in London some years since. By reducing the length of the tube by a stop or plug, the whistle may, by experiment with the bird, be adjusted to the exact pitch, and the stop be then fixed. *The high notes of the smaller birds are so much above the reach of the ear that it is scarcely possible to take them down (ibid.: viii-ix.)

Most of Harting’s notation is basic, but articulations, metronomic markings, and portamentos are occasionally included.

Birdsong boosterism motivated a number of bird enthusiasts to write books with suggestions for new notational systems. Many writers believed birdsong was the best way to identify birds or interest the public in birds, and so these volumes take the form of field guides (although the voice and notation remain the primary focus). In Cheney’s Wood notes wild: Notations of bird music (1892), 42 New England birdsongs are placed in conventional notation. Some stanzas seem to be field transcriptions with a number of nuanced variants, while others are monodic arrangements of the bird’s song (some with lyrics, some with phonetics). Information accompanying each bird is drawn from popular and scientific sources, and the tone fluctuates between personal reflections and technical literature, making for a confusing mix. Cheney considers music to be well within the sphere of animals, from the least ant to the largest behemoth. However, as with Gardiner, Cheney privileges the human animal, observing that the bird “found his song just in time to gladden the ears of God’s last and greatest creation” (1892: 134).

Charles A. Witchell’s The evolution of bird-song with observations on the influence of heredity and imitation (1896) places him far ahead of his contemporaries in a serious inquiry into song learning, heredity, variation, mimicry, musicality, and the evolution of birdcalls and songs, all the while acknowledging that much remains unknown:

We should not allow our regrettable ignorance of bird-song to lead us to conclude that because we understand hardly anything about it, the birds themselves can perceive no more meaning in it (ibid.: 178).

68 The naturalist employs phonetics and simple conventional notation paired with text detailing nine years’ surveillance of Britain’s wild birds (as well as occasional field notes from Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada):

My method of noting the music of birds was as follows :--I did not attempt to write all the music of a rapid singer, but listened for some phrase sufficiently simple for my purpose, and then carefully wrote it down. By this method, slow thought it was, I was enabled to obtain records which, although not perhaps scientifically accurate, were as true as musical notation would allow (ibid.: 231).

Frequency does not figure in except in a relative manner:

In making my records I have paid no attention to actual pitch—I believe that this has no scientific value—but all the purpose of my records is to suggest intervals between notes sung by birds (ibid.: 233).

At one point, he notates “the robin’s lit it it alarm” with a series of variable dots:

There is often an extraordinary extent of diversity in the utterance of this alarm, and of the accent accorded to the notes. I once attempted to record this exclamation, as sung by a robin, and wrote large dots for loud notes, and small dots for soft ones, and left spaces to indicate the amount of time elapsed between them. Each line represents one utterance of the alarm and should be read from left to right (ibid.: 157).

The work is noteworthy for the extensive records kept by the author. Mimicry, an area he notes that earlier authors neglected, is of particular interest to Witchell. He itemises resemblances to sounds produced by the elements, insects, quadrupeds, and other birds, perhaps finding more instances of mimicry in birdsong than actually exist.

He distances himself from:

... poetical writers who describe such incidents as the lark soaring in the sky, pouring out his soul in music for the little brown mate trustfully listening in her nest; but they never remark that the lark utters a chattered song when he fights (ibid.: 9)

Nonetheless, Witchell occasionally gives himself over to lyricism: 69

The fullness of tone which the nightingale displays interferes with accuracy of imitation in many instances; and indeed, so wonderful is the song, that a listener is apt to forget all else than the supreme impulse and passion of the singer. Perhaps the surroundings of the bird increase this effect. The murmur of a stream; the soft moonlight which sometimes bathes the dewy meadows, and sheds white waves across the road or the woodland track, chequered with shadows of clustering fresh May leaves—these are suitable features in the realm of this monarch of song, and increase his effects. Now he prolongs his repetitions till the wood rings. Now his note seems as soft as a kiss; now it is a loud shout, perchance a threat (rrrrrr); now a soft peeuu, peeuu, swelled in an amazing crescendo. Now he imitates the sip sip sip sisisisisi of the woodwarbler, now the bubbling notes of the nuthatch. The scientific investigator is abashed by this tempestuous song, this wild melody, the triumph-song of Nature herself, piercing beyond the ear, right to the heart of the listener. He is pleading now! But no, he is declamatory; now weird, now fierce; triumphant; half- merry: one seems to hear him chuckle, mock, and defy in almost the same breath (ibid.: 219-220).

Canadian naturalist Ernest Thompson Seton’s Wild animals I have known (1898) was an immediate success upon publication. He tempers romanticism and sentimentality common for the day with observation and dispassion; the result is an unpredictable mix. This collection of short stories makes no pretence as a field guide. However, in one chapter examples of crow vocalisations in simple notation (each note paired with “caw” or “ca”) are called upon to illuminate Seton’s belief that:

... the crows, though a little people, are of great wit, a race of birds with a language and a social system that is wonderfully human in may of its chief points, and in some is better carried out than our own (ibid: 50).

Presumed semantic content and behavioural observations accompany each of ten notations.

F. Schulyer Mathews believes birdsongs can be notated despite their complexities. In his Field book of wild birds & their music (1921), he employs conventional notation and adds phonetics when appropriate. The book is presented as a field guide with an emphasis on skilfully nuanced text describing each bird’s song, but in the end proves itself to be yet another lacking consistency of tone. Elementary but respectable analysis of birdsong motives elevate the status of birdsong on the one hand, while accompaniment is added to some of the more basic songs on the other, 70 in an apparent apologia for their simplicity. Hold finds this accompaniment to be “engaging … in the style of Edward Macdowell” (1970: 158).

Walter Garstang, Professor of Zoölogy at the University of Leeds, was an avid listener to birdsong. His volume, Songs of the birds, like Cheney’s, reads as part personal crusade/part field guide. For his notational system, Garstang describes how he begins with the timbre of each bird’s voice and assigns human consonants to the sounds as appropriate; he then casts the syllables into a rhythm in order “to capture something, if possible, of the joy or of the attendant circumstances which form the natural setting of his song” (1923: 27). He serves up stanzas of rhyme on his bird subjects, incorporating his abstract phonetic syllables; both poetry and phonetics are set to simplified music, giving the endeavor the feel of a children’s book.

Stanley Morris was another English ornithologist who proposed phonetics in his Bird song: A manual for field naturalists (1925). Hold criticizes both Garstang and Morris for failing to indicate rhythms or tempos, which he considers potentially an essential feature (1970: 155). Hold’s survey looks at the unpublished manuscript (written between c. 1927-1932) of Gladys Page-Wood, a radical whose “work represents the last serious attempt to represent timbre in staff notation” before the advent of sonographic analysis (ibid.: 160). Page-Wood used different colours to express timbre, such as differing shades of blue for whistled notes; she also presented the nuances of micro-intervals (ibid.).

Johannes C. Andersen’s Bird-song and New Zealand Song Birds (1926) surveys the literature to date while adding his own notes gleaned from years of painstaking observation. He makes regular reference to the music, bird names, and myths of New Zealand’s Maori people. This exhaustive field guide only lacks drawings of the birds in question (the 21 black-and-white photographs feature nests and scenic views; birds are the subject of only two). Andersen’s music notation embraces articulations, dynamic expressions, slurs, grace notes, portamentos, time signatures, tempo indications (such as allegro, the number of seconds for a phrase duration, or the number of quavers per second), expression markings (such as rallentando, ritardando, and accelerando), and quarter tones, while vocal range, timbre, syncopation, vibrato, trills, warbles, whistles, intervals, intonation, singing rate, and 71 mnemonics are addressed in the text. His survey includes duets, whisper-song, mimicry, and calls as well as songs. He itemises variants, methods of variation, and interchangeable components, and conducts distributional analysis of song parts. He records clicks from the snapping of wings, body comportment while singing, whether the vocalisation is issued in flight, and possible motivation for the song. The relative merits of various species and individuals are contemplated.

While his detailed textual descriptions illuminate and amplify the specific notations, Andersen occasionally transforms an analysis into a more far-reaching treatise, such as this interrogation into the song of the bell-bird that develops into a reflection on aesthetics:

It may be that to the various songs and notes heard is imparted to the hearer some of the characteristics of the surroundings where they are heard, whence the strangeness with which the regular beating, the unusual tempo, the peculiar sound, of the notes in (14) affected me. On the other hand, it may be that the surroundings affect the character of the song. This is possibly imputing to the bird an aesthetic sense of a similar nature to the one experienced by man himself: nor does there seem to be much unnaturalness in such an imputation. The bower-building bird of Australia, the dancing birds of La Plata, display a human love of decoration and rhythmical motion. The bird of paradise, the Argus pheasant, the peacock, betray as human a love for the beauty and disposition of colour. The aesthetic sense, indeed, appears to be wider in range than is usually allowed; it is natural, and its end in birds and men, be it for use or gratification, is largely the same.

Phonetics are often presented below the standard notation, with a keen ear towards pronunciation, as in this elucidation of the song of a hedge sparrow:

The vowel sound of i is short, as in hit, and the e is short as in net; the u is the sound of oo in poor, the o short as in not; the ee indicates the long sounds as in sweet. Phrase (2) took a little over a second, as did its variant, phrase (3); these were continued with other variations, for minutes at a time, the repetitions being separated by intervals of from one to four seconds. These notes are very high in pitch, and are all warbled moderately loud, in a bright vivacious manner. There is a little more variation of pitch, and more light and shade in (4); and whilst there was little variation in the outline of (5), the strain contains a definite theme, and it is in perfect common time, warbled allegro, the octave slur and the vibrato note ending the alternate bars. There were unusually wide intervals in (6), and a curious elusiveness in the tempo, caused by a slight pause on the second note 72 of the triplets. The tempo again becomes definite in (7), a phrase which displays considerable art (ibid.: 46-47).

Aretas Saunders proposes a diagrammatic system of birdsong identification “which anyone can learn”(1935/1951: front cover). He justifies his system because fluctuations in matters of pitch and time in birds’ songs make them unsuitable candidates for conventional music notation (ibid.: 3). His system of lines, dashes, and squiggles, musical shorthand of sorts, is paired with onomatopoetic phonetics. His complicated mnemonic devices involve up to four sounds, with accompanying symbols, for each vowel. It seems to this writer as difficult to learn as music notation and less precise. The book is presented as a field guide, complete with requisite notes on all aspects of the birds. One paper (Axtell, 1938) employs Saunders shorthand to good effect, but it never took hold in a substantive way.

Ornithological journals from the period depict a similar history of struggle with pitch notation. Stadler and Schmitt (1914) suggest carrying a set of pitch-pipes into the field in order to fix pitch. Their transcriptions look like standard musical notation minus the staff. Notes, replete with expression marks and articulations, are set into a rectangular box. Falconer (1941) notates in the field with Rowan’s system (see below), while North (1950) dismisses Rowan’s system as imprecise and instead builds on Saunders’ method. North also advocates carrying a chromatic pitch-pipe into the field.

By the time we reach Bondeson’s North American bird songs—A world of music, 1977, sonograms are in regular use by biologists, although not so for the average reader or musician. This field guide is noteworthy because it describes 290 birds by voice only, complete with sonograms for each. One sonogram is placed into standard music notation, the “surprisingly folksong-like micro-melody of the Hermit Thrush” (ibid. 229) prepared and analysed by Peter Szöke of Hungary, who we will survey shortly. Bondeson’s terminology is drawn from music (such as accelerando, phrase, diatonic, interval, glissando, diminuendo, staccato, and vibrato) and applied to sonograms. This volume is a rare interdisciplinary assemblage of science and music. However, had all the sonograms been notated, or had an audio CD of the birdsong accompanied the graphics, the book would have been more serviceable.

73 These early books have counterparts in a number of articles for music journals in the first half of the twentieth century. Similar-looking transcriptions find their way onto the page; they are short, normally a measure or two, accompanied by a brief analysis and anecdotal comments (Andrews, 1930; Smith, 1922; Olds, 1922). Rowan (1924) suggests a system akin to Saunders’ method, although both his musical shorthand and phonetics are simplified.

By the mid-twentieth century, efforts to elevate birdsong to the status of music begin to read less like a crusade and more like a scholarly discourse. In his quest to promote “the aesthetic excellence of some birds,” Hartshorne calls for “conventional musical (or similarly precise) notation” (1953: 109). Saunders’ method receives his approval, but not phonetics alone (such as in Garstang’s system): “Imitative words or syllables are sometimes helpful, but are always crude, and are most crude when used for the more musical species” (1953: 110). Hartshorne considers birds sufficiently musical to be set in musical notation and points the finger at ornithologists who are insufficiently musical to make the notation. Despite his enthusiastic praise for the voice of the pied butcherbird, his Saunders-inspired notation of pied butcherbird song looks flat and uninspired on the page. His later monograph features staff notation by Frances Edwards (1973: 240-246).

Finnish zoölogist Olavi Sotavalta undertook the analysis of song patterns of two nightingales in what is a leap forward in the scholarly approach to birdsong notation. Guided by his perfect pitch, but also systematic habits, he began with conventional notation but soon moved on to a shorthand “developed by numbering the different motives” in order to keep up with the birds (1956: 2). His various notations, graphs, charts, tables, and descriptions are peerless, yet none require the insider knowledge of a specialized notation system.

Halafoff’s analysis of a lyrebird’s song divides bird sounds into three categories: tonality items (those of definitive pitch); percussion items (without a definite pitch); and indefinite sounds (1959: 169). The lyrebird’s song qualifies as essentially tonal in his analysis and thus is a suitable candidate for the conventional notation system. His analysis takes in both notation and a supplementary verbal analysis. Of particular note is his side-by-side comparison of Stravinsky’s Symphonies for wind instruments (1947) and a portion of lyrebird song, accomplished using analytical 74 terms such as introduction, main theme, exposition, recapitulation, bridge, and coda. The close resemblance of the two in terms of structure is thought provoking.

Joan Hall-Craggs undertook a classic study of the development of song in the blackbird, which features conventional transcriptions and sonograms, sometimes together and other times placed alone (1962). The direct pairing of staff and sonogram made an impression on this researcher, although Hall-Craggs makes no attempt to line up the timing of the two.

Hold worked out “a compromise between stave and graph,” working first from graph to staff, then from the opposite direction, which proved more effective for timbral elements (1970: 166). He developed three variations of the “Compromise Notation,” all of which seem highly satisfactory, except that only those trained in it can use it.

Peter Szőke’s study of the intonation structure of bird vocalisations concluded that sound spectrography was inadequate for matters of pitch (Szőke and Filip, 1977: 127). He pairs his detailed conventional notations with frequency graphs produced by a machine designed by his co-author, Filip (ibid.: 129); this process of “sound microscopy” slows down birdsongs by up to x32. Szőke relies substantially on his trained ear, as well, which produces “professionally made subjective transcriptions” (ibid.: 132). Timbre is not addressed.

By the time James (1990) and Hindley (1990) penned their articles, sonograms were in regular use. Like Hall-Craggs, James pairs sonograms with conventional notation as he follows a single blackbird phrase. Hindley, however, does not make use of a sonogram for his lengthy transcription of a nightingale; instead, he relies on his tape recorder slowed down to x4 (ibid.: 26). He admits to slowing the woodlark to x8, all in order “to gain a close-up view of the aesthetic nature of bird song and to make an aural assessment of it by applying the same kind of criteria as we do to our so-called art-music” (ibid.: 25). Hindley sees himself as a sort of aural detective, but his transcriptions may not be as accurate as he hopes. Material slowed down to this extreme could contain sound artefacts not in the original, so Hindley could be making accurate transcriptions from inaccurate sources. No matter—Hindley’s supplemental text is written by someone with a connectivity to 75 the fine nuances of the material. Consider this observation: “The timbre of the bird’s normal ‘voice’ is changed using a technique very similar to the way an organist adds a mixture [often a fourth], or nazard (a special organ stop) to a diapason, to provide an ‘edge’, a nasal quality” (ibid.: 30). Reading the words of a musician/composer with a musicologically trained ear unpack a bird’s song offers essential insights of a type not to be gleaned from a biologist’s report.

Hindley also participated in a case of “salvage musicology” (Qureshi, 1999: 317). The New Zealand huia (Heteralocha acutirostris) became extinct c. 1907. With only a few references—written descriptions and a few whistled imitations, Hindley reconstructed the call and placed it into a synthesized composition that includes the actual sonic background of the huia’s territory on New Zealand’s North Island (1992, liner notes).

While our survey has looked at unknown specialists, French composer Olivier Messiaen brought birdsong notation into the mainstream, making extensive use of these transcriptions in his compositions. No musician has notated more birdsong in more countries over a longer period of time than Messiaen. Begun about 1923 while on holiday in France, Messiaen’s transcriptions betray the importance of the immediacy of the act when done in the field, although he also notated from recordings in subsequent years (Johnson, 1994: 249). His fieldwork and transcriptions continued into his last years, and “excerpts” were published posthumously in two immense volumes: Traité de rythme, de couleur, et d'ornithologie (1949-1992) (Vol. Tome V, 1er Volume - Chants d'Oiseaux d'Europe) and Traité de rythme, de couleur, et d'ornithologie (1949-1992) (Vol. Tome V, 2e Volume - Chants d'Oiseaux Extra-Européens) (Messiaen, 1994-2002). Each extends to over 600 pages. What had begun as a brief mention of bird style, or style-oiseau, in Messiaen’s monograph The technique of my musical language, where he describes his process as “transcription, transformation, and interpretation” of birdsong (1944: 34), becomes in these later volumes a full-blown explication. The treatises are filled with his birdsong transcriptions, musical examples drawn from his compositions, and analyses of both. Some birdsongs include mnemonic phonetics.

Whether Messiaen was slavishly meticulous in his birdsong notations has been the subject of discussion (such as Demuth, 1960: 627-629; Hold, 1971: 113-122; and 76 Nichols, 1972: 233-234). Music notation is by its nature both subjective and reductive. Messiaen grasped the subjectivity of the microphone as well as the variability of birdsong within members of the same species. As he explained to Claude Samuel:

To know the song of the meadowlark, one has to have heard thousands of meadowlarks for hours, days, months, and years; so, you see, a phonograph record is an incomplete tool inasmuch as it only gives us a portion of a song, just as a photograph conveys the snapshot of a single individual. … Only a composer could manage to understand it and capture it on paper; in fact, most ornithologists refrain from describing it and merely say, “Extraordinary song, impossible to describe” (Samuel, 1994: 89).

He characterised how he dealt with birdsong as “either by trying to outline the most exact musical portrait possible, or by treating the bird song as malleable material” (Samuel, ibid.: 94). And later, he added, “Personally, I’m very proud of the exactitude of my work” (ibid.). At every point that Messiaen attempted to clarify his authenticity, he seemed to dig a deeper hole for himself, such as in this 1962 pre- concert lecture: “My permutations of durations are rigorous, my birdsongs are entirely free. Rigour is implacable, but so too is freedom” (Hill and Simeone, 2005: 244). Elsewhere, he described his method as follows:

I make one notation on the spot with all the variations, and my wife makes a tape recording which is less varied than mine, but which captures everything exactly. Then I make a second notation from the tape recorder which is more exact but less artistic. … So I always have my two notations, one exact and one more artistic, and I mix the two (Hill and Simeone, 2005: 208).

Ping-ponging from words like “outline” to “exact” and back to “portrait,” from “rigour” to “freedom,” might appear contradictory to some. To me, the concept of a composite bird is methodologically sound, illogical as it might initially seem. These days, sonograms provide another method of analysis. While they are useful tools, they do not replace a trained ear; I imagine that Messiaen would have eschewed sonograms. In the Western music tradition, unlike the majority of music practices throughout history, there is an assumption that the score can attain a degree of perfection not possible in the resulting sonic experience stemming from it. Messiaen did not worship the score, whether prescriptive or descriptive. He realised that the musical experience was not wholly notatable. This is not to imply that he 77 haphazardly produced a mere shorthand aide-memoire for compositional material. His perseverance and dedication are well documented. Hill describes the motivation for Messiaen’s care as the result of “not science but love” (1994: 9). How did Messiaen navigate the opposition between rigour and freedom, between exactitude and portraiture?

I was able to examine ten pages of Messiaen’s Australian birdsong notation, which arose from his correspondence and eventual ornithological fieldtrip with Curtis (Curtis and Taylor, 2008: publication in process). Five pages were transcriptions from a cassette that Curtis sent to Messiaen in 1988, with a working title Pour Messiaen.31 Space does not permit a thorough presentation of these transcriptions and our findings, nor is it within the scope of this inquiry to make a definitive argument for our conclusions herein. What I found made an impression, much as did the Hindley transcription, and that impression filtered into my methods as I followed the Messiaen thread. In a conundrum that surely musicians and artists understand, although Messiaen did not always “get it right,” somehow he always “got it.”32

Just as his teacher Paul Dukas advised his students “to admire, analyze and notate” birdsong (Messiaen, 1944: 34), Messiaen passed this example on to his students, including composer François-Bernard Mâche. Mâche’s distributional graph notation for the analysis of birdsong is inspired by structural linguistics. He counts two provisions: 1) to work with a recording featuring a single singer that is made without interruption and 2) to designate a consistent abbreviation to every sound or sound-group that appears at least twice (1983/1992: 99). Using this as his starting point, Mâche makes use of every tool at his disposal; in addition to distributional analysis, we see sonograms, conventional music notation, and structural analysis from the smallest sound objects to the largest forms. His notations are not intended to highlight individual birdsong as much as to be in service to his explication of zoömusicology.

31 Messiaen biographer Peter Hill directed us to Messiaen’s birdsong notebooks, which are deposited at the Fonds Messiaen in the Bibliothèque nationale de France. Pages 25-29 of notebook 23159 from the Messiaen Archives, marked "Australie (Sydney Curtis)," feature notations that Messiaen made from the cassette Pour Messiaen that Curtis sent him. 32 My analysis is consistent with Fallon’s conclusion that “his music conforms to his models about two-thirds of the time” (2007: 116). 78 Several of my informants/recordists have developed their own notation methods. Glass developed personal shorthand for the pied butcherbird songs she records. Rising and falling dots betray that contour is key to her grasp of their phrases. These dots are separated by “barlines” to mark the end of phrases and punctuated by the cassette recorder’s scrolling numbers. She notes the presence of other birds (“2 birds” to indicate a pied butcherbird duo), other species’ names as they appear and begin singing (such as “currawong”), the human animal’s interference (such as “car” or “plane”), and descriptions of pied butcherbird song events (such as “chuckle,” “squeak,” and “doesn’t finish phrase”). Figure 3.4 details an excerpt where magpies, another pied butcherbird, a willie wagtail, and a car enter the counterpoint.

Figure 3.4. A shorthand system for notating pied butcherbird phrases developed by Glass. Circles (not hers) highlight entrances into the ambient counterpoint.

Skeoch pairs his stereo soundscape notation with a prosaic description.

I draw what I hear on the tape, according to the timing. Each A4 page is ruled into 4 columns, each representing 15mins (there are small marks indicating minutes) - thus each page documents an hour of recordings, and two pages documents an entire 120 min DAT tape. As I listen to the tape playback, I draw the sounds I'm hearing vertically down the column (as time progresses) and horizontally (stereo field left to right), with each species drawn in a different colour (pencil, with colour usually related in some way to the plumage of the bird) and with heaviness/boldness indicating the volume or closeness of the call. I have some very subjective ways of drawing the sound of each birdcall, for instance those with short 79 song phrases such as the Butcherbird I may generally draw as horizontal marks, whereas other species that may chatter on continually may end up as more sketchy vertical scribbles. I use abbreviations as well, such as PBu for Pied Butcherbird.

Every new 'take' is marked by a solid line across the column, and the time the tape was turned off and then on again (although on my early recordings I just noted the total time of that take). So what you should be able to read off the page is a snapshot of what species are calling at any point on the tape, where they are most prominent, how they move around the stereo soundscape, plus extraneous noises such as wind, or me cluttering and bumping around (or even my tummy rumbling! - sorry about this, its one of the perils of hand- holding mics early in the morning when one has yet to have breakfast! - I notate them so I can be warned to remove them later (A. Skeoch, personal communication, 30 June 2006).

A sample page of Skeoch’s soundscape notation is presented in Appendix J.

3.4.3 Notation and data analysis of pied butcherbird song Recordings eliminate the need to “preserve for posterity” as a reason to notate birdsong. Rather, it is for the possibility of a deep musical engagement that I notate their vocalisations. I employ conventional notation partially because highly specialised notation discourages all except a mere handful of specialists. In considering how to extend the graphic potential of notation for this study without making it overly complicated, and understanding that all descriptions are partial, I avoid hybrid notations as well. (The notation is called upon to be both descriptive and prescriptive, with the emphasis on the former; birdsong can be simplified when employed in composition.) The music staff is paired with a sonogram. “The only really true notations are the sound-tracks on the record itself,” Bartók suggested (Bartók and Lord, 1951: 3). However, a recording is not a tangible fact (nor a firsthand field experience), nor is a sonogram. Technology can help us with things that we grasp intuitively, and the trained ear is a powerful partner (List, 1974: 375). Elsewhere, Bartók observed that “having the best material equipment is not enough: the equivalent intellectual equipment is just as important” (Suchoff, 1976: 10).

In matters of uncertainty, whether pitch or rhythm, I defer to the human ear for the final decision. Amadeus software allows for playback at varying speeds while

80 maintaining the original pitch. Occasionally I listen at half-speed, but rarely do I discover anything of merit not already heard at original speed. Rattles and other quickly iterated decorations are readily heard at their original speed, but I measure the number of iterations in the sonogram window and not by ear. Notation is accomplished with the music notation software Finale 2006, later upgraded to 2007 and 200833; its playback feature is often drawn on to confirm the notation in matters of pitch and rhythm, including metronomic markings. In my internal debate about whether to attempt to capture the minutiae of the song, at times the same phrase is notated twice, one more “bare bones” than the other. I want to leave signs of struggle when encountering nuances that resist notation.

The most challenging notational aspect is portamento. Craig observed: “many bird songs consist, not of sustained notes, but of slurs. Even in these cases, however, the song is composed of individuated units. The slur itself is a unit. For it is not just any slur; it is a perfectly definite slur which is repeated again and again” (1943: 164). Normally, either the beginning or end of the glide is heard as the resultant pitch; a normal notehead indicates this, while a grace note serves for the other end of the glide. I make no attempt to measure the duration of the glide, as the speed is usually continuous, although it could be that for the bird, the steepness of the portamentos rather than the pitch is of more importance.

Each phrase is set into one bar; thin double bar lines mark out phrases and indicate a momentary stop in singing. Each measure begins with an approximate metronomic marking. Time signatures allow all notes to fit without additional full rest beats at a measure’s end, but then are normally hidden for ease of visual inspection. A case could be made that the entire song is given in one tempo; the notation of such a performance would then be rendered unnecessarily complex, and so that strategy was not chosen.

Transcription is a form of analysis, as the notater employs musical understanding to interpret birdsong. Notation impacts what is examined and what is potentially overlooked. Some of those items most difficult or least commonly found in notation find their way onto supplementary sheets designed especially for a measurement and classification process (copies of an analysis sheet and a summary sheet are

33 The software Finale is available at http://www.makemusic.com/ (retrieved 1 August 2008). 81 placed in Appendix I). I measure the length, pulse rate, and number of iterations in a rattle or trill, for example, as well as perform distributional analysis (labeling phrases with letters for eventual analysis of the way they are delivered and organised) that might assist in understanding some larger patterns of variability. I record unusual sounds and timbres, such as “R” for rattle, “QR” for a poorly defined or quasi-rattle, “CH” for chip, “W” for wow, and “H” for a hollow sound (the complete legend features on the summary sheet). The start time and duration of each phrase are noted, as is the inter-phrase interval (or silence). I consider silence as part of the phrase and will discuss below the measurements for inter-phrase interval (which I prefer to think of as part of a regular pattern of sound and silence) that are consistently noted on my supplementary analysis sheets. Silence will be addressed further in subsequent chapters.

The analysis sheet also contains columns marked “# of Sonic Events,” “# of Frequencies,” and “1st Interval”—all items initially considered measurable. When this was found not to be the case, the sheet was not redesigned, and I use those spaces instead for additional notes tracing a wide variety items, from octave leaps to the entrance of a new phrase type, from bird behaviour to a possible second bird singing.

The summary sheet holds calculations such as range, lowest and highest frequency, total phrases in the sample, phrase utterance rate, the number of different phrases, and various rattle measurements, plus a check-off for unusual sounds. All analyses referring to pitches with octave designations, such as D6 or F7, are based on those used by the software Amadeus II, which conform to the Acoustical Society of America system.

Virtually imperceptible variations among renditions of the same phrase by the same individual are treated as repetitions. It is difficult to do otherwise, since variations in recording technique, environmental conditions, and microphone position almost certainly introduce more variation into the recordings than exists among the songs as delivered. Due to the variability of field recordings (dating back as far as forty years) from multiple recordists and a range of equipment, amplitude (volume) cannot be reliably assessed. Nonetheless, it is usually possible to determine whether the sound signal is strong, moderate, or weak. These are noted in the 82 transcriptions, along with accent signs if a note stands out in intensity or attack. The transcription phase of this research was concurrent with the recording and collecting phases, each informing the other in an ongoing process.

3.4.4 Limitations to notation and data analysis There are certain obvious problems with notations and other analytical procedures. One has to do with the mindset of a conscientious researcher. My analysis consists of two parts; sometimes they appear to be consecutive steps of the same activity, but it is clear they can work at cross-purposes. First, I measure the physical properties of the sound (the results of which I make into a first-draft sonogram or music notation or both), and second, I manipulate this data in the sonogram or notation or I return to the raw sound to filter it. In the very act of getting at the truth, I am aware that artifice and subterfuge are called upon. Increasing the intricacy of detail does not improve accuracy—finding the balance point between the two is a challenge for a human, not a machine. In addition, close, “pristine” recordings and those captured by shotgun microphones capture targeted vocalisations for humans to listen back to, but if singing functions at a distance, a singer’s conspecifics could be listening to a different song.

3.5 Summary The scientific attraction of birds is that they are easier to study than many other species. Certain parameters are more straightforward to measure, and those are often chosen for research purposes. However, my interest is not in setting up experiments but in observing what birds spontaneously produce with a minimum of intrusion. The notations in the coming chapters show the way one listener has heard particular pied butcherbird vocalisations and has represented what was heard in standard Western notation.

I selected an integrated approach: conventional notation in partnership with sonograms and a supplement designed to accept distributional analysis, measurements, and behavioural notes, all mediated by a trained ear, albeit an ear trained in the human animal’s music. Nevertheless, systematic methods inform this

83 research in crucial ways. This research is not situated in the science academy, but it is constantly leavened by it. My challenge is to strike a balance, but not to merely pile up additional analytical tools, and to stay open to chance, connection, and prolonged and careful observation.

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Chapter 4

Phenomenology of Pied Butcherbird Vocalisations

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Chapter 4

“Why does nature extend itself for millennia with patterns of excess, beauty, ritual, game?” (Rothenberg, 2005: 185).

4.1 Introduction

Pied butcherbirds take interest in sound patterns and display considerable skill in their production. In this chapter, I identify and investigate the fundamentals of their musical experience (while general principles and matters of form, structure, and song repertoire are covered in Chapter 5).34 Cultural conventions in song that overlap with human areas of activity are given prominence.

Every effort has been made to employ basic terms and simple definitions to facilitate communication among readers with diverse backgrounds. The terminology for birdsong is often arbitrary, complicated by the types and levels of analysis possible with current and ever-changing technology, and does not account for many borderline cases. There is a notable lack of consensus among biologists. Shiovitz counted five terms for “phrase,” six for “note,” and in total twenty different terms employed to describe eight “song” units, while suggesting standard terms to remedy this Tower of Babel (1975: 133). Nearly two decades later one study reviewed over 80 definitions of “birdsong,” finding little agreement in its definition or how to differentiate songs from calls (Spector, 1994), while another called for unanimity of method as it tallied up 28 song unit identifications (Thompson, LeDoux, and Moody, 1994). One looks back to the sage advice of Craig decades prior, that while no ornithologist had framed a satisfactory definition of birdsong, we all know a song when we hear one (1943: 169). A biologist himself, he went on to proclaim:

One reason why biologists have never successfully defined bird song is that it is not a purely biological concept. In order to develop an adequate concept of bird song, we must make progress not only in ornithology but also in musical esthetics (ibid.: 172).

For our purposes, pitch is employed to describe what is heard; frequency expresses what is measured. A note is defined as a discrete sound unit, whether modulated or

34 Some findings described in this chapter have also been published in July 2008 (Taylor, 2008). 86 not, and is represented by a continuous trace on the sonogram. (Harmonic overtones appearing as stripes above the fundamental are considered as part of the fundamental.) A phrase is a recognisable and orderly group of notes; phrases are separated by pauses, which are generally of the order of several seconds. A motif is a coherent subsection of a phrase. A song is a sustained singing performance. A single bird’s entire set of phrase types is a song repertoire.

The beginning of all notations and transcriptions indicates whether the bird delivered the vocalisation one (8va) or two (15va) octaves above the written pitches, and this designation holds for the duration of that item (continuation lines are omitted for ease of visual inspection). Metronomic markings are indicated when appropriate to the subject at hand.

Birds’ production mechanics differ significantly from that of human animals. Although birds possess a larynx at the top of their trachea, their vocal mechanism is the syrinx (Fletcher, 1992: 317), consisting of a valve in each bronchi just below the junction with the trachea. The singing of two unrelated notes is possible (Greenewalt, 1968: 179; Nottebohm, 1971: 229), although most birds either double a note with each valve, use one valve for high notes and the other for low notes, or fail to use one of the valves (Fletcher, 2006: 35). How the syrinx functions is a complex matter under continuous review; many issues remain unresolved (Gaunt, 1983; Nowicki and Marler, 1988; Catchpole and Slater, 1995: 22; Goller and Larsen, 1997, 2002). Here, then, are some of the sounds that pied butcherbirds can produce and that interest them and me. Recording sources for all notated examples, whether in sonogram or notation, are detailed in Appendix G, while complete details on recording site, duration, date, time, equipment, and recordist, along with all field notes and correspondence from the recordist, are on deposit in Appendix H.

4.2 Note Structure Each species of animals has a repertory of sound-types characteristic to it (Marler and Hamilton, 1966). Figure 4.1 illustrates basic pied butcherbird note types. This level of analysis is facilitated by a comparison of sonograms (Thorpe and Lade, 1961: 236-244).

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Figure 4.1. Basic note types of the pied butcherbird: 1. a very short note (less than 0.1sec) within a narrow frequency span; 2. a very short note covering a wide, but not simultaneous, frequency span; 3. a note with an almost constant frequency; 4. a note with an upward inflection; 5. a note with a downward inflection; 6. a warbling note; 7. two or more notes joined together by a tail; 8a/8b. simultaneously produced notes from one bird; and 9. complex, “buzzy,” or “noisy” notes.

These basic note types include: a very short note (less than .1sec) within a narrow frequency span—extremely short notes sound click-like, whatever their frequency; a very short note covering a wide, but not simultaneous, frequency span; a note with an almost constant frequency; a note with an upward inflection; a note with a downward inflection; a warbling note; two or more notes joined together by a tail; two simultaneously produced notes known to emit from one bird; 9. complex, “buzzy,” or “noisy” notes (where the energy is distributed at multiple frequencies).

These basic note types are expanded in several ways. The pied butcherbird builds signal diversity with a variety of short, repeated notes (Fig. 4.2). Several deserve detailed description. Example one contains a trill (an alternation of two different, though near, pitches) (Broughton, 1963: 12). A trill is rare in pied butcherbird song. The bird was singing concurrently—and the temptation is to say “along with”—a flute concerto played regularly on the stereo at the recordist’s home and clearly audible outdoors. Example two is a rattle (a repetitive sequence of short pulses on the same or similar pitch) and marked on my music notation with “R” above the note. (When it does not deviate in pitch, it is equivalent to a tremolo.) Example three is a quasi-rattle (the pulses fail to completely separate to the ear and on the sonogram) and marked on my music notation with “QR” above the note. Examples 88 12 and 13 see noisy rattles with a wider than normal frequency range. Example 14 is a long rattle, in this case 25 pulses spanning 1.5sec., for a pulse rate of 17 per second.

Figure 4.2. Pied butcherbird short repeated notes: 1. a trill; 2. a rattle; 3. a quasi-rattle; 4. a note becoming a rattle; 5. a rattle becoming a note; 6/7. rattles ending with a flourish; 8. a descending rattle; 9. an ascending rattle; 10. an ascending and descending rattle; 11. two rattle types from one bird; 12/13. “noisy” rattles; 14. a long rattle.

Some notes call to mind mnemonic catchwords, such as the listing below of blip, blop, and the like. The times for the examples detailed in Table 4.1 and pictured in Figure 4.3 could vary while the mnemonic device might still apply. The results are highly subjective, part acoustics and part psychoacoustics, and perhaps their key value is to indicate a change in timbre, even if they fail to adequately convey the sound quality.

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Table 4.1 Mnemonic catchwords 1. Blip: a relatively short (.1sec), descending (1141 Hz – 1012 Hz) note. 2. Blop: a relatively short (.07sec), descending (1249 Hz – 732 Hz) note (Blop sounds lower than blip.). 3. Tok: a short (.035sec), hollow sounding note (970 Hz – 710 Hz) (Tok sounds are either relatively stable in pitch or descend slightly.). 4. Several reiterations of tok (.065sec, 861 Hz) followed by a group of hollow sounding but higher chook (Australian onomatopoetic vernacular for “chicken”) (.05sec, 1206 Hz). 5. Chook (.04sec, 1184 Hz). 6. A note of almost constant pitch followed by tok (.03sec, 1249 Hz). 7. Several reiterations of tok (.02 – 04sec, 1141 Hz) resolving to a note of almost constant pitch. 8. Several reiterations of chook (.04sec, 1120 Hz) followed by a single, higher, descending chip (.04sec, 1637 – 1314 Hz). 9. The first of four chip35 sounds (.03sec, 2110 – 1615 Hz). These descending notes tend to be shorter and higher than the blip-blop family; they are not hollow sounding like tok nor are they of almost constant pitch like chook.). 10. Chip (.03sec, 2239 – 1572 Hz). 11. Chip (.03sec, 2347 – 1960 Hz). 12. Chip (.03sec, 2218 – 1572 Hz). 13. A double chip (.06sec, 2638 – 1421 Hz). Although slower than the other chip sounds, perhaps because the frequency change is steeper, this pair maintains a chip sound rather than the slower blip-blop family. 14. The first of three wow sounds (.15sec, 1098 – 1421 – 969 Hz). These short notes rise and then fall to a lower point than the initial pitch. 15. Wow (.13sec, 1572 – 1820 – 1087 Hz). 16. Wow (.24sec, 1044 – 1151 – 743 Hz). 17. Woop or whoop: a relatively short (.05 – .07sec), ascending note (689 – 1034 Hz) usually repeated and here delivered at eight per second. 18. By the time woop is delivered at 13 per second, it takes on the timbre of an electronic, rather than an acoustic, signal (.03sec, 775 – 980 Hz). 19. An abrupt, downward, linear frequency sweep (marked “ES” in my notation for the electronic signal it suggests, and known in computer jargon as “pitch bend”). The faster the delivery or the steeper the frequency decline, the more heightened the effect. This example is delivered at twelve per second on the interval of a minor sixth (.03sec, 1324 – 807 Hz). 20. This example is delivered at a faster rate but covers a narrower frequency range, a perfect fourth (.04sec, 1604 – 1141 Hz on average). 21. This example travels two octaves (.075sec, 2563 – 657 Hz). 22. This example begins with a note of almost constant frequency that is interrupted by three descending notes (all from one bird). The second of the three travels the interval of a major ninth (.06sec, 1905 – 851 Hz).

35 Horn discusses chip notes in tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor), characterising them as “one or two series of at least three abrupt, downward, linear frequency sweeps given in rapid succession” (1996: 1086). 90

Figure 4.3. Pied butcherbird notes suggesting mnemonic catchwords or electronic-sounding signals: 1. blip; 2. blop; 3. tok; 4. several reiterations of tok followed by chook; 5. chook; 6. a note of almost constant pitch followed by a tok; 7. several reiterations of tok resolving to a note of almost constant pitch; 8. several reiterations of chook followed by a chip; 9 – 12. four different chips; 13. a double chip; 14 – 16. wow; 17/18. woop; 19 – 21. abrupt, downward, linear frequency sweeps (or portamentos); 22. a note of almost constant frequency interrupted by three extreme portamentos.

Why does the pied butcherbird devote effort in crafting notes that are so acoustically complex? What advantage might there be to the bird? What might the relationship be, if any, between complexity and reward? What might be the nature of the reward? These questions drove me to look deeper at their vocal material in order to see if the evidence suggests an active sense of aesthetics in the pied butcherbird. If so, how aesthetics might overlap or contribute to function is beyond the province of this inquiry.

4.3 Calls As introduced in Chapter 2, some calls, such as alarm calls and those indicating the discovery of food, are considered to have a semantic content, functioning similarly to words. Rogers and Kaplan distinguish between the syntax and the semantics of a vocalisation: “Syntax refers to the structure of the song or call. Semantics refers to

91 the content or meaning of the message. The two can be intertwined” (2000: 86). Thus, any vocalisation, with the possible exception of mimicry, conveys the meaning, “I am a pied butcherbird, and I am here.” The following calls (Fig. 4.4) carry additional semantic content:

1. A soft call from a bird sitting on a nest.

2. A food begging call from an adult. This bird approached me at an outdoor restaurant. After eating its fill of begged fish, the bird flew with the leftovers to a tree above me and wedged the food between the “V” of two branches.

3. A food begging call from a nestling.

4. A scolding call given to a cat. Consisting of short, repeated notes of wide frequency range, this call would fall under the rubric of agonistic signals (Bradbury and Vehrencamp, 1998: 359).

5. Two beak claps delivered in quick succession, given as a sign of aggression to an Australian magpie. Sometimes birds deliver modulated, non-vocal mechanical sounds (Prum, 1998: 977), which are not technically a call. A beak clap indicates they are capable of being instrumentalists. The literature does not recount, nor do present recordings indicate, that this species makes use of other mechanical sounds, such as wing feather specialisations or drumming with beaks or tools.

Figure 4.4. Pied butcherbird call notes: 1. a soft call from a bird sitting on a nest; 2. a food begging call from an adult; 3. a food begging call from a nestling; 4. a scolding call; 5. two beak claps.

92 Note the stripes of harmonics in the first four calls. Pied butcherbirds are known to emit broad frequency alarm calls that are termed “nasal” (harmonic) rather than “harsh” (noisy) (Jurisevic and Sanderson, 1994: 71). While no recorded examples of alarm calls were available for this study, it appears that pied butcherbird calls in general extend over a wide harmonic range.

A number of other contexts exist where the pied butcherbird could call. In most cases, the call of choice is presented in Figure 4.5. Various informants identify it as a flight call, a contact call, a separation call, an advertising call, a dominance call, a mutual recognition call, a mobbing call, and an “I am a pied butcherbird” call (D. Lumsdaine, personal communication, 2 July 2005). It is diagnostic for the species, meaning that one can identify the bird by this, whether or not it has been sighted. Because there is no common motivational basis for this call, but instead it accompanies various behaviours, the term “species” call was coined (Taylor, 2005). Like the other calls, this one is generally stereotyped across the continent in groups separated in both time and place. Depending on how many notes it is delivered in, it has been referred to with the mnemonic “8-2-2” (three notes) or “eight twenty-two” and “por-rk-it-tee” (four notes). Occasionally it is extended to five notes. The notes often dip and rise and are usually delivered within the F7 (2794 Hz) to G#7 (3322 Hz) range, an octave above the standard singing register.

Figure 4.5. Pied butcherbird species calls from three different birds (top) paired with music notation (bottom).

Figure 4.6 displays an adult species call, which is immediately followed by a juvenile issuing the call (from the same recording and with the original spacing intact). The juvenile’s call pays great attention to the ascending “zip”; the call is slower and the notes are less defined than in the adult delivery.

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Figure 4.6. An adult delivers the species call (SC), followed by a juvenile. The juvenile’s call focuses on the ascending zip, and the notes are poorly defined.

Woodall describes the mobbing of a common ringtail possum by about seven noisy miners (Manorina melanocephala) and three pied butcherbirds, “all alarm-calling noisily” (1994: 22-23). Figures 4.7-4.8 similarly find a product of increased volume. In both examples, long squirty “zips” up to the call notes are prominent. By ear, some individuals appear to issue zips only. The call notes of this summative vocal display fall in a broad envelope of approximately 2500-3300 kHz. Both examples contain beak claps, delivered by the pied butcherbird as a rapid pair.

Figure 4.7. A group of pied butcherbirds and an Australian magpie involved in mobbing. “BC” denotes two rapid beak claps, visible on the sonogram as thin vertical lines. “PBB” denotes a particular pied butcherbird that calls an octave lower than his/her conspecifics.

In Figure 4.7 above, several species of birds join together in the mobbing, provoked by the arrival of a huge, wheeling company of black kites (Milvus migrans). In the 94 next example (Fig. 4.8), other species again join in the cross-species mobbing, including the Australian magpie and the magpie-lark (although they do not appear in this excerpt). The subject of the mobbing is an Australian raven.

Figure 4.8. A group of pied butcherbirds mobbing an Australian raven. “BC” denotes two pairs of beak claps, visible on the sonogram as thin vertical lines. “

4.4 Calls in Song The differences between calls and songs are often portrayed as clear-cut (Marler, 2004: 32; Hall-Craggs, 1961: 367). However, some find the distinctions not so easily demarcated (Johnson, 2003: i; Smith, 1991: 250); my research would support this latter view. Pied butcherbirds lack a species-typical song. In the several hundred hours of recordings examined from over 250 locations, no song phrases are repeated in more than the immediate and nearby territories they were found in, excepting two. Both of these phrase-types appear to be re-workings of the species call.

When two or more birds are present and singing, the species call might be used like the interjection “Amen” in an American Southern Baptist church meeting. Delivered in apparent haphazard fashion, it hovers in a border territory between call and song. Other times, the species “call” is delivered in antiphonal song where it seems a coherent part of the musical statement, a call-become-song. In the first song example (S1), one of the two birds contributes the species call (Fig. 4.9) in a duet (more investigation of duets will be presented shortly). The birds possess a repertoire of techniques for varying the motif. Unlike the pitch stability found in 95 the call proper, when delivered as a motif in either antiphonal or solo song, the frequency of the “call” is no longer stereotyped. Nevertheless, the frequency does shift upwards significantly for a falsetto effect.

Figure 4.9. Antiphonal song (S1) with species call: two birds. Red lines match the sonogram to the notation. “R” denotes a rattle.

The second example (S2) details the “call” in solo song (Fig. 4.10).

Figure 4.10. Pied butcherbird species call notes (SC) incorporated in solo song (S2).

The abundant portamentos in the solo song above are not notated in the interest of simplicity. Note the octave leap from D6 to D7, the additive treatment of the species call motif, and D7 D7 F7 inversion to F6 F6 D6 (also an octave in distance). While the species call motif is altered on each of three deliveries, the other song phrase with which it is paired is repeated exactly the second time, delivered in truncated form 96 the third time, and after the final species call motif, given an end flourish of this same truncated motif with a doubling of the final note.

An immature bird relies heavily on the species call in its subsong in Figure 4.11.

Figure 4.11. An immature pied butcherbird subsong excerpt. The species call (SC) is delivered on the conventional pitch and at a number of lower transpositions. The ascending zip often associated with the beginning of the call is delivered without the call notes. No mimicry is noted.

The species call is commonly subjected to another treatment to build singing performances. Here, the innate elements of the call are revised down an octave and the tempo greatly reduced. The motif is articulated short-long or short-short-long and normally descends by a major or minor second. As with the call, this short-long descending second motif (SLD2) is normally delivered on stereotypical frequencies between G6 and F6.

Figure 4.12 explores a handful of these numerous SLD2 variations on a theme.

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Figure 4.12. Eight variants of the short-long descending second (SLD2) motif. “QR” denotes a quasi- rattle.

The SLD2 motif most often descends by a half step on the pitches F#6 to F6 (bar one); bar two sees its more rare inversion (or retrograde). Rhythmical variations are possible (bar three). Bar four sees the motif descending by a whole step, followed by a motif reminiscent of the species call in that it jumps a large interval and remains in that register with a triplet composed of semitones. The motif is occasionally augmented, such as in bar five, which descends by a whole step, then a half step. A variation on this augmentation involves deflection (bar six). Bar seven bears strong similarity to bar six, with the entry point a major second lower. The fully developed phrase built upon the motif (G6 F6 on beats two and three) outlines a G dominant seven chord (bar eight). Thus, the musical material of the pied butcherbird species call regularly undergoes a “neutralisation” that points to both the capacity to categorise and employ it as a call on the one hand and a musical imagination able to redeploy it into song on the other (Mâche, 1983/1992: 154). One bird presents the phrase with an ultra-noisy rattle at the end—an aggressive “prew” sound finds the pied butcherbird acting momentarily as percussionist (Fig. 4.13).

Figure 4.13. The SLD2 motif, followed by an aggressive “prew” rattle.

Aside from the “prew” rattle, the “8-2-2” species call, and the “reek” alarm call, few mnemonics are in use for pied butcherbirds, likely because their song phrases lack stereotypy. Nevertheless, several have been posited: "weedle-ordle-ah-dit-dee" was 98 applied to one phrase a recordist heard (V. Powys, personal communication, 12 March 2007), while “quo-orrr” and “chu-eep” (Serventy and Whittell, 1976: 450) were pressed into service for certain notes. Glass found one phrase to syllabise “‘What’ll we do Jack?,’ and was a sort of comic relief” (1992: 20). One final example, a veritable “period piece,” speaks as much about the writer as the birds:

His notes suggest the vastness of the Australian bush and continent. At dawn his clear cornet-like notes ring out far above the great chorus of bird-song. They are various, and some impossible of translation, but his dawn notes resemble the following:--‘Toll-de-lol- fãh’ (the last note long drawn out and of liquid sweetness); then twice and quickly repeated in a lower key—‘You chatterbox;’ then in a higher key and with very full, rounded notes, and twice repeated— ‘Sweet after forty.’ So charmed was I with the song and appearance of these birds that I determined to secure one to take home with me. Through the kind offices of Mr. Lee Steere, I eventually managed to get one from one of the station hands, and my captive has furnished me with many opportunities of study (Milligan 1905: 154-155).

These, then, are the building blocks of sound objects available to the pied butcherbird for song construction.

4.5 Pied butcherbird song mutualisms with human music The pied butcherbird's song displays all the features that have provoked analogies between birdsong and human music. The bird perceives its sound world differently from us, certainly. Nevertheless, “I, an intruder upon the scene, am sufficiently similar in physiology to the bird that I am able to enter as an observer into this net” (Nelson, 1973: 326). This sampler of songs and singing patterns from various contexts traces how pied butcherbirds draw from a range of conventions present in their song culture. The account is not an exhaustive one for reasons of space. Following Sloboda’s lead (1985: 9), my personal knowledge, experiences, and intuitions as a practising musician have augmented and complemented the findings.

From the perspective of the human ear, common rhythm and temporal devices such as accelerando, ritardando, rubato, syncopation, triplets and other tuplets, anacrusis, augmentation, diminution, rhythmic tension, and additive and divisive rhythms are present in pied butcherbird phrases. Examples are indicated in the course of analysis. The sense of a regular tempo, from adagio to allegro, and a 99 rhythmic vitality are usually in evidence, and although to my metrical judgment there is a strong kinaesthetic component, the songs are not metronomically “impoverished” (Lidov, 1997: 20) or brittle.

Bird songs are rhythmic enough, but they are seldom “measured” in the way that western music is measured. Music is regarded as measured when there is throughout a steady recurrence of rhythmic stress or accent so that the music is divided into regular measures or bars over a longish period. Very little bird utterance conforms to that description (Thorpe and Lade, 1961: 231).

“Melody does not of necessity depend upon rhythm; like the songs of many birds, it can exist without recurrent, strictly gauged patterns of organization” (Sachs, 1962: 111). In pied butcherbird song, patterns of organization regularly present themselves, but they are rarely strict.

We also find in the pied butcherbird a toolkit of expressions, articulations, and strategies familiar in the human animal’s music. These are indicated in the course of analysis. While space does not permit a full listing, the following repertoire of musical procedures for varying sound is noted. In the absence of detailed experimental studies, inferring function is problematic. Martinelli argues that since singing, like speaking, is a communicative strategy, “even aesthetics is a function in all respects. Not only is aesthetics not in competition with the other functions, but it often accompanies and enhances them” (2002: 12).

Canon. The timing of countersinging can be concurrent, alternating, or overlapping. When type-matching is in place, even if the entrances seem haphazard, a clear canonic treatment is established. The result is a “performance” canon, not a notated one, reminiscent of Thelonius Monk and Charlie Rouse breaking into an improvised canon on a chorus of “Bemsha Swing.”36 While the function of countersinging could be a vocal contest (a “cutting session” in jazz parlance), a sure ploy for getting attention (playing on a rest beat), or a competitive advertisement (a commercial jingle) (Horn and Falls, 1988: 337), the effect is a highly musical one.

36 Thelonius Monk: The Complete Riverside Recordings, 1986, Riverside RCD-022-2, disc 15, track 8. 100 Anthropomorphism forbids speculation on the possibility that creating an aesthetic experience is part of the function of countersinging, but almost anyone hearing it would dare to think so. Are pied butcherbird phrases formed with the instinct that they must work together when more than one singer is broadcasting in the “acoustic horizon” (Blesser and Salter, 2007: 22)? Is a bird merely minimizing the competitive background noise through “song asynchrony” or “displacement patterns,” as the biologist might characterise it (Cody and Brown, 1969: 778-780), or could these emerging and fading song phrases from the avian song community have a musical purpose?

Crescendo/decrescendo. From my campground in the Central Australian outback, I heard a bird in the distance and decided to investigate the following day. At 3:45 a.m. under a full moon, I walked to where I thought it might sing and turned on my recorder. Five minutes later I heard birds quietly warming up nearby, and after another five minutes a bird flew into position in the tree above me and began to sing. I had stumbled on the box seat. The point of departure was the truncated version of a phrase delivered in hushed tones. The material was repeated, recombined, and elaborated for two hours. Mid-way through, the signal was so powerful it began to distort; I re-directed the microphone, but still the signal was fortissimo. By the end, the bird had brought his song phrases back to the original pianissimo, and the elaborated material was again presented in abridged form (Fig. 4.14). This pre- dawn song is featured in Chapter 5.

Figure 4.14. Crescendo/decrescendo: the first, a middling, and the final phrase from a two-hour pre- dawn song. The waveform on top shows the change in volume in more detail than the greyscale of the bottom sonogram.

101 Dawn Chorus. “Jazz is like bananas—it must be consumed on the spot,” Sartre recommends (1948: 48). So too, the dawn chorus. Like the town clock, the dawn chorus is a soundmark (Truax, 2001) for birds and humans, a counterpoint of events with a wide range of frequencies, amplitudes, timbres, and sound sources. The acoustic complexity in these crisscross patterns is the ultimate surround-sound. Feathered choirs compete intensively for the available broadcasting space and time. Space is an essential aspect in music (Brant, 1967: 223-242), one that sees further consideration in the composition portfolio and critical reflections in Chapter 6. The quality of the experience—the theatrics of the sonic story of the dawn chorus—is not entirely told by notation or sonograms. Vella speaks of aural depths of field— the foreground, middleground, and background—and shifting of perception as sounds unfold (2000: 132). The acoustic tasks facing a bird in the dawn chorus are considerable. The interconnectedness of natural sounds is evidence of a web of social relationships. In the midst of competing “biophonies (voices of living things) and geophonies (non-creature sounds, e.g. thunder, rain, and wind)” (Krause, 2002: xii), a singing bird must also assess other singers—their direction, distance, species, and identity—and who’s tuning in? Why increase predatory risk expending an extravagant amount of energy on song (Smith, 1991: 241)?

Fanfare. “A flourish of trumpets” (Tarr, 2008), a fanfare serves “to announce new events and to quieten audiences” (Walser, 2003: 315). With cornet-like tone and bold, swift delivery, numerous pied butcherbird phrases fit this metaphor. In Figure 4.15, some portamentos were removed in order to highlight intervallic relationships— frequent, often rising major thirds and perfect fourths, fifths, and octaves—intervals that heighten the sense of a fanfare.

Figure 4.15. Fanfares from seven different pied butcherbirds.

102 Iconic themes. Occasionally pied butcherbird themes and those of humans converge. Hutchinson reports hearing a phrase recalling the opening bars of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony (1808) (Slater, 1983: 278). I have encountered melodic inventions that correspond to Mendelssohn’s “Wedding March” (1842), Kurt Weill’s “Mack the Knife” (1928), and Miles Davis’s “Freddie Freeloader” (1959) (the SLD2 motif in bar four of Figure 4.7 closely corresponds to the Davis theme). Although an iconic human theme can catch the ear, encountering an equally compelling and previously unknown theme provides greater satisfaction.

Melisma. Although they can be vocal gymnasts with a flourish here and an arabesque there, pied butcherbirds are not prone to extreme elaboration and appoggiatura. One from this pair is a notable exception, and the experience left a vivid impression with the recordist:

“The Singing Lesson”: two birds perched side by side on a banksia singing a solo song; one sings the fully decorated version of the local dawn solo, the second a more sketchy outline version. A beautiful study of what structure, tuning and melodic decoration might mean to pied butcherbirds (D. Lumsdaine, personal communication, 2 July 2005).

This notation (Fig. 4.16) was accomplished both by listening at half-speed and by taking measurements in the sonogram window, particularly the latter.

Figure 4.16. “The Singing Lesson,” where bird #1 puts forth a few basic notes (lower staff) while bird #2 unravels a melismatic cadenza (upper staff). “QR” denotes a quasi-rattle.

103 Ostinato. In the dawn chorus of Figure 4.17, a grey shrike-thrush (GST) (Collurincia harmonica) predominates, while the pied butcherbird (PBB) holds to a two-note ostinato. The harmonic implications make for a comfortable pairing. In another instance (not shown), the pied butcherbird inserts the only clearly tonal element into the acoustic fabric as it reiterates a two-note motif in an otherwise high- frequency shimmering of cicadas and noisy birdcalls.

Figure 4.17. Pied butcherbird (PBB) ostinato whilst a grey shrike-thrush (GST) rings out its phrase (music notation of the first 10sec.) Other birds are also singing.

Phrase endings. Schoenberg sees a phrase as possessing a sense of completeness and yet well adapted for recombination with other similar components (1967: 3). He suggests phrase conventions:

The end of the phrase is usually differentiated rhythmically to provide punctuation. Phrase endings may be marked by a combination of distinguishing features, such as rhythmic reduction, melodic relaxation through a drop in pitch, the use of smaller intervals and fewer notes, or by any other suitable differentiation (ibid.).

His suggestions are regular occurrences in pied butcherbird song (Fig. 4.18-4.21).

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Figure 4.18. Phrase endings with rhythmic reduction. “W” denotes a wow sound and “ES” an almost electronic sound.

Figure 4.19. Phrase endings with a drop in pitch. “CH” denotes a chip sound, “QR” a quasi-rattle, and “ES” an almost electronic sound.

Figure 4.20. Phrase endings with smaller intervals.

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Figure 4.21. Phrase endings with other suitable differentiations: bar 1: an accent, large leap, and two-note chord on the final note; bar 2: an accent and a large leap followed by a steep portamento creating a chip sound on the final note; bar 3: an accent, an upward leap, and a note of wide harmonic content on the final note; bar 4: a structural accent in the outline of a G dominant seven chord filled after a leap; bars 5-7: extended repetition of the final note or motif. “R” denotes a rattle, “QR” a quasi-rattle, “CH” a chip sound, and “WH” a woop or whoop sound.

Repetition and variation. Stuck song syndrome—the Ohrwurm, the earworm, the brainworm37—whatever the terminology, these scraps of sound that stick in our head and endlessly repeat—do they have a counterpart in the avian world? Are pied butcherbird song phrases designed to have such an effect? Figure 4.22 illustrates a simple, repetitive theme that commands attention and is remembered (some portamentos were removed for ease of visual inspection). This catchy snippet hooked me into including it in a composition (“Ping-pong,” movement three of Black and white miniatures, presented in Chapter 6).

Figure 4.22. A catchy “earworm” from a pied butcherbird.

Repetition as it applies to song repertoire and underlying rules of song structure will be examined in Chapter 5.

Scales. Scalar passages are not common. When scales arise, they often consist of a combination of microtones, half and whole steps, and minor thirds; some notes can

37 Levitin (2006: 151) and Sacks (2007: 41-48) discuss this phenomenon in more detail. 106 be repeated before the bird moves on. Often, a “scale” is merely an ascending or descending rattle. Five examples of scalar motion follow. These rare instances fail to suggest a sense of tonality or a tonic, and thus no attempt has been made to piece together scales after the fact to assign them a harmonic identity, such as mixolydian mode. Three examples are notated (Fig. 4.23-4.24), and the final two are launched in a sonogram (Fig. 4.25).

Figure 4.23. Scalar motion in two different pied butcherbird phrases.

Figure 4.24. Scalar motion in the top staff of a pied butcherbird duo.

Figure 4.25. A descending and an ascending pied butcherbird “scale” from two separate pied butcherbirds, both demonstrating accelerando.

Shape and balance. Hall-Craggs, a trained musician, begins the discussion section in her classic study of blackbird song with the apology that her sole qualification in the study of birdsong consists of “being trained to listen to detail” (1962: 294). She goes on to speak of the

107 “shapeliness of melodic line and general formal orderliness” (ibid.: 296). She could have been speaking of Figure 4.26. Songs that match the pied butcherbird’s perceptual world regularly match the human’s sense of musicality.

Figure 4.26. Shape and balance in four consecutive phrases of pied butcherbird song, with rests inserted between phrases to show approximate delivery.

At times, some phrases that seem prime examples of proportion and balance are delivered “out of order,” and my brain simply re-arranges them and quantizes the rhythm to conform to my acculturated musical sense. The first line of Figure 4.27 shows how I imagine the bird delivered this song.

Figure 4.27. Line one displays a sense of proportion and balance in a pied butcherbird song as the human ear might hear it; line two displays other phrases the bird delivers that interrupt the proportion with an unexpected leap, a truncated phrase, and a downward resolution instead of the more common ascent. “R” denotes a rattle.

While this realisation is close, the bird is more flexible and less foursquare. For example, bars 1-3 are delivered intact at one point, and bars 3-4 are delivered intact, but never the four together (at least in this particular recording). The other phrases the bird works with (bars 5-7) are regularly inserted, interrupting the proportional expectations of line one. The next example (Fig. 4.28) is similar; the expectation after an initial hearing is to sing back line one in the order and rhythm notated.

Figure 4.28. Line one displays a sense of proportion and balance in a pied butcherbird song as the human ear might hear it; line two displays other phrases the bird delivers that interrupt the proportion with variations in phrase length and augmentation of motives. 108 The four phrases in line one (Fig. 4.28) are delivered intact twice, but then the bird begins to transform the material, first repeating the final two notes of line one, and then exploring other possibilities. Line two shows phrases that interrupt the sense of proportion and expectation suggested by in line one. While the sense of surprise created by angularity and disproportion after their avian “classicism” is not what I would compose, the phrases nonetheless so parallel my sense of musicality that this song features in the composition portfolio (Lamington Plateau for flute).

Sotto voce. The quiet, inward rendering of “whispering song” (Lister, 1953: 142), also called whisper song, recording song, or quiet song, is most common during late mornings and afternoons. The material can be that of primary song (Sedgwick, 1947: 377) or mimicry (Chisholm, 1947: 25). Armstrong identifies this as the quietest form of song and speculates that it may have a variety of functions (1953: 311).

One wonders why a bird would sing so quietly. With no apparent advertising function, is this subdued song merely a rehearsal (étude)? Could it be habit? Or could a bird simply like to sing—is it a self-rewarding activity (Morris, 1962: 145)? Humans are known to sing to themselves when alone.

Figure 4.29 shows a pied butcherbird engaged in subsong including mimicry. The recordist has not indicated whether this is an adult or an immature bird. Regular episodes of mimicry and the species call are injected into the bird’s own phrases. The species call sees two types of treatment. The first two species calls-in-song motives resemble conventional delivery of the call, while subsequent deliveries are unusual. These later versions are delivered more rapidly and the notes are brief. The possibility exists that the bird is combining its own species’ call with the sound of another species, thus creating a unique hybrid.

109

Figure 4.29. Pied butcherbird subsong including mimicry and the species call (SC).

Stage presence. Some songsters know how to work the “crowd,” whether avian or human:

It is late afternoon on the border of Western Australia and the Northern Territory. While stopped, my partner photographs a pied butcherbird on an overhead wire with quite a repertoire, one who tilts back his head, opens his bill, and puffs out in song, a born performer who turns on for the camera. No other birds are apparent. I grab my paper to notate his call as he delivers a dynamic singing performance. He had “it” (Taylor, 2007: 51).

Any mention of a stage implies a musicians’ platform. A pied butcherbirds sings from a song post, whether a tree or some other high object. The post would not be the bird’s sole concern. Music relates to the site of its production (Blesser and Salter, 2007), and the pied butcherbird must take into account the acoustic constraints and potential benefits of the environment. In working with reflection, dispersion, and refraction of sound, the bird takes on the task of an “aural architect” (ibid.: 5). 110 Timbre. Timbre is an important but sometimes overlooked feature in vocal communication in birds (Williams, Cynx, and Nottebohm, 1989: 379). A collection of many features or qualities fits under the umbrella of timbre, including pitch and amplitude; while these can be spoken of separately, they can affect timbre. Timbre carries information about its source and the environment through which the sound has travelled (Fales, 2002: 57). Rhoades regretted the lack of a timbre notation system (1963: 200). For descriptive purposes, the voiceprint in a sonogram now fills the void, and in it we have a potent visual tool.

The concept of klangfarbenmelodie moves toward an equality of pitch and timbre, suggesting that a melody might be formed and perceived through timbral transformation of a single pitch.38 Such a kaleidoscope of colours is realised in the next examples. In Figure 4.30, Example 1, the phrase begins with a quasi-rattle, followed by a pure tone, and finishing with a proper rattle that moves back to a quasi-rattle, all on a single pitch.

The second example finds a bird replacing its beginning sustained tone with extreme portamento signals recalling the vintage VCS-3 synthesizer.39 These much shorter notes begin quietly and crescendo slightly, but are in stark dynamic disparity to the powerful final octave-and-a-half jump down to the beginning pitch.

Although not limited to a single pitch, Example 3 offers extreme timbre differentiation. Parameters exhibiting strong contrast include note durations, dynamics, and texture—alternating pure notes and noisy ones, smoothness and roughness (Malloch, 2004: 54-56). Intensification via powerful attacks and steep but rapid ascending and descending portamento is in evidence, and again quasi- electronic signals come to mind.

38 The term klangfarbenmelodie was coined by Schoenberg in his Harmonielehre (1911) (Rushton, retrieved 18 July 2007, from http://www.grovemusic.com). 39 The VCS-3 is a portable synthesizer designed in 1969. Retrieved 10 April 2008, from http://emfinstitute.emf.org/exhibits/vcs3.html. 111

Figure 4.30. Three examples of extreme timbre contrast in pied butcherbird song.

Finally, in a fourth example (Fig. 4.31), each of the bird’s virtuosic song phrases displays clear, bold quality differentiation, at times imparting a feeling of impulsiveness. The palette is remarkably wide-ranging for one bird, with strong fluctuations in multiple parameters.

Figure 4.31. An example of extreme timbre contrast in pied butcherbird song.

Transposition. Few empirical studies exist as yet into pitch processing in songbirds. Ratcliffe and Weisman describe four concepts, all of which are found in some but not every bird species: absolute pitch perception, relative pitch perception, pitch contour, and pitch ratio (or interval) (1992). I will address these in order.

Do pied butcherbirds possess absolute pitch? One (assumed) bird was recorded almost daily over a two-and-a-half-week period in 2002, producing five hours of

112 recordings.40 Two phrases with notes of almost constant frequency were chosen for every take (the recordist would often stop and re-start during pauses by the bird). Frequencies of notes at the beginning and ending of a take and at several mid-way points were measured. Results indicate a virtually imperceptible variation among renditions of the same phrase by the same individual (other measurements on different individuals produced similar results). Variations in recording technique, environmental conditions, and the position of the subject would be expected to introduce more variation than exists among the phrases as delivered. While this would lead me to believe absolute pitch is the norm, for the purposes of this study I have omitted this data since I am not working with banded birds.

Converging evidence points to several basic features of music, such as relative pitch and the importance of the octave, to be determined by innate constraints in humans, at least in part (McDermott and Hauser, 2005: 29). Might this map onto innate avian constraints? For example, do pied butcherbirds transpose phrases (indicating relative pitch)? Yes—the numerous cases of the transposed species call are the clearest example of this.

Do pied butcherbirds possess octave generalisation? Do they perceive octaves as same or similar phenomena? The biological basis of the octave “is both prevalent in musical systems worldwide and perceptually privileged, at least in some cases, in nonhuman primates” (McDermott and Hauser, 2005: 51). Blackwell and Schlosberg found octave generalization in the white rat (1943: 418), while Wright, Rivers, Hulse, Shyan, and Neiworth found it in rhesus monkeys (2000: 291). Octave leaps abound in pied butcherbird song, both in the song of one bird and at the hand-off point in a duet, although this is not necessarily a mark of octave generalisation, which involves the preservation of contour, interval, and chroma (or key). In another case, a pied butcherbird was singing in the presence of a more powerful signal from a magpie-lark (Grallina cyanoleuca); the pied butcherbird mimicked the magpie-lark, transposing his phrase down an octave (possibly to a better range). One could speculate that the stimulus equivalence for an octave does exist in the latter example, but not enough data exist for this study to make a case for octave generalisation at this point.

40 G. Glass, CD numbers 038-042, detailed in Appendix H. 113 Likewise, since no studies have been conducted on pied butcherbird’s discrimination in response to auditory events, the processing of pitch ratio will not be addressed.

Ventriloquism. The ability to make sounds appear to come from somewhere other than the emitter occurs in the alarm calls of some birds as a defense mechanism (Marler, 1955: 7). Ventriloquism is a known occurrence in the dawn song of pied butcherbirds (Keast, 1944: 185). Its function in song is unknown. Imagine hearing several birds quietly participating in the dawn chorus, echoing similar themes, then perhaps all shifting to a new theme; as you close in (you think), like the end of a rainbow, no bird can be found. The sound has no address. Normally not considered a musical activity, ventriloquism nevertheless possesses musical connotations and precedents.41

Other parameters overlapping with human music include out of tune, bad tone, and questionable musicality. While these judgments are subjective, since the preponderance of these examples come from immature birds, they appear safe conclusions. A list of other mutualisms must include territorial song, which is akin to a national anthem, while a male’s song directed towards a potential mate is nothing short of a serenade. Performed by the composer is a regular event.

The final two sections will complete this pageant of parallelism with an illumination of two major areas of vocal activity.

4.6 Female song and antiphonal song Antiphonal song is an overarching term describing two or more pied butcherbirds performing in alternation or together. As described in Chapter 2, duets include both alternating and loosely overlapping interchanges. Occasionally, two individuals, assumed to be a mated pair or potential mates, coordinate their vocalisations in a synchronous rather than alternating pattern (Mulder, Bishop, Cooper, Dennis, and Koetsveld, 2003: 25). For pied butcherbirds, alternating is far more common than synchrony.

41 The offstage choruses in Verdi’s operas Il corsaro (1848) and Il trovatore (1853) come to mind, as does the remarkable soprano Edith Helena who mimicked the violin with her voice while appearing onstage playing a stringless violin in pantomime to “Intermezzo” from Cavalleria rusticana (“The London music halls – The empire.” The Era, 23 January 1904: 23). 114 Female song plays a key role in duets and antiphonal song for pied butcherbirds; unfortunately, since the sexes are indistinguishable, the female contribution can only be speculated on. Unison duets are rare, although input from supernumeraries in trios, quartets, and quintets may see unison or overlapping of the same phrase, often imparting a sense of collective improvisation. The timing of duets is normally such that without visual contact, the contributions do not parse easily and must be noted by the recordist in the field. (When singing, pied butcherbirds often alternate a standard upright posture with raising the bill high, and then sinking it on the breast, which assists in part identification.) Such precision calls to mind the dovetailing of the medieval hocket to create the effect of a single melodic line, as in the next example (Fig. 4.32 and 4.33).

Figure 4.32. Two pied butcherbirds in a duet with dissimilar phrases: sonogram. “W” indicates the wow sound and B5 indicates the motif of repeated B notes.

Figure 4.33. Two pied butcherbirds in a duet with dissimilar phrases: notation. “W” indicates the wow sound. Circles indicate the doubling contribution of a supernumerary.

115 In Figure 4.32, a cursory visual inspection of the sonogram would miss what the ear picks up: a pair in duet is joined by a supernumerary that contributes to only two of the motives (circled). The third bird is slightly behind in the wow sound in the first three bars, and thus the motif appears to be repeated. Likewise, the three B5 notes appear to be four in the first bar. The ear can hear that the final wow is doubled. Figure 4.33 presents notation of the same vocal ensemble. Arrows indicate a microtonal nature to this duet.

The joint performance in Figure 4.34 involves rapid exchanges. There is an octave transposition of the second motif D6 D6 C6 C6. The basic pitch contour (D6 F6 G#6) of the first motif is also held in common by both, but with a subtle variation. The motion is approached chromatically in the bottom staff and by alternating thirds in the upper, the latter bird preferring to end motives with a steep portamento.

Figure 4.34. Two pied butcherbirds in a duet with similar phrases.

On the morning of this recording, this same pair sang other duets, all containing distinct material. The musicality of the exchange is the basis for the composition Pied butcherbird suite. The complete notation of the field transcription prefaces the suite in Chapter 6. For pied butcherbirds, music is a family affair; like the von Trapps and the Bachs, everyone contributes to the choral society.

4.7 Mimicry The evidence indicates that colonial music pointed to the many characteristics of indigenous music practice: functional music embedded with common narrative and common frames of reference and a shared sense of purpose; music that was practical, local, in which mimicry and improvisation were the prime vehicles of expression (Rose, 2007: publication in process).

In this final section I want to draw on aspects of mimicry that I see as particularly relevant to an understanding of the sound world of both pied butcherbirds and humans. Composers borrow from one another, and even from their own previous 116 works; jazz improvisers quote themes from both within and outside jazz; pied butcherbirds appropriate from conspecifics, other bird species, and unexpected sources.

Speculation on the function of avian mimicry is tentative at best. While the answers are beyond the scope of this inquiry, the intriguing questions mimicry provokes are not: Do birds mimic for the physical pleasure of imitating or the appeal of the sounds themselves? Perhaps mimicry, particularly in subsong, fulfills some requirement for the brain, as dreaming might in the human animal (J. Rose, personal communication, 5 August 2008). I contend that mimicry is the normal basis of music making, while originality is rare or even illusory. Musicians know mimicry by a myriad of names: imitation, borrowing, quotation, appropriation, bricolage, allusion, simulation, modeling, pastiche, parody, and montage. This subject will be pursued further in Chapter 6. Whatever the label, the mimetic powers of pied butcherbirds betray their oral absorption of the exterior world.

The literature enumerates 27 bird species apparently taken up with relish by the pied butcherbird, as well as the barking of a dog, the bleating of a lamb, a person whistling (Higgins et al., 2006: 522), and the neighing of a horse (Lord, 1945: 119). The recordings in my library find the pied butcherbird mimicking nine bird species from this list. The imitations are short, of about 1-2sec. duration, making the identification challenging or sometimes impossible.

With expert assistance from Australian ornithologists,42 my research adds 12 bird species to this list, for a total of 39 species, plus six probable new bird species and a frog, as well as credible mimicry of a human voice, a telephone bell, and the meow of a cat. Approximately 25% of the apparent mimicry remains unidentified. Such aural and vocal achievement is august. Most remarkable, one bird mimics an auditory icon: the signal of a reversing truck is matched in frequency, duration, and timbre, and incorporated into dawn song. The truck was recorded later that morning at a construction site adjacent to the bird’s song post. This suggests that they hear sound as we do. Figures 4.35-4.36 illustrate pied butcherbirds’ ability to bring together familiar elements from a variety of contexts.

42 Australian ornithologists Chris Corbet, Sydney Curtis, Gayle Johnson, Vicki Powys, Carol Probets, and Eric Vanderduys assisted in mimicry identification. 117

Species mimicked Citation source Australian magpie (Gmnorhina tibicen) Cameron, 1971: 79; Higgins et al. (citing Shingleton), 2006: 522; Horton, 1989: CD 044.15; McDonald, 1940: 299-300 Australian owlet-nightjar (Aegotheles cristatus) Chisholm (citing Lord), 1950: 233; McDonald, 1940: 299-300 Australian ringneck (Barnardius zonarius) Sedgwick (citing White), 1949: 181 bar-shouldered dove (Geopelia humeralis) Taylor brown honeyeater (Lichmera indistincta) Sedgwick (citing White), 1949: 181 bush stone-curlew (Burhinus grallarius) Taylor channelbilled cuckoo (Scythrops novaehollandiae) Chisholm (citing Thorogood), 1946: 13 common koel, female (Eudynamys scolopacea) Lord, 1945: 119 common koel, male or sex unspecified (Eudynamys Chisholm (citing Thorogood), 1946: 13; Lord, 1945: 119 scolopacea) crested hawk? (Pacific baza) (Aviceda subcristata) Taylor crested pigeon? (Ocyphaps lophotes) Taylor eastern rosella (Platycercus eximius) Higgins et al. (citing Shingleton), 2006: 522 figbird (Sphecotheres viridis) Higgins et al. (citing Shingleton), 2006: 522; Taylor forest kingfisher (Todiramphus macleayii) Taylor galah (Eolophus roseicapillus) McDonald, 1940: 299-300 grey butcherbird (Cracticus torquatus) Lumsdaine, 2000: CD 048.10 grey shrike-thrush (Colluricincla harmonica) Higgins et al. (citing Shingleton), 2006: 522; Lumsdaine, 1997: CD 049.18 grey-headed honeyeater? (Lichenostomus keartlandi) Taylor laughing kookaburra (Dacelo novaeguineae) McDonald, 1940: 299-300 little eagle? (Hieraaetus morphnoides) Taylor little wattlebird (Anthochaera chrysoptera) Higgins et al. (citing Shingleton), 2006: 522 masked lapwing (Vanellus miles) Higgins et al. (citing Shingleton), 2006: 522 mistletoebird (Dicaeum hirundinaceum) Taylor noisy friarbird (Philemon corniculatus) Higgins et al. (citing Shingleton), 2006: 522; Lumsdaine, 2000: CD 048.10 noisy miner (Manorina melanocephala) Cameron, 1971: 79; McDonald, 1940: 299-300 noisy pitta (Pitta versicolor) Horton, 1989: CD 044.6 olive-backed oriole (Oriolus sagittatus) Higgins et al. (citing Shingleton), 2006: 522 olive-backed oriole (Oriolus sagittatus) Taylor orange-footed scrubfowl (Megapodius reinwardt) Taylor pale-headed rosella (Platycercus adscitus) McDonald, 1940: 299-300 parrot (no species identified) Cameron, 1971: 79 peaceful dove (Geopelia placida) Chisholm (citing Thorogood), 1946: 13; Horton, 1989: CD 044.15; Taylor pied currawong (Strepera graculina) Horton, 1989: CD 044.15; McDonald, 1940: 299-300; Taylor rainbow bee-eater (Merops ornatus) Higgins et al. (citing Shingleton), 2006: 522; Taylor rainbow lorikeet (Trichoglossus haematodus) Taylor red wattlebird (Anthochaera carunculata) Higgins et al. (citing Shingleton), 2006: 522 rufous whistler (Pachycephala rufiventris) Taylor satin bowerbird (Ptilonorhynchus violaceus) Higgins et al. (citing Shingleton), 2006: 522 southern boobook (Ninox novaeseelandiae) Chisholm (citing Lord), 1950: 233; Horton, 1989: CD 044.15 spangled drongo (Dicrurus bracteatus) Taylor spiny-cheeked honeyeater (Acanthagenys McDonald, 1940: 299-300 rufogularis) spotted pardalote (Pardalotus striatus) Taylor Torresian imperial pigeon? (Ducula mullerii) Taylor wandering whistling-duck? (Dendrocygna arcuata) Taylor white-throated nightjar (Eurostopodus mystacalis) Higgins et al. (citing Shingleton), 2006: 522 yellow-bellied sunbird (Nectarinia jugularis) Taylor yellow-faced honeyeater (Lichenostomus chrysops) Higgins et al. (citing Shingleton), 2006: 522 yellow-throated miner (Manorina flavigula) Sedgwick (citing White), 1949: 181

Figure 4.35. Pied butcherbird masterlist of birds mimicked. Sources listed with a CD number refer to the catalogue of extant recordings in Appendix H; sources cited “Taylor” are summarised in the DVD under the rubric “Original fieldwork recordings with preliminary analysis”; Taylor sources with a “?” are probable but not certain.

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Other sounds mimicked Citation source bark of a dog Chisholm, 1946: 13 bleat of a lamb Chisholm, 1946: 13 frog? Taylor human whistling Chisholm, 1946: 13 meow of a cat Taylor ringing telephone? Taylor warning signal of a reversing truck Taylor whinny of a horse Lord, 1945: 119

Figure 4.36. Pied butcherbird mimicry masterlist of sounds other than birds. Sources listed with a CD number refer to the catalogue of extant recordings in Appendix H; sources cited “Taylor” are summarised in the DVD under the rubric “Original fieldwork recordings with preliminary analysis”; Taylor sources with a “?” are probable but not certain.

The sonograms in Figure 4.37 pairs bird/truck and bird/telephone for purposes of comparison.

Figure 4.37. Mimicry: a pied butcherbird and the signal of a reversing truck in the bird’s territory; example of possible mimicry: a pied butcherbird and the signal of a ringing telephone audible from outdoors in its territory.

The individual in the bird/telephone example above is the subject that delivers a diurnal long song from Magnetic Island, to be pursued in Chapter 5. The telephone comparison hails from phrase D of the long song.

Occasionally, a motif from an alien species is absorbed into a pied butcherbird phrase rather than delivered in a mimicry cycle. Figure 4.38 details three such examples (phrases with motifs reminiscent of a peaceful dove, a noisy friarbird, and a magpie-lark) in sonogram form.

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Figure 4.38. Three examples of pied butcherbirds (PBB) incorporating alien species’ motives into their phrases—sonogram: 1. the peaceful dove signature motif worked into the pied butcherbird phrase, followed by a recording of an actual peaceful dove from the same location—both delivered at the same frequency; 2. the noisy friarbird followed by the pied butcherbird phrase incorporating its signature motif (delivered consecutively in the same recording); 3. the powerful signal of a magpie- lark intruding on the pied butcherbird, who incorporates two magpie-lark motives (in two rectangles) an octave lower, suggesting the possibility of octave equivalence.

In the notation of the same phrases (Fig. 4.39), the third example (bar 4) is particularly vivid for the octave and unison A#s approached by the pied butcherbird first with a descending portamento, then by an ascending one. The F# major arpeggio sounds musical to an ear trained in Western European music.

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Figure 4.39. Three examples of pied butcherbirds (PBB) incorporating alien species’ motives into their phrases—notation: 1. the peaceful dove’s motif is circled in the pied butcherbird staff; 2. the noisy friarbird is followed by the pied butcherbird; 3. the octave and unison pitches of the two birds are circled.

A number of mimicry cycles of various birds were analysed with the assistance of expert ornithologists. The excerpt below follows the transition from one bird’s own song into mimicry. Intensive mimicry begins at 5:32 into this excerpt, and sonographic depiction continues until 9:10, when the mimicry lessens.

Table 4.2 details the excerpt before the sonogram begins. Unidentified but repeated mimicry motives are identified as “A,” “B,” “C,” and “D.”

121 Table 4.2 Pied butcherbird song and mimicry: own phrases and some mimicry Time Mimicry or own phrases Time Mimicry or own phrases 0:00 - 0:57 Own song 3:03 - 3:04.5 (A) 0:57 - 0:57.5 A pied currawong calls at 3:17 - 3:18.5 (A) 0:57, 1:02.5, and 1:11 3:22.3 - 3:23.2 Pied currawong followed directly by pied 3:40.8 - 3:41.8 (A) butcherbird mimicry of it 3:42.8 - 3:43.6 Starts off as (A) but 1:52 - 1:53 Pied currawong transforms into pied 2:07.3 - 2:08. Unknown mimicry (A) currawong 2:47 - 2:48 Unknown 4:18.8 - 4:19.2 Unknown (single note) 2:49 - 2:50.5 Bar-shouldered dove 5:03 - 5:03.5 (A) 2:51.5 - 2:52.5 Unknown 5:11.5 - 5:13 (A) 2:52.5 - 2:55.5 (A) 5:24.5 - 5:25.8 (A)

At this point intensive mimicry begins, as itemised in Table 4.3 and depicted in Figure 4.40. The song and mimicry continue in Tables 4.4-4.5 and Figures 4.41- 4.42. As detailed in Appendix H, CD080, the recording begins at 16:45 in the afternoon and lasts for the duration of one side of a forty-five minute cassette. The bird is already in song when the recording begins and continues after the recording ceases. Mimicry ebbs and flows throughout the recording. This excerpt contains the most intense mimicry. A radio is quietly playing in the background, as the recordist feels the bird is a more enthusiastic singer with a collaborator, with a marked preference for a flute player (D. Turnbull, personal communication, 22 November 2006).

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Figure 4.40. Intensive mimicry cycle of a pied butcherbird.

Table 4.3 Pied butcherbird song and mimicry: own phrases and intensive mimicry 1 Time Mimicry or own phrases Time Mimicry or own phrases 5:32 - 5:34.5 Bar-shouldered dove 6:12.5 - 6:14 Bar-shouldered dove, 5:34.5 - 5:35.4 (A) changing into unknown 5:35.4 - 5:36 Unknown 6:14 - 6:15 Pied currawong 5:36 - 5:37.5 (A) 6:15 - 6:15.8 Own song 5:38 - 5:39.5 Bush stone-curlew/own song 6:15.8 - 6:16.5 Pied currawong 5:39.5 - 5:40.2 Rainbow bee-eater 6:16.5 - 6:20.4 (A) 5:40.2 - 5:40.8 Unknown 6:20.5 - 6:21 Mistletoebird 5:41 - 5:41.7 Unknown (C), similar to car 6:21 - 6:21.5 Rainbow bee-eater alarm sound 6:21.5 - 6:23.8 Unknown 5:41.7 - 5:44.5 Own song (with elements of 6:23.8 - 6:25 Yellow-bellied sunbird bush stone-curlew) 6:25 - 6:27.5 Bush stone-curlew with 5:47 - 5:48 Unknown (B) variation 5:48 - 5:49 Bar-shouldered dove 6:28 - 6:30 Bar-shouldered dove 5:49 - 5:50.4 High-pitched call in 6:30.5 - 6:31 Yellow-bellied sunbird? background—not this bird 6:31 - 6:31.5 Own song 5:50.4 - 5:50.6 Own song 6:32 - 6:33.5 (A) 5:50.6 - 5:51.5 Bar-shouldered dove 6:34 - 6:34.5 Rainbow bee-eater 5:51.5 - 5:54 (A), has some similarity to 6:35 - 6:35.4 Rufous whistler sequence at 5:34.5 - 5:37.5 6:35.5 - 6:36 Unknown 5:55 - 5:59 Own song 6:36 - 6:37 (A) 5:59 - 6:00.5 Unknown, perhaps two 6:37.5 - 6:41.5 Pied currawong/own song, different calls similarity to 6:14 - 6:16.5 6:00.5 - 6:01.5 Bush stone-curlew 6:41.5 - 6:42.5 (D) 6:01.5 - 6:07 Own song 6:42.5 - 6:44 Own song 6:07.5 - 6:08.5 Unknown 6:44.5 - 6:45.5 (D) 6:08.5 - 6:09 Rufous whistler 6:45.5 - 6:46.5 Rainbow bee-eater 6:10 - 6:12.5 Own song

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Figure 4.41. Intensive mimicry of a pied butcherbird continues.

Table 4.4 Pied butcherbird song and mimicry: own phrases and intensive mimicry 2 Time Mimicry or own phrases Time Mimicry or own phrases 6:45.5 - 6:46.5 Rainbow bee-eater 7:18.7 - 7:19.2 Unknown 6:46.5 - 6:49.5 Own song/unknown/bush 7:19.2 - 7:19.8 Mistletoebird stone-curlew elements 7:19.8 - 7:20.4 Rainbow bee-eater 6:49.5 - 6:51 Bar-shouldered dove 7:20.4 - 7:21 (A) 6:51 - 6:51.5 Mistletoebird 7:21.5 - 7:22.2 Own song? 6:51.5 - 6:52.2 Own song? 7:22.2 - 7:23 Bush stone-curlew 6:52.2 - 6:52.5 (C) 7:23 - 7:24 Own song 6:52.5 - 6:53.7 (D) 7:24 - 7:25.5 Rainbow lorikeet 6:53.7 - 6:54 Rainbow bee-eater 7:26 - 7:27 Unknown 6:54 - 6:56.5 Own song 7:27 - 7:27.7 (C) 6:56.7 - 6:57.2 (B) 7:27.7 - 7:28.4 Bush stone-curlew variation 6:57.2 - 6:57.7 Unknown 7:28.4 - 7:29 Own song 6:57.7 - 6:58.3 Similar to 6:07.8 7:29 - 7:29.5 Rainbow bee-eater 6:58.3 - 6:58.7 Rufous whistler 7:29.5 - 7:30 (A) 6:58.7 - 6:59.5 Rainbow bee-eater or (A) 7:30 Unknown 6:59.5 - 7:01.2 Bar-shouldered dove 7:33 - 7:34 Own song 7:01.5 - 7:03 Unknown 7:34.3 - 7:34.7 Rufous whistler 7:03 - 7:04 Orange-footed scrubfowl 7:35 - 7:38 Own song 7:04 - 7:05 Rainbow lorikeet 7:38 - 7:39 (B) 7:05.7 - 7:06.5 (B) 7:39 - 7:40.6 (A) 7:06.5 - 7:09 Own song 7:40.6 - 7:43 Unknown 7:09 - 7:09.5 Rufous whistler 7:43 - 7:45.5 Orange-footed scrubfowl? 7:09.8 - 7:10.2 Unknown 7:45.5 - 7:47 Bar-shouldered dove 7:10.5 - 7:12.5 (A) 7:47 - 7:48 Rufous whistler 7:12.7 - 7:13.3 Figbird (faint) 7:48 - 7:51.2 Own song 7:13.5 - 7:15.8 Unknown 7:51.2 - 7:55 Bush stone-curlew 7:15.8 - 7:17.5 Bar-shouldered dove 7:55 - 7:56.5 Own song/bar-shouldered 7:17.5 - 7:18.6 Mistletoebird dove elements

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Figure 4.42. Intensive mimicry of a pied butcherbird continues to end.

Table 4.5 Pied butcherbird song and mimicry: own phrases and intensive mimicry 3 Time Mimicry/own phrases Time Mimicry/own phrases 7:56.5 - 7:57.3 Rainbow bee-eater 8:44.5 - 8:45.4 Unknown 7:57.3 - 7:59 Peaceful dove 8:45.4 - 8:45.7 Rainbow bee-eater 7:59 - 8:01 Own song 8:45.7 - 8:46.5 Unknown 8:01.5 - 8:01.9 Rufous whistler 8:47 - 8:47.5 (B) 8:01.9 - 8:02.3 (B) 8:47.5 - 8:51 Own song 8:02.3 - 8:04 Unknown (A, D?) 8:51 - 8:52.8 Pacific baza 8:05 - 8:10.5 Own song 8:52.8 - 8:53.7 Orange-footed scrubfowl 8:10.5 - 8:11 Mistletoebird 8:53.7 - 9:02 Own song 8:11 - 8:13.7 Unknown, possibly several 9:02.4 - 9:02.7 Rufous whistler different calls 9:02.7 - 9:05 (A) 8:13.7 - 8:16 Bush stone-curlew 9:05 - 9:06 Unknown 8:16 - 8:16.8 Bar-shouldered dove 9:07 - 9:09.7 Own song? 8:16.8 - 8:17.6 Orange-footed scrubfowl 9:09.7 - 9:11 Bar-shouldered dove 8:17.6 - 8:18.3 Unknown (background?) 9:11.5 - 9:15 Own song 8:20 - 8:21 (D) 9:15.5 - 9:16 Unknown, perhaps a real bird 8:21 - 8:22.5 Unknown in the background 8:25 - 8:31 Own song 9:18.5 - 9:19 (B) 8:31 - 8:33 (A) 9:19 - 9:20 (A) 8:33 - 8:36.7 Own song 9:33 - 9:35.5 Bar-shouldered dove 8:36.7 - 8:37.8 Bar-shouldered dove 9:34.5 - 9:35.5 Pied currawong in background 8:37.8 - 8:38.8 Own song? 9:35.5 - 9:44 Own song 8:38.8 - 8:39.2 Rufous whistler 9:44 - 9:45.7 (A) 8:39.2 - 8:40.5 (A) 9:45.7 - 9:50 Own song 8:41 - 8:41.7 Pied currawong 9:50 - 9:51.5 (A) 8:41.7 - 8:44.5 Own song 9:51.5 – 10… Own song…

The bird mimics a dozen species; other imitations are inconclusive. They could be improvisations or other birds or sounds unknown to me or the other experts, or

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they could be poor copies. The “phrase” (or motif) delivery rate at the height of the excerpt is 34 per minute.

Thus, while sometimes one motif from an alien species might be absorbed into a pied butcherbird phrase, other times pied butcherbirds string together a pastiche of imitations in a mimicry cycle. Mimicry cycles are often delivered quietly. A detailed comparison of pied butcherbird mimicry with non-mimicry song conventions is placed in Chapter 5. Suffice it to say here that in mimicry supposed norms are violated: the vocal range extends in both directions, exceeding the assumed limitations on vocal organs. Other assumed motor constraints in singing ability or singing affinity are shown to be plastic. For example, simple up-and-down warbles might be exaggerated (Fig. 4.43). The full-on effect is one of a DJ cut-and-paste session. Why would a bird transgress its species-specific sounds with these acoustic abstractions? One assumes this degree of complexity and elaboration would be well beyond what is necessary for survival and reproduction, suggesting yet again the presence of aesthetic appreciation (Hartshorne, 1973: 56; Jellis, 1977: 204).

Figure 4.43. Extreme warbling notes from a pied butcherbird mimicry cycle.

4.8 Summary This chapter has presented a culture-specific musicology developed to illuminate pied butcherbird calls and songs. Basic features and distinctions of their vocalisations have been identified. Patterns of repetition and variability at different scales were discovered. Because of both the unclear functional aspect and often unexpected vocal results, female song, antiphonal song, and mimicry are particularly stimulating areas of study. While this section has followed individuals as they manipulate complex sound forms with particular emphasis to mutualisms with the human experience of music, Chapter 5 meditates on general principles, overarching matters of form and structure, and song repertoire. 126

Chapter 5

Long Songs, Repertoire, and Organisational Structure

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Chapter 5

Whoever engages in a musical performance, of whatever kind, is saying to themselves and to anyone who may be taking notice, This is who we are, and that is a serious affirmation indeed (Small, 1998:212).

Long Songs, Repertoire, and Organisational Structure. Both intuition and formal thinking direct this inquiry into two long songs, one diurnal and the other pre-dawn. My predilection in analysis is, as in music, catholic. The material itself winnows down endless possibilities for stylistic analysis. I make no claim to arrive without baggage; I come with many bags and choose from among them which ones to unpack these songs with. I walk round and round the topography of each song—hearing and living it live, re-hearing it on recording, notating it, refining the notation, launching it in a sonogram, adjusting the sonogram, marking my worksheets, re-listening—making the best of the translational limitations in each medium—and round again. Certain qualities may be revealed with one strategy, some via another; these multiple steps and approaches offset each other.

Pied butcherbirds are versatile, discontinuous singers.43 Determining the total number of different song components in a repertoire is both difficult and arbitrary (Kroodsma, 1977: 998). In the course of one song performance, a pied butcherbird normally works with 3-12 phrases; if material is added, deleted, scissioned, recombined, or otherwise reworked, especially if the recording is over thirty minutes, one can be hard-pressed to determine what is a permutation from what is a new phrase. Their acceptance and rejection of ideas (as well as transformation) are consistent with the ability to compose (Hold, 1971: 114) and not merely the “manifestation of their behavioural flexibility” (Baptista and Trail, 1992: 245).

Most phrases are 1–2sec. in duration. Sometimes only one note is sung (around 0.2sec.). A phrase of 7.7sec. is the longest coherent phrase in my library (with no pause and no possibility of another bird also singing). The normal rate of delivery

43 This summary of repertoire, song and phrase duration, rate of delivery, and inter-phrase intervals is based on a close examination of several hundred hours of pied butcherbird recordings. As problematicised in Chapter 3, delivery rates could vary, particularly over the length of a long recording, and many recordings are excerpts. Therefore, these statistics are presented as a reference point and infer no rule. 128

when vocalising maximally could be 5-10 phrases per minute; a high rate of delivery would be 11-22 or more. The inter-phrase interval is longer than the phrase it follows, often twice as long or more. This gap between phrases does not simply mark a switch in function from singing to listening. Silent periods “between” phrases are part of the phrase. The phrases become a jumble when played back contiguously with no space in between them—all sense of proportion evaporates. Listening to the entire sonic pandemonium (including one’s voice in it) during rest beats is akin to the art of the human improviser. “Onset-onset interval” (from the beginning of one sound to the beginning of the next) does not begin to describe the magic of sound-and-silence, where silence is an active choice and means something.

As discussed in Chapter 4, unlike the species call, there is no single species-wide song of the pied butcherbird. This chapter interrogates the reach of a phrase’s territory, stalking and mapping sonic geographies of difference. Very little research into long birdsongs has been undertaken, and these seemed an ideal vehicle for looking at repertoire. For the pied butcherbird, a long song would be a minimum thirty minutes’ duration and up to three hours or more; the recording would be made without interruption and be composed of the entire vocalisation delivered by one bird.

A long song is also requisite in a survey of musical conventions, particularly in a search for formal rules governing sequential order. A systematic investigation of how strings of phrases might function as organisational or memory strategies poses the following questions: Might improvisation and invention be applied to certain phrases or motives while other segments remain unchanged? What are the most stable parameters/most fluctuating parameters? What kind of potential permutations are never observed? What length of recording is necessary to hear all the phrases in a repertoire?

These are some of the modes of inquiry I undertook with two long songs, one song delivered during a warm winter day on arid Magnetic Island in the Great Barrier Reef, Queensland, the other delivered pre-dawn in the cold desert spring of Alice Springs, Central Australia.

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5.1 Diurnal song 5.1.1 A diurnal song on Magnetic Island Dateline: 12 June 2005, Nelly Bay, Magnetic Island. The previous day I had recorded a bird at the corner of Warboys and Yates, one block from the island’s perimeter road and business district. (S)he variously sang from the top of two tall trees on a residential street.44 The bigger tree on the right is a melaleuca, also known as a paper bark; the one on the left is a eucalyptus. My reference name for the bird is “Two Tree.” The prior day, (s)he was already singing at midday when I arrived and recorded for an hour and a half before (s)he flew off. Thus, I am familiar with the song phrases. Today, I arrive earlier. Since I know (s)he might sing a long song, a potential challenge for batteries, I neglect to turn on the recorder until I hear singing or at least see the bird. Thus, I miss the first two phrases, which I quickly sing into the recorder in the interval between phrases. (S)he begins just before 10:45 a.m., and it is 2:00 p.m. when (s)he flies off and I make this announcement into the microphone (unedited):

Pied butcherbird. I saw him. No apparent rival when he began. He looked back and forth whenever he was not singing. He began in the left tree, which I call the Morning Tree, at 39 minutes he moved to the right tree and was in the sun. Just before 54 minutes in he moved back to the left tree, a different perch, and flew around to several different perches. He had an apparent rival sometime in, before he first moved to the right tree. When he moved to that tree, he positioned his back to where I thought the other bird was. It was very distant. There might have been another bird to my left as well, that came in later. But definitely a closer bird came in towards the end and got him started up again. He shared the trees at different times with rainbow lorikeets, pied currawongs, sulphur-crested cockatoos… there was a blue-winged kookaburra that flew in about two meters from me and walked on the ground for awhile but never made a sound. With both rivals, there was both song matching and contrasting. The rival had different songs from Two Tree’s. Probably 85 degrees today [c. 30 Celsius] on Magnetic Island.

As I record, cars drive by, radios go on and off, an airplanes fly over, and a gardener works in front of me, spraying herbicide onto weeds. The following two days, I neither hear nor observe this bird singing, after which I depart the island.

44 “In all documented cases where a special song is sung during the breeding season, usually at dawn, this song has been given by males only” (Johnson, 2003: 312). 130

The decision to notate this three-and-a-quarter-hour song reflects a serious underestimation of the complexity of the musical material. Various strategies are in place to manage the sheer volume of information. First, the essential example for each phrase is chosen using the interpretative tools of a musician. Although ratio of presentation informs this choice, presenting an example that captures the essence of the phrase is paramount. The phrases were all delivered; none are artificial composites. The essential example is not presented as canonical but merely as a working version. The unwieldiness of portamentos led to the presentation of a simplified version of most phrases for those readers not having the benefit of hearing the recording. Variants of some phrases are also presented. The entire transcription can be accessed in Appendix A. In addition, phrases segregated by letter type are presented in the order they were delivered in Appendix B.

5.1.2 Individual phrases of a diurnal song Phrase A. Characterisation: magisterial. Total number of phrase variants including rhythmic variations and hybrids45: 39. Range46 of phrase A: C6 to C7 (one octave). Key intervals: two strong leaps—an ascending minor sixth and a descending tritone; otherwise, small intervals, often delivered via portamento. Contour: arch. Timbre: quasi-rattle on F6, rapid portamento on the terminal notes F6-C6. Hybrids: A+B, A+D+A, I+A, and D+A+B. Variants: On three occasions, beginning decorations are delivered: one borrowed from phrase I’s rattle, one from phrase D’s whistle, and one from phrase D’s terminal descending motif (indicating this motif has flexibility of placement).

Figure 5.1 shows a typical delivery of phrase A on line one; line two is simplified for the benefit of analysis. The two strong leaps—an ascending minor sixth and a descending tritone—are identified. The longer tones, C6 to C#6, have a counterpart with the F#6 to F6, retrograde minor seconds transposed up a fourth.

45 All measurements exclude hybrid phrases unless stated otherwise. Hybrid phrases may fuse entire phrases or subsections of them. 46 Ranges summarise measurements from all variants excluding hybrids unless stated otherwise. 131

Figure 5.1. A typical example of phrase A as delivered by the bird, followed by a simplified version. “QR” denotes a quasi-rattle.

Figure 5.2 contains an example of phrase A with two terminal decorations, the first of which descends from A6 to C#6, a retrograde delivery of the earlier ascending C#6-A6 seen in many variants of phrase A, including the variant below.

Figure 5.2. Phrase A terminal decoration, with a retrograde delivery of the earlier ascending leap from a C#6 to an A6. “QR” denotes a quasi-rattle.

The phrase accommodates a number of entry and stopping points. Humans combine items of information in order to remember them as a group (Levitin, 2006: 213). These function as a single unit in memory. An examination of motif boundaries is shown in Figure 5.3 to interrogate if and how “chunking” might be relevant in the avian brain.

The first six phrase variants reveal progressive stopping points. Bar 7 sees a repeat of the D#6 -D6 -C#6 portamento; bars 8 and 9 show later entry points into the phrase. If the initial C note is delivered, the C# (via portamento) always follows. All other notes are potential stopping points until the end. Judging from the entire performance, an ending can occur on the F# before the quasi-rattle and on the F of the quasi-rattle; if the bird continues to the next F#, (s)he will continue down to the C and add the quick F-C (or E-C) portamento decoration.

The initial half-step rise from C6 to C#6 and the subsequent half-step fall from F#6 to F6 are the most stable parameters, and although neither is present in all

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deliveries of the phrase, this is most often the case. The retrograde of this half-step motion up a perfect fourth is structurally satisfying. The most fluctuating parameter is the terminal decoration, which is either balanced by the minor sixth rise with a descending portamento version of the interval or by the second half of phrase B.

Figure 5.3. Nine different deliveries of phrase A. This abbreviated catalogue begins with the shortest and simplest (and not in the order delivered) to allow for a visual inspection of the add-on technique and potential “chunking” boundaries of motives. The first F#6 is the alignment point. “QR” denotes a quasi-rattle.

Phrase B. Characterisation: exuberant.

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Total number of phrase variants including rhythmic variations and hybrids: 30. Range of phrase B: B5 to B6 (one octave) in the essential phrase; in the phrase with the steepest chip sound, B5-G5 (one octave + minor sixth). Key intervals: minor and major seconds, descending and ascending minor sixths, and a portamento tritone similar to the final descending perfect fifth/tritone in phrase D. Contour: zigzag, often with step-wise motion filling the gap created by a leap.47 Timbre: rapid portamento decoration on many motives, an occasional chip sound (denoted CH). Hybrids: B+D, B+F, B+I, A+B, D+B, J+B, B+C+B, B+D+E, and D+A+B. Variants: Although exuberant in its own right, the volley of prefixes and suffixes appended to phrase B embraces whistles, rattles, zigzagging portamentos, and steep descents (including the chip sound).

Figure 5.4 details the essential phrase B and its simplification.

Figure 5.4. A typical example of phrase B as delivered by the bird, followed by a simplified version. Two ascending major second leaps are gap-filled.

The ascending minor sixth (C#6-A6) seen in phrase A is presented in retrograde (a descending minor sixth, A6-C#6) in phrase B, with portamento. A similar pitch profile emerges in both phrases: C6 C#6 A6 F#6 F6, but no final rise to F#6 is present in phrase B (as if arriving at the F#6 would require downward motion to the C6). Instead, phrase B ends with an ascent. The rising major second is gap-filled by the descending minor second and transposed in the essential phrase: A B A# are followed by E F# F.

47 This is consistent with how human cognition deals with a leap: “To fill in the gap that a leap creates, motion should proceed in the direction opposite that of the leap, in step-size intervals” (Snyder, 2000: 148).

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Phrase C. Characterisation: kinetic. Total number of phrase variants including rhythmic variations and hybrids: 39. Range of phrase C: C6 to A6 (major sixth). Key intervals: a minor second and ascending and descending perfect fifths. Contour: largely bowl by eye, but ascent by ear. Timbre: rapid rattle on D6. The pulse rate of the rattle is 36 per second. Hybrids: most often fused with phrase E (27 of the 39 include E material)—both as C+E and E+C; other hybrids are B+C and I+C+B. Phrase E normally follows phrase C after a slice of silence, as if a rhetorical question were posed and then time was taken before answering it. The two linked together in this manner, the first ascending and the second descending, provide a satisfying sense of balance.

Figure 5.5 details the essential phrase C and its simplification. The motif after the rattle is always delivered en bloc. Although the phrase ends on an A6, a sense of tonic accompanies the pitch of D6.

Figure 5.5. A typical example of phrase C as delivered by the bird, followed by a simplified version. “R” denotes a rattle.

Phrase C is occasionally delivered without the beginning rattle; conversely, the beginning rattle by itself can be affixed to another phrase as a hybrid.

Phrase D. Characterisation: theatrical. Total number of phrase variants including hybrids and rhythmic/rattle variations: 102. Range of phrase D: D6 to D7 (one octave).

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Key intervals: a descending major seventh, ascending major sixth, and descending perfect fifth (occasionally delivered as a descending tritone). Contour: zigzag, with the gap created by a leap filled motion in the opposite direction. Timbre: a bell-like whistle, speculated by one listener to be a sound object copied from a telephone bell by the bird (V. Powys, personal communication, 25 May 2007), a slow rattle (with a pulse rate of 15 per second) spanning G6- C#6 but perceived as D6. The whistle is startling and could be used to regain a listener’s attention. Hybrids: D+B, D+E, A+D+A, D+A+B, B+D, B+D+E, K+D, and K+D+E.

Figure 5.6 details the essential phrase D and its simplification.

Figure 5.6. A typical example of phrase D as delivered by the bird, followed by a simplified version. “R” denotes a rattle.

The jump to B6 in the final motif, which then is resolved with a descending portamento to an E6, is a particularly satisfying gap-fill. Because of the discrete, highly segmented nature of its motives, phrase D lends itself to a graph-like representation. Variants are grouped into families for an examination into phrase building conventions.

Table 5.1 dissects phrase D variants excluding hybrids. The three key components are the whistle motif, the rattle motif, and descending portamento motif. New material not normally included in the phrase could be placed at two points, and the descending motif could be appended to the new material. Boxed segments indicate, from left to right: new material not normally included in the phrase; the whistle motif; the rattle motif; the descending portamento motif; new material; and descending motif. Numbers indicate total iterations of the motif.

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Table 5.1 Construction of phrase D variants (excluding hybrids) New Descending New Descending Material Whistle Rattle Motif Material Motif 4 1 1 3 2 1 3 2 3 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Since hybrids play an active role in the development of phrase D, a second graphic analysis (Table 5.2) itemises all 37 variants of phrase D including hybrid phrases. Prefixes are taken from phrases A, B, and L, while suffixes are from phrases A, B, and E, plus the combined A+B, and B+B. Several phrases see new material added, all of a similar nature.

Subtle variations in rhythm and the number of rattle iterations (from 6-10) are not taken into account for this summation, which folds similar material into groups. The recombinatory abilities of the bird on this phrase encompass elimination, repetition, augmentation, cut-and-paste, and manipulation of each part of the motif, as well as the addition of “new” material. Column 2 refers to bar numbers in the transcription as a whole, which can be referenced in Appendix A.

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Table 5.2 Construction of phrase D variants and hybrids # of Item Example Hybrid # of # of desc. # in bar # prefix whistles rattles motif Hybrid suffix(es) 1. 4 2 1 2. 5 2 2 1 3. 10 2 1 1 4. 12 2 B 5. 18 1 2 1 6. 26 3 1 1 7. 31 2 2 8. 87 2 1 E 9. 119 2 1 1 E 10. 130 2 11. 151 2 B 12. 161 1 B 13. 176 B 1 1 14. 259 1 1 E 15. 300 B 2 1 E 16. 305 1 1 1 17. 317 4 1 1 18. 334 3 2 1 19. 422 2 New 20. 449 1 E 21. 491 1 1 22. 535 1 B 23. 667 2 B + B 24. 784 A 1 A 25. 888 B 2 1 26. 897 3 2 27. 900 1 E 28. 1004 1 New 29. 1009 1 New + E 30. 1043 1 A + B 31. 1050 B 1 32. 1051 2 33. 1077 1 34. 1079 K 1 35. 1081 1 New + 1 Desc. Motif 36. 1084 New 1 37. 1096 K 1 E

Considering all deliveries of phrase D, no motives are more stable than others for inclusion or variability. Any of the three could be present without the other two, although the whistle and descending portamento motif are never delivered without the rattle between them.

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Phrase E. Characterisation: playful. Total number of phrase variants including rhythmic variations and hybrids: 110. Range of phrase E: A5 to G6 (minor seventh). Key intervals: a minor and major second, descending minor sixth, ascending minor third, and tritone. Contour: bowl overall, with a zigzag pattern on the immediate level. Timbre: a quasi-rattle on portamento B6-A6; a trill (rare in pied butcherbird vocalisations) on the notes F#6-G6 replaces the terminal F#6-C6 G6 several times. Hybrids combined with phrase E have various timbral features that will be discussed in the section devoted to those phrases.

Hybrids: E+C, E+D, E+J, B+E, C+E, D+E, J+E, and B+D+E.

Figure 5.7 details the essential phrase E and its simplification. Wide-stepped movement, with intervals larger than seconds, is common. The first three tones, F#-C G, always appear together and often include the B-A as well. The length of the phrase is unstable, as seen below in an essay into motif boundaries. These motives constitute the units of recombination from which many variants are generated.

Figure 5.7. A typical example of phrase E as delivered by the bird, followed by a simplified version. “QR” denotes a quasi-rattle.

This is a workhorse phrase ideal for recombinatory treatment, although a purely statistical analysis such as undertaken for phrase D could not satisfactorily take this into account. Therefore, some of the numerous variants are arranged in Figure 5.8 to allow for comparisons of motif borders.

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Figure 5.8. A partial catalogue of phrase E variants, presented in order of increased complexity in order to allow visual inspection of potential “chunking” boundaries for motives. The alignment point is boxed. “QR” denotes a quasi-rattle.

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A notable augmentation occurs in several deliveries of phrase E (Fig. 5.9) by way of a trill.

Figure 5.9. Augmentation by way of a trill.

Phrase E conventions permit repetition or elision of all motives. These simple, repeated motives are energized by constant changes in direction and repetition. The tension generated by repetition with variation creates a delightful tangle. Whether motif boundaries are determined by rhythmic or melodic grouping is unclear.

Phrase F. Characterisation: unsettled. Total number of phrase variants including rhythmic variations and hybrids: 1. Range of phrase F: D#6 to A#6 (perfect fifth). Key intervals: minor and major seconds and a perfect fifth. Contour: lop-sided bowl. Timbre: portamento on a descending major second, otherwise unremarkable.

This brief phrase (Fig. 5.10) is delivered early in the song, at 3:26, and bar 19 marks its only entrance. Perhaps the bird was still collecting her/himself (while it seems possible, I am not qualified to comment on matters concerning the avian brain).

Figure 5.10. Phrase F as delivered by the bird.

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In the final two notes, we see the retrograde of the descending motif of phrase D. Also familiar is the half-step motion present in other phrases, but this new phrase fails to belong to any phrase family in a convincing manner.

Phrase G. Characterisation: improvisatory. Total number of phrase variants including rhythmic variations and hybrids: 2. Range of phrase G: C#6-A6 (minor sixth). Key intervals: a descending perfect fifth but otherwise small intervals. A phrase with only one large leap is unusual for this individual. Contour: spiky. Timbre: rapid rattle on G#6. The pulse rate of the rattle is 21 per second. Hybrids: a motif from phrase A is present, but a hybrid sense is not achieved.

Phrase G (Fig. 5.11), like phrase F, comes early in the song (at 3:56/bar 23 and 6:36/bar 41).

Figure 5.11. The two deliveries of phrase G as delivered by the bird. “R” denotes a rattle.

The descending and ascending perfect fifths in the first example indicate this is a favoured interval in this range. There is a clear resemblance to phrase A that fades midway. Every gap is filled with motion in the opposite direction except for one instance in bar two, where the rattle fills the gap after a note’s delay.

Phrase H. Characterisation: mercurial. Total number of phrase variants including rhythmic variations and hybrids: 48. Range of phrase H: A5 to A6 (one octave). 142

Key intervals: minor third and perfect fourth both in ascending and descending portamento Contour: zigzag. Timbre: quasi-rattle on several notes. Hybrids: most often with E (27 of the 39 include E material) delivered as C+E and E+C; also B+C, and I+C+B.

There is a sense of arpeggiating an F or F# major chord (intonation differs by a half-step among variants and does not seem to be a key component of this phrase), and with the F (or F#) as our central pitch reference, there is a tonic feel to the phrase. Two essential versions are presented to illustrate how the bird employs the note beginning the second motif as a pivot point. If the note is a C#, (s)he will continue up to the E; if the note is a C, this marks a descent.

Figure 5.12. Two typical examples of phrase H as delivered by the bird, followed by simplified versions. The note beginning the second motif (circled) is an apparent pivot point. C#6 requires continued ascent, while C6 enables a descent. “QR” denotes a quasi-rattle.

The mundane stepwise motion of the main notes F6 G6 A6 is embellished with portamento. A balance between predictability and surprise is adeptly struck on the variants of this phrase. The beginning notes C6-A6 C6-F6-C6 are always delivered intact except in variant 13. The motif G6-D6 A6 is always intact as well.

Phrase I. Characterisation: dynamic.

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Total number of phrase variants including rhythmic variations and hybrids: 77. Range of phrase I: C#6 to A6 (minor sixth). Phrase I with the chip sound spans nearly three octaves, A8-C#6. This is the highest note in the entire song, seen below (Fig. 5.13).

Figure 5.13. The highest note in the entire song, indicated by a box.

Key intervals: a descending perfect fifth and ascending minor third. Contour: bowl. Timbre: rapid rattle on G6 (or G#6). The pulse rate of the rattle is 21.5 per second. Hybrids: A+I, B+I, I+A, and I+A+B.

Figure 5.14 details the essential phrase I and its simplification.

Figure 5.14. A typical example of phrase I as delivered by the bird, followed by a simplified version. “R” denotes a rattle.

Phrase I is occasionally delivered without the initial rattle; in those cases, a rattle is placed in the terminal position. This is the most stable phrase; most variants merely reflect a difference in rattle count (from 11-37 iterations). Steep portamentos are

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hallmarks of all variants save the final, which is a rattle on the pitch G6 normally associated with this phrase, followed by two long notes, C6 and C#6.

Phrase J. Characterisation: kick butt48 and take names. Total number of phrase variants including rhythmic variations and hybrids: 79. Range of phrase J: A#5 to A#6 (one octave). Key intervals: portamentos comprise the entire phrase except for the ascending tritone leap from E6 to A#7. Contour: ascent. Timbre: variously a wow sound, a quasi-rattle, a normal rattle, and a hollow- sounding rattle accomplished by three rapid iterations of each “note.” The pulse rate of the hollow-sounding rattle is 14 tripartite (or 42) iterations per second. The pulse rate of the standard-sounding rattle is 50 per second. Hybrids: J+B, J+E, J+H, and K+J.

Figure 5.15 details the essential phrase J and its simplification.

Figure 5.15.A typical example of phrase J as delivered by the bird, followed by a simplified version. “HR” denotes a hollow-sounding rattle.

Some variants feature down and then up portamento swings to large intervals—a perfect fourth, tritone, perfect fifth, and minor sixth—and end higher than where they began. These swings take on a daring, almost mocking, flavour. The rattle rises or falls but usually falls at the end, even if it begins with an ascent. A large

48 McClary and Walser (1990: 277-292) take up this colloquialism to grapple with how rock music directly affects listeners; the avian application is equally pertinent.

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ascending leap (anywhere from a major sixth to a major seventh) normally follows the rattle. Initial decorations include the descending motif from phrase D, a drop then rise, or a wow sound. The bird chooses from several possible terminal decorations involving rapid portamentos.

Phrase K. Characterisation: unyielding. Total number of phrase variants including rhythmic variations and hybrids: 16. Range of phrase K: F#5 to B6 (octave plus perfect fourth). Key intervals: a unison, minor second, and ascending minor seventh. Contour: bowl-like but spiky. Timbre: an unfocussed, bubbly sound, which extends down to an F5 in some manifestations (at 698 Hz, the lowest note in the song). Hybrids: the descending motif of phrase D is appended three times, once as K+D+E.

Figure 5.16. A typical example of phrase K as delivered by the bird, followed by a simplified version. “B” denotes a bubby sound.

This phrase first appears in bar 813, 2:09:03 into the song. Other species of birds, especially the high and squawky rainbow lorikeets (Trichoglossus haematodus), are nearby and noisy whenever this phrase is delivered, leading to speculation that the pied butcherbird moves into a lower register to optimise broadcast space. The opposition of register is striking. The voice-leading from the F6 to the terminal E6 has an inevitability to it. In addition to the lowest notes of the song, this phrase contains the longest note (at 1.27sec.), the terminal E6 in variant 14.

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Figure 5.17. Phrase K contains the lowest notes and the longest note in the song.

As they compete and collaborate with one another, these phrases, variants, and hybrids—in turns triumphant and threatening—form a cabinet of melodic curiosities. Now, our viewpoint shifts from microscopic, reductionist, and fragmentary to a collective consideration of the song as a whole.

5.1.3 A diurnal song considered as a whole It remains unknown whether “song as a whole” is a concept for birds, and if it were to be, what “whole” would mean.49 Nevertheless, a summary of the history of aesthetic choices made in this song serves to highlight what the bird has accomplished in a three-and-a-quarter-hour period.

The bird is a powerful singer, and most phrases are seemingly delivered at maximum volume, although the lowest notes are less powerful. The singer moves with each phrase, involving the entire body. Likewise and perhaps related, all phrases possess vibrancy and movement; they command attention in a performance that is, like other songbirds such as grey butcherbirds, “visually and vocally extravagant” (Johnson, 2003: 291). Portamento is present in each phrase type, although the singing is sufficiently stable to permit conventional notation.

A host of timbral effects are brought to bear, including a trill, quasi-rattle, standard rattle, hollow-sounding rattle, wow sound, chip sound, bubbly sound, and whistle reminiscent of a telephone ring. The following measure numbers link to the entire

49 This is not an original observation. The study is indebted to the author, philosopher, and musician David Rothenberg for this and other thought-provoking questions. 147

score (Appendix A). Five consecutive phrases with rattles (bars 1118-1122) are placed at the end of the song (only one phrase is delivered after these). The first four of these rattles are all new Phrase J variants (Fig. 5.18), which feature a powerful hollow-sounding rattle.

Figure 5.18. Four new phrase J variants delivered near the end of the song, from 3:09:35 to 3:10:33.

The total range encompasses three octaves plus a major third, from F5 to A8, although most phrases are delivered within the confines of an octave in the mid- lower range. The widest ascending leaps (not portamentos) are an octave plus a minor third (phrase K/bar 1002) and an octave plus a minor second (phrase H/bar 330 and phrase J/bar 359); the widest descending leaps are two octaves (phrase I/bar 164) and a major seventh (phrase D/from whistle to rattle, such as bar 5). Occasionally, a sense of a tonic (or central reference pitch) is noted.

The 1123 phrases divide into eleven discrete phrases, of which ten are heard more than once. An unequal and unstable duration of motivic segments adds interest. Phrase contour ranges from arch to bowl to ascent, but usually betrays zigzag or spiky elements. Bregman holds that “pitches are very noticeable when they are at the points at which the pitch movement changes its direction, at the peaks and

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valleys of the melodic contour, or if they are at the ends of phrases” (1990: 475). Could it be that these angular phrases are bids to attract attention? As we will see below, leaps and sharp switchbacks are rife in the song phrases of not just this bird but also many to come.

The shortest phrase is 0.4sec (a phrase D variant: the descending motif/bar 1077). The longest phrase is 7.7sec. (a hybrid built from elements of phrases K, D, and E/bar 1096). To achieve repertoire diversity, all nine major phrases have variants, some more than others, and all involve recombinations of material to form hybrid phrases. Invention is applied to all phrases and motives. The last main phrase (K) is introduced in bar 696, at 1:49:28 into the song.

The rhythmic language of individual phrases fits conventional notation but only just. Intricacy and accuracy share a capricious friendship. To make the rhythmic notation more accurate would be to lose sight of the material. On a larger scale, pacing and slices of silence, the surprises and respites, also fall under the rhythm rubric. While I consider the silence at phrase-end to be part of the phrase, I nevertheless did measure the inter-phrase interval. The mean phrase duration is 2.3sec., while the mean inter-phrase interval is 7.9sec. This would see the mean duration of sound-plus-silence at 10.2sec. The singing rate is 1123 phrases in 192 minutes (including the one minute before the recorder was turned on), or 5.85 phrases per minute.

Phrases are delivered emphatically. Although not all are used with equal frequency (see Figure 5.19/Table 5.3 for a ratio of phrase delivery), no obvious hierarchy emerges. The song displays a remarkable balance between predictability and surprise in the phrases delivered. When this large amount of vocal material is subjected to distributional analysis and inspected, no obvious phrase ordering can be detected on a large or small scale. My intuition is that phrase “order” is largely determined by the desire to create passages of diverse timbre, rhythm, direction, duration, and melody that will command, hold, and re-command attention. Transition versatility (the likelihood of successive songs being different) is extremely high. Environment may shape the choice or delivery of a phrase. Then, external factors demand that adjustments and refinements take place. Phrase K is a case in

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point, where the presence of a group of rainbow lorikeets or another singing pied butcherbird accompanies the only deliveries of this phrase.

Figure 5.19. Ratio of delivery for phrases: 1=A, 2=B, 3=C, 4=D, 5=E, 6=F, 7=G, 8=H, 9=I, 10=J, 11=K, and 12=all hybrid phrases.

Table 5.3 Ratio of phrase delivery in a diurnal long song # of Ratio of phrase Phrase deliveries delivery A 159 14.16% B 93 8.28% C 32 2.85% D 155 13.80% E 189 16.83% F 1 0.09% G 2 0.18% H 222 19.77% I 52 4.63% J 99 8.82% K 14 1.25% All hybrids 114 9.35% TOTAL 1123 100.00% 150

This brings us to “the vexed problem of inventiveness in song” (Thorpe, 1961: 90). Within the repertoire of this individual, phrases display extensive motivic variation and a highly developed sense of form. Motives are subjected to operations such as contrast, reduction, expansion, transposition, fusion, division, and substitution. Initial and terminal decorations, particularly rattles or the descending portamento motif, are common. Figure 5.20 details some of the various rattles the bird is capable of creating.

Figure 5.20. Summary of main rattle types by phrase. Phrases G and I use the same rattle; phrase J has two possible rattles, the second of which is a tripartite, hollow-sounding one.

Recombining larger segments of different phrases also produces phrase variants. Nine percent of all phrases are hybrids. A typical hybrid recombination consists of two phrases fused together, either in part or in full, and sometimes three phrases are mixed together. Three phrases are tripartite: B+D+E, I+C+B, and K+D+E. The E phrase is drawn on a preponderance of the time for the composition of a hybrid; 75 of the 114 hybrid phrases, or 66%, contain an element of the E phrase.

Table 5.4 summarises the ratio of hybrid phrase deliveries.

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Table 5.4 Ratio of hybrid phrases in a diurnal long song # of Percentage of Hybrid Phrase Deliveries Hybrid Phrases AB 6 5.26% AD 2 1.75% AI 2 1.75% BC 2 1.75% BD 4 3.51% BE 2 1.75% BDE 2 1.75% BI 2 1.75% CE 37 32.46% DA 3 2.63% DB 11 9.65% DE 27 23.68% EA 1 0.88% EC 1 0.88% ED 1 0.88% EJ 1 0.88% HE 1 0.88% HK 1 0.88% ICB 1 0.88% JE 3 2.63% JH 1 0.88% KB 1 0.88% KD 1 0.88% KDE 1 0.88% Total 114 100.00%

When the rules underlying the performance are examined, certain potential permutations occur. No mimicry is noted. No species call is recorded, either separately or embedded in a song phrase. The bird never presents a hodgepodge of sounds; while (s)he may be improvising, (s)he has a toolkit of phrases and timbres that serves as the basis for the song. Gaps formed by leaps are filled most of the time (no obvious difference in ratio between rising and falling leaps is noted).

Apparently, the bird is familiar the margins of possible variation for each motif— (s)he never appears to get lost or stops. A larger sample would be needed to comment conclusively on the order of hybrid phrases, which seems flexible, although some could be fixed. The tone is always “good” and sounds pied butcherbird-like. No waning of energy or inventiveness in the third hour (such as a less powerful signal or a drop in transition versatility) is noted. Dynamism pervades the entire song bout.

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5.1.4 A diurnal song compared to other recordings from the area In light of this bird’s astounding ability to invent and recombine motives and phrases, I returned to Magnetic Island in 2006 to record Two Tree, if still living, and other birds to compare with her/him. In 2006, the birds were scarcely vocalising during my trip, July 31-August 9. I was able to record one bird at Arthur Bay that delivered extensive mimicry; the only familiar song phrase was the descending perfect fifth/tritone motif from phrase D. This phrase is also the only apparent remnant from 2005 in the repertoire on my trip to Magnetic Island in the next year (September 15-22, 2007). Birds were recorded at three locations; these were likely all the same bird, as the song posts were within blocks of each other and in the Two Tree territory as it was allotted in 2005. My diagnostic for Two Tree would be the frequency of use and variety of the rattles and the recombinatory ability as displayed in both variants and hybrids. I do not believe any were the individual Two Tree. This will be taken up in more detail below.

Due to the limited opportunities to record pied butcherbirds on Magnetic Island,50 I planned fieldwork on the mainland as well as the island. From Townsville west along the Flinders Highway towards Charters Towers for a distance of approximately 64 kilometres, I recorded wherever I could find a suitable site. The recording target was pre-dawn song, and eight locations produced good recordings.51

These Queensland locations form the basis for my cartographic delineations. To illustrate the wide range of pied butcherbird musical predilections and abilities and their relationship to the vocalisations of Two Tree, consider a few pre-dawn song excerpts from these eight birds, along with five from Magnetic Island. Space does not permit an analysis of each of the songs, and length of the recorded excerpts varies. Rather than offering a thorough analysis of each new bird, this thumbnail sketch serves to situate Two Tree within their song conventions while searching

50 Estimates of the pied butcherbird population from local ornithological experts Eric Vanderduys and Chris Corbet (unpublished personal communication) put the entire population at about a dozen, and my surveys are consistent with this. 51 In this area, once pre-dawn song is completed, pied butcherbirds vocalise minimally. Therefore, after completing a recording, I quickly left in order to inspect potential recording sites for the following day while birds might still be slightly active. This limits the amount of information I have about diurnal vocalisations, if any, at each site. 153

for remnants of his/her vocalisations in nearby conspecifics. Phrases and variants are notated only once, in the order of their presentation, and placed in Appendix F.

We begin with the most distant bird from Magnetic Island on the Flinders Highway, the bird on Cardington Road (1. MD2007.2.11). This bird delivers phrases with wide leaps and portamentos of an octave and more, including the chip timbre. Six phrase types and five variants are noted in a 4:51 excerpt of 39 phrases. The descending second motif (SLD2), articulated short-long on an F6 to F#6, is present in phrase C. This motif does not figure in Two Tree’s repertoire. No rattle is present, nor are hybrid phrases noted.

Ten kilometres closer to Townsville, the Cameron Road bird (2. MD2007.3.9) also displays wide portamento leaps. Six phrase types and two variants are noted in a 5:01 excerpt of 64 phrases. A two-note chord is produced by simultaneous singing from both sides of the syrinx. One rattle is present, but no hybrid phrases are noted.

One kilometre closer yet to Townsville, the Planthill Road bird (3. MD2007.2.1) chooses wide portamento leaps producing the chip sound. Four phrase types and four variants are noted in a 3:57 excerpt of 37 phrases. No rattle is noted. No hybrid phrases are noted.

Two and a half kilometres closer to Townsville, the Wordsworth Road bird (4. MD2007.4.1) chooses wide portamento leaps. Six phrase types and eleven variants are noted in a 5:27 excerpt of 49 phrases. The Wordsworth Road bird broadcasts as powerfully as Two Tree and with more emphasis on timbral colours, including rattles, quasi-rattles, and wow, chip, and chop sounds. He raps out short, often metallic motives. One hybrid phrase is noted (phrases D+B2/bar 15). As is typical with all these recordings, another pied butcherbird can be heard in the distance; only some of the conspecific’s phrases are similar. Elements of grey butcherbird song figure into this pied butcherbird’s song (not in the midst of a mimicry cycle) at one point. Grey butcherbirds are singing in the territory.

The bird completes one section of pre-dawn song with thirty seconds of mimicry in full voice before flying on to another song post to resume singing (Fig. 5.21).

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Figure 5.21. A pied butcherbird pre-dawn song ending with mimicry, part one. A foreshadowing of the mimicry to come occurs at 17sec. before returning to the bird’s own notes (ON). At 20sec., the song contains only mimicry unless noted as the bird’s own notes (ON). Some notes resembling the pied butcherbird’s are grey butcherbird mimicry (GBB).

Figure 5.21 above depicts the final four phrases of conventional pre-dawn song before the mimicry cycle begins. One mimicry motif is inserted before the fourth phrase, at 17.5sec. The conventional phrases distinguish themselves in a visual inspection by their obvious temporal segmentation, with inter-phrase intervals of several seconds, and their darker, squarer note shapes.

The mimicry continues in Figure 5.22.

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Figure 5.22. A pied butcherbird pre-dawn song ending with mimicry, part two. The bird’s own notes (ON) are few. Some notes resembling the pied butcherbird’s are grey butcherbird mimicry (GBB).

One kilometre closer to Townsville, the Dingo Park Road bird (5. MD2007.6.12) presents a song of delicate sonic arabesques. Six phrase types and six variants are noted in a 5:02 excerpt of 24 phrases. Rattles and rapid portamento leaps are delivered. The SLD2 motif (on F6 to F#6) is present in phrase C. No hybrid phrases are noted.

The singer on Chenoweth Road (6. MD2007.6.18), three kilometres closer to Townsville, works a couple of simple ideas quite effectively. Six phrase types and eight variants are noted in a 2:05 excerpt of 23 phrases. No rattles are noted, and portamentos are almost absent. Phrase B (bar 2) displays syncopated variation of the SLD2 motif (on F6 to F#6). No hybrid phrases are noted. The recording is not good; since it was raining, the full abilities of this bird remain unknown, a case of concert cancelled due to weather.

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The Booth Road bird (7. MD2007.6.1) resides 27 kilometres still closer to Townsville. A number of recordings were made at this cattle property in 2006 and 2007, yielding exceptional duets as well as this solo pre-dawn song. (One duet from 2006 forms the basis of Pied butcherbird suite in Chapter 6’s composition portfolio.) Nineteen phrase types and thirteen variants are noted in a 5:30 excerpt of 60 phrases, but these numbers fail to tell the whole story. Two hybrid phrases are noted (K+D/bar 12 and I+D/bar 14), although two birds could have delivered them. (The time is 4:40 a.m. and definitely still dark; no birds are visible.)

Two birds are undoubtedly singing in an overlapping duet style intermittently from bar 34 onwards (this goes against standard theory that duets are reserved for day song). The species call is present in the song (sounding convincingly as if delivered by one bird), at what would be considered “original pitch”—F7 G7 F7. Timbral elaborations include quasi-rattles, rattles, and chip and tok sounds, although in general the song is rollicking and tuneful. The SLD2 motif (on F6 to F#6) is present in phrase M/bar 17. An Australian magpie can be heard carolling close-by, and although occasionally they step on each other’s phrases, usually they place their phrases in the inter-phrase interval of the other.

In Townsville, 20 kilometres from the Booth Road bird, the James Cook University bird (8. MD2007.6.25) presents relaxed and rolling phrases delivered with moderate signal power. Eleven phrase types and six variants are noted in a 2:44 excerpt of 33 phrases. The chip sound spans an octave plus a minor third; the wow is also present. One chord consists of two simultaneous notes a tritone apart. Rattles and quasi-rattles are noted. No hybrid phrases are present.

As mentioned above, the Magnetic Island birds from Nelly Bay (9. MD2007.1.1, 10. MD 2007.1.17, and 11. MD2007.1.12) are believed to be the same bird recorded from three singing perches but are not the individual Two Tree. A catalogue of all the main phrases from the 2007 fieldwork is presented in Figure 5.23.

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Figure 5.23. Three recordings from Magnetic Island display extensive use of the descending perfect fifth/tritone motif seen in Two Tree’s phrase D. Ovals mark a match; rectangles mark a strong similarity with a slight variance in rhythm or pitch; arrows indicate a possible transposition of the motif.

The descending perfect fifth/tritone motif from phrase D (A6 to D6 or thereabouts) sees frequent use and is circled, along with several intriguing examples of the descent beginning on the D6 and moving downward to A5. The first recording (9. MD2007.1.1) catalogues four phrases and two variants in a 3:07 excerpt of 39 phrases. Two phrases incorporate rattles. No hybrid phrases are present.

The second recording (10. MD2007.1.17) contains the same four phrases and no variants in a 1:39 excerpt of 25 phrases.

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The third recording (11. MD2007.1.12) sees the same four phrases plus two new ones, for a total of six phrases and ten variants in a 3:42 excerpt of 47 phrases. This bird is likely the same as the previous two, although the rattles are more elaborate. No hybrid phrases are apparent.

The next bird in the comparison (12. MD 2005.5.33) is the bird referred to as Two Tree, whose song is analysed in detail above. My initial transcription of a 3:42 excerpt of this bird’s song differs in some details from the three-and-a-quarter-hour transcription. For example, in the excerpt I detail some twelve phrases, whereas in the long song I find eleven including two minor ones. Lacking sufficient style familiarity, I did not initially treat minor alterations as tangential information— some “new” phrases were really hybrids. Groupings emerged as time with the material increased. The initial sketch is left in place for the interest it might provoke in how I heard and notated at different stages. Mâche is correct in his advice to simplify transcriptions, but without extended contact with the style of a particular bird-composer, there is the danger of simplifying in the wrong direction.

The final bird from Magnetic Island (13. MD2007.1.10) sings from Florence Bay. Phrase E/bar 11 seen above in Figure 5.23 (or 11. MD2007.1.12) is replicated by the Florence Bay bird with a twist. Instead of ending the phrase with the descending perfect fifth motif (heard first in Two Tree’s phrase D and traced to the other Nelly Bay birds), the Florence Bay bird incorporates mimicry into the phrase. (S)he sings to the point where the descending motif is positioned by the Nelly Bay bird, and then replaces the descending portamento with an ascending one sounding remarkably like its neighbour, the pied currawong (Strepera graculina).

Thus, while one motif from phrase was retained from Two Tree’s repertoire, most was lost or, if remembered, at least not being delivered at this time. Figure 5.24 summarises the conventions of the above birds.

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Wide Desc # of # of # of porta- P5/tri- Bird phrs vari- hy- mento SL tone D SC A # Location type ants brids leaps D2 motif R CH W T B N M IS S 1. Cardington Road 6 5 0 X X X 2. Cameron 6 2 0 X X X X Road 3. Planthilll 4 4 0 X X X Road 4. Wordsworth Road 6 11 1 X X X X X X 5. Dingo Park Road 6 6 0 X X X 6. Chenoweth 6 8 0 X Road 7. Booth Road 19 13 2 X X X X X X X 8. James Cook University, 11 6 0 X X X X TV 9. Magnetic Island: Nelly 4 2 2 X X X Bay, Soon- ing/Yates 10. Magnetic Island: Nelly 4 0 X X X Bay, Warboys/ Kelly 11. Magnetic Island: Nelly 6 10 2 X X X Bay, Bottiger/ Mandalay 12. Magnetic Island: Nelly 12 3 3 X X X X Bay, Sooning/ Yates 13. Magnetic Island: 6 10 0 X X Florence Bay

Figure 5.24. A summary of pied butcherbirds recorded in Townsville (TV) and environs, including Magnetic Island. SLD2=short-long descending motif; desc P5/tritone=phrase D from Two Tree song; R=rattle; CH=chip sound; W=wow sound; T=tok sound; B=bubbly sound; dbl. note=a two- note chord formed from notes delivered on both sides of the syrinx; M=mimicry; SC IS=species call in song; and A S=antiphonal song. Complete GPS location descriptions and recording information can be accessed in Appendix F.

Certain tendencies and trends emerge. Wide portamento leaps are nearly omnipresent, including with Two Tree (bird #12 in Figure 5.23). No SLD2 is found on Magnetic Island, while the descending P5/tritone motif is found only on Magnetic Island. Chop, wow, tok, and a bubbly sound are rarer. Mimicry, the species call in song, and antiphonal song see only one occasion each in pre-dawn song.

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Figure 5.23 gives no indication of significant differences between diurnal and pre- dawn song.

No pre-dawn song phrase of any of the above birds closely resembles another, except for those on Magnetic Island already described. Unless a bird is in the adjacent territory of another bird, pre-dawn song phrases do not match. (Even then, not all match.) Even those sites quite near one another, such as from Cameron to Planthill to Wordsworth to Dingo Park Roads, see no close phrase types. The sole similarities derive from the species call, whether it appears as a call, a call in song, or the SLD2 motif in song. Sonic geographies of difference are clearly in operation.

While there are virtually no shared pre-dawn phrases, I have traced similar diurnal motives at Cardington Road and Booth Hill Road that are not derived from the species call (an octave leap D6 D7 D6), and at Chenoweth Road and Booth Hill Road (a triplet, followed by a quarter note: D6D6D6 C6—this appears in the duet in Figure 4.31). The outcomes are different in the two locations but betray a similar starting point. Since diurnal song was not my recording focus, my sample is limited to brief encounters heard while the shift from pre-dawn to daytime occurs. The common pool of diurnal material could be broader than noted here. Johnson had similar findings with her inquiry into grey butcherbird vocalisations:

Whereas day vocalizations of neighbouring groups showed only minor differences, the breeding song repertoire of every male was markedly different from that of its neighbours and in addition changed markedly from year to year. There was more difference between the dawn songs of two adjacent males than between day vocalizations of groups many kilometres apart (2003: 290).

I suspect that pied butcherbirds deliberately vary their solo song (whether annually or seasonally is unknown) from that of their conspecifics, but whether they draw from a common diurnal pool for pre-dawn material is unknown at this time. An alternative explanation could be that new phrases are formed from old preferences rather than from old phrases, with a similar outcome.

I am not qualified to address the functional difference that might exist in pre-dawn versus diurnal song, if any. Nor am I able to speculate on the differences between Two Tree’s diurnal song and that of other birds—none of the weeks that I have 161

spent recording pied butcherbirds has produced another long song, or even a middling one, during the day (save the song I recorded of Two Tree the day prior to this one, which has not yet been analysed).

5.2 Pre-dawn song 5.2.1 A pre-dawn song in Alice Springs My goal in this section is to transcribe a long pre-dawn song for comparison purposes with Two Tree. Again, I sought to develop an intuitive familiarity with the song of this bird (the notated song itemises only new phrases for the sake of brevity and is deposited in Appendix D with supplementary analysis in Appendix E). To assist in my aural assessment, as I did with Two Tree, I gathered other pre- dawn songs from this bird’s immediate area.

Dateline: 8 October 2006, Alice Springs, Central Australia. The previous day on my way to record at another site, I heard a bird where the Ross and Stuart Highways converge. This morning, I determine to position myself where I think the bird was. (This bird figures in Chapter 4 under the crescendo/decrescendo rubric.) At 3:45 a.m. under a full moon, I turn on the recorder. Ten minutes later, Macadam (my working name for this bird) flies into position in the tree above me and sings for nearly two hours from the one perch. It is a cold desert night; occasionally traffic passes by, and although several times cars slow, no one stops. One driver shouts while passing; the bird stops briefly, then resumes. Because it is a major highway close to town, there is some light even in the pre-dawn. At 32:20 into the recording, I announce that I can hear two other pied butcherbirds, one closer than the other. I also note that whenever a certain phrase is sung, it seems two birds are singing. Sonographic analysis explains this, and we shall deal with that momentarily. Due to the limited number of variants and hybrids, all phrases and variants are presented.

5.2.2 Individual phrases of a pre-dawn song Phrase A. Characterisation: Unlike Two Tree’s phrases, those of Macadam seem relatively homogenous and ambiguous. They pose neither a question nor an answer. 162

While Two Tree’s phrases are easily categorized (even the hybrids are clearly segmented), Macadam’s phrases blend together.52 Total number of phrase A variants and hybrids (Fig. 5.25): 9. Range of phrase A: G5 to G6 (one octave). Key intervals: small intervals, with an emphasis on the terminal descending leap (an octave, major seventh, or minor seventh when it occurs). Contour: bowl, with sharp terminal descent in phrases A2, A5, and B11/A6. Timbre: quasi-rattle in phrases A5 and A9; a chip sound on B+A hybrids. Hybrids: B+A.

Figure 5.25. All variants and hybrids of phrase A in a pied butcherbird pre-dawn song. “CH” denotes a chip sound. “QR” denotes a quasi-rattle.

Like the phrases to come, this one has a capriciously modular quality. Variants A1 and A3 exemplify the essential phrase; they are virtually identical except for a slight pitch variation. The motif is broken in phrase A5, where descending movement to the pitch B5 is similar to the upcoming phrase C; the bird begins again mid-phrase in A5 and completes a proper phrase A this time. The terminal leap down (A2, A5, B11+A6, and A7) is optional; phrase A7 sees a second terminal decoration in the E6. Macadam alludes to the articulation of the SLD2 motif in many of the phrase types, and the pitches, rhythm, and articulation come together in phrase A to form the SLD2 motif (although ascending for Macadam rather than the more common descent).

52 “You know how they never really seem to finish their phrases?” someone once quizzed me at Warrumbungle National Park. While not residing in New South Wales, Macadam could be an example of this tendency in some pied butcherbirds to sound ambiguous at phrase-end to the human ear. 163

Phrase B. Total number of phrase B variants and hybrids (Fig. 5.26): 14. Range of phrase B: G#5-D6 (one octave + tritone). Key intervals: perfect fourth, perfect fifth, and tritone leaps. Contour: due to the angular quality, a number of contours emerge depending on the variant—arch, bowl, descent, and zigzag. Timbre: a chip sound and a rattle (either slow and hollow sounding, which is delivered at a pulse rate of 9 per second, or rapid, which is delivered at a pulse rate of 38 per second). Hybrids: B8+A4 and B11+A6.

Figure 5.26. All variants and hybrids of phrase B in a pied butcherbird pre-dawn song. “CH” denotes a chip sound, “R” denotes a rattle, and “QR” denotes a quasi-rattle.

The longer tones are bell-like. The contour inversion in some variants (such as B1 versus B2) is remarkable, as is the slow hollow-sounding rattle seen in B4 and B14, which is replaced by a rapid rattle only during traffic noise. Every motif and gesture is a potential stopping point. The lack of a gap-fill in phrase B6 is rare and commands attention.

Phrase C. Total number of phrase C variants (Fig. 5.27): 5. 164

Range of phrase C: G#5 to G6 (major seventh). Key intervals: small intervals, often with a notable descending or ascending perfect fourth. Contour: zigzag. Timbre: quasi-rattle on longest tones. Hybrids: none.

Figure 5.27. All variants of phrase C in a pied butcherbird pre-dawn song. “QR” denotes a quasi- rattle.

No motif boundaries clearly present themselves. Variant C3 ends with a reference to phrase A in the descending leap. Other elements are reminiscent of other phrases, but the circled perfect fourth, interestingly presented both descending and ascending, is the defining aspect of this ephemeral phrase. Variants C3 and C4 contain a chord produced from both sides of the syrinx, allowing the one “voice” to rise a perfect fourth while the other rises a minor second.53 When delivered, it had a strangely ventriloquial quality, as if coming from another individual; since multiple occurrences of this phrase have this chord, it clearly comes from the one bird.

Phrase D. Total number of phrase D variants (Fig. 5.28): 4. Range of phrase D: D6 to C#7 (major seventh). Key intervals: a minor second and an ascending tritone. Contour: zigzag, often with step-wise motion filling the gap created by a leap. Timbre: quasi-rattle on longer tones Hybrids: none.

53 This double note is featured in Figure 4.1, example 8a. 165

Figure 5.28. All variants of phrase D in a pied butcherbird pre-dawn song. “QR” denotes a quasi- rattle.

The beginning of this phrase refers to the SLD2 motif, delivered on F6 E6, a half- step lower than normal. Whereas phrase C moves down from the F6 to the C6, phrase D moves upward from the F6 to the C#7. Otherwise, the step-wise motion of the two is similar; both rock stepwise back and forth until a leap is made in one direction or the other. The phrase can initiate on E6 and ascend to F6 or the reverse. The pitches F6 F6 C#7 are always delivered together, suggesting a motif boundary. The C7 gap-fill after the C#7 is particularly satisfying.

Phrase E. A single note is delivered. For reasons of pitch, it could belong to phrases A, C, D, or F, or it could be its own statement. It marks the broadcast space, perhaps akin to the human “ummm…”.

Phrase F. Total number of phrase F variants and hybrids (Fig. 5.29): 7. Range of phrase B: G5 to C#7 (one octave + tritone). Key intervals: a descending perfect fifth (or tritone) dominates otherwise small intervals. Contour: descent, occasionally two descents. Timbre: a slow, hollow-sounding rattle and an occasional chip sound. Hybrids: none.

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Figure 5.29. All variants of phrase F in a pied butcherbird pre-dawn song.

The chip sound recalls phrase B, as does the slow rattle—although this one is lower than phrase B’s rattle. Like most of the phrase types, phrase F seems reminiscent of the others. It begins like A but stalls on the D6 before dropping (usually) to a G5. Variants F5 and F7 indicate the descent can take place even without the motif involving the F6 pitches; variants F5 and F7 are also noteworthy for their continual downward descent involving three large leaps (circled), a rarity for pied butcherbirds.

5.2.3 A pre-dawn song considered as a whole There is something in an entire performance. The song begins and ends pianissimo; a gradual crescendo and subsequent decrescendo frame the song. The bird is a moderately powerful singer. The total range encompasses G#5 to D7, or one octave plus a tritone (compared to Two Tree’s two octaves plus a perfect fifth, from F#5 to C#8). The widest ascending leap is a major seventh (phrase F4/bar 131), compared with Two Tree’s octave plus a minor third; the widest descending leap is one octave (phrase B10/bar 141), compared with Two Tree’s two-octave leap. Although we have a sense of a central reference pitch in F6, the phrases exhibit a microtonal aspect, or at least not a 12-TET sensibility. These pitch deviations (marked with upward-pointing arrows) add to the song’s ephemeral quality. The use of rattles is much diminished in Macadam as compared Two Tree, and other timbral effects are limited to the chip and narrow portamentos.

The 555 phrases divide into five discrete major phrases and one minor phrase (Two Tree delivered nine major phrases for a total of 1123). Shifting motivic duration adds interest. Phrase contour, like Two Tree, is essentially zigzag in nature.

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The shortest phrase is 0.2sec. (bar 19/phrase E1), compared to Two Tree’s 0:4sec. The longest phrase is 3.1sec. (bar 48/phrase D2), compared to Two Tree’s 7.7sec.—a telling sign of the recombinatory ability and/or penchant of Two Tree. Only two hybrid phrases are formed, both variants of A+B. Hybrid phrases make up just 3% of the total (Fig. 5.30/Table 5.5), compared with 9% for Two Tree. The last main phrase (F) is introduced in bar 86, at 33:28 into the song (compared to bar 696, at 1:49:28 into the song for Two Tree). The last variant is delivered at 1:47:38 into the song—the penultimate phrase.

The mean phrase duration is 1.7sec. (compared to Two Tree’s 2.3sec.), while the mean inter-phrase interval is 10.0sec. (compared to Two Tree’s 7.9sec.). This would see a mean duration of sound-plus-silence at 11.7sec. (compared to Two Tree’s 10.2sec.). The singing rate is 555 phrases/108 minutes, or 5.14 per minute (compared to Two Tree’s 5.85 per minute). Two Tree is the more active bird, with a slightly higher rate of delivery and a song duration almost double that of Macadam (108 minutes versus 192 minutes).

Much of the motion is stepwise, a sort of doodling. Suddenly, our attention is drawn to the large leaps, more often falling than rising, although both are prevalent. Similar types of operations serve to vary the phrases of both Two Tree and Macadam, such as contrast, reduction, expansion, division, and substitution, but in a manner much diminished here. The components of Two Tree’s phrases and hybrids are readily apparent, whereas many of the phrases here seem subtly cut from the same cloth.

The transition versatility here is not that of the Two Tree song, where the immediate repetition of a phrase was extremely rare. Here, phrase A2 is often repeated (up to eight iterations) before moving to another phrase. The B4 variant is also relied upon, and a hierarchy of phrases does emerge due to repetition (Figure 5.30 and Table 5.5 below detail the ratio of phrase deliveries). Again, however, no apparent organisational or memory strategies are in evidence, and no predictable phrase ordering can be detected, on a small or large scale.

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Ratio of Phrase Delivery: Macadam Pre­dawn Long Song

7 6 5

4 1 2 3 3 4 1 5 6 7

2

Figure 5.30. Ratio of delivery for phrases: 1=A, 2=B, 3=C, 4=D, 5=E, 6=F, and 7=BA hybrids.

Table 5.5 Ratio of phrase delivery in a pre-dawn long song Ratio of phrase Phrase # of Deliveries delivery A 281 50.63% B 136 24.50% C 40 7.21% D 15 2.70% E 4 0.72% F 60 10.81% BA 19 3.42% Total 555 100.00%

No mimicry is noted. No species call is recorded, either separately or embedded in a song phrase, although the species call derivative (SLD2) is present. A species call was delivered once the recorder was turned off, and it was delivered on the pitches G7 F#7 F7. Gaps formed by leaps are filled most of the time (no obvious difference in ratio between rising and falling leaps is noted). The successive leaps in phrases F5 and F7 and the double note in phrase B4 are exceptional. The tone is consistent.

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I find no shared phrases between Two Tree and Macadam. It remains unclear whether the differences between the diurnal song and the pre-dawn song are wholly indicative of the aesthetics (or health, age, or other environmental factors) of two singers or if a portion of these disparities reflects separate principles of organisation and development between diurnal and pre-dawn song. The disparities are largely a difference of degree and not kind, such as the vastly higher number of hybrid phrases found in Two Tree and the more multiple iterations of phrases in Macadam. No significant timbral qualities in either bird make its identification as a pied butcherbird difficult based on voice alone. Other pre-dawn song from this immediate area was sought to improve sample reliability.

5.2.4 A pre-dawn song compared to other recordings from the area Here, again, although other song conventions are summarised, I take aim at a specific topic: what is the size of the neighbourhood for a shared phrase-type repertoire in the Alice Springs area? All bar numbers refer to the transcriptions in Appendix F, except when a notated comparison is introduced in a figure.

We begin with the most easterly bird on the Ross Highway, the bird at Ross River Resort (1. MD2007.10.16). This bird delivers phrases with wide leaps, both with and without portamentos. The song has a relaxed, delicate quality. Six phrase types and one variant are noted in a 1:16 excerpt of 11 phrases. Most of the phrase types begin with a short-long articulation, but it is not a match for pitch or interval with the typical F#6 F6. As we progress through the avian choir, a possibility begins to emerge: that there is a species preference for a slowly-delivered short/long articulation, and another species preference for a downward leap of a tritone or perfect fifth, and that these come together in this motif. The second half of phrase A suddenly shifts up an octave in register and is reminiscent of the species call. One bubbling rattle is present, along with a quasi-rattle, a chip sound, and a wow sound. No hybrid phrases are noted.

Thirteen kilometres west on the Ross Highway brings us to the turnoff to Trephina Gorge Bluff Campground. Birds were recorded here in 2006 and 2007. In 2007 (2.

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MD2007.10.5), the first two notes of phrase A/bar 1 are the SLD2 motif. This motif figures in several phrases (A, D, and E). Five phrase types and five variants are noted in a 1:12 excerpt of 15 phrases. The notes float across the dark campground; I am the only human listener. Rattles and quasi-rattles are delivered with finesse. A chip sound is present in one phrase.

In 2006 at the same Trephina Gorge location (3. MD2006.6.1), a bird delivers one similar phrase as in 2007 (2007: phrase F/bar 7 and 2006: phrase D/bar 4). It also employs the SLD2 motif, as did the 2007 bird. This rich, diversified song has twelve phrase types and eight variants in a 4:27 excerpt of 61 phrases. Rattles, quasi- rattles, and the wow sound figure more in the phrases of 2006 than 2007. A shift up an octave is reminiscent of the species call (phrase F/bar 6). Two hybrid phrases are noted (bars 5 and 15).

Travelling from the Trephina Gorge turnoff 49 kilometres west on the Ross Highway brings us to Jessie Gap (4. MD2007.10.1). This bird’s E phrase is similar to the A phrase of Macadam (bar 1, Figure 5.31 below, where a total of three similar phrases are summarised). The chip sound and downward leap of a fifth are also reminiscent of Macadam (bar 2, Figure 5.31); this is particularly remarkable in the Jessie Gap bird where the G#5 D6 leap is transposed up an octave and inverted to D7 G#6. Bar 3 (Figure 5.31) is a less close match, where the Jessie Gap bird appends the beginning of bar 1 with a different ending more reminiscent of Macadam’s F phrase. Another pied butcherbird can be heard in the background singing some similar and some different phrases. Eight phrase types and four variants are noted in a 1:48 excerpt of 17 phrases. A shift up an octave is reminiscent of the species call (phrase B/bar 2 of the transcription). Rattles are delivered on several frequencies, along with a quasi-rattle and a chip sound. No hybrid phrases are noted.

Emily Gap is seven kilometres further west (5. MD2007.8.33), where a bird delivers phrases bearing some similarity to those from Jessie Gap, as well as Macadam. The matches are not exact, and the phrase in bar 3 (Figure 5.31) fails to be a convincing match and is merely the closest example. Eight phrase types and four variants are noted in a 2:23 excerpt of 15 phrases. The first two notes of phrase C/bar 8 in the transcription are a variant the SLD2 motif; this bird delivers F#6 G6, an inversion. A short, dry rattle features in phrase B before it shifts up an octave, reminiscent of 171

the species call. Again we see elements of Macadam’s phrase A. Chip and wow sounds are present, along with a quasi-rattle. A number of hybrid phrases are built on modular components.

Figure 5.31. Phrases from three nearby birds (Ross/Stuart Highway, Emily Gap, and Jessie Gap) bear similarities but present no exact matches. “CH” denotes a chip sound, “W” a wow sound, “R” a rattle, and “QR” a quasi-rattle.

The year before in 2006 at Emily Gap (6. MD2006.6.11), the birds were vocalising less. Six phrase types are noted in a 1:31 excerpt of 6 phrases. Wide leaps are the only commonality with 2007. One rattle is present.

A further eight kilometres west brings us to the junction of the Ross and Stuart Highways (7. MD2007.12.35). This 2007 recording commenced where Macadam had sung in 2006, but this song perch was not in use. The closest singing bird was across the highway, and this one was recorded. It would likely be in the same territory as Macadam in the previous year. Five phrase types and two variants are noted in a 1:05 excerpt of 10 phrases. The first two notes of phrase B/bars 2 and 7 are the SLD2 motif (and in common with Macadam in the previous year). One rattle is present, along with a quasi-rattle. No hybrid phrases are noted. This could be the same individual as the previous year. Figure 5.32 details similarities.

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Figure 5.32. A comparison of 2006 and 2007 recordings from the junction of Ross and Stuart Highways, Alice Springs, tracking closest phrase matches in consecutive years. “R” denotes a rattle and “QR” a quasi-rattle.

An excerpt from Macadam in 2006 is included in the cartographic delineations (8. MD2006.7.7). This 2:45 excerpt sees 25 phrases delivered: eight phrase types and two variants are originally counted. Later analysis identifies only six phrase types and two variants; as was the case with the Two Tree analysis, increased familiarity with the material impacted on the conclusions.

The Alice Springs Telegraph Station (9. MD2007.13.2) is several kilometres away, just north of town. Here, an extended family of pied butcherbirds actively engage in song throughout the day. Four phrase types and two variants are noted in a 3:00 excerpt of 23 phrases of pre-dawn solo song. This bird sings the lowest note I have recorded for a pied butcherbird, a D#5; it sounds like a panpipe. Two phrases have rattles; a quasi-rattle, a wow, and a whoop (or woop) are also included in the timbral palette. Despite this bird’s technical accomplishments, scant variety is noted in the full hour-plus recording. No hybrid phrases are noted. Two other singing pied butcherbirds can be heard, one with similar phrases, another with completely different ones.

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Continuing north 65 kilometres, and then heading east for 70 kilometres on the Plenty Highway, one arrives at the artesian bore of Gemtree (10. MD2007.10.28). The terrain is barren and arid. Six phrase types and two variants are noted in a 1:12 excerpt of 15 phrases. Several pied butcherbirds are singing, and all are ventriloquial.54 Phrases are simple and have a modular quality. Some could have been formed from two birds overlapping. The first two notes of phrase C/bar 3 are an inversion of the SLD2 motif. One rattle is present, along with a quasi-rattle. The birds’ voices all have a hoarse-sounding, dry, and scratchy cast to them—not at all warm like most pied butcherbirds.

Back in the town of Alice Springs at the Araluen Arts Centre (11. MD2007.11.17), a bird contends with a considerable amount of traffic noise, even in the pre-dawn hours. Six phrase types and twelve variants are noted in a 6:15 excerpt of 45 phrases. The first two notes of phrase E/bar 7 are the SLD2 motif. Rattles figure in two phrase types. All phrases that do not commence with a rattle have a short note followed by a pause, or one long note, before introducing more complex rhythmic and melodic activity.

Heading west from Alice Springs on Namatjira Drive for 135 kilometres (12. MD2007.10.38), we arrive at Ormiston Gorge. Recordings over several years see most birds delivering variations on the SLD2 motif. In 2007 near the ranger’s residence, three phrase types and five variants including one hybrid are noted in a 1:00 excerpt of 14 phrases. One rattle is present, along with a quasi-rattle.

In a 2006 recording also near the ranger’s residence (13. MD2006.7.1), a number of phrases closely compare with the following year. Ten phrase types and six variants are noted in a 6:40 excerpt of 28 phrases. Several variants of the SLD2 motif are present, and this is the major overlap in all locations. An octave shift to a motif bearing resemblance to the species call occurs in phrase B/bar 8. One rattle is present, along with a quasi-rattle. Of particular note are four repetitions of a single pitch (an E6) in bar 16, rarely found in pied butcherbird song but present in Macadam’s B4 and B14 variants.

54 I walk back and forth trying to close in. Since there are only two stands of trees, I cannot be far from them. I never see the birds nor do I sense for my walking that I have lessened the distance between them and me. 174

At another Ormiston Gorge location in 2007 (14. MD2006.7.7), a bird delivers three simple and unchanging phrase types in a 1:02 excerpt of 13 phrases. The first two notes of phrase A/bar 1 are the SLD2 motif. A rattle and a quasi-rattle are present. No hybrid phrases are noted.

A kilometre or two away (15. MD2007.11.5), a bird employs five phrase types and four variants in a 0:59 excerpt of 16 phrases. Although some motives could be derivatives of the SLD2 motif, none are close enough to make a claim for. One rattle is present, along with a quasi-rattle, a tik, and a tok. Many of the phrases are modular, particularly bars 4-9.

A 1998 recording from another recordist (16. CD055.1) was likely made at or close to the previous Ormiston Gorge site. This exquisite soliloquy, delivered at 2:30 on a full moon night, has the sense that every note is perfectly chosen. The SLD2 is expanded to include three notes, the first of which is delivered as a two-note chord (a minor third). Rattles and quasi-rattles are present. A repeat of four notes again is reminiscent of Macadam’s variants B4 and B14. The 5:28 excerpt of 26 phrases includes five phrase types and five variants. All Ormiston Gorge songs tend to be spacious, almost sleepy; perhaps the birds are listening to their song echoing along the gorge walls.55 The composition Ormiston Gorge: A canonic manipulation in Chapter 6 is based on this bird and incorporates the recording.

Further west at Wattarka on Luritja Road (12. MD2006.5.23), three phrase types and two variants are noted in a 1:39 excerpt of 19 phrases. One rattle is present. No hybrid phrases are noted. The intervallic structure of this bird closely resembles that of Macadam, with numerous angular jumps of a perfect fifth, a tritone, or perfect fourth, although no phrases are matches.

South of Wattarka is Uluru National Park (13. MD2006.5.7), where a bird delivers three pre-dawn phrases without variety in a 1:32 excerpt of 13 phrases. The first two notes of phrase B/bar 2 are the SLD2 motif transposed up a third. One quasi- rattle is present. No hybrid qualities are noted. An Australian magpie is contesting broadcast space much of the time.

55 Organists must make similar allowances depending on the reverberation time in a cathedral. 175

To summarise (Fig. 5.33), in this group of Alice Springs and environs birds, we find the SLD2 active in the “trading zone” between groups. We find similarities in phrases with nearby birds, but no exact matches. We find similarities in phrases in the same location in consecutive years, but no exact matches. None of the pre-dawn phrases surveyed has any overlap with the individual Two Tree except the remnant of the descending motif that figures in other, completely different phrases in Magnetic Island birdsong in successive years. The group of pre-dawn singers from the Townsville area have no overlap with the group of pre-dawn singers from the Alice Springs area, except for those elements associated with the species call, including the SLD2 motif and the species call motif in song.

Wide # of porta- Bird phrs. # of # of mento SL Dbl. SC A # Location type variants hybrids leaps SLD2 artic R CH W T B note M IS S 1. Ross River Resort 6 1 0 X X X X X 2. Trephina Gorge 5 5 0 X X X X X X Bluff CG 3. Trephina Gorge 12 8 2 X X X X X X Bluff CG 4. Jessie Gap 8 4 0 X X X X 5. Emily Gap 8 4 3 X X X X X X X 6. Emily Gap 6 0 0 X X 7. Stuart/Ross 5 2 0 X X X X 2007 8. Stuart/Ross 8 2 1 X X X X X X 2006 9. AS Telegraph 4 2 0 X X X Station X 10 Gemtree 6 2 0 X X X 11. Araluen Arts 6 12 0 X X X Centre, AS 12. Ormiston 3 5 1 X X Gorge #1: Ranger’s Res. 13. Ormiston 10 6 0 X X Gorge #1: X Ranger’s Res. 14. Ormiston Gorge #2: Big 3 0 0 X X Tree 15. Ormiston Gorge #3: 5 4 0 X X Floodway 16. Ormiston Gorge, likely 5 5 0 X X X near #3 17. Wattarka 3 2 0 X 18. Uluru NP CG 3 0 0 X

Figure 5.33. A summary of all pied butcherbirds recorded in Alice Springs (AS) and environs. Ranger’s Res.=ranger’s residence; SLD2=short-long descending motif; SL artic=short-long articulation; R=rattle; CH=chip sound; W=wow sound; T=tok sound; B=bubbly sound; dbl. note=a two-note chord formed from notes delivered on both sides of the syrinx; M=mimicry; SC IS=species call in song; and A S=antiphonal song. Complete GPS location descriptions can be accessed in Appendix F. 176

5.3 Discussion Despite the optimistic scope of the survey, it is essentially exploratory in nature. I do not pretend to present an exhaustive account of the song of the pied butcherbird; there is much more to the story than space allows, and my fieldwork and analysis are ongoing. I mean simply to explore with a broad stroke the musical landscape of two pied butcherbirds and their nearby conspecifics. My particular curiosity concerns whether their vocalisations are improvised or part of an established orthodoxy. Some underlying conventions, while probably not fixed, must direct pied butcherbird song. A sure diagnostic for the bird is the species call. The second surest indicative is tone, described in detail in Chapter 2. The Australian magpie, grey butcherbird, and grey shrike-thrush are the only three species whose voice is close enough to cause confusion, and this is partially because the pied butcherbird can mimic them and, at least in the case of the first two, visa versa. The grey butcherbird’s voice is generally more staccato, higher in frequency, and more frantic (or less sedate) than a pied butcherbird. The magpie’s carolling is faster, more warbling, and less focused on discrete pitches than a pied butcherbird. Finally, the grey shrike-thrush possesses a melodious ringing voice, but it sings more repetitiously than a pied butcherbird.

Johnson and Crouch, respectively, each noticed changes in timbre and song type in their studies of pre-dawn song of the grey butcherbird (2003) and the white-plumed honeyeater (2001), which compounded bird identification in the dark. No identification difficulties were noted with pre-dawn breeding song of the pied butcherbird in this study. My diagnostic rule is that, tone and species call aside, pied butcherbird songs have the sense of a finely wrought phrase delivered from an ancient oral tradition. Their phrases embrace a concept of elegance. They are composerly, but with a twist: they often sound as if they are newly minted. They establish and then play with expectation by way of deviation and denial. Violations and interruptions occasionally thwart the orderly unfolding of a song. A regular delivery of symmetrical phrases is suddenly perverted with angular slivers of sound. Recombinations of known phrases begin to sound like de novo material. Nevertheless, some stylistic conventions and preferences for pied butcherbird song are understood and conformed to, whether inherited or learned; these are summarised in Figure 5.33. One notes that the species call exceeds the standard frequency range. Mimicry is omitted from this catalogue. 177

Parameter From… To… Phrase From 2-3 simple, unvaried phrases To up to 20 phrases plus copious repertoire: variants Pacing: From delivered slowly and deliberately To delivered in exuberant bursts Rhythm: From never sounds correct when placed To seems a reasonable facsimile into conventional notation in a when placed into a readable relatively simple rhythmic template rhythm and played back via music notation software Pitch: From never sounds correct when played To seems a reasonable facsimile back via music notation software in when played back via music 12-TET notation software in 12-TET Timbre: From rich and mellow, flute or organ- Scratchy (rare) but never consisting like, and melodious (common) of repetitive clicks Timbral From a few timbral effects, perhaps a To a plethora of rattles, whistles, effects: rattle or a quasi-rattle and other timbral manouevres Phrase rate of From 5 phrases per minute To 22 or more phrases per minute delivery: Rattle rate of From a pulse rate of 9 per second To a pulse rate of 50 per second delivery: Intervals: From a preponderance of minor and To a preponderance of big leaps major seconds Countour: From bowl, arch, and ascent To spiky and angular Range: From D#5 (very low) or more likely To A8 (very high) or more likely D7 from A5 Note shapes: From steady, fixed pitches To steep portamentos

Figure 5.34. A continuum of pied butcherbird song conventions and preferences.

Mimicry is excluded from Figure 5.34 because it crashes through each and every parameter. It varies from either diurnal or pre-dawn song more than the latter vary from each other. And yet, mimicry can occur in pre-dawn song or diurnal song or subsong—or not. The normal singing range spans an octave plus a perfect fifth, from A5 to D7; extremes of range stretch this to just over three octaves from D#5 to A8. The mimicry singing range covers nearly a four-octave span, from B4 to A8. While normal songs consist of segmented performances, in mimicry often we find no inter-phrase interval (the rate of delivery goes up to 30 per minute, and in one example a bird delivers 34 per minute); the bird might sing nearly nonstop for fifteen minutes or more (moto perpetuo).

In the face of these perplexities, my present goals are modest. First, concerning the number of song types and how to delineate their boundaries, it is not possible to reconcile the prevailing paradigm of “three types of song” with the data herein. Although Johnson is cited as one of two informants for the “three types of song” conclusion (Higgins et al., 2006: 522), her thesis on grey butcherbird song clearly indicates other categories present in that species and suggests that, based on her unpublished observations, the pied butcherbird could be similar (Johnson, 2003:

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322). She identifies day vocalisations, adult male breeding song, adult subsong, immature subsong, and quiet song (ibid., 291). No quiet song was noted in the process of this fieldwork, while the other categories could hold. Group day vocalisations would be a single category, but whether diurnal and pre-dawn individual solo song should be categorised separately is unclear. Neither has absolute purchase on any of the procedures for varying song described in the birds surveyed. Following pre-dawn singers into their daytime vocalisations would be essential in future research.

Secondly, although distributional analysis was undertaken, the data is only partially relevant. The ratio of phrase types offers pertinent information, but no reductive formula for the ordering of these various phrase types emerges. While there are obvious memory strategies for intra-phrase order, extra-phrase order presents no order on visual inspection and is likely subject to significant improvisation and invention. There could be a strategy that involves a preference for contrast of successive phrases without necessarily defining which phrase. How structure is relevant to the bird on a performance-as-a whole basis is inconclusive.

In interrogating pied butcherbird song types, song conventions, and rules of song succession, I sought numbers, absolutes—a code; I found tendencies, affinities--a continuum. Their vocalisations are open-ended and dynamic. Ball discusses music as an “acoustic, cognitive, cultural and aesthetic phenomenon” (2008: 160). Clearly the acoustic, cultural (learned), and aesthetic attributes are in place in pied butcherbird song. In analysing motif boundaries, I have shown that pied butcherbirds have a concept of melodic segmentation. They recognise and denominate the basic principles of melodic progression, such as repetition, deletion, augmentation, truncation, scission, substitution, imitation, and silence. It seems difficult to believe that cognition is lacking, given the numerous quotidian achievements observed in their shifting sound world.

In dealing with the thorny issue of animal cognition as it applies to aesthetics, Martinelli argues that we should entertain the most complex and sophisticated explanations until proven otherwise (2008). As discussed in Chapter 4, function and aesthetics are not mutually exclusive in any case. While I am not qualified to comment on animal cognition, I can weigh in on pied butcherbirds’ active musical 179

lives. Their songs seem to go far beyond what would be necessary for a registration of their continuing occupation of place and a way of passing along genetic code. The enhancements, whether subtle or bold, simple or complex, melodic or kinetic, while not conforming to all of the rules of human music, nevertheless sound musical to humans on our own terms. Musicality communicates.

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Chapter 6

Critical Reflection and Analysis

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Chapter 6

Literary nationalists have always been indignant with Adam Lindsay Gordon for referring, inaccurately, to Australia’s ‘bright birds’ as songless; yet it remains one of the cliché images of Australia that it is a vast, brooding, silent land. Silence is certainly one of the properties of any large, sparsely populated country and particularly of the remoter deserts. But much of Australia, including many of its outback areas, is anything but silent. Birds such as the white-backed magpie or the pied butcher bird are as capable of brilliant and beautiful melodic flights as their European counterparts, even though it might sound absurdly like patriotic boosterism run wild to say so (Covell, 1967: 6).

6.1. Aesthetic considerations and inclinations My compositions are genre-fluid, not for lack of ideological affiliation but precisely because the border territories between two, or three, traditions are charged with vitality. Composing is not about taking dictation from the heavens or capturing some magical essence. For a musical mind, the potential for inspiration is ubiquitous and not just found in “music.” Music is a way of approaching life as much as a learned set of skills. Inspiration does come, but more often material must be sought out. In this respect I see myself as a sonic explorer or archeologist and pied butcherbird song as a living fossil manifesting millions of years of culture.

My use of pied butcherbird material does not set out to improve on pied butcherbird song; thus, developmental method inherent in sonata form and other Western classical music procedures have little pertinence. Rather, the vocalisations of the pied butcherbird are celebrated more in keeping with their own stylistic conventions. Space is an essential aspect in music, as it is in the dawn chorus. Counterpoint is ideally suited to presenting several, even equal, voices in space. Therefore, the notion of counterpoint as natural state maintains a critical role in this work, as it does in the avian biosphere, and as it did in the mind and body (consider the pedals, stops, and multiple keyboards of an organ) of J. S. Bach, for example. Birds take each other’s stuff, use stuff, chop stuff up, re-stuff, and re- cycle—a natural continuum. Both species of Australian lyrebirds are arguably the world’s finest examples of this technique, and as we saw in Chapters 4 and 5, pied butcherbirds participate actively in mimicry as well. The natural world of bird can be slotted in both an ancient tradition and a postmodern one.

One way to describe my compositional relationship to the found material is that of filter. In the contemporary sonic environment of information overload, filtering is 182

akin to survival. I become filter. What I see, hear, think, and feel is cross-examined at a sensory level and, if accepted, takes its place in my personal musical language. Mapping one musical language onto another through filtering is a cross-species practice.

Initially, nothing in the primary thesis hinged on composition being a partner in the analysis process. In Chapter 4, the numerous overlaps between pied butcherbird and human musical conventions were surveyed. In Chapter 5, the flexible combinatorial power of their phrases was dissected. In this chapter, I expected merely to build on pied butcherbird phrases and conventions to support the composition portfolio. However, I also continue to interrogate issues of musicality in pursuing the thesis that a myriad of characteristics of pied butcherbird songs lend themselves to reframing within the human animal’s tradition. I internalise birdsong through composition and performance.

Bohlman casts the concept that music could exist in nature at the extreme end of a continuum, placing at the other end that music strives towards nature (1999: 23). The difference seems a moot point to both composers and listeners. Whether music sounds like nature or nature sounds like music (or whether both are extreme positions and that the only sensible conclusion lies somewhere in the middle, as far from nature as possible) is a theoretical circle game played by those who perhaps have not experienced a riveting dawn chorus.

I became convinced that transcription’s raison d’être is to illuminate birdsong, not to duplicate it. This portfolio of compositions does not strive to recapture or emulate nature. There is no attempt to create a pastoral character. I am simply uncovering and underlining compelling aspects of it. Whenever and wherever I encounter musicality, I am prepared to acknowledge it. Birdsong is authentic, ancient, original, untainted, exotic, primitivist—it is “other.”56 Fortunately, the romanticisation of nature or “other” is a superfluous apologia in the case of pied butcherbird songs. Their melodic, rhythmic, and timbral statements, whether

56 Music is considered an ideal subject for cognitive studies, but will the sample be polluted by global exposure to Western music? In light of the spreading musical monoculture, researchers are already ringing the alarm bell concerning whether will we be able to examine innate cognitive dispositions in the human animal (Huron, 2008: 456). 183

delivered by the bird or appropriated by composers, are sufficiently robust and remarkable without programme notes to prop them up and exoticise them. Another theoretical conundrum concerns whether there are “works” out there in nature waiting to be discovered, which re-stirs the “master composer” debate. Whilst it would be possible to perform the three-and-a-quarter hour Two Tree song, thereby focusing on structural issues, that is not attempted in this portfolio (it could be considered later as a marathon event). Partially since it is unknown what a “work” might be to a bird, lifting and presenting an avian “work” is problematical. Neither is improvising with birds my objective.57 Below are some notes on how birdsong is driving the compositional decisions. All compositions are paired with original field transcriptions at the end of this chapter for comparison purposes and linked to the original recording (itemised in the DVD under the rubric “Original fieldwork recordings with preliminary analysis”).

6.2 Compositions for improvisers For this set of compositions, I chose a group of instrumentalists who had skill in both reading and improvising. I imposed a constraint on the group of pieces: that the works would be for a solo instrument, so that the instrumentalist would have to “go out” the way a bird goes out into the dawn chorus, as one voice. Of course, birds seldom sing in a sound vacuum—there is the entire biophony unfolding—the bush orchestration, if you will. So, on occasion I allowed another instrument, bird, or cricket to participate. Questions of range and timbre also arise—will a pied butcherbird phrase sound as compelling two, three, or four octaves below its normal delivery range? Do we appreciate pied butcherbird vocalisations for their unique timbre, or could a bassoon bring it off with equal panache?

Writing compositions for improvising musicians opens up another area of contestation. In the 1960s it appeared that the processes of composing and

57 Powys was able to provoke an interspecies “jam session” with a group of pied butcherbirds: “Many years ago (probably about 1979), I was camped out at the Olgas [in Central Australia] on a painting expedition. Three pied butcherbirds were singing intermittent phrases while I was working on a painting. Each bird followed on from the last, just a few notes each. Every now and then I would whistle one of the parts and was amazed when the next bird chimed in on cue. The bird that missed out must have wondered what had happened!” (V. Powys, personal communication, 18 September 2008).

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improvising could merge with aleatoric works from Cage, conducted improvisations from Earle Brown, and mystic gatherings by Stockhausen in his text composition Aus den sieben Tagen (From the seven days) (1968), to name but a few. Influenced mainly by the commercial success of minimalism over the next decades, these ideas were dropped as part of the unpopular modernist bag. Recent years have seen a resurgence of improvisational and compositional combined options with the arrival of a number of musicians who are comfortable working in both camps.

Another issue in regard to the material and transformation process was a desire to go beyond the notion of simply “arranging” pied butcherbird song. Three composers’ arrangements of Bach take the original into uncharted territory: Bussoni (“Chaconne” for solo violin in D minor, after J. S. Bach, BWV.1004, arranged in 1892 for piano), Schoenberg (Prelude and fugue in E-flat major “St Anne” for organ, after J. S. Bach, BWV.552, arranged in 1928 for orchestra), and Webern (“Fugue [ricercare] in six voices” from The musical offering, after J. S. Bach, BWV.1079, arranged in 1935 as klangfarbenmelodie for orchestra). The new “compositions” stand on their own as unique musical experiences, a comparison to the Urstück unnecessary. Despite the following exegesis, my desire is that my compositions in any final analysis stand alone as music without programme notes.

6.2.1 Cumberdeen Dam V & T for bassoon, dedicated to

Joanne Cannon (based on CD003.9) Cannon is an accomplished classical bassoonist skilled in free improvisation. She is also a specialist in the production of multiphonics, where two or more notes are sounded at one time. I acquainted myself with bassoon multiphonics through study of her compositions and improvisations; from these, I chose for insertion into my composition those extended techniques where I heard a relevant use of the overtone series. I have relied on her notation and fingerings for all multiphonics.

Cumberdeen Dam V & T is a five-movement solo work that coalesces a number of genres that I have played in as a practising violinist. There is a conventional theme and variations, except that the theme comes in the middle movement rather than at the beginning. The bird upon which the work is based sings in rushed gusts of

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notes; the effect is anticipatory, like beats two-three of a Viennese waltz or beats two and four of an up-tempo bluegrass number. The angularity of the essentially five-bar phrases is appealing. One technique of the birdsong seems particularly familiar to the human ear: in what is conventional fare in works for solo instruments, two separate voices are implied by the octave or more spread between motivic segments and the qualitative difference between the lower and higher material. Octave displacement above and beyond the original birdsong figures in the work.

“Notturno” gives a nod to a jazz ballad the way it might be delivered by a saxophonist. “Capriccio” has an étude-like quality; the middle section (midway in bar 27) is improvised. A composed part is written for non-improvisers. “Tema” stays close to the original field transcription. Although the birdsong has inter- phrase intervals, most of them are swallowed up in “Tema,” allowing just enough time for the bassoonist to breath. This mimics the rushed feeling imparted by the bird. “Multifonica” is the breath that was not allowed in the previous movement. The meditation ends with a sudden fanfare of birdsong, just as at times in the quiet of pre-dawn or twilight, a pied butcherbird phrase will leap out of nowhere. “Toccata” is a blues étude. Both “Toccata” and “Capriccio” rely on canonic techniques such as inversion (both chromatic and diatonic mirror) and retrograde. The theme is treated, transposed, cut-and-pasted,58 and manipulated. A crucial consideration is that, despite the cut-up process, the ear can follow the clarity of the theme at all times, rather than becoming lost in a blur of notes.

6.2.2 Lamington Plateau for flute, dedicated to Jim Denley (based on CD048.5, CD048.7, and CD048.8) Denley is one of Australia’s foremost improvisers of new music. He has developed unconventional playing methods on both saxophone and flute and has improvised and recorded extensively in the bush and other natural settings. In order to take

58 My cut-and-paste “technique” is a multi-stage process. Various inversion and retrograde treatments are performed on the thematic materials, both in the original key and also in multiple transpositions. Then, a helter-skelter cut-and-paste of partial sections is conducted: I “grab” and relocate these snippets via the music notation program (Finale, in this case). Many get dropped mid- way into other phrases, rather than just pasted to the beginning or ending of a phrase. Then, the ear starts to winnow down what it prefers. Many trials are discarded or revised. 186

advantage of his abilities, I wrote “free” sections into the piece (his “freedom” was somewhat curtailed, since I specified the type of effects I wished) and notated several extended techniques as well.

An excerpt of this song features in Figure 4.28, under the rubric “Shape and balance.” As mentioned in Chapter 4, the phrases seem to play with balance—now predictable, now not. Concepts of musicality, at least for the human animal, involve repetition and variation, and neither can be too predictable or too chaotic. (Each style proposes its concept of “too.”) The one-movement work is closely based on the field transcription, with inter-phrase intervals reduced and some motives deleted. The pied butcherbird from Lamington Plateau is joined near the end of the transcription by a crimson rosella (Platycercus elegans), which delivers its bell-like motives an octave higher than normal pied butcherbird range. I give both parts to the flute, having him interrupt himself as it were. One of the rosella’s entrances (bar 72) is overdubbed in the studio, as is the cross-fade in bars 122-123. At bar 148, we discover that the rosella’s motif (D8Bb7 Bb7) is a match, although delivered an octave lower, for the first three notes of one of the pied butcherbird’s phrases. I suspect the butcherbird has lifted this motif from the rosella.

The field recording of this bird is a superb-quality recording. I imagined combining Denley’s recording of his part with the original tape of the bird, and while that possibility exists for the future, it is not the version herein. Denley elected to record outside his new bush residence in Mount Irvine, in the Blue Mountains of New South Wales. Replete with flies and wind, whipbirds, various parrots, and other birds, the sonic texture is sufficiently dynamic without adding the original bird to the mix. Denley turns the tables, mimicking the bird.

6.2.3 Works for double bass, dedicated to Mike Majkowski Majkowski, like Cannon and Denley, is an active free improviser, one of a number of exciting young players in the Australian improvising scene. The bass of Broken Hill (based on MD2006.5.6) is a solo work that sees Majkowski in a directed improvisation based on a pied butcherbird transcription. The phrases are short and

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the rhythm straightforward. Except for the range, on the page it looked like a bassline. Many of the phrases feel like they end on a weak beat, either on beat four or on the second of a pair of eighth notes, implying a jazz sensibility. In departing from the thematic material more than the bird, and in insistently repeating some phrases unlike the bird, the bird’s material is interrogated.

For Banana paper (based on MD2005.8.8), I asked the bassist to place of sheet of paper on the fingerboard to create a buzzing sound. Majkowski convinced me that plastic straws could be sliced and placed on the strings to even greater effect. This birdsong also sees many phrases end on weak beats. The piece relies on pied butcherbird motives and improvised sounds that were chosen both from Majkowski’s toolkit and from my imagination, recorded in no particular order, and then composed in the studio. A double bass with vibrating straws continues to ring out, encouraging abundant time to pass between phrases; a similar effect pertains as birdsong reflects along the walls of Ormiston Gorge in the next work.

Ormiston Gorge: A canonic manipulation (based on CD055.1-8) juxtaposes a transcribed bird (which begins in the bass) with a taped version of the source of the transcription. The “score” is the field transcription. We hear chirruping crickets and two (or possibly three) pied butcherbirds in pre-dawn song—one far to the left in the mix and one far to the right. They are singing largely from the same hymnbook. The cathedral is the dry riverbed of Ormiston Gorge, where birdsong has been echoing and reflecting off the gorge walls for millennia. The tape deliberately begins in a place other than when the transcription begins, to add to the canonic treatment. Once begun, the timing of both tape and instrumentalist are left untouched, to see what types of relationships might be provoked naturally without “cooking” the mix. This belongs to a tradition of improvisers subverting the multi- track studio by recording their part without listening to the tracks laid down by other musicians, thus providing synchronous material in the virtual space for an optional mix at a later time. The thematic material is built in part on the SLD2 motif described in Chapters 4 and 5. This is a classic pied butcherbird pre-dawn song, taking its time to unravel.

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Gowrie Creek (based on CD0011.1) is based on a group of absolutely simple pied butcherbird phrases. “Nothing terribly exciting,” wrote the recordist at the time.59 The phrases are brief, usually three or four notes, and oft-repeated, although occasionally a longer melodic statement is delivered. The bird is not given to improvisation. Somehow, I could not dismiss these wisps; they are earworms, if you will, compelling and catchy even in their simplicity. In keeping with this, and as a test of the motif-building ability of one pied butcherbird, I asked Majkowski to record them “plain vanilla.” The score is the transcription. A classic bass line emerged. Afterwards, violin virtuoso and free improviser Jon Rose added a violin commentary, also keeping his material spare. A very simple musical statement requires that it be a good one. These short phrases are transparent, with nothing to hide them.

6.3 Black and white miniatures for video and toy piano The quest for diverse ways of grappling with absolutely spare motives continues in this set of three pieces for video and toy piano. Two of the three movements are based on pied butcherbird themes from the location of the film. Because of the limitations of range inherent in the toy piano, it seems a fitting instrument to interrogate and highlight the potential constraints of another small black and white musical “instrument,” the pied butcherbird.

1. “Pied butcherbird, Magnetic Island” (based on MD2007.1.1 and MD20077.1.12). In 1770 Captain James Cook sailed past Magnetic Island and named it, believing the island had a magnetic force interfering with his compass. The only arid island in the Great Barrier Reef, Magnetic Island boasts 23 bays and beaches. Horseshoe Bay lies at road’s end, where a half-hour walk down the beach and in towards the massive granite cliffs and hoop pines in the dark of night put me in place for the pre-dawn song of this pied butcherbird. Here, the isolated resident has taken to feeding her pied butcherbirds (either by cutting open a rotting tree, thus supplying the birds with white ants, or offering a morsel from her kitchen). The birds in return supply her with song, or at least from her point of view that is how the trade

59 The full comments of recordist Gloria Glass on this bird’s song are on deposit in Appendix H, CD number 011. 189

works.60 The film was made in her garden, and the motives also come from Magnetic Island. The treatment of the pied butcherbird material is fragmented, with spaces, much like its natural delivery.

2. “Distressed piano, Central Australia” (based on MD2006.7.1). The ancient Finke “River” is often just a dry riverbed connecting a string of waterholes in parched Central Australia. It cuts through the Glen Helen Gorge in the West MacDonnell Ranges. The towering red gorge walls provide a striking backdrop to a distressed piano abandoned to all weathers, where daytime temperatures can exceed 40 degrees Celsius before the desert night turns frigid. No bird was recorded at Glen Helen; eleven kilometres distant is Ormiston Gorge, where this theme was recorded on a moonlit night in the spring of 2006 (eight years after the material for Ormiston Gorge: A canonic manipulation, the piece for double bass described above). The distressed piano provides an ostinato to the toy piano’s exploration of the theme, including the SLD2 motif referred to in Chapters 4 and 5.

3. “Ping-pong” (based on MD2006.5.2 and CD003.1). The accompanying recording features a MIDI file of a glockenspiel, chosen both for its similar timbre to a toy piano and the microtonal flavour present in both the glockenspiel and the songs of these two birds. For the live staging of the piece, a toy piano should be utilised, and the pianist is directed to throw ping-pong balls continually into the audience with the free hand. This casual theatre outcome can involve more than the number of ping-pong tosses listed, and only the timing of the first one (which accompanies the fall of the first onscreen ping-pong ball in the film) is crucial.

The two pied butcherbird songs upon which this is based both possess a tripartite sense; although the first song consists of two phrases, they are delivered A+A+B. Thus, the phrases circle round and repeat, like the ping-pong balls in the film. Subtle angularity in phrase length or phrase numbers continues to be a haunting part of why pied butcherbird themes seem musical to me.

60 Personal communication from D. Turnbull is on deposit in Appendix H, CD numbers 079-084. 190

6.4 Compositions for strings The organic unity of a string quartet (two violins, viola, and cello) is historically compelling for composers, and particularly for a violinist/composer. Two long works explore this genre.

6.4.1 Pied butcherbird suite for string quartet (based on MD2006.2.24 and 26) This four-movement suite was written for string students at the University of Newcastle. All movements derive from the duet recorded on Booth Road in Brookhill, near Townsville (presented in Figure 4.33). The duet is based on four pitches, an F ascending a minor third to an Ab, then falling a tritone to a D and on down to a C. The four tones form a D minor seven, flat five chord (Dm7 b5). The tension created by this dominant shape is partially stabilised in the repetition. The limitation to four notes (at least structurally) is a challenge to both bird and human. When something this simple connects, it can be powerful.

“Batá fourths: Brookhill” places the theme in a contrapuntal context with reference to Afro-Cuban rhythms. The traditional Yoruba batá rhythm (Mauleón-Santana, 1999: 130) serves as inspiration. A Latin jazz feel, as found in piano montunos, is added with the use of fourths based on a dominant thirteenth chord. Rather than settling for a simple dominant function, the chord sees constant transposition to add a piquant feel. “Tag” is a canon. “Waltz with tree frogs” was inspired by two tree frogs whose nocturnal vocalisations subtly shift in and out of sync with each other. “Butch” relies on an essentially unison effort and is a homage to the often boldness and brashness of pied butcherbird song delivery. As an option, the suite can be performed with the field recording in the background.

6.4.2 Bird-Esk for string quartet (based on MD2008.3.30, MD2008.4.2-5, and MD2008.4.7-9) Bird-Esk is the major composition in the portfolio. Much of the analysis in this and preceding chapters has attended to melody at the expense of rhythm. However, pied

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butcherbird vocalisations often boast a compelling rhythm and raw energy reminiscent of certain jazz styles. Lively syncopations and phrase endings on weak beats are common in their sound repertoire. Equating pied butcherbird song with jazz could be considered by the scientific academy as the ultimate anthropomorphic finger click; this, however, is how I hear it. Since my previous works for strings focus on issues of rhythm and bowing, from dance forms and compound meter to how classical players can appropriate extended techniques from non-traditional styles of music in order to enhance their rhythmic vitality, swing, and musicality, I wanted this major work to build on pied butcherbird themes particularly suitable for rhythmic exploration. I found such material in the pied butcherbirds from Esk, Queensland.

In the autumn of 2008, dawn chorus and later diurnal participation by the Esk birds (perhaps eight or ten in number) consisted of overlapping duos, trios, or larger groups, with participation (to these ears) sometimes loosely timed. I followed the birds around a several-block radius, recording everything possible. After transcribing their vocalisations, I made a rule for this composition: I would take every notated phrase, and I would take each in the order it had been delivered. I also accepted the original pitches, making adjustment for octaves as the various string instruments required. There is nothing particularly “scientific” about the order, and it is not for that reason that I applied this constraint. The next morning, phrases and their order could well have varied. (While I suspect diurnal phrases have sequential rules, this remains an intriguing area for future study.) The various constraints were imposed to maintain as close identification with the morning’s vocalists as possible. The impulse by which the birds make their sonic interjections is not for the knowing, but I wanted to engage with the socio-musical interaction to the degree where I could identify as a musician in the discourse—if I was a butcherbird, I might make my entry here.

String players are occasionally called upon to perform a passage col legno—literally, “with wood.” One simply turns over the bow and strikes or bounces on the strings with wood instead of hair. However, there is a general reluctance by string players to perform col legno passages, and with good reason, since the stick will inevitably get minor nicks in it. While this does not impair the bow for future use, it can

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devalue the bow’s worth. For this reason, I ask the quartet to employ an extended technique: a drumstick. The sound is louder and more resonant.

A five-page, annotated field transcription of the recordings is paired with the score to Bird-Esk. Each bar in the transcription, however short or long, is given a letter; these are assigned in alphabetical order. If the phrase is antiphonal and figures on two staves, the top staff is given the number 1, even if that bird entered second. When successive phrases resemble one another very closely, they are given the same letter but with the suffix “.1” to indicate the first of several similar to come, “.2” to indicate the second of two, and so on. When letters run out, I commence with double letters and continue the system (thus “A” is not related to “AA”). Two staves are often filled, since the song is antiphonal. Usually I was able to parse out which bird sang what; I noted those few occasions when I felt unsure. (Since this does not pretend to be a “scientific” parsing out of antiphonal material, the matter is not pertinent to the discussion in any case.)

Annotations on the score are boxed and do not feature in the musician’s prescriptive score. Letters/numbers link to the field transcription. In this manner, the reader can trace the placement and development of each motif. When relevant, a few words are added with the letters/numbers, such as “J1 transposition,” “M inversion,” and “CC2 augmentation.” The overwhelming amount of the material derives directly from my transcription of the Esk pied butcherbirds. They craft their diurnal motives so they work well against one another, particularly in matters of pitch.

There is scarcely any “original” material. The furthest afield I venture is in bars 159-167, where the interval of a tritone prevalent in some phrases is elaborated upon. This is the exception. When looking back on this analysis cum composition, I find the best material comes directly from the birds themselves.

Perhaps as a result of many birds re-working a motif, pied butcherbirds craft elegant solutions. Fiddle music is another case in point. Hoedowns are archetypal violin music. Honed for generations by many a hand and ear without wearing out, adjusting here and there at the edges, they fit the instrument like a glove. With many hoedowns, one marvels at the turn of phrase. It is perfect, even though that

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essence of perfection has been turned from one shape subtly into another over generations.

6.5 Discussion Can this portfolio be considered original composition in a Western music sense? It is not à l’oiseau-lyre—mimicry in avian, or human, terms, although transcription has increased my understanding and empathy for the subject matter. No one listening to these compositions believes they are hearing an actual bird sing.

Again, a fitting model is the anonymous fiddle tune. A tune is not owned; it is part of a common creative instinct that has existed for as long as there has been music, certainly prior to current debates concerning the internet and copyright. In the conventions and evolution of music, the musician contributes and hands on the baton.

Where would the Western canon be without pillage from the oral tradition, whether it be Turkish marching music in Mozart’s rondo “Alla Turca” (the third movement of Sonata K.331, 1783), plainsong in Beethoven’s Missa Solemnis Op.123 (1823), folksong in Brahms’s Hungarian Dances (1869), or a Shaker tune in Copeland’s Appalachian Spring (1944)? Who owns the rights to the 12-bar blues and the consequent pop and rock tunes? When Coltrane improvises on “My favorite things” for fourteen minutes (1961), who has the greater claim—the saxophonist or Rogers and Hammerstein? Originality is a misnomer, with most music, including that of pied butcherbirds, being a product of copy, cut-and-paste, and building on the past. Only in the last few hundred years of Western music do we move away from participatory music and conspire with another paradigm—the commodification of music and its attendant attitudes towards authorship, ownership, marketing, branded events, copyright, and royalties, all made possible by the “master composer” channelling prestigious products. Music has become “aesthetic capital” (Cook, 1998: 30). Of course, I will be copyrighting my compositions based on pied butcherbird song. In this respect, my work as a musician lies within the Western tradition.

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My motivation in tapping this birdsong was purely personal. The acoustical constructs of this species seemed extraordinary to me. Upon arriving at the compositional stage, I thought I had left behind empirical aspects of the research. I emerged from the process with the unexpected realisation that composition is the final (and compulsory) piece of my analytical toolkit in interrogating the vocalisations of the pied butcherbird. Moreover, as sonic explorer, sonic filter, and then composer, if for a moment here and there I had the conceit that I had improved upon their phrases, I more often had the sense that it was they who had improved me as a musician.

The remainder of this chapter includes the portfolio of scores composed as part of this research project. This precedes my concluding comments in Chapter 7.

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Chapter 7

Conclusion and Future Directions

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Chapter 7

To treat music as an abstract symbolic code is to accept the suggestions of arbitrariness and abstractness that come with the word “code.” To work toward deciphering music in this sense is, as Pierre Bourdieu says, “to forget that the work of art always contains something ineffable…” (Walser, 1991: 118).

7.1 Key questions In this final chapter, I review the questions I have raised and addressed, the answers the birds have revealed, and what with time I yet want to accomplish.

7.1.1 Key questions from Chapter 1 • Is musicality a capacity Homo sapiens shares with birds? • Would a human get into the pied butcherbird sound world? • Is music uniquely human activity? I openly challenged the limits of music, not theoretically but empirically, by cataloguing the vast and varied acoustical constructs of the pied butcherbird. While it was not within the province of this inquiry to probe matters of function, it is clear that these complex sound forms, at least on the surface, overlap human music and musical behaviour in a myriad of intriguing examples.

7.1.2 Key questions from Chapter 2 • Why do composers bother with birdsong? • Is the study of birdsong best left to biologists or musicologists? Although this work is grounded in the music academy, I maintained a double entry, reading widely in both biology and musicology, and requiring that both fields inform the inquiry. I critiqued both biologists and musicians by indicating how the vocalisations of the pied butcherbird benefit from a study informed by both fields. The study points to a zoömusicological approach, one that recognises the aesthetic content of birdsong (long attractive to composers but problematic for the science academy) and that builds on tools and theory, however critically, from biology and musicology.

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7.1.3 Key questions from Chapter 3 • Where and how do I find/make pied butcherbird recordings? • What are the benefits and limitations of music notation and sonograms? • What sort of data analysis will provide new knowledge and not just new numbers? Due to the uniqueness of this approach, no research model existed. I developed methods, procedures, and techniques to solve problems such as how to find extant recordings of pied butcherbirds; how and where best to record pied butcherbirds; how to identify a pied butcherbird by voice alone; and how to document recordings in the field and after-the-fact. The design and use of conventional music notation with sonographic analysis and summary worksheets struck a balance between making images and counting numbers.

7.1.4 Key questions from Chapter 4 • Why does the pied butcherbird devote effort in crafting notes that are so acoustically complex? • Is singing for a bird a self-rewarding activity? • Why increase predatory risk expending an extravagant amount of energy on song? • Why would a bird transgress its species-specific sounds with mimicry? The degree of complexity and elaboration detailed in this chapter indicate that pied butcherbird vocalisations go well beyond what is necessary for survival and reproduction, suggesting yet again the presence of aesthetic appreciation. (Key new knowledge is itemised below in section 7.2.) No answer is proposed for the conundrum of why such an “original” singer as the pied butcherbird resorts to mimicry; instead, a series of new questions were posed, suggesting this is an area in need of further research.

7.1.5 Key questions from Chapter 5 • How does a diurnal long song differ from a pre-dawn one, if at all? • What is the size of the neighbourhood for a shared phrase-type repertoire? • What are the underlying conventions of pied butcherbird song? 291

Questions on repertoire diversity and survival of song phrases drove this chapter. This marks a rare inquiry into avian long songs, and I distilled a considerable amount of data in the process. The results indicate a low survival rate for song phrases and an extremely low rate of phrase matching species-wide, particularly in pre-dawn song.

7.1.6 Key questions from Chapter 6 • Will a pied butcherbird phrase sound as compelling two, three, or four octaves below its normal delivery range? • Do we largely appreciate pied butcherbird vocalisations for their unique timbre, or could a human instrumentalist perform their phrases with equal panache? • Is the appropriation of pied butcherbird phrases in composition an end to itself, or could there be an analysis component inherent in the act? • Can this portfolio be considered original composition in a Western music sense? The portfolio continues the work begun in Chapters 4 and 5—that of underlining the musicality, in human terms, of pied butcherbird phrases. Composition is the final (and compulsory) piece of the analytical toolkit for interrogating their vocalisations. Originality in music is situated as a fossil of the eccentric genius composer mindset, with most music, including that of pied butcherbirds, being a product of copy, cut-and-paste, and/or building on the past.

7.2 Specific new contributions The Australian Aboriginal names for the pied butcherbird (Cracticus nigrogularis) and the more generic butcherbird (Cracticus), in Figures 2.8 and 2.9 respectively, collate names from diverse sources. Whether an onomatopoeic basis for a majority of the pied butcherbird entries emerges, suggesting that the species call was the basis for naming, is inconclusive.

Vocal behaviours not previously noted by ornithologists were recorded, and the following are believed to be new contributions to this area:

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1. The identification of a species call that is stereotyped across the continent and a diagnostic for the species.

2. The documentation of the species call placed in song in a novel context, often with transposition.

3. The mapping of the SLD2 motif throughout Australia and the proposal that it also has roots in the species call, as well as pointing to a potential species- wide articulation/rhythmic preference for “short-long.”

4. The cataloguing of a multitude of overlapping items between pied butcherbird vocalisations and human music.

5. The documentation of a rare case of mimicry in pre-dawn song. This was delivered in full voice.

6. The documentation of a rare case of a duet delivered in the context of a pre- dawn song.

7. The identification of examples of appropriation of other species of birds and environmental sounds placed into pied butcherbird phrases (rather than into mimicry cycles).

8. The confirmation of ventriloquism in pied butcherbird song.

9. The detailing of a duet involving similar contributions from both birds, including one motif transposed up an octave.

10. The collation of a mimicry masterlist (Fig. 4.33-4.34), drawn from a number of sources and appended by this research, which adds 12 bird species to this list, plus six probable new bird species and a frog, as well as credible mimicry of a human voice, a telephone bell, and the meow of a cat.

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11. The recording of a continuous three-and-one-quarter hour diurnal song by a bird.

12. The recording of continuous pre-dawn long songs by over 25 birds.

13. The mapping of acoustic geographies of difference in the song of the pied butcherbird, indicating that phrases are in a constant state of change.

14. The problematising of “three song types” through detailed comparisons of diurnal and pre-dawn song.

15. The documentation that pied butcherbirds sing actively in the autumn, at least in southern and central Queensland.

16. The presentation of a continuum of pied butcherbird song variety (Fig. 5.33) summarising basic stylistic conventions.

17. The outline of the sheer scale of musical invention and melodic variety from bird to bird.

18. The illumination that composition is not merely a consumer of birdsong but also a correlate in the analytical process; composition both is and brings new knowledge.

19. A portfolio of new compositions.

7.3 Future directions In this last section, I want to gather thoughts on significant issues that have arisen and highlight several possible directions for future research. Any discussion of the future implies that there is more to be discovered. Although new knowledge has been contributed, I have not “cracked the code.” I am grateful not to have found a key to the pied butcherbird sound world, because this “failure” works to prove the thesis. That is, it has been shown that their music, while often tied to function like the human musical experience in some places and times, nevertheless surpasses 294

mere functionality, demonstrating an extraordinary level of complexity and plasticity of vocabulary.

The nature of a discussion depends on the scope of the questions posed. I could have framed this study solely in terms one or two long songs. Since this is the first systematic study of their vocal behaviour, I have chosen instead to explore the broad phenomenon of pied butcherbird vocalisations across the years and the country. What follows are areas that warrant further investigation.

The spring is the only time to record pied butcherbird pre-dawn song, but diurnal song is active in the autumn. Thus, autumn recording could be dedicated to issues cogent to diurnal song. The birds appear to cycle through a number of phrases. Are there sequential rules for diurnal song, and if so, do these rules shift through a period of hours, days, or weeks?

Further studies could shed light on whether duets make use of entirely separate material or whether motives from solo songs are converted into duets (or vice versa). The greatest difficulty in the analysis of duets and antiphonal group song is parsing out the part that each bird has contributed. Filming the birds in question would diminish this difficulty, as well as shed light on how visual patterns relate to singing behaviour. Human music owes a debt to dance and visa versa, and a collective examination of pied butcherbird vocalisations and body comportment seems crucial in future work.

Various song types (territorial versus courtship interactions, duets versus solo song) could be studied to see if affective content is carried in one parameter more than another, such as if rhythm changes while other parameters remain more constant (C. Scharff, personal communication, 19 August 2008). Related and equally significant studies would investigate whether motives from pre-dawn songs are employed in solo diurnal song, or whether a diurnal pool supplies material for pre- dawn solo song.

The sonic geographies of difference project begun in the two main study areas, Townsville/environs and Alice Springs/environs, could be continued in these locations, or commenced elsewhere. As rates of seasonal and annual survival of 295

song phrases are tracked, insight might also be shed into how new phrases are formed and transmitted through location and time as well as the relation between individual variability and the fixity of species preferences.

Do songs and elements of them contain coded information being passed on by the species? The calls, of course, have informational content, but are there messages in songs that could be decoded? Such a topic is vast and provocative:

Obviously, the study of an animal species cannot be exhaustive. Just as the best singers are at the same time those in whom one finds the greatest individual variations, one must have access to numerous hours of recordings of a great number of different individuals, throughout their entire habitat, in different season and over many years. It is not surprising that the number of species for which this kind of work has been done remains minuscule. Generalisations still depend largely on the familiarity of the describer with the species described, which presumes a whole life devoted to its study and observation (Mâche, 1983/1992: 98).

Clearly, a sustained effort is required. While I have discovered musicality in pied butcherbird songs, the scope of their functionality beyond survival utility or reproductive opportunity is as yet unknown. For example, Horn has suggested further study of the species call is warranted to determine if the birds revise the call based on the context in which it is placed in the song (A. Horn, personal communication, 11 November 2005). Should they transpose it up when particular tones precede or follow it, this could represent a contextual modification, which “would be of great interest to linguists in particular, since it would suggest a level of syntax routine in humans but (arguably) absent in other animals” (Horn, ibid.). Additional recordings of diurnal song could shed light on this topic.

If, in this inquiry, greater attention has been paid to certain geographical areas than others, and to certain vocal behaviours than others, this indicates what I acknowledge to be the limitations of the inquiry rather than a lack of commitment and wonder concerning them. Attempting to get a continent-wide grasp on the enormous complexity of pied butcherbird vocal culture is made even more daunting since it is constantly changing. Western Australia is home to a large population of pied butcherbirds and yet my sample size for recordings there is disproportionately small, making it a potential candidate for fieldwork. Whatever the future locations

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and modes of inquiry, the exigencies of a large-scale project such as this require that the data and methods of analysis be consistently, meticulously, and thoroughly documented. Such has been the objective of this study.

7.4 Conclusion Part of the essence of being a pied butcherbird is song. They have a keen interest in sound patterns and take pains to develop skill in their production. Although it can include mimicry of a sonic event from a human source, their song is not sullied by commerce. It has survived contamination by the culture industry. As we hurtle towards a reductive global culture, their vocalisations enjoy authenticity, “the cultural ideal” (Nettl, 1983: 318). Their songs are sonic heirlooms that look back to human pre-history and look forward: their melodic inventions are dynamic, in a state of flux and constant repositioning. Variations are found at all levels of organisation. Many components from their rich and nuanced repertoire are subject to recasting, some via elaborate strategies that seemingly overreach biological necessity. This panoply of recombining, varying, and inventing mechanisms causes me to believe that aesthetic statements are being delivered and that the birds appreciate this in their way. “If invention can reveal itself as being as important in the individuals of other species as in man, it is time to get rid of the image (three centuries old) of animal-machines” (Mâche, 1983/1997: 157). Pied butcherbirds— on the continuum from automatons to science experiments to fellow musicians— where will we place them?

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TOWARDS A SPECIES SONGBOOK: ILLUMINATING THE VOCALISATIONS OF THE AUSTRALIAN PIED BUTCHERBIRD (CRACTICUS NIGROGULARIS)

Hollis Taylor

PART TWO

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A:

NOTATION OF A DIURNAL LONG SONG FROM MAGNETIC ISLAND

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PHRASES OF A DIURNAL LONG SONG FROM MAGNETIC ISLAND SEGMENTED BY TYPE

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SUPPLEMENTARY ANALYSIS OF A DIURNAL LONG SONG FROM MAGNETIC ISLAND

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SUPPLEMENTARY ANALYSIS OF A DIURNAL LONG SONG FROM MAGNETIC ISLAND: TWO TREE

Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 1. A 2. B 3. C Tr.1/45 00:22.0 00:01.5 00:13.7 0:00:37.2 4. D 00:37.2 00:01.7 00:10.9 0:00:49.8 5. D 00:49.8 00:02.5 00:13.3 0:01:05.6 6. B 01:05.6 00:02.0 00:23.2 0:01:30.8 7. C 01:30.8 00:01.5 00:11.3 0:01:43.6 8. E 01:43.6 00:01.2 00:11.5 0:01:56.3 9. A 01:56.3 00:01.7 00:06.8 0:02:04.8 10. D 02:04.8 00:01.7 00:07.2 0:02:13.7 11. B 02:13.7 00:02.0 00:07.0 0:02:22.7 12. DB 02:22.7 00:01.7 00:06.7 0:02:31.1 13. B 02:31.1 00:01.1 00:08.2 0:02:40.4 14. D 02:40.4 00:01.9 00:09.2 0:02:51.5 15. B 02:51.5 00:02.2 00:06.3 0:03:00.0 16. B 03:00.0 00:01.1 00:04.9 0:03:06.0 17. E 03:06.0 00:02.3 00:08.0 0:03:16.3 18. D 03:16.3 00:02.4 00:07.6 0:03:26.3 19. F 03:26.3 00:00.8 00:01.8 0:03:28.9 20. E 03:28.9 00:01.6 00:07.8 0:03:38.3 21. B 03:38.3 00:01.1 00:06.4 0:03:45.8 22. D 03:45.8 00:01.8 00:08.6 0:03:56.2 23. G 03:56.2 00:02.2 00:06.4 0:04:04.8 24. C 04:04.8 00:01.4 00:08.1 0:04:14.3 25. B 04:14.3 00:02.2 00:06.0 0:04:22.5 26. D 04:22.5 00:02.1 00:06.9 0:04:31.5 27. H 04:31.5 00:02.1 00:06.8 0:04:40.4 28. D 04:40.4 00:02.0 00:07.6 0:04:50.0 29. B 04:50.0 00:01.1 00:04.0 0:04:55.1 30. E 04:55.1 00:02.0 00:05.8 0:05:02.9 31. D 05:02.9 00:02.2 00:07.0 0:05:12.1 32. B 05:12.1 00:02.1 00:07.7 0:05:21.9 33. B TR.2/45 00:03.8 00:01.8 00:08.2 0:05:31.9 34. I 00:13.8 00:01.7 00:06.6 0:05:40.2 35. A 00:22.1 00:02.0 00:07.0 0:05:49.2 36. D 00:31.1 00:02.0 00:06.0 0:05:57.2 37. E 00:39.1 00:03.0 00:06.0 0:06:06.2 38. D 00:48.1 00:01.9 00:08.2 0:06:16.3 39. I 00:58.2 00:01.7 00:06.5 0:06:24.5 40. E 01:06.4 00:01.7 00:10.0 0:06:36.2 41. G 01:18.1 00:01.9 00:06.7 0:06:44.8 42. C 01:26.7 00:01.4 00:07.3 0:06:53.5

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Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 43. B 01:35.4 00:01.1 00:05.9 0:07:00.5 44. B 01:42.4 00:02.1 00:06.1 0:07:08.7 45. D 01:50.6 00:02.9 00:06.0 0:07:17.6 46. H 01:59.5 00:02.1 00:06.9 0:07:26.6 47. A 02:08.5 00:01.9 00:06.4 0:07:34.9 48. D 02:16.8 00:02.2 00:08.0 0:07:45.1 49. I 02:27.0 00:01.8 00:07.1 0:07:54.0 50. E 02:35.9 00:03.5 00:07.0 0:08:04.5 51. D 02:46.4 00:02.2 00:07.5 0:08:14.2 52. C 02:56.1 00:02.1 00:05.6 0:08:21.9 53. D 03:03.8 00:02.8 00:08.8 0:08:33.5 54. B 03:15.4 00:02.2 00:12.3 0:08:48.0 55. E 03:29.9 00:05.1 00:05.4 0:08:58.5 56. D 03:40.4 00:02.0 00:06.6 0:09:07.1 57. H 03:49.0 00:02.2 00:05.7 0:09:15.0 58. C 03:56.9 00:01.6 00:05.8 0:09:22.4 59. D 04:04.3 00:02.0 00:07.3 0:09:31.7 60. B 04:13.6 00:02.1 00:08.2 0:09:42.0 61. H 04:23.9 00:02.4 00:05.4 0:09:49.8 62. E 04:31.7 00:02.0 00:04.8 0:09:56.6 63. D 04:38.5 00:02.6 00:07.2 0:10:06.4 64. A 04:48.3 00:02.1 00:06.2 0:10:14.7 65. C 04:56.6 00:01.5 00:08.4 0:10:24.6 66. H 05:06.5 00:05.1 00:08.0 0:10:37.7 67. E Tr.3/45 00:05.5 00:04.8 00:09.2 0:10:51.7 68. I 00:19.5 00:02.0 00:06.3 0:11:00.0 69. E 00:27.8 00:02.0 00:06.7 0:11:08.7 70. D 00:36.5 00:02.2 00:09.1 0:11:20.0 71. E 00:47.8 00:02.0 00:08.5 0:11:30.5 72. DA 00:58.3 00:03.0 00:05.1 0:11:38.6 73. D 01:06.4 00:02.7 00:06.6 0:11:47.9 74. E 01:15.7 00:02.7 00:05.9 0:11:56.5 75. I 01:24.3 00:01.7 00:07.6 0:12:05.8 76. H 01:33.6 00:05.5 00:07.7 0:12:19.0 77. B 01:46.8 00:01.2 00:04.6 0:12:24.8 78. D 01:52.6 00:02.4 00:06.1 0:12:33.3 79. B 02:01.1 00:01.1 00:05.4 0:12:39.8 80. D 02:07.6 00:02.7 00:12.1 0:12:54.6 81. H 02:22.4 00:01.7 00:06.0 0:13:02.3 82. A 02:30.1 00:02.0 00:07.6 0:13:11.9 83. D 02:39.7 00:01.8 00:06.2 0:13:19.9 84. B 02:47.7 00:02.3 00:06.6 0:13:28.8 85. H 02:56.6 00:01.6 00:07.0 0:13:37.4 86. B 03:05.2 00:01.2 00:04.2 0:13:42.8 87. DE 03:10.6 00:03.2 00:07.0 0:13:53.0 88. I 03:20.8 00:02.1 00:06.3 0:14:01.4 89. H 03:29.2 00:01.8 00:07.4 0:14:10.6

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Phrase Phrase Track/CD Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter # Time Duration Interval Time 90. A 03:38.4 00:01.9 00:07.6 0:14:20.1 91. B 03:47.9 00:02.1 00:06.6 0:14:28.8 92. B 03:56.6 00:02.2 00:05.6 0:14:36.6 93. H 04:04.4 00:02.9 00:08.3 0:14:47.8 94. B 04:15.6 00:01.2 00:09.0 0:14:58.0 95. H 04:25.8 00:01.8 00:06.4 0:15:06.2 96. CE 04:34.0 00:03.8 00:06.3 0:15:16.3 97. D 04:44.1 00:02.6 00:05.5 0:15:24.4 98. H 04:52.2 00:02.1 00:07.8 0:15:34.3 99. B Tr.4/45 00:01.1 00:02.2 00:06.7 0:15:43.2 100. D 00:10.0 00:02.3 00:02.8 0:15:48.3 101. E 00:15.1 00:01.7 00:09.1 0:15:59.1 102. I 00:25.9 00:01.6 00:07.1 0:16:07.8 103. H 00:34.6 00:04.0 00:05.4 0:16:17.2 104. CE 00:44.0 00:04.5 00:07.5 0:16:29.2 105. I 00:56.0 00:01.7 00:06.8 0:16:37.7 106. D 01:04.5 00:02.0 00:05.4 0:16:45.1 107. B 01:11.9 00:02.3 00:05.5 0:16:52.9 108. I 01:19.7 00:01.7 00:07.6 0:17:02.2 109. CE 01:29.0 00:03.7 00:04.9 0:17:10.8 110. A 01:37.6 00:03.1 00:04.1 0:17:18.0 111. E 01:44.8 00:02.0 00:05.2 0:17:25.2 112. J 01:52.0 00:03.6 00:05.5 0:17:34.3 113. D 02:01.1 00:02.8 00:07.9 0:17:45.0 114. CE 02:11.8 00:03.6 00:14.1 0:18:02.7 115. B 02:29.5 00:01.2 00:04.7 0:18:08.6 116. IJ 02:35.4 00:01.4 00:06.3 0:18:16.3 117. D 02:43.1 00:01.8 00:06.5 0:18:24.6 118. I 02:51.4 00:01.8 00:07.1 0:18:33.5 119. DE 03:00.3 00:04.2 00:05.7 0:18:43.4 120. H 03:10.2 00:01.9 00:08.0 0:18:53.3 121. H 03:20.1 00:03.3 00:07.5 0:19:04.1 122. B 03:30.9 00:01.4 00:05.5 0:19:11.0 123. CE 03:37.8 00:03.5 00:05.8 0:19:20.3 124. A 03:47.1 00:02.2 00:05.4 0:19:27.9 125. H 03:54.7 00:01.7 00:07.4 0:19:37.0 126. D 04:03.8 00:02.6 00:07.6 0:19:47.2 127. A 04:14.0 00:02.2 00:05.7 0:19:55.1 128. E 04:21.9 00:02.8 00:05.3 0:20:03.2 129. E 04:30.0 00:03.1 00:07.8 0:20:14.1 130. D 04:40.9 00:00.7 00:03.5 0:20:18.3 131. A 04:45.1 00:02.1 00:05.8 0:20:26.2 132. I 04:53.0 00:01.8 00:06.7 0:20:34.7 133. D Tr.5/45 00:03.5 00:02.1 00:05.8 0:20:42.6 134. H 00:11.4 00:02.2 00:07.3 0:20:52.1 135. B 00:20.9 00:01.1 00:03.7 0:20:56.9 136. E 00:25.7 00:02.2 00:12.0 0:21:11.1

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Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 137. E 00:39.9 00:02.1 00:07.8 0:21:21.0 138. H 00:49.8 00:02.1 00:06.5 0:21:29.6 139. D 00:58.4 00:01.9 00:08.2 0:21:39.7 140. A 01:08.5 00:02.0 00:07.1 0:21:48.8 141. H 01:17.6 00:03.3 00:06.9 0:21:59.0 142. D 01:27.8 00:02.7 00:04.0 0:22:05.7 143. A 01:34.5 00:01.9 00:05.5 0:22:13.1 144. E 01:41.9 00:03.6 00:06.1 0:22:22.8 145. H 01:51.6 00:01.8 00:05.9 0:22:30.5 146. D 01:59.3 00:02.5 00:06.4 0:22:39.4 147. A 02:08.2 00:01.9 00:07.6 0:22:48.9 148. H 02:17.7 00:03.7 00:09.5 0:23:02.1 149. I 02:30.9 00:01.7 00:05.1 0:23:08.9 150. E 02:37.7 00:01.9 00:06.4 0:23:17.2 151. DB 02:46.0 00:02.3 00:03.0 0:23:22.5 152. E 02:51.3 00:02.1 00:07.0 0:23:31.6 153. A 03:00.4 00:01.9 00:04.9 0:23:38.4 154. E 03:07.2 00:03.7 00:07.9 0:23:50.0 155. B 03:18.8 00:01.4 00:05.6 0:23:57.0 156. H 03:25.8 00:02.5 00:07.7 0:24:07.2 157. I 03:36.0 00:01.8 00:09.1 0:24:18.1 158. D 03:46.9 00:01.8 00:05.9 0:24:25.8 159. H 03:54.6 00:02.3 00:06.0 0:24:34.1 160. H 04:02.9 00:02.9 00:07.1 0:24:44.1 161. DB 04:12.9 00:01.8 00:02.9 0:24:48.8 162. E 04:17.6 00:02.4 00:06.4 0:24:57.6 163. B 04:26.4 00:02.3 00:06.2 0:25:06.1 164. I 04:34.9 00:03.5 00:04.8 0:25:14.4 165. A 04:43.2 00:01.9 00:05.8 0:25:22.1 166. H 04:50.9 00:02.9 00:08.5 0:25:33.5 167. E 05:02.3 00:02.4 00:06.6 0:25:42.5 168. E 05:11.3 00:04.0 00:06.4 0:25:52.9 169. D 05:21.7 00:02.0 00:05.8 0:26:00.7 170. E Tr.6/45 00:05.0 00:05.0 00:05.8 0:26:11.5 171. H 00:15.8 00:01.7 00:06.6 0:26:19.8 172. A 00:24.1 00:01.7 00:04.8 0:26:26.3 173. D 00:30.6 00:01.9 00:06.0 0:26:34.2 174. H 00:38.5 00:03.2 00:07.2 0:26:44.6 175. E 00:48.9 00:02.1 00:07.6 0:26:54.3 176. BD 00:58.6 00:02.4 00:08.4 0:27:05.1 177. H 01:09.4 00:03.0 00:05.2 0:27:13.3 178. H 01:17.6 00:02.3 00:09.7 0:27:25.3 179. B 01:29.6 00:01.2 00:03.5 0:27:30.0 180. E 01:34.3 00:02.0 00:07.4 0:27:39.4 181. H 01:43.7 00:02.5 00:08.4 0:27:50.3 182. A 01:54.6 00:01.9 00:11.1 0:28:03.3 183. D 02:07.6 00:01.8 00:05.6 0:28:10.7

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Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 184. H 02:15.0 00:02.1 00:08.3 0:28:21.1 185. J 02:25.4 00:01.9 00:05.8 0:28:28.8 186. B 02:33.1 00:01.2 00:05.7 0:28:35.7 187. HE 02:40.0 00:03.3 00:13.7 0:28:52.7 188. E 02:57.0 00:02.3 00:06.8 0:29:01.8 189. J 03:06.1 00:01.6 00:06.3 0:29:09.7 190. A 03:14.0 00:02.0 00:05.1 0:29:16.8 191. H 03:21.1 00:02.5 00:06.5 0:29:25.8 192. E 03:30.1 00:02.4 00:07.2 0:29:35.4 193. E 03:39.7 00:04.5 00:05.4 0:29:45.3 194. H 03:49.6 00:03.2 00:06.2 0:29:54.7 195. A 03:59.0 00:02.1 00:05.9 0:30:02.7 196. I 04:07.0 00:02.2 00:05.7 0:30:10.6 197. E 04:14.9 00:01.9 00:06.4 0:30:18.9 198. E 04:23.2 00:02.1 00:07.0 0:30:28.0 199. B Tr.7/45 00:03.5 00:01.3 00:04.2 0:30:33.5 200. H 00:09.0 00:02.2 00:07.3 0:30:43.0 201. I 00:18.5 00:01.8 00:03.6 0:30:48.4 202. E 00:23.9 00:02.5 00:08.3 0:30:59.2 203. E 00:34.7 00:02.3 00:06.3 0:31:07.8 204. EC 00:43.3 00:03.3 00:05.8 0:31:16.9 205. H 00:52.4 00:02.9 00:07.9 0:31:27.7 206. H 01:03.2 00:01.9 00:05.4 0:31:35.0 207. D 01:10.5 00:02.3 00:01.6 0:31:38.9 208. E 01:14.4 00:03.4 00:07.7 0:31:50.0 209. H 01:25.5 00:02.4 00:09.4 0:32:01.8 210. J 01:37.3 00:01.9 00:04.5 0:32:08.2 211. H 01:43.7 00:01.5 00:06.9 0:32:16.6 212. H 01:52.1 00:01.4 00:05.7 0:32:23.7 213. H 01:59.2 00:01.6 00:05.0 0:32:30.3 214. E 02:05.8 00:04.3 00:10.5 0:32:45.1 215. B 02:20.6 00:02.7 00:05.6 0:32:53.4 216. CE 02:28.9 00:03.9 00:07.7 0:33:05.0 217. I 02:40.5 00:01.8 00:06.3 0:33:13.1 218. A 02:48.6 00:01.9 00:06.0 0:33:21.0 219. H 02:56.5 00:01.1 00:05.9 0:33:28.0 220. C 03:03.5 00:01.3 00:05.5 0:33:34.8 221. J 03:10.3 00:01.7 00:06.5 0:33:43.0 222. H 03:18.5 00:01.9 00:07.0 0:33:51.9 223. A 03:27.4 00:01.9 00:04.8 0:33:58.6 224. D 03:34.1 00:01.9 00:06.6 0:34:07.1 225. H 03:42.6 00:01.3 00:06.8 0:34:15.2 226. I 03:50.7 00:00.8 00:06.3 0:34:22.3 227. E 03:57.8 00:02.3 00:21.3 0:34:45.9 228. B 04:21.4 00:02.2 00:09.0 0:34:57.1 229. E 04:32.6 00:02.3 00:09.4 0:35:08.8 230. A 04:44.3 00:01.9 00:05.7 0:35:16.4

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Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Start Time Duration Interval Time 231. H 04:51.9 00:02.1 00:06.1 0:35:24.6 232. D 05:00.1 00:02.0 00:07.5 0:35:34.1 233. A 05:09.6 00:02.0 00:05.8 0:35:41.9 234. H 05:17.4 00:03.2 00:06.9 0:35:52.0 235. I 05:27.5 00:01.7 00:06.2 0:35:59.9 236. H 05:35.4 00:03.3 00:06.1 0:36:09.3 237. E 05:44.8 00:02.4 00:10.0 0:36:21.7 238. A 05:57.2 00:02.8 00:05.5 0:36:30.0 239. E 06:05.5 00:02.3 00:04.8 0:36:37.1 240. E 06:12.6 00:02.5 00:07.0 0:36:46.6 241. H 06:22.1 00:02.3 00:06.3 0:36:55.2 242. J 06:30.7 00:02.9 00:05.9 0:37:04.0 243. H 06:39.5 00:02.2 00:04.7 0:37:10.9 244. D 06:46.4 00:02.1 00:07.5 0:37:20.5 245. A 06:56.0 00:01.8 00:20.0 0:37:42.3 246. A 07:17.8 00:02.1 00:05.3 0:37:49.7 247. BE 07:25.2 00:06.2 00:06.1 0:38:02.0 248. H 07:37.5 00:02.4 00:05.1 0:38:09.5 249. A 07:45.0 00:01.9 00:07.5 0:38:18.9 250. E 07:54.4 00:01.8 00:06.4 0:38:27.1 251. H 08:02.6 00:01.1 00:07.0 0:38:35.2 252. A 08:10.7 00:02.1 00:06.0 0:38:43.3 253. H 08:18.8 00:03.2 00:07.1 0:38:53.6 254. E 08:29.1 00:02.1 00:05.5 0:39:01.2 255. D 08:36.7 00:03.1 00:02.7 0:39:07.0 256. E 08:42.5 00:02.4 00:06.4 0:39:15.8 257. A 08:51.3 00:01.9 00:05.8 0:39:23.5 258. H 08:59.0 00:02.4 00:06.1 0:39:32.0 259. DE 09:07.5 00:03.8 00:06.1 0:39:41.9 260. E 09:17.4 00:02.3 00:07.9 0:39:52.1 261. H 09:27.6 00:02.1 00:06.8 0:40:01.0 262. E 09:36.5 00:02.1 00:16.2 0:40:19.3 263. H 09:54.8 00:01.1 00:04.8 0:40:25.2 264. E 10:00.7 00:03.2 00:06.3 0:40:34.7 265. D 10:10.2 00:02.0 00:03.9 0:40:40.6 266. A 10:16.1 00:01.8 00:05.7 0:40:48.1 267. I 10:23.6 00:01.9 00:06.7 0:40:56.7 268. A Tr.8/45 00:04.9 00:02.1 00:07.2 0:41:06.0 269. H 00:14.2 00:03.1 00:05.9 0:41:15.0 270. D 00:23.2 00:01.9 00:06.5 0:41:23.4 271. I 00:31.6 00:02.6 00:07.4 0:41:33.4 272. B 00:41.6 00:01.2 00:05.6 0:41:40.2 273. H 00:48.4 00:02.2 00:06.6 0:41:49.0 274. E 00:57.2 00:03.0 00:07.0 0:41:59.0 275. D 01:07.2 00:01.7 00:07.7 0:42:08.4 276. E 01:16.6 00:01.9 00:06.4 0:42:16.7 277. H 01:24.9 00:02.1 00:05.7 0:42:24.5

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Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 278. A 01:32.7 00:02.3 00:04.7 0:42:31.5 279. E 01:39.7 00:02.0 00:05.1 0:42:38.6 280. E 01:46.8 00:02.1 00:05.7 0:42:46.4 281. H 01:54.6 00:02.1 00:07.0 0:42:55.5 282. A 02:03.7 00:01.9 00:05.2 0:43:02.6 283. E 02:10.8 00:02.7 00:05.7 0:43:11.0 284. H 02:19.2 00:01.1 00:04.6 0:43:16.7 285. B 02:24.9 00:01.2 00:05.5 0:43:23.4 286. E 02:31.6 00:02.0 00:06.3 0:43:31.7 287. E 02:39.9 00:01.7 00:07.5 0:43:40.9 288. H 02:49.1 00:01.1 00:07.5 0:43:49.5 289. DE 02:57.7 00:04.2 00:11.3 0:44:05.0 290. DE 03:13.2 00:05.0 00:05.0 0:44:15.0 291. H 03:23.2 00:02.1 00:06.4 0:44:23.5 292. A 03:31.7 00:01.9 00:06.3 0:44:31.7 293. E 03:39.9 00:01.3 00:07.4 0:44:40.4 294. CE 03:48.6 00:04.3 00:04.9 0:44:49.6 295. D 03:57.8 00:01.9 00:05.4 0:44:56.9 296. H 04:05.1 00:03.2 00:08.0 0:45:08.1 297. A 04:16.3 00:01.8 00:05.0 0:45:14.9 298. EJ 04:23.1 00:04.6 00:06.0 0:45:25.5 299. H 04:33.7 00:02.3 00:08.2 0:45:36.0 300. BDE 04:44.2 00:05.6 00:05.4 0:45:47.0 301. J 04:55.2 00:02.2 00:06.4 0:45:55.6 302. J 05:03.8 00:01.6 00:08.3 0:46:05.5 303. B 05:13.7 00:02.2 00:06.4 0:46:14.1 304. CE 05:22.3 00:02.8 00:07.5 0:46:24.4 305. E 05:32.6 00:01.6 00:07.1 0:46:33.1 306. H 05:41.3 00:02.0 00:07.9 0:46:43.0 307. E 05:51.2 00:02.4 00:06.6 0:46:52.0 308. J 06:00.2 00:01.2 00:07.8 0:47:01.0 309. A 06:09.2 00:01.8 00:05.7 0:47:08.5 310. D 06:16.7 00:02.3 00:06.0 0:47:16.8 311. E 06:25.0 00:01.8 00:05.0 0:47:23.6 312. B 06:31.8 00:01.0 00:06.3 0:47:30.9 313. B 06:39.1 00:02.4 00:21.9 0:47:55.2 314. H 07:03.4 00:02.1 00:10.2 0:48:07.5 315. A 07:15.7 00:01.8 00:16.3 0:48:25.6 316. A 07:33.8 00:01.8 00:07.3 0:48:34.7 317. D 07:42.9 00:02.5 00:07.0 0:48:44.2 318. H 07:52.4 00:02.4 00:07.9 0:48:54.5 319. J 08:02.7 00:01.5 00:07.9 0:49:03.9 320. H 08:12.1 00:03.1 00:15.9 0:49:22.9 321. A 08:31.1 00:03.0 00:05.3 0:49:31.2 322. H 08:39.4 00:02.0 00:07.4 0:49:40.6 323. D 08:48.8 00:02.1 00:06.4 0:49:49.1 324. CE 08:57.3 00:03.7 00:07.6 0:50:00.4

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Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 325. B 09:08.6 00:02.0 00:07.3 0:50:09.7 326. A 09:17.9 00:01.9 00:07.3 0:50:18.9 327. H 09:27.1 00:02.4 00:07.4 0:50:28.7 328. B 09:36.9 00:01.1 00:05.7 0:50:35.5 329. D Tr.9/45 00:01.2 00:02.9 00:06.8 0:50:45.2 330. JH 00:10.9 00:02.1 00:06.9 0:50:54.2 331. J 00:19.9 00:01.6 00:06.6 0:51:02.4 332. H 00:28.1 00:02.2 00:06.0 0:51:10.6 333. J 00:36.3 00:02.1 00:16.5 0:51:29.2 334. H 00:54.9 00:01.5 00:07.0 0:51:37.7 335. A 01:03.4 00:01.9 00:07.5 0:51:47.1 336. J 01:12.8 00:02.4 00:06.9 0:51:56.4 337. CE 01:22.1 00:03.3 00:05.8 0:52:05.5 338. D 01:31.2 00:02.2 00:05.7 0:52:13.4 339. H 01:39.1 00:02.4 00:06.9 0:52:22.7 340. B 01:48.4 00:02.0 00:07.1 0:52:31.8 341. H 01:57.5 00:02.0 00:08.2 0:52:42.0 342. E 02:07.7 00:01.9 00:06.5 0:52:50.4 343. A 02:16.1 00:02.1 00:07.3 0:52:59.8 344. I 02:25.5 00:01.7 00:06.9 0:53:08.4 345. D 02:34.1 00:02.7 00:06.0 0:53:17.1 346. H 02:42.8 00:02.3 00:08.7 0:53:28.1 347. E 02:53.8 00:02.4 00:05.9 0:53:36.4 348. H 03:02.1 00:03.2 00:11.4 0:53:51.0 349. A 03:16.7 00:02.0 00:06.2 0:53:59.2 350. D 03:24.9 00:01.9 00:06.2 0:54:07.3 351. E 03:33.0 00:02.8 00:07.3 0:54:17.4 352. E 03:43.1 00:02.6 00:06.8 0:54:26.8 353. H 03:52.5 00:02.9 00:06.9 0:54:36.6 354. A 04:02.3 00:01.9 00:07.8 0:54:46.3 355. H 04:12.0 00:02.1 00:05.3 0:54:53.7 356. B 04:19.4 00:01.1 00:10.1 0:55:04.9 357. CE 04:30.6 00:03.5 00:06.9 0:55:15.3 358. D 04:41.0 00:02.7 00:08.0 0:55:26.0 359. J 04:51.7 00:02.1 00:11.1 0:55:39.2 360. J 05:04.9 00:02.4 00:04.9 0:55:46.5 361. J 05:12.2 00:02.6 00:10.9 0:56:00.0 362. B Tr.10/45 00:10.1 00:02.2 00:06.0 0:56:08.2 363. J 00:18.3 00:01.6 00:05.7 0:56:15.5 364. A 00:25.6 00:01.9 00:08.3 0:56:25.7 365. B 00:35.8 00:02.2 00:06.6 0:56:34.5 366. J 00:44.6 00:02.2 00:06.9 0:56:43.6 367. H 00:53.7 00:02.3 00:08.4 0:56:54.3 368. D 01:04.4 00:02.2 00:06.8 0:57:03.3 369. A 01:13.4 00:01.8 00:06.3 0:57:11.4 370. H 01:21.5 00:01.8 00:05.8 0:57:19.0 371. D 01:29.1 00:02.0 00:08.5 0:57:29.5

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Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 372. E 01:39.6 00:02.3 00:05.9 0:57:37.7 373. D 01:47.8 00:02.7 00:06.4 0:57:46.8 374. B 01:56.9 00:01.1 00:05.7 0:57:53.6 375. E 02:03.7 00:02.3 00:06.7 0:58:02.6 376. A 02:12.7 00:01.8 00:08.4 0:58:12.8 377. H 02:22.9 00:02.1 00:06.1 0:58:21.0 378. D 02:31.1 00:02.0 00:07.6 0:58:30.6 379. H 02:40.7 00:02.0 00:08.4 0:58:41.0 380. B 02:51.1 00:01.2 00:04.7 0:58:46.9 381. H 02:57.0 00:02.1 00:05.6 0:58:54.6 382. D 03:04.7 00:02.4 00:05.2 0:59:02.2 383. J 03:12.3 00:02.1 00:14.1 0:59:18.4 384. H 03:28.5 00:03.2 00:05.5 0:59:27.1 385. J 03:37.2 00:01.8 00:09.7 0:59:38.6 386. D 03:48.7 00:03.8 00:05.0 0:59:47.4 387. A 03:57.5 00:01.8 00:06.7 0:59:55.9 388. D 04:06.0 00:01.8 00:14.8 1:00:12.5 389. B 04:22.6 00:01.1 00:06.8 1:00:20.4 390. A 04:30.5 00:01.9 00:09.5 1:00:31.8 391. H 04:41.9 00:01.8 00:05.5 1:00:39.1 392. J 04:49.2 00:01.6 00:11.4 1:00:52.1 393. D 05:02.2 00:03.1 00:06.9 1:01:02.1 394. B 05:12.2 00:01.2 00:06.0 1:01:09.3 395. D 05:19.4 00:03.2 00:12.4 1:01:24.9 396. E 05:35.0 00:03.5 00:07.1 1:01:35.5 397. D 05:45.6 00:02.7 00:07.7 1:01:45.9 398. H 05:56.0 00:02.1 00:04.9 1:01:52.9 399. D 06:03.0 00:01.9 00:24.3 1:02:19.1 400. A 06:29.2 00:01.9 00:06.7 1:02:27.7 401. D 06:37.8 00:02.2 00:10.6 1:02:40.5 402. H 06:50.6 00:03.2 00:07.9 1:02:51.6 403. E 07:01.7 00:02.0 00:09.4 1:03:03.0 404. EC 07:13.1 00:04.1 00:07.6 1:03:14.7 405. A 07:24.8 00:01.9 00:06.9 1:03:23.5 406. E 07:33.6 00:01.9 00:11.1 1:03:36.5 407. A 07:46.6 00:01.9 00:05.6 1:03:44.0 408. H 07:54.1 00:02.1 00:08.2 1:03:54.3 409. D 08:04.4 00:01.9 00:06.0 1:04:02.2 410. J 08:12.3 00:01.8 00:07.8 1:04:11.8 411. E 08:21.9 00:01.9 00:08.1 1:04:21.8 412. I 08:31.9 00:01.8 00:10.3 1:04:33.9 413. H 08:44.0 00:02.3 00:07.5 1:04:43.7 414. A 08:53.8 00:01.9 00:09.4 1:04:55.0 415. H 09:05.1 00:02.7 00:05.2 1:05:02.9 416. D 09:13.0 00:02.6 00:07.5 1:05:13.0 417. A Tr.11/45 00:02.9 00:01.9 00:06.6 1:05:21.5 418. D 00:11.4 00:02.1 00:06.9 1:05:30.5

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Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 419. I 00:20.4 00:01.8 00:06.2 1:05:38.5 420. A 00:28.4 00:01.9 00:06.8 1:05:47.2 421. C 00:37.1 00:01.3 00:05.8 1:05:54.3 422. D 00:44.2 00:01.8 00:07.4 1:06:03.5 423. H 00:53.4 00:03.2 00:08.3 1:06:15.0 424. E 01:04.9 00:02.0 00:06.1 1:06:23.1 425. C 01:13.0 00:03.8 00:07.7 1:06:34.6 426. A 01:24.5 00:01.9 00:05.5 1:06:42.0 427. D 01:31.9 00:03.0 00:13.1 1:06:58.1 428. H 01:48.0 00:02.4 00:08.9 1:07:09.4 429. D 01:59.3 00:01.8 00:06.8 1:07:18.0 430. B 02:07.9 00:01.1 00:05.3 1:07:24.4 431. J 02:14.3 00:01.8 00:06.1 1:07:32.3 432. A 02:22.2 00:01.8 00:05.8 1:07:39.9 433. H 02:29.8 00:03.1 00:09.4 1:07:52.4 434. D 02:42.3 00:02.0 00:09.4 1:08:03.8 435. B 02:53.7 00:00.8 00:02.8 1:08:07.4 436. E 02:57.3 00:02.0 00:08.8 1:08:18.2 437. D 03:08.1 00:02.7 00:05.7 1:08:26.6 438. A 03:16.5 00:02.1 00:06.3 1:08:35.0 439. D 03:24.9 00:02.8 00:06.2 1:08:44.0 440. C 03:33.9 00:03.9 00:07.7 1:08:55.6 441. B 03:45.5 00:01.1 00:07.3 1:09:04.0 442. H 03:53.9 00:03.4 00:08.6 1:09:16.0 443. D 04:05.9 00:00.7 00:03.2 1:09:19.9 444. E 04:09.8 00:02.4 00:19.4 1:09:41.7 445. A 04:31.6 00:01.9 00:06.7 1:09:50.3 446. J 04:40.2 00:02.5 00:13.5 1:10:06.3 447. B 04:56.2 00:01.2 00:05.6 1:10:13.1 448. H 05:03.0 00:02.1 00:08.7 1:10:23.9 449. DE 05:13.8 00:02.7 00:05.5 1:10:32.1 450. A 05:22.0 00:01.9 00:07.2 1:10:41.2 451. D 05:31.1 00:02.1 00:07.5 1:10:50.8 452. H 05:40.7 00:03.2 00:07.6 1:11:01.6 453. A 05:51.5 00:02.0 00:13.5 1:11:17.1 454. D 06:07.0 00:01.8 00:11.7 1:11:30.6 455. H Tr.1/46 00:05.8 00:01.8 00:05.9 1:11:38.3 456. J 00:13.5 00:01.7 00:05.7 1:11:45.7 457. E 00:20.9 00:02.4 00:08.1 1:11:56.2 458. B 00:31.4 00:01.1 00:06.2 1:12:03.5 459. H 00:38.7 00:01.8 00:05.9 1:12:11.2 460. E 00:46.4 00:02.0 00:05.9 1:12:19.1 461. A 00:54.3 00:01.9 00:07.0 1:12:28.0 462. D 01:03.2 00:01.9 00:06.4 1:12:36.3 463. H 01:11.5 00:01.1 00:05.4 1:12:42.8 464. J 01:18.0 00:01.8 00:11.6 1:12:56.2 465. B 01:31.4 00:01.3 00:05.5 1:13:03.0

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Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 466. E 01:38.2 00:03.2 00:08.4 1:13:14.6 467. A 01:49.8 00:01.9 00:06.4 1:13:22.9 468. E 01:58.1 00:03.3 00:06.6 1:13:32.8 469. H 02:08.0 00:02.2 00:05.8 1:13:40.8 470. E 02:16.0 00:02.4 00:19.5 1:14:02.7 471. J 02:37.9 00:01.8 00:08.3 1:14:12.8 472. E 02:48.0 00:02.5 00:05.9 1:14:21.2 473. A 02:56.4 00:02.0 00:08.5 1:14:31.7 474. I 03:06.9 00:01.8 00:05.1 1:14:38.6 475. E 03:13.8 00:03.2 00:06.8 1:14:48.6 476. A 03:23.8 00:01.9 00:06.6 1:14:57.1 477. DB 03:32.3 00:01.8 00:06.0 1:15:04.9 478. H 03:40.1 00:01.8 00:05.1 1:15:11.8 479. J 03:47.0 00:01.4 00:05.9 1:15:19.1 480. E 03:54.3 00:02.5 00:08.3 1:15:29.9 481. A 04:05.1 00:01.8 00:06.4 1:15:38.1 482. E 04:13.3 00:02.0 00:06.0 1:15:46.1 483. H 04:21.3 00:01.9 00:06.7 1:15:54.7 484. D 04:29.9 00:02.0 00:04.8 1:16:01.5 485. E 04:36.7 00:03.1 00:12.4 1:16:17.0 486. A Tr.2/46 00:10.5 00:01.1 00:03.8 1:16:21.9 487. E 00:15.4 00:02.3 00:06.4 1:16:30.6 488. H 00:24.1 00:02.8 00:06.2 1:16:39.6 489. E 00:33.1 00:02.0 00:06.6 1:16:48.2 490. A 00:41.7 00:02.0 00:07.0 1:16:57.2 491. D 00:50.7 00:01.0 00:05.7 1:17:03.9 492. H 00:57.4 00:01.5 00:05.6 1:17:11.0 493. A 01:04.5 00:02.0 00:08.9 1:17:21.9 494. C 01:15.4 00:01.4 00:06.8 1:17:30.1 495. E 01:23.6 00:01.8 00:05.3 1:17:37.2 496. J 01:30.7 00:01.9 00:05.1 1:17:44.2 497. E 01:37.7 00:02.0 00:07.1 1:17:53.3 498. J 01:46.8 00:02.0 00:09.3 1:18:04.6 499. A 01:58.1 00:01.9 00:05.8 1:18:12.3 500. H 02:05.8 00:02.5 00:07.2 1:18:22.0 501. B 02:15.5 00:02.3 00:05.1 1:18:29.4 502. E 02:22.9 00:01.8 00:07.1 1:18:38.3 503. A 02:31.8 00:01.9 00:07.3 1:18:47.5 504. J 02:41.0 00:01.5 00:08.9 1:18:57.9 505. A 02:51.4 00:02.1 00:09.1 1:19:09.1 506. D 03:02.6 00:01.2 00:07.0 1:19:17.3 507. B 03:10.8 00:01.2 00:06.2 1:19:24.7 508. H 03:18.2 00:02.2 00:12.9 1:19:39.8 509. C 03:33.3 00:01.4 00:07.1 1:19:48.3 510. AI 03:41.8 00:01.6 00:06.2 1:19:56.1 511. A 03:49.6 00:01.9 00:07.0 1:20:05.0 512. E 03:58.5 00:02.3 00:08.2 1:20:15.5

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Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 513. A 04:09.0 00:01.9 00:05.8 1:20:23.2 514. H 04:16.7 00:03.4 00:07.2 1:20:33.8 515. A 04:27.3 00:01.9 00:07.4 1:20:43.1 516. H 04:36.6 00:02.7 00:05.7 1:20:51.5 517. D 04:45.0 00:02.0 00:07.4 1:21:00.9 518. A 04:54.4 00:02.0 00:07.7 1:21:10.6 519. H 05:04.1 00:01.9 00:07.9 1:21:20.4 520. E 05:13.9 00:02.5 00:02.6 1:21:25.5 521. E 05:19.0 00:02.6 00:08.7 1:21:36.8 522. I 05:30.3 00:01.9 00:09.0 1:21:47.7 523. C 05:41.2 00:01.5 00:09.3 1:21:58.5 524. DE Tr.3/46 00:07.0 00:04.9 00:07.2 1:22:10.6 525. H 00:19.1 00:03.2 00:06.8 1:22:20.6 526. D 00:29.1 00:02.9 00:05.8 1:22:29.3 527. E 00:37.8 00:02.0 00:12.9 1:22:44.2 528. H 00:52.7 00:02.0 00:06.2 1:22:52.4 529. E 01:00.9 00:01.7 00:06.0 1:23:00.1 530. A 01:08.6 00:01.8 00:06.1 1:23:08.0 531. H 01:16.5 00:02.5 00:07.9 1:23:18.4 532. D 01:26.9 00:02.2 00:06.1 1:23:26.7 533. A 01:35.2 00:01.9 00:07.2 1:23:35.8 534. J 01:44.3 00:01.4 00:06.0 1:23:43.2 535. D 01:51.7 00:01.7 00:05.3 1:23:50.2 536. E 01:58.7 00:02.4 00:05.7 1:23:58.3 537. E 02:06.8 00:01.3 00:09.0 1:24:08.6 538. H 02:17.1 00:03.1 00:07.9 1:24:19.6 539. A 02:28.1 00:02.2 00:15.7 1:24:37.5 540. D 02:46.0 00:02.1 00:06.1 1:24:45.7 541. H 02:54.2 00:02.1 00:06.4 1:24:54.2 542. J 03:02.7 00:01.6 00:06.2 1:25:02.0 543. CE 03:10.5 00:03.8 00:07.1 1:25:12.9 544. D 03:21.4 00:02.0 00:04.5 1:25:19.4 545. E 03:27.9 00:03.1 00:06.4 1:25:28.9 546. H 03:37.4 00:02.1 00:08.7 1:25:39.7 547. A 03:48.2 00:00.7 00:02.7 1:25:43.1 548. I 03:51.6 00:01.9 00:05.8 1:25:50.8 549. E 03:59.3 00:01.7 00:05.5 1:25:58.0 550. E 04:06.5 00:02.1 00:07.5 1:26:07.6 551. E 04:16.1 00:02.3 00:11.1 1:26:21.0 552. A 04:29.5 00:02.2 00:05.6 1:26:28.8 553. B 04:37.3 00:01.4 00:04.3 1:26:34.5 554. C 04:43.0 00:01.4 00:07.2 1:26:43.1 555. H 04:51.6 00:01.7 00:06.3 1:26:51.1 556. H 04:59.6 00:01.4 00:08.1 1:27:00.6 557. B 05:09.1 00:01.8 00:19.6 1:27:22.0 558. E 05:30.5 00:01.5 00:21.7 1:27:45.2 559. A 05:53.7 00:01.9 00:07.6 1:27:54.7

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Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 560. I Tr.4/46 00:02.5 00:01.8 00:05.5 1:28:02.0 561. D 00:09.8 00:02.2 00:08.3 1:28:12.5 562. H 00:20.3 00:02.2 00:08.3 1:28:23.0 563. E 00:30.8 00:02.0 00:06.9 1:28:31.9 564. DE 00:39.7 00:03.6 00:06.0 1:28:41.5 565. H 00:49.3 00:01.8 00:13.2 1:28:56.5 566. E 01:04.3 00:03.9 00:07.0 1:29:07.4 567. H 01:15.2 00:02.1 00:04.6 1:29:14.1 568. D 01:21.9 00:01.9 00:05.2 1:29:21.2 569. E 01:29.0 00:05.2 00:06.5 1:29:32.9 570. I 01:40.7 00:01.9 00:06.9 1:29:41.7 571. H 01:49.5 00:02.7 00:06.1 1:29:50.5 572. E 01:58.3 00:02.3 00:06.2 1:29:59.0 573. A 02:06.8 00:01.9 00:06.2 1:30:07.1 574. E 02:14.9 00:02.5 00:11.5 1:30:21.1 575. C 02:28.9 00:01.4 00:03.9 1:30:26.4 576. E 02:34.2 00:02.0 00:09.7 1:30:38.1 577. A 02:45.9 00:01.9 00:06.4 1:30:46.4 578. DB 02:54.2 00:02.1 00:07.2 1:30:55.7 579. E 03:03.5 00:02.3 00:05.6 1:31:03.6 580. H 03:11.4 00:02.4 00:06.9 1:31:12.9 581. E 03:20.7 00:02.0 00:07.1 1:31:22.0 582. I 03:29.8 00:02.0 00:05.8 1:31:29.8 583. E 03:37.6 00:03.8 00:04.6 1:31:38.2 584. A 03:46.0 00:03.8 00:05.8 1:31:47.8 585. H 03:55.6 00:01.7 00:07.6 1:31:57.1 586. DE 04:04.9 00:03.9 00:07.6 1:32:08.6 587. A 04:16.4 00:01.9 00:05.4 1:32:15.9 588. H 04:23.7 00:03.3 00:05.0 1:32:24.2 589. E 04:32.0 00:02.9 00:06.5 1:32:33.6 590. A 04:41.4 00:01.9 00:08.0 1:32:43.5 591. CE 04:51.3 00:03.4 00:05.2 1:32:52.1 592. D 04:59.9 00:02.8 00:06.8 1:33:01.7 593. H 05:09.5 00:02.0 00:05.7 1:33:09.4 594. E 05:17.2 00:02.2 00:05.5 1:33:17.1 595. B 05:24.9 00:01.8 00:05.8 1:33:24.7 596. H 05:32.5 00:01.3 00:08.6 1:33:34.6 597. D 05:42.4 00:00.9 00:05.7 1:33:41.2 598. J 05:49.0 00:01.5 00:10.2 1:33:52.9 599. D 06:00.7 00:01.9 00:07.2 1:34:02.0 600. A 06:09.8 00:03.0 00:06.4 1:34:11.4 601. I 06:19.2 00:01.9 00:05.4 1:34:18.7 602. DE Tr.5/46 00:04.3 00:06.1 00:06.9 1:34:31.7 603. H 00:17.3 00:02.5 00:07.5 1:34:41.7 604. CE 00:27.3 00:03.8 00:07.6 1:34:53.1 605. H 00:38.7 00:01.4 00:08.7 1:35:03.2 606. C 00:48.8 00:01.4 00:23.6 1:35:28.2

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Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 607. DB 01:13.8 00:01.3 00:06.3 1:35:35.8 608. B 01:21.4 00:01.1 00:10.8 1:35:47.7 609. D 01:33.3 00:01.8 00:05.1 1:35:54.6 610. H 01:40.2 00:03.1 00:05.0 1:36:02.7 611. E 01:48.3 00:02.4 00:06.4 1:36:11.5 612. J 01:57.1 00:01.7 00:06.3 1:36:19.5 613. H 02:05.1 00:02.2 00:06.6 1:36:28.3 614. DB 02:13.9 00:01.7 00:06.1 1:36:36.1 615. A 02:21.7 00:01.8 00:05.8 1:36:43.7 616. H 02:29.3 00:02.4 00:07.3 1:36:53.4 617. E 02:39.0 00:02.5 00:07.2 1:37:03.1 618. I 02:48.7 00:01.4 00:05.4 1:37:09.9 619. E 02:55.5 00:02.8 00:07.0 1:37:19.7 620. D 03:05.3 00:01.9 00:06.9 1:37:28.5 621. H 03:14.1 00:02.4 00:07.6 1:37:38.5 622. B 03:24.1 00:01.2 00:04.6 1:37:44.3 623. E 03:29.9 00:02.5 00:06.5 1:37:53.3 624. C 03:38.9 00:03.2 00:07.0 1:38:03.5 625. DE 03:49.1 00:06.5 00:07.0 1:38:17.0 626. J 04:02.6 00:01.7 00:07.2 1:38:25.9 627. H 04:11.5 00:03.4 00:07.2 1:38:36.5 628. B 04:22.1 00:01.9 00:06.3 1:38:44.7 629. H 04:30.3 00:02.1 00:06.2 1:38:53.0 630. E 04:38.6 00:02.1 00:06.7 1:39:01.8 631. I 04:47.4 00:02.1 00:06.6 1:39:10.5 632. DE 04:56.1 00:03.6 00:06.6 1:39:20.7 633. A 05:06.3 00:01.8 00:07.4 1:39:29.9 634. H 05:15.5 00:03.2 00:07.5 1:39:40.6 635. H 05:26.2 00:02.1 00:06.8 1:39:49.5 636. D 05:35.1 00:01.6 00:22.1 1:40:13.2 637. CE Tr.6/46 00:08.7 00:04.6 00:07.3 1:40:25.1 638. A 00:20.6 00:01.9 00:05.9 1:40:32.9 639. H 00:28.4 00:02.7 00:07.0 1:40:42.6 640. B 00:38.1 00:01.1 00:04.3 1:40:48.0 641. A 00:43.5 00:01.8 00:05.8 1:40:55.6 642. E 00:51.1 00:02.4 00:07.0 1:41:05.0 643. DE 01:00.5 00:03.1 00:05.5 1:41:13.6 644. H 01:09.1 00:03.3 00:09.2 1:41:26.1 645. B 01:21.6 00:01.2 00:04.6 1:41:31.9 646. J 01:27.4 00:01.7 00:05.2 1:41:38.8 647. H 01:34.3 00:01.8 00:07.8 1:41:48.4 648. D 01:43.9 00:01.8 00:06.2 1:41:56.4 649. E 01:51.9 00:02.3 00:06.5 1:42:05.2 650. C 02:00.7 00:02.0 00:16.9 1:42:24.1 651. A 02:19.6 00:01.9 00:06.0 1:42:32.0 652. H 02:27.5 00:02.1 00:06.5 1:42:40.6 653. D 02:36.1 00:01.9 00:04.1 1:42:46.6

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Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 654. BJ 02:42.1 00:03.7 00:06.7 1:42:57.0 655. J 02:52.5 00:01.6 00:05.9 1:43:04.5 656. H 03:00.0 00:02.4 00:06.0 1:43:12.9 657. E 03:08.4 00:02.4 00:10.5 1:43:25.8 658. D 03:21.3 00:02.3 00:05.5 1:43:33.6 659. H 03:29.1 00:02.0 00:05.9 1:43:41.5 660. J 03:37.0 00:01.9 00:10.6 1:43:54.0 661. H 03:49.5 00:02.1 00:05.4 1:44:01.5 662. C 03:57.0 00:01.6 00:07.5 1:44:10.6 663. A 04:06.1 00:01.8 00:04.4 1:44:16.8 664. H 04:12.3 00:03.1 00:06.0 1:44:25.9 665. E 04:21.4 00:02.3 00:08.7 1:44:36.9 666. A 04:32.4 00:02.5 00:06.1 1:44:45.5 667. DB 04:41.0 00:02.6 00:05.9 1:44:54.0 668. H 04:49.5 00:01.3 00:04.6 1:44:59.9 669. E 04:55.4 00:03.3 00:05.1 1:45:08.3 670. A 05:03.8 00:02.2 00:07.9 1:45:18.4 671. I 05:13.9 00:01.9 00:06.6 1:45:26.9 672. H 05:22.4 00:03.1 00:10.0 1:45:40.0 673. D 05:35.5 00:01.9 00:07.8 1:45:49.7 674. E 05:45.2 00:01.8 00:07.6 1:45:59.1 675. D 05:54.6 00:01.9 00:07.2 1:46:08.2 676. E 06:03.7 00:02.6 00:07.6 1:46:18.4 677. B Tr.7/46 00:04.9 00:01.1 00:18.1 1:46:37.6 678. CE 00:24.1 00:04.0 00:01.7 1:46:43.3 679. DE 00:29.8 00:06.1 00:17.2 1:47:06.6 680. J 00:53.1 00:01.6 00:07.4 1:47:15.6 681. A 01:02.1 00:01.8 00:06.7 1:47:24.1 682. H 01:10.6 00:02.3 00:09.8 1:47:36.2 683. A 01:22.7 00:01.9 00:10.1 1:47:48.2 684. ICB 01:34.7 00:02.3 00:05.9 1:47:56.4 685. DE 01:42.9 00:03.4 00:06.4 1:48:06.2 686. H 01:52.7 00:01.0 00:06.5 1:48:13.7 687. J 02:00.2 00:01.1 00:07.3 1:48:22.1 688. H 02:08.6 00:02.1 00:09.1 1:48:33.3 689. CE 02:19.8 00:03.4 00:06.9 1:48:43.6 690. A 02:30.1 00:01.8 00:06.1 1:48:51.5 691. H 02:38.0 00:02.1 00:06.2 1:48:59.8 692. J 02:46.3 00:01.5 00:07.9 1:49:09.2 693. D 02:55.7 00:01.9 00:06.3 1:49:17.4 694. A 03:03.9 00:01.8 00:09.2 1:49:28.4 695. A Tr.8/46 00:05.2 00:02.9 00:05.7 1:49:37.0 696. L 00:13.8 00:02.6 00:05.9 1:49:45.5 697. E 00:22.3 00:02.6 00:06.6 1:49:54.7 698. H 00:31.5 00:02.5 00:09.0 1:50:06.2 699. J 00:43.0 00:01.5 00:07.4 1:50:15.1 700. E 00:51.9 00:02.9 00:06.5 1:50:24.5

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Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 701. A 01:01.3 00:02.2 00:05.8 1:50:32.5 702. CE 01:09.3 00:03.1 00:06.7 1:50:42.3 703. H 01:19.1 00:01.4 00:07.0 1:50:50.7 704. B 01:27.5 00:01.2 00:06.3 1:50:58.2 705. CE 01:35.0 00:03.8 00:09.6 1:51:11.6 706. I 01:48.4 00:02.0 00:09.7 1:51:23.3 707. D 02:00.1 00:02.7 00:08.6 1:51:34.6 708. A 02:11.4 00:01.9 00:06.9 1:51:43.4 709. H 02:20.2 00:03.3 00:06.3 1:51:53.0 710. E 02:29.8 00:02.0 00:06.7 1:52:01.7 711. E 02:38.5 00:01.7 00:09.6 1:52:13.0 712. E 02:49.8 00:02.3 00:07.9 1:52:23.2 713. E 03:00.0 00:02.0 00:06.5 1:52:31.7 714. D 03:08.5 00:03.2 00:07.0 1:52:41.9 715. J 03:18.7 00:01.4 00:05.6 1:52:48.9 716. A 03:25.7 00:01.8 00:06.4 1:52:57.1 717. E 03:33.9 00:03.2 00:08.7 1:53:09.0 718. JE 03:45.8 00:04.4 00:07.1 1:53:20.5 719. D 03:57.3 00:03.0 00:07.2 1:53:30.7 720. H 04:07.5 00:01.8 00:05.4 1:53:37.9 721. J 04:14.7 00:01.8 00:05.3 1:53:45.0 722. J 04:21.8 00:02.0 00:05.9 1:53:52.9 723. H 04:29.7 00:02.5 00:06.7 1:54:02.1 724. A 04:38.9 00:02.4 00:06.6 1:54:11.1 725. J 04:47.9 00:02.5 00:06.0 1:54:19.6 726. CE 04:56.4 00:05.2 00:05.6 1:54:30.4 727. A 05:07.2 00:01.7 00:09.0 1:54:41.1 728. D 05:17.9 00:02.6 00:05.9 1:54:49.6 729. J 05:26.4 00:02.4 00:14.1 1:55:06.1 730. E Tr.9/46 05:36.0 00:02.1 00:05.0 1:55:13.2 731. A 00:09.0 00:01.8 00:08.3 1:55:23.3 732. C 00:19.1 00:04.7 00:05.5 1:55:33.5 733. D 00:29.3 00:01.9 00:05.6 1:55:41.0 734. H 00:36.8 00:03.0 00:07.0 1:55:51.0 735. D 00:46.8 00:02.6 00:07.7 1:56:01.3 736. I 00:57.1 00:02.1 00:05.6 1:56:09.0 737. H 01:04.8 00:02.1 00:06.2 1:56:17.3 738. A 01:13.1 00:01.8 00:06.8 1:56:25.9 739. E 01:21.7 00:02.4 00:13.1 1:56:41.4 740. E 01:37.2 00:02.4 00:06.6 1:56:50.4 741. E 01:46.2 00:02.4 00:06.5 1:56:59.3 742. E 01:55.1 00:02.1 00:05.7 1:57:07.1 743. D 02:02.9 00:02.5 00:05.6 1:57:15.2 744. H 02:11.0 00:02.3 00:06.4 1:57:23.9 745. A 02:19.7 00:02.8 00:06.5 1:57:33.2 746. CE 02:29.0 00:03.3 00:06.8 1:57:43.3 747. D 02:39.1 00:01.8 00:06.0 1:57:51.1

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Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 748. E 02:46.9 00:02.0 00:07.7 1:58:00.8 749. A 02:56.6 00:01.9 00:07.2 1:58:09.9 750. J 03:05.7 00:01.8 00:06.3 1:58:18.0 751. E 03:13.8 00:03.0 00:12.8 1:58:33.8 752. H 03:29.6 00:01.3 00:13.0 1:58:48.1 753. E 03:43.9 00:01.8 00:06.1 1:58:56.0 754. H 03:51.8 00:01.9 00:07.8 1:59:05.7 755. D 04:01.5 00:01.8 00:05.8 1:59:13.3 756. E 04:09.1 00:02.0 00:08.8 1:59:24.1 757. CE 04:19.9 00:03.2 00:07.2 1:59:34.5 758. A 04:30.3 00:01.8 00:09.1 1:59:45.4 759. D 04:41.2 00:00.7 00:06.1 1:59:52.2 760. H 04:48.0 00:02.4 00:07.2 2:00:01.8 761. J 04:57.6 00:01.7 00:08.5 2:00:12.0 762. E 05:07.8 00:02.5 00:06.5 2:00:21.0 763. D 05:16.8 00:02.2 00:11.9 2:00:35.1 764. CE 05:30.9 00:04.8 00:10.4 2:00:50.3 765. A 05:46.1 00:01.8 00:07.2 2:00:59.3 766. D 05:55.1 00:01.8 00:05.9 2:01:07.0 767. E 06:02.8 00:02.5 00:08.4 2:01:17.9 768. D 06:13.7 00:02.3 00:13.0 2:01:33.2 769. H 06:29.0 00:02.3 00:06.0 2:01:41.5 770. B 06:37.3 00:02.4 00:07.5 2:01:51.4 771. H 06:47.2 00:03.2 00:06.9 2:02:01.5 772. H 06:57.3 00:03.3 00:08.1 2:02:12.9 773. A 07:08.7 00:01.8 00:06.0 2:02:20.7 774. H 07:16.5 00:02.0 00:05.9 2:02:28.6 775. J 07:24.4 00:01.5 00:13.6 2:02:43.7 776. I 07:39.5 00:01.8 00:07.1 2:02:52.6 777. CE 07:48.4 00:04.6 00:08.4 2:03:05.6 778. A 08:01.4 00:01.9 00:06.1 2:03:13.6 779. J 08:09.4 00:01.8 00:06.2 2:03:21.6 780. I 08:17.4 00:02.5 00:06.7 2:03:30.8 781. J 08:26.6 00:02.6 00:06.9 2:03:40.3 782. H 08:36.1 00:03.6 00:08.3 2:03:52.2 783. A 08:48.0 00:02.1 00:09.6 2:04:03.9 784. AD 08:59.7 00:02.5 00:06.8 2:04:13.2 785. AB 09:09.0 00:03.0 00:07.7 2:04:23.9 786. H 09:19.7 00:01.8 00:06.7 2:04:32.4 787. E 09:28.2 00:03.2 00:06.9 2:04:42.5 788. D 09:38.3 00:02.1 00:06.2 2:04:50.8 789. E 09:46.6 00:02.5 00:06.8 2:05:00.1 790. A 09:55.9 00:02.1 00:06.9 2:05:09.1 791. I 10:04.9 00:01.9 00:06.7 2:05:17.7 792. E 10:13.5 00:02.0 00:06.6 2:05:26.3 793. H 10:22.1 00:02.1 00:11.7 2:05:40.1 794. A 10:35.9 00:01.9 00:07.0 2:05:49.0

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Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 795. C Tr.10/46 00:03.4 00:03.9 00:09.9 2:06:02.8 796. D 00:17.2 00:02.2 00:06.5 2:06:11.5 797. J 00:25.9 00:01.6 00:06.0 2:06:19.1 798. E 00:33.5 00:02.3 00:06.6 2:06:28.0 799. A 00:42.4 00:02.1 00:06.2 2:06:36.3 800. J 00:50.7 00:02.1 00:05.8 2:06:44.2 801. E 00:58.6 00:02.0 00:11.7 2:06:57.9 802. A 01:12.3 00:02.8 00:06.0 2:07:06.7 803. E 01:21.1 00:02.0 00:08.6 2:07:17.3 804. H 01:31.7 00:01.7 00:07.7 2:07:26.7 805. J 01:41.1 00:01.6 00:07.8 2:07:36.1 806. J 01:50.5 00:02.2 00:08.3 2:07:46.6 807. A 02:01.0 00:01.9 00:07.0 2:07:55.5 808. J 02:09.9 00:02.9 00:06.4 2:08:04.8 809. D 02:19.2 00:02.7 00:14.7 2:08:22.2 810. C 02:36.6 00:01.4 00:09.1 2:08:32.7 811. D 02:47.1 00:02.7 00:07.4 2:08:42.8 812. E 02:57.2 00:02.1 00:18.2 2:09:03.1 813. L 03:17.5 00:01.9 00:09.6 2:09:14.6 814. E 03:29.0 00:02.4 00:07.4 2:09:24.4 815. A 03:38.8 00:01.8 00:09.5 2:09:35.7 816. B 03:50.1 00:01.8 00:08.0 2:09:45.5 817. B 03:59.9 00:02.2 00:06.3 2:09:54.0 818. E 04:08.4 00:02.3 00:11.1 2:10:07.4 819. H 04:21.8 00:01.8 00:05.1 2:10:14.3 820. J 04:28.7 00:02.2 00:09.5 2:10:26.0 821. D 04:40.4 00:02.3 00:06.7 2:10:35.0 822. H 04:49.4 00:03.3 00:08.4 2:10:46.7 823. J 05:01.1 00:01.5 00:09.8 2:10:58.0 824. H Tr.11/46 00:06.4 00:02.2 00:07.6 2:11:07.8 825. J 00:16.2 00:01.6 00:09.2 2:11:18.6 826. CE 00:27.0 00:05.3 00:08.8 2:11:32.7 827. AB 00:41.1 00:02.8 00:07.1 2:11:42.6 828. I 00:51.0 00:01.8 00:10.1 2:11:54.5 829. E 01:02.9 00:02.0 00:06.2 2:12:02.7 830. AB 01:11.1 00:03.0 00:07.5 2:12:13.2 831. D 01:21.6 00:01.9 00:05.8 2:12:20.9 832. E 01:29.3 00:02.1 00:06.4 2:12:29.4 833. DB 01:37.8 00:01.6 00:11.2 2:12:42.2 834. CE 01:50.6 00:03.7 00:06.8 2:12:52.7 835. J 02:01.1 00:01.5 00:08.1 2:13:02.3 836. A 02:10.7 00:02.0 00:10.0 2:13:14.3 837. D 02:22.7 00:01.6 00:06.9 2:13:22.8 838. H 02:31.2 00:02.4 00:06.7 2:13:31.9 839. J 02:40.3 00:01.8 00:08.0 2:13:41.7 840. B 02:50.1 00:01.1 00:07.4 2:13:50.2 841. D 02:58.6 00:01.7 00:08.7 2:14:00.6

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Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 842. E 03:09.0 00:02.4 00:09.6 2:14:12.6 843. A 03:21.0 00:01.8 00:06.5 2:14:20.9 844. E 03:29.3 00:02.5 00:05.7 2:14:29.1 845. H 03:37.5 00:02.1 00:07.1 2:14:38.3 846. B 03:46.7 00:01.1 00:07.4 2:14:46.8 847. E 03:55.2 00:02.5 00:07.6 2:14:56.9 848. CE 04:05.3 00:04.0 00:05.8 2:15:06.7 849. A 04:15.1 00:02.0 00:06.7 2:15:15.4 850. D 04:23.8 00:02.6 00:07.7 2:15:25.7 851. J 04:34.1 00:01.5 00:06.2 2:15:33.4 852. H 04:41.8 00:02.8 00:06.2 2:15:42.4 853. E 04:50.8 00:02.1 00:12.0 2:15:56.5 854. I 05:04.9 00:01.8 00:09.6 2:16:07.9 855. A 05:16.3 00:01.8 00:06.8 2:16:16.5 856. D 05:24.9 00:03.0 00:10.4 2:16:29.9 857. C Tr.1/47 00:01.9 00:01.4 00:07.2 2:16:38.5 858. B 00:10.5 00:02.0 00:09.7 2:16:50.2 859. E 00:22.2 00:02.3 00:07.4 2:16:59.9 860. H 00:31.9 00:03.2 00:08.9 2:17:12.0 861. CE 00:44.0 00:03.2 00:09.9 2:17:25.1 862. D 00:57.1 00:02.7 00:11.0 2:17:38.8 863. AB 01:10.8 00:03.2 00:07.0 2:17:49.0 864. H 01:21.0 00:02.5 00:08.3 2:17:59.8 865. A 01:31.8 00:01.8 00:07.6 2:18:09.2 866. J 01:41.2 00:02.4 01:25.8 2:19:37.4 867. D 03:09.4 00:01.9 00:07.6 2:19:46.9 868. A 03:18.9 00:03.0 00:07.5 2:19:57.4 869. D 03:29.4 00:02.0 00:08.4 2:20:07.8 870. A 03:39.8 00:03.0 00:07.4 2:20:18.2 871. B 03:50.2 00:01.8 00:07.8 2:20:27.8 872. H 03:59.8 00:01.9 00:16.2 2:20:45.9 873. E Tr.2/47 00:11.2 00:02.5 00:07.8 2:20:56.2 874. I 00:21.5 00:01.8 00:07.6 2:21:05.6 875. J 00:30.9 00:01.6 00:09.0 2:21:16.2 876. E 00:41.5 00:02.4 00:07.3 2:21:25.9 877. E 00:51.2 00:02.4 00:07.9 2:21:36.2 878. D 01:01.5 00:02.7 00:07.3 2:21:46.2 879. E 01:11.5 00:02.0 00:06.3 2:21:54.5 880. A 01:19.8 00:02.9 00:07.0 2:22:04.4 881. DB 01:29.7 00:02.7 00:09.3 2:22:16.4 882. I 01:41.7 00:01.9 00:10.4 2:22:28.7 883. E 01:54.0 00:01.3 00:07.0 2:22:37.0 884. E 02:02.3 00:02.0 00:09.9 2:22:48.9 885. H 02:14.2 00:02.6 00:09.5 2:23:01.0 886. CE 02:26.3 00:03.7 00:09.8 2:23:14.5 887. DB 02:39.8 00:01.8 00:06.1 2:23:22.4 888. BD 02:47.7 00:04.1 00:07.5 2:23:34.0

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Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 889. H 02:59.3 00:02.7 00:09.9 2:23:46.6 890. J 03:11.9 00:02.1 00:15.5 2:24:04.2 891. CE 03:29.5 00:03.2 00:06.3 2:24:13.7 892. A 03:39.0 00:01.9 00:07.4 2:24:23.0 893. D 03:48.3 00:00.8 00:10.1 2:24:33.9 894. I 03:59.2 00:01.7 00:09.3 2:24:44.9 895. H 04:10.2 00:02.5 00:05.5 2:24:52.9 896. D 04:18.2 00:01.7 00:08.3 2:25:02.9 897. D 04:28.2 00:02.6 00:06.3 2:25:11.8 898. E 04:37.1 00:02.7 00:06.9 2:25:21.4 899. A 04:46.7 00:01.8 00:09.1 2:25:32.3 900. ED 04:57.6 00:03.7 00:09.6 2:25:45.6 901. A 05:10.9 00:02.9 00:11.0 2:25:59.5 902. H 05:24.8 00:02.9 00:07.4 2:26:09.8 903. E 05:35.1 00:02.4 00:09.6 2:26:21.8 904. I 05:47.1 00:01.9 00:08.6 2:26:32.3 905. D Tr.3/47 00:06.1 00:02.5 00:24.1 2:26:58.9 906. B 00:32.7 00:02.0 00:05.9 2:27:06.8 907. J 00:40.6 00:01.9 00:07.4 2:27:16.1 908. J 00:49.9 00:02.1 00:07.1 2:27:25.3 909. H 00:59.1 00:02.4 00:08.5 2:27:36.2 910. JE 01:10.0 00:04.9 00:06.7 2:27:47.8 911. A 01:21.6 00:01.8 00:07.6 2:27:57.2 912. D 01:31.0 00:02.7 00:07.3 2:28:07.2 913. E 01:41.0 00:02.0 00:08.0 2:28:17.2 914. I 01:51.0 00:01.8 00:16.4 2:28:35.4 915. C 02:09.2 00:01.4 00:06.5 2:28:43.3 916. B 02:17.1 00:02.3 00:06.9 2:28:52.5 917. I 02:26.3 00:01.8 00:07.2 2:29:01.5 918. CE 02:35.3 00:03.7 00:10.1 2:29:15.3 919. E 02:49.1 00:02.0 00:06.6 2:29:23.9 920. A 02:57.7 00:01.8 00:08.7 2:29:34.4 921. I 03:08.2 00:01.7 00:14.9 2:29:50.9 922. C 03:24.7 00:01.6 00:08.1 2:30:00.6 923. L 03:34.4 00:01.5 00:05.0 2:30:07.1 924. D 03:40.9 00:02.9 00:06.9 2:30:16.9 925. A 03:50.7 00:02.9 00:06.0 2:30:25.8 926. E 03:59.6 00:03.0 00:09.4 2:30:38.2 927. D 04:12.0 00:02.6 00:09.3 2:30:50.1 928. B 04:23.9 00:02.4 00:07.9 2:31:00.4 929. H 04:34.2 00:02.5 00:13.1 2:31:16.0 930. J 04:49.8 00:01.9 00:07.5 2:31:25.4 931. H 04:59.2 00:02.8 00:08.7 2:31:36.9 932. CE 05:10.7 00:04.0 00:10.7 2:31:51.6 933. DE 05:25.4 00:03.4 00:12.2 2:32:07.2 934. A Tr.4/47 00:08.7 00:01.8 00:07.9 2:32:16.9 935. H 00:18.4 00:02.6 00:09.1 2:32:28.6

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Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 936. H 00:30.1 00:02.2 00:06.9 2:32:37.7 937. H 00:39.2 00:01.8 00:09.0 2:32:48.5 938. B 00:50.0 00:02.1 00:06.8 2:32:57.4 939. A 00:58.9 00:01.8 00:07.7 2:33:06.9 940. D 01:08.4 00:02.7 00:07.8 2:33:17.4 941. E 01:18.9 00:03.3 00:07.8 2:33:28.5 942. DB 01:30.0 00:01.7 00:11.7 2:33:41.9 943. A 01:43.4 00:02.9 00:08.5 2:33:53.3 944. H 01:54.8 00:02.2 00:10.7 2:34:06.2 945. J 02:07.7 00:02.3 00:07.5 2:34:16.0 946. I 02:17.5 00:02.3 00:07.1 2:34:25.4 947. B 02:26.9 00:01.4 00:06.3 2:34:33.1 948. A 02:34.6 00:01.8 00:08.2 2:34:43.1 949. H 02:44.6 00:02.2 00:09.7 2:34:55.0 950. O 02:56.5 00:03.1 00:06.8 2:35:04.9 951. H 03:06.4 00:02.2 00:10.3 2:35:17.4 952. A 03:18.9 00:01.8 00:10.0 2:35:29.2 953. CE 03:30.7 00:03.9 00:10.7 2:35:43.8 954. D 03:45.3 00:02.7 00:08.2 2:35:54.7 955. E 03:56.2 00:02.5 00:07.3 2:36:04.5 956. I 04:06.0 00:01.8 00:11.7 2:36:18.0 957. B 04:19.5 00:01.3 00:06.8 2:36:26.1 958. J 04:27.6 00:02.0 00:13.8 2:36:41.9 959. J 04:43.4 00:02.3 00:08.5 2:36:52.7 960. J 04:54.2 00:02.1 00:08.0 2:37:02.8 961. J 05:04.3 00:00.9 00:13.6 2:37:17.3 962. J 05:18.8 00:02.1 00:09.0 2:37:28.4 963. CE 05:29.9 00:04.4 00:10.0 2:37:42.8 964. A 05:44.3 00:01.9 00:15.6 2:38:00.3 965. C 06:01.8 00:01.5 00:17.4 2:38:19.2 966. JE 06:20.7 00:03.9 00:16.1 2:38:39.2 967. A 06:40.7 00:01.9 00:09.9 2:38:51.0 968. H 06:52.5 00:02.1 00:09.2 2:39:02.3 969. B 07:03.8 00:00.7 00:05.3 2:39:08.3 970. E 07:09.8 00:02.4 00:07.7 2:39:18.4 971. D 07:19.9 00:02.7 00:10.2 2:39:31.3 972. B 07:32.8 00:01.1 00:15.2 2:39:47.6 973. A 07:49.1 00:01.8 00:10.4 2:39:59.8 974. H 08:01.3 00:01.9 00:14.5 2:40:16.2 975. C 08:17.7 00:01.5 00:08.5 2:40:26.2 976. E 08:27.7 00:02.4 00:07.0 2:40:35.6 977. H 08:37.1 00:01.9 00:08.0 2:40:45.5 978. B 08:47.0 00:02.1 00:06.5 2:40:54.1 979. H 08:55.6 00:02.3 00:07.6 2:41:04.0 980. J Tr.5/47 00:04.3 00:02.6 00:07.5 2:41:14.1 981. A 00:14.4 00:02.9 00:09.6 2:41:26.6 982. J 00:26.9 00:02.0 00:42.5 2:42:11.1

149

Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 983. A 01:11.4 00:02.8 00:12.0 2:42:25.9 984. D 01:26.2 00:03.2 00:11.2 2:42:40.3 985. H 01:40.6 00:02.8 00:09.6 2:42:52.7 986. E 01:53.0 00:02.9 00:09.3 2:43:04.9 987. A 02:05.2 00:01.9 00:07.7 2:43:14.5 988. L 02:14.8 00:02.4 00:09.8 2:43:26.7 989. E 02:27.0 00:02.4 00:06.1 2:43:35.2 990. DE 02:35.5 00:02.7 00:07.4 2:43:45.3 991. H 02:45.6 00:02.8 00:12.2 2:44:00.3 992. H 03:00.6 00:02.1 00:08.5 2:44:10.9 993. J 03:11.2 00:02.7 00:10.0 2:44:23.6 994. E 03:23.9 00:02.4 00:06.1 2:44:32.1 995. A 03:32.4 00:01.9 00:09.2 2:44:43.2 996. H 03:43.5 00:02.4 00:19.0 2:45:04.6 997. I 04:04.9 00:01.8 00:07.3 2:45:13.7 998. J 04:14.0 00:02.2 00:14.4 2:45:30.3 999. E 04:30.6 00:03.0 00:08.5 2:45:41.8 1000. D 04:42.1 00:03.0 00:08.6 2:45:53.4 1001. A 04:53.7 00:01.9 00:08.7 2:46:04.0 1002. L 05:04.3 00:02.7 00:07.5 2:46:14.2 1003. E 05:14.5 00:02.4 00:12.6 2:46:29.2 1004. D 05:29.5 00:01.9 00:16.3 2:46:47.4 1005. D Tr.6/47 00:14.4 00:01.4 00:06.2 2:46:55.0 1006. A 00:22.0 00:01.8 00:07.3 2:47:04.1 1007. H 00:31.1 00:02.4 00:09.3 2:47:15.8 1008. H 00:42.8 00:02.2 00:09.9 2:47:27.9 1009. DE 00:54.9 00:04.5 00:11.6 2:47:44.0 1010. A 01:11.0 00:01.8 00:08.6 2:47:54.4 1011. DE 01:21.4 00:03.9 00:10.3 2:48:08.6 1012. H 01:35.6 00:02.4 00:07.8 2:48:18.8 1013. J 01:45.8 00:01.9 00:10.9 2:48:31.6 1014. J 01:58.6 00:02.3 00:10.9 2:48:44.8 1015. J 02:11.8 00:01.8 00:07.5 2:48:54.1 1016. H 02:21.1 00:02.4 00:09.8 2:49:06.3 1017. J 02:33.3 00:02.3 00:07.8 2:49:16.4 1018. DE 02:43.4 00:03.3 00:11.0 2:49:30.7 1019. B 02:57.7 00:01.8 00:07.1 2:49:39.6 1020. H 03:06.6 00:03.2 00:06.0 2:49:48.8 1021. L 03:15.8 00:03.2 00:07.8 2:49:59.8 1022. E 03:26.8 00:02.0 00:33.5 2:50:35.3 1023. E Tr.7/47 00:30.3 00:02.4 00:08.9 2:50:46.6 1024. E 00:41.6 00:02.1 00:07.9 2:50:56.6 1025. L 00:51.6 00:02.5 00:05.4 2:51:04.5 1026. E 00:59.5 00:03.3 00:08.9 2:51:16.7 1027. EA 01:11.7 00:04.7 00:14.0 2:51:35.4 1028. H 01:30.4 00:01.9 00:13.7 2:51:51.0 1029. A 01:46.0 00:01.9 00:17.5 2:52:10.4

150

Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 1030. H 02:05.4 00:02.1 00:07.0 2:52:19.5 1031. B 02:14.5 00:02.1 00:06.2 2:52:27.8 1032. H 02:22.8 00:02.4 00:07.8 2:52:38.0 1033. J 02:33.0 00:01.7 00:05.3 2:52:45.0 1034. J 02:40.0 00:03.0 00:13.8 2:53:01.8 1035. E 02:56.8 00:02.4 00:06.4 2:53:10.6 1036. I 03:05.6 00:02.0 00:08.3 2:53:20.9 1037. B 03:15.9 00:02.1 00:07.5 2:53:30.5 1038. B 03:25.5 00:02.3 00:12.9 2:53:45.7 1039. BD 03:40.7 00:01.9 00:12.4 2:54:00.0 1040. E 03:55.0 00:01.4 00:08.8 2:54:10.2 1041. E 04:05.2 00:02.3 00:11.0 2:54:23.5 1042. B 04:18.5 00:02.1 00:07.4 2:54:33.0 1043. DA 04:28.0 00:02.9 00:10.3 2:54:46.2 1044. L 04:41.2 00:02.2 00:03.7 2:54:52.1 1045. H 04:47.1 00:00.9 00:09.2 2:55:02.2 1046. J 04:57.2 00:01.8 00:06.4 2:55:10.4 1047. H Tr.8/47 00:05.3 00:02.2 00:07.1 2:55:19.7 1048. D 00:14.6 00:01.7 00:08.5 2:55:29.9 1049. H 00:24.8 00:01.8 00:08.9 2:55:40.6 1050. L 00:35.5 00:01.3 00:06.9 2:55:48.8 1051. D 00:43.7 00:01.2 00:05.4 2:55:55.4 1052. J 00:50.3 00:02.4 00:05.6 2:56:03.4 1053. A 00:58.3 00:02.6 00:08.4 2:56:14.4 1054. D 01:09.3 00:02.1 00:09.9 2:56:26.4 1055. L 01:21.3 00:01.3 00:11.2 2:56:38.9 1056. H 01:33.8 00:03.0 00:08.3 2:56:50.2 1057. A 01:45.1 00:01.8 00:07.2 2:56:59.2 1058. DE 01:54.1 00:03.8 00:10.8 2:57:13.8 1059. DE 02:08.7 00:02.9 00:07.0 2:57:23.7 1060. LD 02:18.6 00:02.0 00:08.6 2:57:34.3 1061. D 02:29.2 00:02.5 00:08.2 2:57:45.0 1062. A 02:39.9 00:01.8 00:10.2 2:57:57.0 1063. DE 02:51.9 00:03.0 00:15.6 2:58:15.6 1064. DE 03:10.5 00:04.6 00:10.3 2:58:30.5 1065. A 03:25.4 00:02.2 00:04.8 2:58:37.5 1066. H 03:32.4 00:02.6 00:07.9 2:58:48.0 1067. B 03:42.9 00:02.0 00:14.2 2:59:04.2 1068. H 03:59.1 00:02.5 00:07.4 2:59:14.1 1069. J 04:09.0 00:05.2 00:09.3 2:59:28.6 1070. J 04:23.5 00:02.1 00:10.0 2:59:40.7 1071. J 04:35.6 00:01.6 00:11.8 2:59:54.1 1072. J 04:49.0 00:02.7 00:09.2 3:00:06.0 1073. CB 05:00.9 00:03.0 00:09.4 3:00:18.4 1074. H 05:13.3 00:05.2 00:13.6 3:00:37.2 1075. L 05:32.1 00:01.1 00:07.4 3:00:45.7 1076. DE 05:40.6 00:03.2 00:08.5 3:00:57.4

151

Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running # Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 1077. D 05:52.3 00:00.4 00:07.1 3:01:04.9 1078. DE 05:59.8 00:03.2 00:08.7 3:01:16.8 1079. L 06:11.7 00:03.5 00:05.4 3:01:25.7 1080. D Tr.9/47 00:01.0 00:01.7 00:11.3 3:01:38.7 1081. D 00:14.0 00:02.3 00:08.9 3:01:49.9 1082. D 00:25.2 00:01.0 00:06.3 3:01:57.2 1083. D 00:32.5 00:02.3 00:05.9 3:02:05.4 1084. D 00:40.7 00:02.3 00:06.3 3:02:14.0 1085. H 00:49.3 00:02.3 00:20.5 3:02:36.8 1086. A 01:12.1 00:01.9 00:07.6 3:02:46.3 1087. J 01:21.6 00:02.8 00:10.5 3:02:59.6 1088. J 01:34.9 00:02.6 00:09.7 3:03:11.9 1089. E 01:47.2 00:02.0 00:09.1 3:03:23.0 1090. H 01:58.3 00:02.4 00:12.5 3:03:37.9 1091. B 02:13.2 00:02.1 00:35.4 3:04:15.4 1092. D 02:50.7 00:01.9 00:09.9 3:04:27.2 1093. E 03:02.5 00:02.5 00:10.6 3:04:40.3 1094. D 03:15.6 00:02.8 00:17.6 3:05:00.7 1095. H 03:36.0 00:02.1 00:05.2 3:05:08.0 1096. LDE 03:43.3 00:07.7 00:09.4 3:05:25.1 1097. A 04:00.4 00:01.8 00:08.1 3:05:35.0 1098. H 04:10.3 00:02.6 00:10.6 3:05:48.2 1099. DF Tr.10/47 00:02.7 00:02.6 00:10.6 3:06:01.4 1100. AB 00:15.9 00:02.9 00:07.8 3:06:12.1 1101. H 00:26.6 00:02.4 00:17.3 3:06:31.8 1102. KB 00:46.3 00:02.9 00:08.1 3:06:42.8 1103. C 00:57.3 00:01.5 00:07.5 3:06:51.8 1104. B 01:06.3 00:02.1 00:06.7 3:07:00.6 1105. H 01:15.1 00:03.0 00:08.1 3:07:11.7 1106. E 01:26.2 00:02.1 00:07.3 3:07:21.1 1107. J 01:35.6 00:02.0 00:11.7 3:07:34.8 1108. B 01:49.3 00:02.3 00:08.0 3:07:45.1 1109. E 01:59.6 00:02.9 00:08.5 3:07:56.5 1110. H 02:11.0 00:02.1 00:10.6 3:08:09.2 1111. L 02:23.7 00:02.1 00:07.6 3:08:18.9 1112. E 02:33.4 00:02.4 00:07.2 3:08:28.5 1113. A 02:43.0 00:02.0 00:05.2 3:08:35.7 1114. H 02:50.2 00:02.2 00:07.9 3:08:45.8 1115. E 03:00.3 00:02.1 00:04.7 3:08:52.6 1116. D 03:07.1 00:03.0 00:11.3 3:09:06.9 1117. H 03:21.4 00:02.4 00:26.1 3:09:35.4 1118. J 03:49.9 00:01.9 00:08.7 3:09:46.0 1119. J 04:00.5 00:01.8 00:08.6 3:09:56.4 1120. J 04:10:9 00:02.7 00:10.8 3:10:09.9 1121. J 04:24.4 00:02.0 00:11.4 3:10:23.4 1122. C Tr.11/47 00:09.1 00:01.5 00:33.9 3:10:58.7 1123. B 00:44.5 00:02.1 00:00.0 3:11:00.8 Mean 00:02.3 00:07.9 152

APPENDIX D:

NOTATION OF A PRE-DAWN LONG SONG FROM ALICE SPRINGS

153

154

155

APPENDIX E:

SUPPLEMENTARY ANALYSIS OF A PRE-DAWN LONG SONG FROM ALICE SPRINGS

156

SUPPLEMENTARY ANALYSIS OF A PRE-DAWN LONG SONG FROM ALICE SPRINGS: MACADAM

Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running Number Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 1. A1 Tr.1/77 10:45.1 00:01.1 00:24.0 0:11:10.2 2. A2 11:10.2 00:01.6 00:07.6 0:11:19.4 3. B1 11:19.4 00:00.9 00:11.1 0:11:31.4 4. A3 11:31.4 00:01.1 00:36.0 0:12:08.5 5. A1 12:08.5 00:01.1 00:27.2 0:12:36.8 6. A2 12:36.8 00:01.6 00:13.4 0:12:51.8 7. C1 12:51.8 00:01.2 00:34.9 0:13:27.9 8. A2 13:27.9 00:01.6 00:11.9 0:13:41.4 9. B2 13:41.4 00:01.5 00:12.0 0:13:54.9 10. A1 13:54.9 00:01.1 01:12.7 0:15:08.7 11. B3 15:08.7 00:01.0 00:58.2 0:16:07.9 12. A1 16:07.9 00:01.1 00:09.8 0:16:18.8 13. A2 16:18.8 00:01.6 01:06.3 0:17:26.7 14. A1 17:26.7 00:01.1 00:20.6 0:17:48.4 15. D1 17:48.4 00:01.9 00:18.8 0:18:09.1 16. A2 18:09.1 00:01.6 00:15.3 0:18:26.0 17. A2 18:26.0 00:01.6 00:09.4 0:18:37.0 18. E1 18:37.0 00:00.2 00:13.9 0:18:51.1 19. B4 18:51.1 00:01.8 00:15.6 0:19:08.5 20. A2 19:08.5 00:01.6 00:08.6 0:19:18.7 21. A1 19:18.7 00:01.1 00:10.8 0:19:30.6 22. A2 19:30.6 00:01.6 00:22.1 0:19:54.3 23. E1 19:54.3 00:00.2 00:47.6 0:20:42.1 24. A1 20:42.1 00:01.1 02:49.4 0:23:32.6 25. A2 23:32.6 00:01.6 00:13.7 0:23:47.9 26. A2 23:47.9 00:01.6 00:11.6 0:24:01.1 27. E1 24:01.1 00:00.2 00:12.7 0:24:14.0 28. A2 24:14.0 00:01.6 00:37.2 0:24:52.8 29. A2 24:52.8 00:01.6 00:14.9 0:25:09.3 30. A2 25:09.3 00:01.6 00:25.4 0:25:36.3 31. B4 25:36.3 00:01.8 00:31.0 0:26:09.1 32. B4 26:09.1 00:01.8 00:07.7 0:26:18.6 33. A2 26:29.3 00:01.6 02:11.8 0:28:32.0 34. A2 28:42.7 00:01.6 01:00.6 0:29:34.2 35. C2 29:44.9 00:02.2 00:17.5 0:29:53.9 36. A2 Tr.2/77 00:13.5 00:01.6 00:32.6 0:30:28.1 37. B5 00:47.7 00:01.8 00:06.6 0:30:36.5 38. A2 00:56.1 00:01.6 00:13.6 0:30:51.7 39. B4 01:11.3 00:01.8 00:09.9 0:31:03.4 40. A2 01:23.0 00:01.6 00:12.0 0:31:17.0 41. B4 01:36.6 00:01.8 00:14.9 0:31:33.7 42. A2 01:53.3 00:01.6 00:21.9 0:31:57.2 43. A2 02:16.8 00:01.6 00:22.2 0:32:21.0 44. A2 02:40.6 00:01.6 00:29.5 0:32:52.1 45. A2 03:11.7 00:01.6 00:18.1 0:33:11.8 46. A2 03:31.4 00:01.6 00:16.2 0:33:29.6 47. A2 03:49.2 00:01.6 00:10.9 0:33:42.1 157

Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running Number Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 48. D2 04:01.7 00:03.1 00:16.6 0:34:01.8 49. A2 04:21.4 00:01.6 00:20.5 0:34:23.9 50. A2 04:43.5 00:01.6 00:08.3 0:34:33.8 51. A2 04:53.4 00:01.6 00:09.9 0:34:45.3 52. A2 05:04.9 00:01.6 00:12.0 0:34:58.9 53. C2 05:18.5 00:02.2 00:14.9 0:35:16.0 54. A2 05:35.6 00:01.6 00:11.5 0:35:29.1 55. A2 05:48.7 00:01.6 00:08.1 0:35:38.8 56. B4 05:58.4 00:01.8 00:11.6 0:35:52.2 57. A2 06:11.8 00:01.6 00:06.6 0:36:00.4 58. A2 06:20.0 00:01.6 00:12.4 0:36:14.4 59. A2 06:34.0 00:01.6 00:11.4 0:36:27.4 60. A2 06:47.0 00:01.6 00:07.4 0:36:36.4 61. A2 06:56.0 00:01.6 00:11.7 0:36:49.7 62. D3 07:09.3 00:01.5 00:11.0 0:37:02.2 63. B4 07:21.8 00:01.8 00:17.3 0:37:21.3 64. A2 07:40.9 00:01.6 00:45.5 0:38:08.4 65. A2 08:28.0 00:01.6 00:49.9 0:38:59.9 66. A2 09:19.5 00:01.6 00:02.5 0:39:04.0 67. A2 09:33.0 00:01.6 00:17.3 0:39:22.9 68. A2 09:51.9 00:01.6 00:08.2 0:39:32.7 69. B5 10:01.7 00:01.8 00:18.2 0:39:52.7 70. A2 10:21.7 00:01.6 00:10.1 0:40:04.4 71. A2 10:33.4 00:01.6 00:18.5 0:40:24.5 72. A2 10:53.5 00:01.6 00:18.6 0:40:44.7 73. B4 11:13.7 00:01.8 00:11.1 0:40:57.6 74. A2 11:26.6 00:01.6 00:18.7 0:41:17.9 75. A2 11:46.9 00:01.6 00:11.5 0:41:31.0 76. A2 12:00.0 00:01.6 00:09.4 0:41:42.0 77. A2 12:11.0 00:01.6 00:14.4 0:41:58.0 78. B4 12:27.0 00:01.8 00:17.2 0:42:17.0 79. A2 12:46.0 00:01.6 00:21.4 0:42:40.0 80. A2 13:09.0 00:01.6 00:12.6 0:42:54.2 81. A2 13:23.2 00:01.6 00:07.4 0:43:03.2 82. B6 13:32.2 00:01.6 00:10.8 0:43:15.6 83. A2 13:44.6 00:01.6 00:11.3 0:43:28.5 84. A2 13:57.5 00:01.6 00:20.1 0:43:50.2 85. F1 14:19.2 00:01.9 00:21.6 0:44:13.7 86. F2 14:42.7 00:01.7 01:06.0 0:45:21.4 87. A2 15:50.4 00:01.6 00:26.2 0:45:49.2 88. A2 16:18.2 00:01.6 00:28.1 0:46:18.9 89. E1 16:47.9 00:00.2 00:09.6 0:46:28.7 90. B4 16:57.7 00:01.8 00:16.5 0:46:47.0 91. A2 17:16.0 00:01.6 00:12.0 0:47:00.6 92. C2 17:29.6 00:02.2 00:07.6 0:47:10.4 93. A2 17:39.4 00:01.6 00:13.9 0:47:25.9 94. A2 17:54.9 00:01.6 00:11.5 0:47:39.0 95. B4 18:08.0 00:01.8 00:17.7 0:47:58.5 96. A2 18:27.5 00:01.6 00:26.4 0:48:26.5 97. A2 18:55.5 00:01.6 00:10.0 0:48:38.1 98. A2 19:07.1 00:01.6 00:06.7 0:48:46.4 99. A2 19:44.8 00:01.6 00:41.1 0:49:29.1 158

Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running Number Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 100. A2 20:27.5 00:01.6 00:58.8 0:50:29.5 101. A2 21:27.9 00:01.6 00:17.2 0:50:48.3 102. A2 22:00.6 00:01.6 00:11.1 0:51:14.9 103. B5 22:13.3 00:01.8 00:10.9 0:51:27.6 104. A2 21:46.7 00:01.6 00:12.3 0:51:14.9 105. A2 22:26.0 00:01.6 00:07.1 0:51:36.3 106. B4 22:34.7 00:01.8 00:07.4 0:51:45.5 107. D3 22:43.9 00:01.5 00:11.7 0:51:58.7 108. A2 22:57.1 00:01.6 00:09.3 0:52:09.6 109. A2 23:08.0 00:01.6 00:09.0 0:52:20.2 110. F3 23:18.6 00:01.1 00:10.7 0:52:32.0 111. A2 23:30.4 00:01.6 00:17.4 0:52:51.0 112. B4 23:49.4 00:01.8 00:08.8 0:53:01.6 113. A2 24:00.0 00:01.6 00:11.4 0:53:14.6 114. B4 24:13.0 00:01.8 00:08.2 0:53:24.6 115. A2 24:23.0 00:01.6 00:11.4 0:53:37.6 116. A2 24:36.0 00:01.6 00:24.7 0:54:03.9 117. A2 25:02.3 00:01.6 00:16.5 0:54:22.0 118. A2 25:20.4 00:01.6 00:10.0 0:54:33.6 119. A2 25:32.0 00:01.6 00:05.9 0:54:41.1 120. A2 25:39.5 00:01.6 00:10.4 0:54:53.1 121. A2 25:51.5 00:01.6 00:09.9 0:55:04.6 122. A2 26:03.0 00:01.6 00:17.7 0:55:23.9 123. B7 26:22.3 00:02.2 00:10.8 0:55:36.9 124. A2 26:35.3 00:01.6 00:14.5 0:55:53.0 125. B4 26:51.4 00:01.8 00:28.9 0:56:23.7 126. A2 27:22.1 00:01.6 00:09.3 0:56:34.6 127. A2 27:33.0 00:01.6 00:10.9 0:56:47.1 128. A2 27:45.5 00:01.6 00:09.4 0:56:58.1 129. A2 27:56.5 00:01.6 00:13.6 0:57:13.3 130. F4 28:11.7 00:01.9 00:09.6 0:57:24.8 131. B4 28:23.2 00:01.8 00:11.0 0:57:37.6 132. A2 28:36.0 00:01.6 00:03.2 0:57:42.4 133. BA1 28:44.6 00:02.2 00:11.4 0:57:56.0 134. A2 28:58.2 00:01.6 00:13.4 0:58:11.0 135. B9 29:13.2 00:02.3 00:11.6 0:58:24.9 136. A2 29:27.1 00:01.6 00:09.3 0:58:35.8 137. A2 29:38.0 00:01.6 00:06.4 0:58:43.8 138. A2 29:46.0 00:01.6 00:10.0 0:58:55.4 139. D4 29:57.6 00:02.1 00:11.2 0:59:08.7 140. B10 Tr.1/78 00:06.1 00:02.2 00:06.4 0:59:17.3 141. A2 00:14.7 00:01.6 00:10.7 0:59:29.6 142. A2 00:27.0 00:01.6 00:10.9 0:59:42.1 143. A2 00:39.5 00:01.6 00:30.5 1:00:14.2 144. A2 01:11.6 00:01.6 00:41.2 1:00:57.0 145. B4 01:54.4 00:01.8 00:08.3 1:01:07.1 146. A2 02:04.5 00:01.6 00:09.9 1:01:18.6 147. F2 02:16.0 00:01.7 00:09.1 1:01:29.4 148. BA1 02:26.8 00:02.2 00:07.2 1:01:38.8 149. A2 02:36.2 00:01.6 00:08.2 1:01:48.6 150. A2 02:46.0 00:01.6 00:06.4 1:01:56.6 151. C2 02:54.0 00:02.2 00:06.1 1:02:04.9 159

Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running Number Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 152. B4 03:02.3 00:01.8 00:10.9 1:02:17.6 153. C3 03:15.0 00:02.1 00:07.6 1:02:27.3 154. A2 03:24.7 00:01.6 00:12.9 1:02:41.8 155. A2 03:39.2 00:01.6 00:06.2 1:02:49.6 156. B4 03:47.0 00:01.8 00:26.7 1:03:18.1 157. A2 04:15.5 00:01.6 00:11.5 1:03:31.2 158. A2 04:28.6 00:01.6 00:10.3 1:03:43.1 159. A2 04:40.5 00:01.6 00:15.0 1:03:59.7 160. F3 04:57.1 00:01.1 00:09.5 1:04:10.3 161. A2 05:07.7 00:01.6 00:13.7 1:04:25.6 162. A2 05:23.0 00:01.6 00:08.8 1:04:36.0 163. B4 05:33.4 00:01.8 00:11.0 1:04:48.8 164. A2 05:46.2 00:01.6 00:22.6 1:05:13.0 165. A2 06:10.4 00:01.6 00:11.6 1:05:26.2 166. A2 06:23.6 00:01.6 00:12.8 1:05:40.6 167. C3 06:38.0 00:02.1 00:05.5 1:05:48.2 168. B4 06:45.6 00:01.8 00:06.6 1:05:56.6 169. A2 06:54.0 00:01.6 00:03.6 1:06:01.8 170. F5 07:00.4 00:02.6 00:06.3 1:06:10.7 171. A2 07:09.3 00:01.6 00:08.6 1:06:20.9 172. B4 07:19.5 00:01.8 00:11.2 1:06:33.9 173. F6 07:32.5 00:01.2 00:03.8 1:06:38.9 174. A2 07:37.5 00:01.6 00:08.4 1:06:48.9 175. BA1 07:47.5 00:02.2 00:09.3 1:07:00.4 176. B4 07:59.0 00:01.8 00:08.2 1:07:10.4 177. A2 08:09.0 00:01.6 00:15.5 1:07:27.5 178. C2 08:26.1 00:02.2 00:04.8 1:07:34.5 179. A2 08:33.1 00:01.6 00:07.8 1:07:43.9 180. A2 08:42.5 00:01.6 00:04.9 1:07:50.4 181. A2 08:49.0 00:01.6 00:10.4 1:08:02.4 182. B4 09:01.0 00:01.8 00:10.2 1:08:14.4 183. A2 09:13.0 00:01.6 00:07.4 1:08:23.4 184. B9 09:22.0 00:02.3 00:06.7 1:08:32.4 185. A2 09:31.0 00:01.6 00:08.4 1:08:42.4 186. C2 09:41.0 00:02.2 00:06.2 1:08:50.8 187. BA1 09:49.4 00:02.2 00:06.9 1:08:59.9 188. A2 09:58.5 00:01.6 00:05.9 1:09:07.4 189. A2 10:06.0 00:01.6 00:05.4 1:09:14.4 190. B4 10:13.0 00:01.8 00:04.2 1:09:20.4 191. A2 10:19.0 00:01.6 00:06.4 1:09:28.4 192. A2 10:27.0 00:01.6 00:06.4 1:09:36.4 193. B7 10:35.0 00:02.2 00:06.4 1:09:45.0 194. A2 10:43.6 00:01.6 00:05.8 1:09:52.4 195. B4 10:51.0 00:01.8 00:07.2 1:10:01.4 196. A2 11:00.0 00:01.6 00:07.9 1:10:10.9 197. B4 11:09.5 00:01.8 00:05.7 1:10:18.4 198. A2 11:17.0 00:01.6 00:03.5 1:10:23.5 199. B5 11:25.0 00:01.8 00:07.6 1:10:32.9 200. C2 11:34.4 00:02.2 00:07.6 1:10:42.7 201. F4 11:44.2 00:01.9 00:05.2 1:10:49.8 202. B4 11:51.3 00:01.8 00:05.9 1:10:57.5 203. A2 11:59.0 00:01.6 00:06.9 1:11:06.0 160

Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running Number Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 204. A2 12:07.5 00:01.6 00:06.3 1:11:13.9 205. B4 12:15.4 00:01.8 00:06.3 1:11:22.0 206. A2 12:23.5 00:01.6 00:09.9 1:11:33.5 207. F2 12:35.0 00:01.7 00:05.3 1:11:40.5 208. B4 12:42.0 00:01.8 00:06.4 1:11:48.7 209. A2 12:50.2 00:01.6 00:08.2 1:12:16.5 210. C2 13:00.0 00:02.2 00:05.8 1:12:06.5 211. B4 13:08.0 00:01.8 00:08.2 1:12:16.5 212. BA1 13:18.0 00:02.2 00:09.8 1:12:28.5 213. B4 13:30.0 00:01.8 00:05.2 1:12:35.5 214. A2 13:37.0 00:01.6 00:08.4 1:12:45.5 215. F2 13:47.0 00:01.7 00:05.3 1:12:52.5 216. B9 13:54.0 00:02.3 00:04.7 1:12:59.5 217. A2 14:01.0 00:01.6 00:07.9 1:13:09.0 218. A2 14:10.5 00:01.6 00:05.9 1:13:16.5 219. A2 14:18.0 00:01.6 00:07.4 1:13:25.5 220. B4 14:27.0 00:01.8 00:07.2 1:13:34.5 221. A2 14:36.0 00:01.6 00:06.3 1:13:42.4 222. A5 14:43.9 00:02.6 00:09.4 1:13:54.4 223. A2 14:55.9 00:01.6 00:08.5 1:14:04.5 224. A2 15:06.0 00:01.6 00:06.4 1:14:12.5 225. B4 15:14.0 00:01.8 00:06.2 1:14:20.5 226. A2 15:22.0 00:01.6 00:07.4 1:14:29.5 227. BA1 15:31.0 00:02.2 00:06.2 1:14:37.9 228. B4 15:39.4 00:01.8 00:10.8 1:14:50.5 229. A2 15:52.0 00:01.6 00:06.4 1:14:58.5 230. F2 16:00.0 00:01.7 00:13.3 1:15:13.5 231. F2 16:15.0 00:01.7 00:07.3 1:15:22.5 232. A2 16:24.0 00:01.6 00:07.2 1:15:31.3 233. B7 16:32.8 00:02.2 00:03.9 1:15:37.4 234. A2 16:38.9 00:01.6 00:05.5 1:15:44.5 235. A2 16:46.0 00:01.6 00:07.4 1:15:53.5 236. B4 16:55.0 00:01.8 00:08.2 1:16:03.5 237. A2 17:05.0 00:01.6 00:07.4 1:16:12.5 238. B4 17:14.0 00:01.8 00:08.2 1:16:22.5 239. C2 17:24.0 00:02.3 00:06.0 1:16:30.8 240. B4 17:32.3 00:01.8 00:07.9 1:16:40.5 241. A2 17:42.0 00:01.6 00:07.6 1:16:49.7 242. BA1 17:51.2 00:02.2 00:06.6 1:16:58.5 243. B4 18:00.0 00:01.8 00:08.2 1:17:08.5 244. F1 18:10.0 00:01.9 00:05.8 1:17:16.2 245. B4 18:17.7 00:01.8 00:06.5 1:17:24.5 246. A2 18:26.0 00:01.6 00:06.4 1:17:32.5 247. F2 18:34.0 00:01.7 00:08.3 1:17:42.5 248. B4 18:44.0 00:01.8 00:05.2 1:17:49.5 249. A2 18:51.0 00:01.6 00:09.4 1:18:00.5 250. B4 19:02.0 00:01.8 00:05.2 1:18:07.5 251. B7 19:09.0 00:02.2 00:05.6 1:18:15.3 252. A2 19:16.8 00:01.6 00:05.6 1:18:22.5 253. B4 19:24.0 00:01.8 00:05.2 1:18:29.5 254. F2 19:31.0 00:01.7 00:07.3 1:18:38.5 255. F1 19:40.0 00:01.9 00:06.1 1:18:46.5 161

Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running Number Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 256. A2 19:48.0 00:01.6 00:05.0 1:18:53.1 257. BA2 19:54.6 00:02.6 00:06.0 1:19:01.7 258. F2 20:03.2 00:01.7 00:07.5 1:19:10.9 259. A2 20:12.4 00:01.6 00:05.7 1:19:18.2 260. B4 20:19.7 00:01.8 00:05.3 1:19:25.3 261. A2 20:26.8 00:01.6 00:08.6 1:19:35.5 262. A2 20:37.0 00:01.6 00:05.4 1:19:42.5 263. C3 20:44.0 00:02.1 00:07.9 1:19:52.5 264. C2 20:54.0 00:02.2 00:05.6 1:20:00.3 265. BA1 21:01.8 00:02.2 00:08.0 1:20:10.5 266. B4 21:12.0 00:01.8 00:05.2 1:20:17.5 267. A2 21:19.0 00:01.6 00:01.8 1:20:20.9 268. A2 21:28.0 00:01.6 00:30.4 1:20:52.9 269. B4 22:00.0 00:01.8 00:04.7 1:20:59.4 270. B4 22:06.5 00:01.8 00:05.7 1:21:06.9 271. A2 22:14.0 00:01.6 00:05.4 1:21:13.9 272. B4 22:21.0 00:01.8 00:06.5 1:21:22.2 273. A2 22:29.3 00:01.6 00:05.1 1:21:28.9 274. B4 22:36.0 00:01.8 00:05.4 1:21:36.1 275. F7 22:43.2 00:02.6 00:17.7 1:21:56.4 276. A2 23:03.5 00:01.6 00:05.9 1:22:03.9 277. C2 23:11.0 00:02.2 00:04.8 1:22:10.9 278. A2 23:18.0 00:01.6 00:06.4 1:22:18.9 279. A2 23:26.0 00:01.6 00:06.4 1:22:26.9 280. A2 23:34.0 00:01.6 00:04.4 1:22:32.9 281. A2 23:40.0 00:01.6 00:06.4 1:22:40.9 282. B4 23:48.0 00:01.8 00:06.2 1:22:48.9 283. F2 23:56.0 00:01.7 00:05.7 1:22:56.3 284. A2 24:03.4 00:01.6 00:05.1 1:23:03.0 285. C2 24:10.1 00:02.2 00:05.8 1:23:11.0 286. B9 24:18.1 00:01.9 00:10.0 1:23:22.9 287. B4 24:30.0 00:01.8 00:06.2 1:23:30.9 288. A2 24:38.0 00:01.6 00:08.4 1:23:40.9 289. B4 24:48.0 00:01.8 00:06.2 1:23:48.9 290. A2 24:56.0 00:01.6 00:06.4 1:23:56.9 291. A2 25:04.0 00:01.6 00:08.4 1:24:06.9 292. D4 25:14.0 00:01.9 00:06.1 1:24:14.9 293. A2 25:22.0 00:01.6 00:06.4 1:24:22.9 294. B4 25:30.0 00:01.8 00:08.9 1:24:33.6 295. A2 25:40.7 00:01.6 00:06.4 1:24:41.6 296. B4 25:48.7 00:01.8 00:04.8 1:24:48.2 297. C3 25:55.3 00:01.8 00:08.8 1:24:58.8 298. A2 26:05.9 00:02.1 00:06.7 1:25:07.6 299. C2 26:14.7 00:02.2 00:05.1 1:25:14.9 300. B4 26:22.0 00:01.8 00:08.2 1:25:24.9 301. BA1 26:32.0 00:02.2 00:06.6 1:25:33.7 302. A2 26:40.8 00:01.6 00:06.6 1:25:41.9 303. A2 26:49.0 00:01.6 00:07.4 1:25:50.9 304. A2 26:58.0 00:01.6 00:08.1 1:26:00.6 305. B4 27:07.7 00:01.8 00:06.7 1:26:09.1 306. F1 27:16.2 00:01.9 00:06.6 1:26:17.6 307. A2 27:24.7 00:01.6 00:06.4 1:26:25.6 162

Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running Number Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 308. D4 27:32.7 00:01.9 00:08.4 1:26:35.9 309. C2 27:43.0 00:02.2 00:06.1 1:26:44.2 310. BA1 27:51.3 00:02.2 00:05.8 1:26:52.2 311. C2 27:59.3 00:02.2 00:05.6 1:27:00.0 312. A2 28:07.1 00:01.6 00:09.5 1:27:11.1 313. F2 28:18.2 00:01.7 00:09.7 1:27:22.5 314. B4 28:29.6 00:01.8 00:06.6 1:27:30.9 315. A2 28:38.0 00:01.6 00:07.4 1:27:39.9 316. B4 28:47.0 00:01.8 00:08.6 1:27:50.3 317. A2 28:57.4 00:01.6 00:06.5 1:27:58.4 318. C2 29:05.5 00:02.2 00:06.8 1:28:07.4 319. B4 29:14.5 00:01.8 00:13.7 1:28:22.9 320. A2 29:30.0 00:01.6 00:08.4 1:28:32.9 321. B4 29:40.0 00:01.8 00:04.7 1:28:39.4 322. A7 29:46.5 00:02.4 00:06.5 1:28:48.3 323. A2 29:55.4 00:01.6 00:09.7 1:28:59.6 324. A2 Tr.2/78 00:05.2 00:01.6 00:05.8 1:29:07.0 325. F4 00:12.6 00:01.9 00:06.8 1:29:15.7 326. B4 00:21.3 00:01.8 00:07.6 1:29:25.1 327. F1 00:30.7 00:01.9 00:08.0 1:29:35.0 328. B4 00:40.6 00:01.8 00:04.6 1:29:41.4 329. F2 00:50.0 00:01.7 00:06.7 1:29:49.8 330. A2 00:58.4 00:01.6 00:05.1 1:29:56.5 331. F4 01:05.1 00:01.9 00:07.1 1:30:05.5 332. F2 01:14.1 00:01.7 00:06.8 1:30:14.0 333. B9 01:22.6 00:02.3 00:05.3 1:30:21.6 334. A2 01:30.2 00:01.6 00:06.2 1:30:29.4 335. F2 01:38.0 00:01.7 00:06.7 1:30:37.8 336. B4 01:46.4 00:01.8 00:08.5 1:30:48.1 337. A2 01:56.7 00:01.6 00:08.4 1:30:58.1 338. A2 02:06.7 00:01.6 00:08.1 1:31:07.8 339. A2 02:16.4 00:01.6 00:08.0 1:31:17.4 340. C2 02:26.0 00:02.2 00:06.1 1:31:25.7 341. A2 02:34.3 00:01.6 00:06.8 1:31:34.1 342. BA1 02:42.7 00:02.2 00:12.1 1:31:48.4 343. B4 02:57.0 00:01.8 00:06.0 1:31:56.2 344. A2 03:04.8 00:01.6 00:08.2 1:32:06.0 345. A2 03:14.6 00:01.6 00:07.4 1:32:15.0 346. B4 03:23.6 00:01.8 00:06.7 1:32:23.5 347. A2 03:32.1 00:01.6 00:06.5 1:32:31.6 348. A2 03:40.2 00:01.6 00:04.9 1:32:38.1 349. F2 03:46.7 00:01.7 00:06.7 1:32:46.5 350. A2 03:55.1 00:01.6 00:05.3 1:32:53.4 351. A2 04:02.0 00:01.6 00:04.8 1:32:59.8 352. F2 04:08.4 00:01.7 00:05.5 1:33:07.0 353. B4 04:15.6 00:01.8 00:06.7 1:33:15.5 354. A2 04:24.1 00:01.6 00:06.4 1:33:23.5 355. A2 04:32.1 00:01.6 00:07.2 1:33:32.3 356. B4 04:40.9 00:01.8 00:06.2 1:33:40.3 357. A2 04:48.9 00:01.6 00:06.2 1:33:48.1 358. A2 04:56.7 00:01.6 00:06.2 1:33:55.9 359. F2 05:04.5 00:01.7 00:07.6 1:34:05.2 163

Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running Number Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 360. B4 05:13.8 00:01.8 00:04.1 1:34:11.1 361. A2 05:19.7 00:01.6 00:00.8 1:34:13.5 362. F2 05:26.2 00:01.7 00:08.9 1:34:24.1 363. A2 05:36.8 00:01.6 00:05.3 1:34:31.0 364. B4 05:43.7 00:01.8 00:07.1 1:34:39.9 365. A2 05:52.6 00:01.6 00:10.5 1:34:52.0 366. F4 06:04.7 00:01.9 00:06.7 1:35:00.6 367. B4 06:13.3 00:01.8 00:03.5 1:35:05.9 368. A2 06:18.6 00:01.6 00:07.1 1:35:14.6 369. F2 06:27.3 00:01.7 00:06.2 1:35:22.5 370. D4 06:35.2 00:01.9 00:06.3 1:35:30.7 371. C3 06:43.4 00:02.2 00:05.2 1:35:38.1 372. B4 06:50.8 00:01.8 00:04.4 1:35:44.3 373. F1 06:57.0 00:01.7 00:05.7 1:35:51.7 374. BA2 07:04.4 00:02.2 00:06.7 1:36:00.6 375. B4 07:13.3 00:01.8 00:05.9 1:36:08.3 376. C3 07:21.0 00:02.1 00:06.6 1:36:17.0 377. F2 07:29.7 00:01.7 00:06.8 1:36:25.5 378. B4 07:38.2 00:01.8 00:05.3 1:36:32.6 379. A2 07:45.3 00:01.6 00:05.1 1:36:39.3 380. A2 07:52.0 00:01.6 00:04.7 1:36:45.6 381. B4 07:58.3 00:01.8 00:04.5 1:36:51.9 382. F2 08:04.6 00:01.7 00:05.1 1:36:58.7 383. C3 08:11.4 00:02.1 00:05.0 1:37:05.8 384. B4 08:18.5 00:01.8 00:04.4 1:37:12.0 385. F2 08:24.7 00:01.7 00:04.6 1:37:18.3 386. A2 08:31.0 00:01.6 00:04.3 1:37:24.2 387. F2 08:36.9 00:01.7 00:05.1 1:37:31.0 388. F1 08:43.7 00:01.9 00:04.5 1:37:37.4 389. B4 08:50.1 00:01.8 00:06.2 1:37:45.4 390. A2 08:58.1 00:01.6 00:05.3 1:37:52.3 391. F4 09:05.0 00:01.9 00:06.1 1:38:00.3 392. A2 09:13.0 00:01.6 00:05.8 1:38:07.7 393. F2 09:20.4 00:01.7 00:04.7 1:38:14.1 394. B4 09:26.8 00:01.8 00:06.7 1:38:22.6 395. A2 09:35.3 00:01.6 00:04.1 1:38:28.3 396. B9 09:41.0 00:02.1 00:04.9 1:38:35.3 397. A2 09:48.0 00:01.6 00:07.2 1:38:44.1 398. BA1 09:56.8 00:02.2 00:04.0 1:38:50.3 399. F2 10:03.0 00:01.7 00:05.3 1:38:57.3 400. B4 10:10.0 00:01.8 00:05.4 1:39:04.5 401. A2 10:17.2 00:01.6 00:04.9 1:39:11.0 402. A2 10:23.7 00:01.6 00:04.7 1:39:17.3 403. B9 10:30.0 00:02.1 00:05.6 1:39:25.0 404. A2 10:37.7 00:01.6 00:05.9 1:39:32.5 405. BA2 10:45.2 00:02.2 00:07.1 1:39:41.8 406. F6 10:54.5 00:01.2 00:05.9 1:39:48.9 407. F2 11:01.6 00:01.7 00:06.7 1:39:57.3 408. D4 11:10.0 00:01.9 00:05.9 1:40:05.1 409. A2 11:17.8 00:01.6 00:06.2 1:40:12.9 410. B12 11:25.6 00:00.7 00:01.2 1:40:14.8 411. A2 11:27.5 00:01.6 00:06.9 1:40:23.3 164

Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running Number Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 412. B4 11:36.0 00:01.8 00:04.2 1:40:29.3 413. F2 11:42.0 00:01.7 00:05.9 1:40:36.9 414. A2 11:49.6 00:01.6 00:05.0 1:40:43.5 415. A2 11:56.2 00:01.6 00:04.8 1:40:49.9 416. A2 12:02.6 00:01.6 00:04.6 1:40:56.1 417. C3 12:10.3 00:02.1 00:05.5 1:41:03.7 418. F1 12:17.9 00:01.9 00:04.3 1:41:09.9 419. B4 12:24.1 00:01.8 00:04.2 1:41:15.9 420. F6 12:30.1 00:01.2 00:05.8 1:41:22.9 421. B4 12:37.1 00:01.8 00:06.1 1:41:30.8 422. F2 12:45.0 00:01.7 00:05.3 1:41:37.8 423. B9 12:52.0 00:01.9 00:05.4 1:41:45.1 424. F2 12:59.3 00:01.7 00:04.0 1:41:50.8 425. B9 13:05.0 00:01.9 00:04.8 1:41:57.5 426. A2 13:11.7 00:01.6 00:07.4 1:42:06.5 427. A2 13:20.7 00:01.6 00:03.8 1:42:11.9 428. A2 13:26.1 00:01.6 00:04.2 1:42:17.7 429. D4 13:31.9 00:01.9 00:04.7 1:42:24.3 430. BA1 13:38.5 00:02.2 00:07.1 1:42:33.6 431. B4 13:47.8 00:01.8 00:04.9 1:42:40.3 432. F1 13:54.5 00:01.9 00:06.6 1:42:48.8 433. A2 14:03.0 00:01.6 00:04.4 1:42:54.8 434. B4 14:09.0 00:01.8 00:03.7 1:43:00.3 435. A2 14:14.5 00:01.6 00:02.8 1:43:04.7 436. F1 14:18.9 00:01.9 00:05.2 1:43:11.8 437. B4 14:26.0 00:01.8 00:04.3 1:43:17.9 438. A2 14:32.1 00:01.6 00:04.6 1:43:24.1 439. A8 14:38.3 00:01.6 00:04.1 1:43:29.8 440. C3 14:44.0 00:02.1 00:06.4 1:43:38.3 441. B4 14:52.5 00:01.8 00:04.4 1:43:44.5 442. A2 14:58.7 00:01.6 00:04.7 1:43:50.8 443. A2 15:05.0 00:01.6 00:06.5 1:43:58.9 444. B4 15:13.1 00:01.8 00:04.1 1:44:04.8 445. A2 15:19.0 00:01.6 00:04.3 1:44:10.7 446. C2 15:24.9 00:02.2 00:05.0 1:44:17.9 447. F4 15:32.1 00:01.9 00:05.9 1:44:25.7 448. D4 15:39.9 00:01.9 00:04.9 1:44:32.5 449. B4 15:46.7 00:01.8 00:06.5 1:44:40.8 450. A2 15:55.0 00:01.6 00:05.3 1:44:47.7 451. BA1 16:01.9 00:02.2 00:05.5 1:44:55.4 452. B4 16:09.6 00:01.8 00:05.6 1:45:02.8 453. BA1 16:17.0 00:02.2 00:05.8 1:45:10.8 454. B4 16:25.0 00:01.8 00:04.0 1:45:16.6 455. F1 16:33.5 00:01.9 00:05.8 1:45:24.3 456. C3 16:41.2 00:02.1 00:04.6 1:45:31.0 457. A9 16:47.9 00:01.7 00:05.7 1:45:38.4 458. A2 16:55.3 00:01.6 00:03.3 1:45:43.3 459. B4 17:00.2 00:01.8 00:05.4 1:45:50.5 460. F4 17:07.4 00:01.9 00:04.7 1:45:57.1 461. F2 17:14.0 00:01.7 00:04.7 1:46:03.5 462. A2 17:20.4 00:01.6 00:04.5 1:46:09.6 463. B4 17:26.5 00:01.8 00:06.1 1:46:17.5 165

Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running Number Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 464. A2 17:34.4 00:01.6 00:04.2 1:46:23.3 465. B4 17:40.2 00:01.8 00:04.1 1:46:29.2 466. A2 17:46.1 00:01.6 00:07.3 1:46:38.1 467. A2 17:55.0 00:01.6 00:06.4 1:46:46.1 468. A2 18:03.0 00:01.6 00:03.0 1:46:50.7 469. B4 18:07.6 00:01.8 00:03.6 1:46:56.1 470. A2 18:13.0 00:01.6 00:04.4 1:47:02.1 471. B4 18:19.0 00:01.8 00:02.9 1:47:06.8 472. F1 18:23.7 00:01.9 00:03.7 1:47:12.4 473. B9 18:29.3 00:01.9 00:04.5 1:47:18.8 474. A2 18:35.7 00:01.6 00:04.4 1:47:24.8 475. F1 18:41.7 00:01.9 00:03.9 1:47:30.6 476. B4 18:47.5 00:01.8 00:05.1 1:47:37.5 477. F4 18:54.4 00:01.9 00:04.8 1:47:44.2 478. D4 19:01.1 00:01.9 00:05.8 1:47:51.9 479. A2 19:08.8 00:01.6 00:06.1 1:47:59.6 480. B4 19:16.5 00:01.8 00:05.4 1:48:06.8 481. B4 19:23.7 00:01.8 00:08.5 1:48:17.1 482. A2 19:34.0 00:01.6 00:09.1 1:48:27.8 483. A1 19:44.7 00:01.1 00:07.4 1:48:36.3 484. C2 19:53.2 00:02.2 00:07.8 1:48:46.3 485. A2 20:03.2 00:01.6 00:03.9 1:48:51.8 486. A2 20:14.1 00:01.6 00:39.7 1:49:33.1 487. A1 20:55.4 00:02.3 00:10.9 1:49:46.3 488. A2 21:08.6 00:01.6 00:06.9 1:49:54.8 489. A2 21:17.1 00:01.6 00:06.9 1:50:03.3 490. B4 21:25.6 00:01.8 00:03.7 1:50:08.8 491. A2 21:31.1 00:01.6 00:05.0 1:50:15.4 492. A2 21:37.7 00:01.6 00:05.5 1:50:22.5 493. B4 21:44.8 00:01.8 00:04.1 1:50:28.4 494. A2 21:50.7 00:01.6 00:04.5 1:50:34.5 495. C2 21:56.8 00:02.2 00:05.0 1:50:41.7 496. B4 22:04.0 00:01.8 00:05.8 1:50:49.3 497. A2 22:11.6 00:01.6 00:04.0 1:50:54.9 498. A2 22:17.2 00:01.6 00:04.3 1:51:00.8 499. D3 22:23.1 00:01.5 00:03.6 1:51:05.9 500. F2 22:28.2 00:01.7 00:06.6 1:51:14.2 501. A2 22:36.5 00:01.6 00:04.7 1:51:20.5 502. A1 22:42.8 00:01.1 00:04.4 1:51:26.0 503. B4 22:48.3 00:01.8 00:07.1 1:51:34.9 504. A2 22:57.2 00:01.6 00:09.0 1:51:45.5 505. A1 23:07.8 00:01.1 00:01.9 1:51:48.5 506. B4 23:10.8 00:01.8 00:03.9 1:51:54.2 507. A2 23:16.5 00:01.6 00:06.6 1:52:02.4 508. A2 23:24.7 00:01.6 00:05.0 1:52:09.0 509. B5 23:31.3 00:01.8 00:04.9 1:52:15.7 510. A1 23:38.0 00:01.1 00:05.8 1:52:22.6 511. A1 23:44.9 00:01.1 00:05.4 1:52:29.1 512. B4 23:51.4 00:01.8 00:05.4 1:52:36.3 513. C3 23:58.6 00:02.1 00:04.1 1:52:42.5 514. B4 24:04.8 00:01.8 00:03.5 1:52:47.8 515. A2 24:10.1 00:01.6 00:03.7 1:52:53.1 166

Phrase Phrase Track/ Phrase Start Phrase Inter-Phrase Running Number Letter CD # Time Duration Interval Time 516. BA1 24:15.4 00:02.7 00:04.2 1:53:00.0 517. A2 24:22.3 00:01.6 00:04.4 1:53:06.0 518. C2 24:28.3 00:02.2 00:05.6 1:53:13.8 519. B5 24:36.1 00:01.8 00:05.2 1:53:20.8 520. C3 24:43.1 00:02.1 00:05.5 1:53:28.4 521. A2 24:50.7 00:01.6 00:04.9 1:53:34.9 522. B13 24:57.2 00:02.0 00:04.8 1:53:41.7 523. A2 25:04.0 00:01.6 00:02.3 1:53:45.6 524. C2 25:13.4 00:02.2 00:03.8 1:53:51.6 525. A2 25:19.4 00:01.6 00:11.0 1:54:04.2 526. A2 25:32.0 00:01.6 00:08.1 1:54:13.9 527. D3 25:41.7 00:01.5 00:04.2 1:54:19.6 528. A1 25:47.4 00:01.1 00:12.2 1:54:32.9 529. A1 26:00.7 00:01.1 00:08.0 1:54:42.0 530. A2 26:09.8 00:01.6 00:08.0 1:54:51.6 531. C2 26:19.4 00:02.2 00:04.4 1:54:58.2 532. B4 26:26.0 00:01.8 00:05.5 1:55:05.5 533. C4 26:33.3 00:01.5 00:05.9 1:55:12.9 534. A2 26:40.7 00:01.6 00:05.5 1:55:20.0 535. A9 26:47.8 00:01.7 00:05.8 1:55:27.5 536. A2 26:55.3 00:01.6 00:06.2 1:55:35.3 537. C2 27:03.1 00:02.2 00:04.6 1:55:42.1 538. B4 27:09.9 00:01.8 00:06.5 1:55:50.4 539. A2 27:18.2 00:01.6 00:05.7 1:55:57.7 540. D3 27:25.5 00:01.5 00:05.4 1:56:04.6 541. A2 27:32.4 00:01.6 00:06.0 1:56:12.2 542. A2 27:40.0 00:01.6 00:07.4 1:56:21.2 543. B9 27:49.0 00:02.3 00:05.6 1:56:29.1 544. A2 27:56.9 00:01.6 00:07.0 1:56:37.7 545. A2 28:05.5 00:01.6 00:10.6 1:56:49.9 546. A1 28:17.7 00:01.1 00:19.7 1:57:10.7 547. A2 28:38.5 00:01.6 00:08.9 1:57:21.2 548. C2 28:49.0 00:02.2 00:05.6 1:57:29.0 549. B4 28:56.8 00:01.8 00:05.4 1:57:36.2 550. A2 29:04.0 00:01.6 00:04.4 1:57:42.2 551. A1 29:10.0 00:01.1 00:13.3 1:57:56.6 552. A1 29:24.4 00:01.1 00:15.4 1:58:13.1 553. C5 29:40.9 00:01.3 00:09.2 1:58:23.6 554. B14 29:51.4 00:01.9 00:20.2 1:58:45.7 555. A1 30:13.5 00:01.1 00:00.0 1:58:46.8 Mean 00:01.7 00:10.0

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APPENDIX F:

NOTATIONS OF SONIC GEOGRAPHIES OF DIFFERENCE

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Pied butcherbird song from Magnetic Island, Townsville, and environs, spring 2005, 2006, 2007; Hollis Taylor, recordist.

# and Date, Distance dura- Location, begin. to next Notes including excerpt Mini-disc ID tion GPS time location timing MD2007.2.11 1. 4:37 Cardington 25/10/07 10km to From 29:00 – 33:40. Road, Flinders 04:51 T/O Hwy. 19 48 48.8; 146 48 59.3; 103m MD2007.3.9 2. 5:01 Cameron Road, 27/09/07 1km to From 11:20 – 16:10. Flinders Hwy. 04:22 T/O 19 43 29.9; 146 51 04.4; 100m MD2007.2.1 3. 3:57 Planthilll Road, 24/09/07 2.5km to From 14:30 – 20:30. Flinders Hwy. 04:55 T/O 19 42 51.3; 146 51 15.6; 103m MD2007.4.1 4. 5:27 Wordsworth 28/10/07 .5km to From 52:10 – 56: and Road, Flinders 04:10 T/O (50km 65:50 – 66:54 (ends with Hwy. to TV) mimicry). 19 42 09.6; 146 52 02.3; 102m MD2007.6.12 5. 5:02 Dingo Park 01/10/07 (50km to From 20 – 21:20. Road, Flinders 04:15 TV) Kangaroo crossing back Hwy. and forth in front of me. 19 41 09.2; 146 50 45.8; 83m MD2007.6.18 6. 2:05 Chenoweth 02/10/07 27km to Pieced together from first Road, Flinders 05:15 Booth few minutes; rain and Hwy. Road, wind increased. 19 38 28.4; 146 47km to 51 17.6; 62m TV MD2007.6.1 7. 5:30 Booth Road, 30/09/07 20km to From 32:22 – 37:50. Flinders Hwy. 04:40 TV 19 24 50.8; 146 50 56.5; 65m MD2007.6.25 8. 2:44 James Cook 03/10/07 Already singing when I University, TV 06:15 arrived. 19 19 45.6; 146 45 21.6; 38m MD2005.5.33 9. 3:42 Magnetic Island: 12/06/05 From beginning – 3:50. Nelly Bay, 10:45 NOT pre-dawn—daytime Sooning/Yates seemingly pre-dawn. 3.33- 27 28 49; 152 hour song. 58 48; 34m MD2007.1.1 10. 3:07 Magnetic Island: 16/09/07 From 9:45 – 12:53. Nelly Bay, 05:45 Sooning/Yates 27 28 49; 152 58 48; 34m MD2007.1.12 11. 3:48 Magnetic Island: 20/09/07 From 4:45 – 8:33. Nelly Bay, Botti- 05:33 Apparently same bird as ger/Mandalay MD2007.1.1. MD2007.1.10 12. 6:01 Magnetic Island: 19/09/07 From 8:08 – 13:35 plus Florence Bay 05:45 extra phrases added to end: four from 19:40, two from 22:37, and the two final from 23:08.

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Pied butcherbird song from Alice Springs and environs, spring 2006 and 2007, Hollis Taylor, recordist; spring 1998, Andrew Skeoch, recordist.

# and Date, Distance dura- Location, begin. to next Notes including excerpt Mini-disc ID tion GPS time location timing MD2007.10.16 1. 1:16 Ross River 09/11/ 13km to Generator noise. Resort 07 T/O, +4km 23 35 43.4; 134 04:35 to CG 29 14.3; 493m MD2007.10.5 2. 1:12 Trephina Gorge 08/11/ 49km Timings not exact (cut out or Bluff 07 pasted over footsteps). Campground 04:50 23 31 25.0; 134 23 43.9; 545m MD2006.6.1 3. 4:27 Trephina Gorge 02/10/ Already singing when I Bluff 06 arrived. From 8:20 – 12:45. Campground 05:30 23 32 01.1; 134 22 51.8; 525m MD2007.10.1A 4. 1:48 Jessie Gap 07/11/ 7km Excerpt taken from within 23 44 51.6; 134 07 25:20 – 29:45. 00 51.3; 536m 04:03 MD2007.8.33B 5. 2:23 Emily Gap 06/11/ Already singing when I 23 44 38.6; 133 07 arrived. Song split onto two 56 47.2; 552m 03:45 CDs. This is from second half, excerpt from 14:10 – 25:06 (better signal). MD2006.6.11 6. 1:31 Emily Gap 03/10/ 8km Same singers as above but 23 44 34; 133 06 from park, not road. From 57 09 05:05 7:12 – 8:43. MD2007.12.35 7. 1:05 G’day Mate CP, 16/11/ Excerpt taken from within S of Alice 07 14:45 – 19:55. Springs 04:40 Stuart/Ross Hwys. 23 44 14.2; 133 52 03.6; 564m MD2006.7.7 8. 2:45 G’day Mate CP, 08/10/ 10km Part of two-hour song. Cut S of Alice 06 and pieced together main Springs 03:45 phrases. Timings no longer Stuart/Ross correct or order. Hwys. 23 44 18.1; 133 51 57.2; 556m MD2007.13.2 9. 3:00 Alice Springs 17/11/ 65km N, From 12:15-15:10. Telegraph 07 70km E Station 04:20 23 40 24.8; 133 53 12.4; 584m MD2007.10.28 10. Gemtree CP, 10/11/ As above From 33:57-34:10. 1:12 Plenty Hwy. N 07 back to of AS 04:35 AS 22 57 56.9; 134 14 23.6; 630m MD2007.11.17 11. Araluen Arts 14/11/ 135km to Excerpt taken from 23-29:20. 6:15 Centre, Alice 07 T/O Traffic filtered partially. Springs 04:35 23 42 02.6; 133 51 46.9; 582m MD2007.10.38 12. Ormiston Gorge 11/11/ (7km in From 9:20 – 10:20. Windy, 1:00 #1: Ranger’s 07 from T/O) filtered. Res. 05:00 23 38 03.8; 132 43 52.6; 659m

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# and Date, Distance dura- Location, begin. to next Notes including excerpt Mini-disc ID tion GPS time location timing MD2006.7.1 13. 6:40 Ormiston Gorge 06/10/ From 5:50 – 12:30. #1: Ranger’s 06 Res. 05:18 23 37 47.4; 132 43 39.1; 658m MD2007.11.1 14. 1:02 Ormiston Gorge 11/11/ Middle of Already singing when I #2: Big Tree 07 3 locations arrived. Windy. From 4:50 – 23 38 07.3; 132 05:00 5:50. 43 54.7; 656m MD2007.11.5 15. 0:59 Ormiston Gorge 13/11/ Closest to 37:00 – 38:00. #3: Floodway 07 T/O 23 39 32.6; 132 04:50 43 35.6; 646m Andrew 16. 5:39 Ormiston ??/10/ 130km Full moon. Only Tr. 1 of 8 is Skeoch, Gorge, likely 98 in audio excerpts. Duration of recordist. near #3 c. Tracks 1-8, respectively: 02:30 5:39, 2:07, 7:52, 4:19, 19:46, 5:29, 3:43, and 25:47. MD2006.5.23 17. 1:39 Wattarka 30/09/ 130km Windy. From 23:20 – 25:00. (King’s Canyon) 06 on Luritja Road 05:23 /Wattarka T/O 24 17 08.2; 131 34 02.0; 608m MD2006.5.7 18. 1:32 Uluru NP CG 28/09/ Windy. From 7:05 – 9:00. 24 14 15.0; 130 06 Distances shortened 59 23.5; 498m 04:38 between.

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APPENDIX G:

CHAPTERS 4 AND 5 SOUND SOURCE DERIVATIONS

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CHAPTERS 4 AND 5 SOUND SOURCES

Figure # Recording Source Description 4.1 1 CD051.1@5:08 a very short note within a narrow frequency span 4.1 2 MD2006.7.7@1:06:50 a very short note covering a wide, but not simultaneous, frequency span 4.1 3 CD001.1@0:05 a note with an almost constant frequency 4.1 4 CD056.2@1:11 a note with an upward inflection 4.1 5 CD050.8@0:07 a note with a downward inflection 4.1 6 CD059.10@0:35 a warbling note 4.1 7 CD056.8@:09 two or more notes joined together by a tail 4.1 8a MD2006.7.7@1:06:33 simultaneously produced notes known to emit from one bird 4.1 8b CD050.5@1:47 simultaneously produced notes known to emit from one bird 4.1 9a CD037.1@6:35 complex, “buzzy,” or “noisy” notes 4.1 9b CD048.2@0:08 complex, “buzzy,” or “noisy” notes 4.1 9c CD056.8@0:48 complex, “buzzy,” or “noisy” notes 4.1 9d CD059.13@0:59 complex, “buzzy,” or “noisy” notes 4.1 9e CD059.13@0:59 complex, “buzzy,” or “noisy” notes 4.1 9f CD050.5@1:23 complex, “buzzy,” or “noisy” notes 4.2 1 CD080.1@4:03 a trill 4.2 2 CD050.8@0:20 a rattle 4.2 3 CD048.3@1:52 a quasi-rattle 4.2 4 CD092.8@1:54 a note becoming a rattle 4.2 5 CD049.9@0:17 rattle becoming a note 4.2 6 CD054.7@4:44 rattles ending with a flourish 4.2 7 CD059.16@0:07 rattles ending with a flourish 4.2 8 CD059.3@0:04 a descending rattle 4.2 9 CD090.16@0:54 an ascending rattle 4.2 10 CD007.3@0:06 an ascending and descending rattle 4.2 11 CD90.10@0:30 two rattle types from one bird 4.2 12 CD090.41@0:14 “noisy” rattles 4.2 13 CD049.4@2:15 “noisy” rattles 4.2 14 CD054.8@0:43 a long rattle 4.3 1 CD048.5@0:10 blip 4.3 2 CD006.5@0:13 blop 4.3 3 CD004.1@1:46 tok 4.3 4 CD026.1@15:02 several reiterations of tok followed by chook 4.3 5 CD12.1@1:99 chook 4.3 6 CD049.1@8:10 a note of almost constant pitch followed by a tok 4.3 7 CD059.20@0:24 several reiterations of tok resolving to a note of almost constant pitch 4.3 8 CD050.2@8:28 several reiterations of chook followed by a chip 4.3 9 CD77.3@5:52 chip 4.3 10 CD77.3@6:45 chip 4.3 11 CD038.1@13:10 chip 4.3 12 CD77.2@29:12 chip 4.3 13 CD091.20@0:11 a double chip 4.3 14 CD059.20@0:12 wow 4.3 15 MD2006.6.1@0:46 wow 4.3 16 CD010.1@8:27 wow 4.3 17 CD009.1@0:40 woop 4.3 18 CD092.6@0:33 woop 4.3 19 CD037.2@0:31 abrupt, downward, linear frequency sweeps (portamentos)

213

Figure # Recording Source Description 4.3 20 CD048.5@1:44 abrupt, downward, linear frequency sweeps (portamentos) 4.3 21 CD056.2@1:29 abrupt, downward, linear frequency sweeps (portamentos) 4.3 22 CD006.3@1:07 a note of almost constant frequency interrupted by three extreme (portamentos) 4.4 1 CD037.03D@0:57 a soft call from a bird sitting on a nest 4.4 2 MD2005.08.29@0:12 a food begging call from an adult 4.4 3 CD037.03D@1:05 a food begging call from a nestling 4.4 4 MD2006.1.42@0:10 a scolding call 4.4 5 CD059.8@0:09 two beak claps 4.5 1 CD051.3@3:15 species call 4.5 2 CD049.9@4:53 species call 4.5 3 CD012.1@2:26 species call 4.6 1 CD090.42@0:30 an adult delivers the species call, followed by a juvenile 4.7 1 MD2007.12.43@13:36 a group of pied butcherbirds and an Australian magpie involved in mobbing 4.8 1 MD2006.4.30@0:11 a group of pied butcherbirds mobbing an Australian raven. 4.9 1 CD006.3@0:24 antiphonal song with species call: two birds 4.10 1 CD059.9@0:10 species call notes incorporated in solo song 4.11 1 CD094.3@4:36 an immature pied butcherbird subsong excerpt 4.12 1 CD059.16@0:25 eight variants of the short-long descending second (SLD2) motif 4.12 2 CD059.1@0:54 eight variants of the short-long descending second (SLD2) motif 4.12 3 CD011.1@3:42 eight variants of the short-long descending second (SLD2) motif 4.12 4 CD037.1@17:44 eight variants of the short-long descending second (SLD2) motif 4.12 5 CD055.1@0:44 eight variants of the short-long descending second (SLD2) motif 4.12 6 CD050.5@0:07 eight variants of the short-long descending second (SLD2) motif 4.12 7 CD056.8@3:26 eight variants of the short-long descending second (SLD2) motif 4.12 8 CD059.9@0:07 eight variants of the short-long descending second (SLD2) motif 4.13 1 CD050.5@0:08 the SLD2 motif, followed by an aggressive “prew” rattle 4.14 1 MD2006.7.7@10:45, crescendo/decrescendo 1:48:27, and 1:58:45 4.15 1 MD2008.1.22@15:58 fanfares from seven different pied butcherbirds 4.15 2 CD048.5@0:05 fanfares from seven different pied butcherbirds 4.15 3 CD003.9@0:01 fanfares from seven different pied butcherbirds 4.15 4 MD2008.2.12@2:40 fanfares from seven different pied butcherbirds 4.15 5 CD002.1@0:01 fanfares from seven different pied butcherbirds 4.15 6 MD2008.2.29@5:50 fanfares from seven different pied butcherbirds 4.15 7 MD2007.6.1@34:05 fanfares from seven different pied butcherbirds 4.16 1 CD048.4@0:03 “The Singing Lesson” 4.17 1 CD048.22@0:23 pied butcherbird ostinato 4.18 1 CD012.1@11:33 phrase endings with rhythm reduction at measure’s end 4.18 2 CD026.1@0:37 phrase endings with rhythm reduction at measure’s end 4.18 3 MD2007.6.1@35:01 phrase endings with rhythm reduction at measure’s end 214

Figure # Recording Source Description 4.18 4 MD2007.6.25@0:37 phrase endings with rhythm reduction at measure’s end 4.18 5 CD037.2at0:31 phrase endings with rhythm reduction at measure’s end 4.19 1 CD004.1@1:29 phrase endings with a drop in the final pitch 4.19 2 CD003.9@0:10 phrase endings with a drop in the final pitch 4.19 3 CD038.1@0:58 phrase endings with a drop in the final pitch 4.19 4 CD030.1@2:27 phrase endings with a drop in the final pitch 4.19 5 MD2007.10.1@26:22 phrase endings with a drop in the final pitch 4.19 6 CD004.1@0:22 phrase endings with a drop in the final pitch 4.19 7 CD043.1@0:46 phrase endings with a drop in the final pitch 4.19 8 CD032.1@3:48 phrase endings with a drop in the final pitch 4.19 9 MD2006.7.7@51:15 phrase endings with a drop in the final pitch 4.19 10 MD2005.8.8@5:40 phrase endings with a drop in the final pitch 4.20 1 CD003.3@0:10 phrase endings with smaller intervals 4.20 2 CD003.3@0:15 phrase endings with smaller intervals 4.20 3 CD048.5@0:05 phrase endings with smaller intervals 4.20 4 CD032.1@1:16 phrase endings with smaller intervals 4.20 5 MD2007.6.1@34:11 phrase endings with smaller intervals 4.20 6 CD043.1@0:01 phrase endings with smaller intervals 4.21 1 CD037.2@0:27 phrase endings with other suitable differentiations: an accent, large leap, and two-note chord on the final note 4.21 2 CD043.1@0:27 phrase endings with other suitable differentiations: an accent and a large leap followed by a steep portamento creating a chip sound on the final note 4.21 3 CD043.1@0:22 phrase endings with other suitable differentiations: an accent, an upward leap, and a note of wide harmonic content on the final note 4.21 4 CD038.1@1:08 phrase endings with other suitable differentiations: a structural accent in the outline of a G dominant seven chord filled after a leap 4.21 5 MD2006.7.7@43:50 phrase endings with other suitable differentiations: extended repetition of the final note or motif 4.21 6 MD2006.7.7@18:51 phrase endings with other suitable differentiations: extended repetition of the final note or motif 4.21 7 CD037.2@0:14 phrase endings with other suitable differentiations: extended repetition of the final note or motif 4.22 1 MD2006.5.2@0:30 a catchy “hook” from a pied butcherbird 4.23 1 CD080.1@15:15 scalar motion in two different pied butcherbird phrases 4.23 2 CD003.3@4:14 scalar motion in two different pied butcherbird phrases 4.24 1 CD006.5@1:20 scalar motion in top staff of a pied butcherbird duo 4.25 1 CD080.1@18:38 a descending “scale” demonstrating accelerando 4.25 2 CD094.3@1:06 an ascending “scale” demonstrating accelerando 4.26 1 MD2006.9.3@0:02 shape and balance in four consecutive phrases of pied butcherbird song, with rests inserted between phrases to show approximate delivery 4.27 1 CD007.4@1:50 a sense of proportion and balance in a pied butcherbird song as the human ear might hear it, followed by other phrases the bird delivers that interrupt the proportion 4.28 1 CD048.5@0:01 a sense of proportion and balance in a pied butcherbird song as the human ear might hear it, followed by other phrases the bird delivers that interrupt the proportion 4.29 1 CD074.1@0:08 subsong including mimicry and the species call 215

Figure # Recording Source Description 4.30 1 CD052.6@5:57 example of extreme timbre contrast in pied butcherbird song 4.30 2 CD090.8@1:30 example of extreme timbre contrast in pied butcherbird song 4.30 3 CD050.2@7:43 example of extreme timbre contrast in pied butcherbird song 4.31 1 CD056.2@1:29 example of extreme timbre contrast in pied butcherbird song 4.32 1 CD006.4@0:01 two pied butcherbirds in a duet with dissimilar phrases: notation 4.33 1 CD006.4@0:01 two pied butcherbirds in a duet with dissimilar phrases: sonogram 4.34 1 MD2006.3.11@0:27 two pied butcherbirds in a duet with similar phrases 4.37 1 MD2006.4.20@1:12; mimicry: comparison of a pied butcherbird and the MD2006.4.58@1:35 signal of a reversing truck in the bird’s territory

4.37 2 MD2005.5.33@0:37; example of possible mimicry: comparison of a pied V. Powys, mp3, butcherbird and the signal of a ringing telephone personal audible from outdoors in its territory communication, 1 August 2007 4.38 1 CD009C@8:17 three examples of pied butcherbirds (PBB) incorporating alien species’ motives into their phrases—sonogram: the peaceful dove signature motif 4.38 2 CD0048.12@1:14 three examples of pied butcherbirds (PBB) incorporating alien species’ motives into their phrases—sonogram: the noisy friarbird 4.38- 3 CD041.1@11:04 three examples of pied butcherbirds (PBB) 39 incorporating alien species’ motives into their phrases—sonogram: the magpie-lark 4.40- 1 CD080.1@8:49 pied butcherbird mimicry 42 4.43 1 CD080.1@22:18 extreme warbling notes from a pied butcherbird mimicry cycle 4.43 2 CD080.1@20:40 extreme warbling notes from a pied butcherbird mimicry cycle 5.9 1 MD2005.5.33@17:45 augmentation by way of a trill 5.13 1 MD2005.5.33@25:06 the highest note in the entire Two Tree song, indicated by a box 5.17 1 MD2005.5.33@3:01:17 phrase K contains the lowest notes and the longest note in the song 5.21 1 MD2007.4.1@65:50 pre-dawn song ending with mimicry, part one 5.22 1 MD2007.4.1@65:50 pre-dawn song ending with mimicry, part two

216

APPENDIX H:

EXTANT RECORDINGS WITH FIELD NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE

217

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes 001-ABC 50 03:50 Unknown Unknown Unknown This is Ulman 057. 002-ABC 01 03:24 Unknown Unknown Unknown “Close perspective general communication of male & female pbb. Some other bird species calling bg. Hissy mono recording, probably originally recorded on ¼” tape. WILD Accession No: 12904. “ 002-ABC 02 00:25 Unknown Unknown Unknown “Close perspective general communication of one pbb. Some other bird species bg. Hissy mono recording, probably originally recorded on ¼” tape. WILD Accession No: 12905.” 002-ABC 03 01:22 Unknown Unknown Unknown “Close perspective general communication of one pbb. Some other bird species bg. Crackly mono recording, probably originally recorded on ¼” tape. WILD Accession No: 12906.” 002-ABC 04 05:43 Mining Rd, 26/07/97 Bryce “Close & distant perspective Pilbara, 60 km Grunden intermittent calls of pbb. Slightly S of Karratha hissy mono recording (recording WA originally on DAT). Close calls at :00, :36, :53, 1:13, 02:30, 03:30, 03:58, 05:33, 05:40; new take at 01:01.” 002-ABC 05 00:37 Tom Price Rd, 29/07/97 Bryce “Medium perspective pbb call Pilbara, 60 km Grunden with other species of birds mg & S of Karratha bg. MS stereo recording WA (originally recorded on DAT). WILD Accession No: 17803.” 003-Beasley 01 09:30 Green Lake, 24/10/97 Jenny “DA-P1, coincident 406 pair on NW VIC 04:00 Beasley: tripod. Possums. Still morning.” Park June 18, 2007: “How interesting House, that you should have two Woodcote identical Pied Butcherbird Lane, recordings. We went to Green Belbrought Lake on Bill Flentje's on, West recommendation, and the bird Midlands was recorded on the campsite, so UK DY9 I am sure they would have been OAU the same individual. I hadn't realised we had gone there quite so soon after visiting Bill, but it is not far away. At the time of recording we did not realise it was a Pied BB – just shows how little we knew back then.” 003-Beasley 02 02:03 Mournpall 12/11/99 Jenny “Juvenile singing, DA-P1. Sunny, campsite, 16:00 Beasley some wind.” Hattah-Kulkyne Reserve, Hattah VIC 003-Beasley 03 09:14 Campsite in 24/09/01 Jenny “DA-P1. Before most people got Georgetown 05:30 Beasley up but some traffic.” QLD 003-Beasley 04 06:17 Jaxut campsite, 06/10/01 Jenny “DA-P1. Just coming light.” state forest N of 05:00 Beasley Eungella QLD 003-Beasley 05 08:00 Jaxut QLD 06/10/01 Jenny “DA-P1.” Beasley 003-Beasley 06 06:00 Willie Retreat, 17/10/01 Jenny “DA-P1. Pump from the house Macquarie 04:40 Beasley may be audible. “ 218

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes Marshes NSW 003-Beasley 07 04:44 Willie Retreat, 17/10/01 Jenny “DA-P1.” Macquarie a bit later Beasley Marshes NSW 003-Beasley 08 03:39 Willie Retreat, 17/10/01 Jenny “DA-P1. On the marshes, pbb Macquarie 09:45 Beasley plus habitat.” Marshes NSW 003-Beasley 09 05:17 Woods near 22/10/01 Jenny “DA-P1. Still, clear morning.” Cumberdeen 04:30 Beasley Dam, Pililga Forest NSW 003-Beasley 10 00:40 Ellery Creek 06/08/03 Jenny “DA-P1 and 406x2, ORTF. Just a Big Hole, West 06:30 Beasley phrase, near campsite and a MacDonnell road.” Ranges NT 003-Beasley 11 01:20 Sundown NP 03/11/01 Jenny “Minidisc with Sony 959 mic and QLD/NSW 05:45 Beasley FEL preamp.” border 003-Beasley 12 01:46 Sundown NP 04/11/01 Jenny “Minidisc with Sony 959 mic and QLD/NSW 05:30 Beasley FEL preamp.” border 004-Crouch1 01 41:19 30 km E of ??/07/88 Harold and Audrey: “The butcherbirds rank Alice Springs 04:00 Audrey among the world’s most talented NT (deceased) songsters. Perhaps the most Crouch: beautiful of all, the pbb.” Unit 19/71, Harold: “One morning in July Glouster 1988 my wife Audrey and I were Avenue, camped in a dry creek bed in Belair SA central Australia about 30 km e. 5052 of Alice Springs. We were (08) 8278 awakened about 4 a.m. by a 1500 beautiful bird song. I fumbled around in the dark to get my recorder going without disturbing the bird. It was quite an achievement! Finally I was able to make this recording. The long periods of silence (up to 5”) between the bird’s song allow the listener to get on with some of the mundane chores to which we are all subjected. Sometimes I find it even helps me go to sleep. Hope you enjoy it as much as we did. There was no wind, it was pitch dark, and I had no idea of the time. Identification was confirmed by the bird’s presence on a nearby tree next morning.” 005-Curtis1 01 03:40 Toolburra, near 09/09/01 Syd Curtis: “Tascam DA-P1 digital tape Warwick airstrip 05:24 69 Miles recorder; Telinga PRO 5 Classic QLD Street, mono omni-directional mic with Hawthorne Telinga parabolic reflector. I QLD 4171 adjust the gain to bring out some of the distant butcherbird calls, and filtered out most of the aircraft noise that intrudes in one part.” HT: Grey bb. Extracted. Nothing useful. 005-Curtis1 02 19:55 Toolburra, near 09/09/01 Syd Curtis Edited. Same as above. HT: A Warwick airstrip 05:24 few pbb contact calls, the final QLD one at 4:40 the most audible; 2:15 very distant pbb song. 005-Curtis1 03 19:54 Toolburra, near 09/09/01 Syd Curtis Unedited. Same as above. 219

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes Warwick airstrip 05:24 QLD 006-Curtis2 01 00:46 Tibrogargan Syd Curtis “Grey fantail.” L.A., Beerburrum S. Forest QLD 006-Curtis2 02 01:14 Knoll NP 21/06/68 Syd Curtis “On 06/21/68, I made my first (Tamborine serious attempt at bird Mountain) QLD recording—an Albert’s lyrebird, the same individual I later studies in depth. And in the picnic ground a pair of pbb’s was giving fine antiphonal duets. Because I bought the reels of tape myself, not the Department, and the butcherbirds were just peripheral to my main interest, I was (unwisely) economizing in my use of tape. Instead of letting the record run, I was trying to record just the duets. This seemed possible, because the bird that initiated each duet (I like to think it was the male), always bowed to his partner before singing the first note. I may still have missed an early note on some occasions. So you don’t get a proper recording, but you do get the melody.” 006-Curtis2 03 01:26 Knoll NP 15/05/69 Syd Curtis “Same location as track 2, and I (Tamborine fear I was still economizing on Mountain) QLD tape-usage. Pity, for there are some interesting duets. The butcherbirds is the last item on the tape, so for sure it was made at the picnic area on my way out after the early morning lyrebird session.” 006-Curtis2 04 00:45 Witches’ Falls 04/07/77 Syd Curtis “Eight years later, and just 2 km NP (Tamborine S of where Tracks 2 and 3 were Mountain) QLD recorded. Again, my main interest was a lyrebird, and this was just a casual recording on my way back out of the park. Not very good.” 006-Curtis2 05 03:34 Christmas 01/10/88 Syd Curtis “I recorded butcherbirds up the Creek flows out ridge to the south of the camp in of the SW part 1988. I was attending a meeting of Lamington of the Wildlife Preservation NP. There is a Society, and the recording was national fitness again just causal as I climbed the camp/hostel a ridge early morning to see what few km was there. However, it is an downstream interesting recording, for at one from the park stage, one bird moves away and (about 30 km S doesn’t take part in the next of Beaudesert song. Then in the last duet, QLD). because it is further away, its notes are softer, so you can tell which notes are sung by A and which by B. (Don’t know which is male and which female, however.)” 006-Curtis2 06 00:57 Witches Falls ??/??/03 Syd Curtis “These are all parts of the same 220

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes NP (Tamborine recording. I was on a steep Mountain) QLD learning curve with a new mic—a Rode NT4 stereo. (This is the only stereo recording.) I hadn’t appreciated how sensitive it is to any air movement at all, even with the foam cap on it. Some of the recording was spoilt. I split it up to exclude the affected parts when I sent it to Vicki, and it’s easier for me just to copy as is, rather than start again. The pleasant, if monotonous three- note call at the beginning is a brown pigeon—now called brown cuckoo-dove (terrible name) Macropygia amboinensis. An Albert’s lyrebird is heard occasionally in the distance, e.g. at 0:18-19. This was where Messiaen was listening to one in ’88, and given that we know ‘George’ at O’Reilly’s is 30 years old, it could even be the same individual. The loud song 0:44-47 is a pied currawong Strepera graculina.” 006-Curtis2 07 00:21 Witches Falls ??/??/03 Syd Curtis “I don’t know what species the NP (Tamborine small parrots are 0:9-11, etc.— Mountain) QLD little or musk lorikeets Glossopsitta probably.” 006-Curtis2 08 00:33 Witches Falls ??/??/03 Syd Curtis “Here I had turned the mic NP (Tamborine towards the butcherbirds, and Mountain) QLD they are now central, whereas they were in left-field in tracks 6 and 7.” 006-Curtis2 09 00:40 Witches Falls ??/??/03 Syd Curtis NP (Tamborine Mountain) QLD 006-Curtis2 10 00:37 Witches Falls ??/??/03 Syd Curtis “The butcherbirds have moved NP (Tamborine further away. Rainbow lorikeets Mountain) QLD Trichoglossus haematodus fly past 0:13-17.” 006-Curtis2 11 07:44 Christmas 02/10/88 Syd Curtis “I thought you might be interested Creek QLD to hear other species of butcherbird, and this gives you a sample of the grey. The first part of the recording is very poor, and you may care to go straight to 05:15 where the butcherbirds are in the foreground, instead of being just part of a somewhat distant mixture of species. Or better still, start at 06:30 for a reasonable recording of what I’m confident are grey butcherbirds. (If the pied is a flute, I reckon the grey is a clarinet.) The five-note melody at 01:24 is something I sometimes hear from the local butcherbirds when they visit our garden.” HT: in timbre folder. 006-Curtis2 12 01:42 Meunga near Syd Curtis “Just to give you another species, Cardwell QLD black butcherbird (quoyi), here’s 221

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes a brief recording from near Cardwell. It was then the private property of Arthur and Margaret Thorsborne, but later they donated the land to be added to the Edmund Kennedy NP. Arthur died some years ago; Margaret still lives there. The Slater Field Guide says of this species, ‘Voice melodious and flute-like; less sustained than other butcherbirds.’ Judging by this (my only experience of the species) very much less sustained. And again, I reckon more clarinet than flute. It’s interesting that the yellow oriole frequenting the same area has much the same voice quality. I’ve added two oriole calls at the end of the track for ease of identification, but there’s oriole at the beginning too where I included some of the recording leading up to the butcherbird. The somewhat plaintive whistled tune at the beginning (immediately after the first oriole call) is a grey whistler Pachycepala simplex. It was a particular favourite of Arthur’s. The more cheerful song, 0:14-16, leading into grey whistler, is a little shrike-thrush Colluricinla megarhyncha. (Track 17, the grey shrike-thrush, is a particular favourite of mine.)” HT: in timbre folder. 006-Curtis2 13 00:57 Syd Curtis “Albert’s lyrebird gronking song rhythms.” 006-Curtis2 14 01:42 Syd Curtis “Albert’s lyrebird variations on an original air for unaccompanied syrinx.” 006-Curtis2 15 01:24 Syd Curtis “The Dorrigo ‘flute-playing’ lyrebird.” 006-Curtis2 16 00:13 Syd Curtis “Grey fantail again.” 006-Curtis2 17 06:13 Syd Curtis “Grey shrike-thrush.” 007- 01 01:08 Capertee ??/03/05 Stuart “There were four birds in the Fairbairn1 Valley NSW Fairbairn: group, I guess a family party. I 145 Darling have enclosed two sonagrams of Point Road, their calls.” Darling Point NSW 2027 007- 02 01:36 Capertee ??/03/05 Stuart Same as Track 1. Fairbairn1 Valley NSW Fairbairn 007- 03 00:21 Birds Australia ??/04/90 Stuart Fairbairn1 Bird Fairbairn Observatory, Broome WA 007- 04 01:06 West Wyalong ??/??/93 Stuart “Dawn chorus. The mosquitoes Fairbairn1 NSW Fairbairn were bad! The singer was on the very top of a pine tree. The recording was made at first light.” 008- 01 02:46 West Wyalong Stuart “Purr or rattle. The rattle comes 222

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes Fairbairn2 NSW Fairbairn after the main call instead of in front as in the Capertee Valley calls.” 009-Flentje 01A 20:28 “Green Lake 24/10/82 Bill Flentje: * “This recording is not a (01A – Reserve VIC is 15 Pilcher continuous copy as frequent D): 11 km due S. of Street, pauses in the song were omitted. 02:38 Sea Lake town Bendigo The time of day was not on the main VIC 3550 recorded. Occasional duetting road to Birchip, was noticed.” and you turn in * “Referring to my equipment to the west at used for the recordings, its all the sign on the very old now but was top quality road. Since the available at the time, and which I few years of often still use. For the No.1 and drought the No.3 recordings I used a JVC lake may be Portable Cassette Deck K.D.1635 empty and Mark 111 recorder purchased in could have 1980, and for the No.2. and No.4 affected the recordings the Sony Cassette bird-life. When TC152SD recorder purchased in the time comes 1975 was used. In all four in spring, a recordings, the microphone used possible was the Sennheiser MKE 88 reliable contact (termed a shotgun type because for the of its shape and length) and whereabouts of between the microphone and the a pbb further recorder, I connect a simple north in Victoria microphone pre-amplifier to could be the increase the sound as Rev. C. F. appropriate. It is a Rapar MP200 Coleborn of 91 microphone acquired 20-4-1976.” Moffats Road, * “Further to the mention of pbb Burkes Bridge antiphonal singing, I notice that in VIC. Phone: the B.O.C.A Field Guide to 0354567700. Australian Birdsong Cassette 12, He's an expert there is an eleven second bird observer recording which Norman and knows the Robinson claims is antiphonal. I bird life around thought that antiphonal song was the Cohuna when the male makes a call and area of the the female immediately answers Murray River.” with a different call, such as the whipbird and a magpie lark call. Am I wrong?”

009-Flentje 01B 04:11 Green Lake 25/10/82 Bill Flentje “This was the day after the Reserve previous recording for locality, S of comparison to see if there was Sea Lake VIC any change in the performance. Other birds, white-plumed honeyeaters, striped honeyeaters, galahs, peaceful dove, and crested pigeon, caused interference. Again there were continual pauses, which I reduced on the copy; otherwise the performance lasted a little longer than the time on the tape. Some duetting noticeable.” 009-Flentje 01C 07:25 Green Lake 07/10/84 Bill Flentje “From 05:30 dawn, the recording Reserve 05:30 and the copy are a continuous locality, S of recording of the actual Sea Lake VIC performance. Other birds calling 223

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes were again white-plumed honeyeaters, striped honeyeaters, spiny-cheeked honeyeaters, little friarbird, seagull. Some distant duetting.” 009-Flentje 01D Green Lake 18/10/97 Bill Flentje “Recording was made at the Reserve 05:15 same location at Green Lake and locality, S of beginning at 05:15 a.m., thirteen Sea Lake VIC years after the previous recording. (Impossible to say whether it was the same birds performing.) Again, the performance and the recording and the copy are continuous. Some duets with the other partner some distance away on the nest are evident. Other birds are not conspicuous. The performance lasts about 05:40. Some phrases used in the 1984 (Tr. 01C) performance are absent. I haven’t been aware of any antiphonal calling of pbb’s.” “I have no way of knowing if it was the same pair of birds.” 010-Curtis3 01 13:36 Tall hoop pine 07/08/05 Syd Curtis “Three birds calling. Telinga Pro- at 90 Virginia 06:20- 5 ‘Classic’ mono mic and Avenue at the 06:40 reflector; Tascam DA-Pa DAT junction of recorder. There is a passive bass Aaron Avenue, filter in the mic. The recording Hawthorne was made with filtered and (Brisbane) unfiltered to separate channels. QLD; later (The bass filter of the handle of power lines the Telinga does not work.) Raw about 70m E on recording; Track 3 is edited Virginia Avenue version.” 010-Curtis3 02 03:10 Gum tree near 31/07/05 Syd Curtis “Pair of pbb’s. Birds flew, and I the junction of 06:30 couldn’t find them again. Tascam Pashen and Telinga; filtered track copied Street/Riding to make mono file.” Road (a major access route— much traffic even on a Sunday morning), Hawthorne QLD—the two sites are 800m apart 010-Curtis3 03 03:50 Tall hoop pine 07/08/05 Syd Curtis “Three birds calling. Telinga Pro- at 90 Virginia 06:20- 5 ‘Classic’ mono mic and Avenue/junctio 06:40 reflector; Tascam DA-Pa DAT n Aaron recorder. There is a passive bass Avenue, filter in the mic. The recording Hawthorne was made with filtered and (Brisbane) unfiltered to separate channels. QLD; later (The bass filter of the handle of power lines the Telinga does not work.) about 70m E on Edited version. The recording Virginia Avenue from the filtered channel was copied to a mono Peak AIFF file in a Mac G3, and non-pbb sections deleted as follows: 224

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes 00:00-03:33; 04:28-05:00; 05:08- 05:58; 07:07-08:25; 08:35-09:45; 10:00-11:03; 12:06 to end. Two seconds silence inserted to mark deletions. Waves VST telephone filter applied; bands 5-10 disabled; 1-5 lined and 1 set to 500Hz. Recording from power lines commences at 02:47 in edited copy. One note badly clipped in first song.” Gloria Glass notes: * “29 May 2006: Dear Hollis, I believed each year that it was just one bird that year that was singing the song. I also wondered whether it was the same bird from year to year, that ‘he’ was the alpha male in the area with rights to sing what I considered the alpha male’s pre-dawn spring song. One year, near the end, perhaps 2-3 years ago, ‘he’ had what I considered a usurper who was copying and shadowing his song, perhaps another who was hoping to take over when the alpha male dropped dead. There was certainly a mimicking of the song, which you would be able to find, and the second bird was further away from our house. All this is just supposition, of course, on my part. I think in my Sunbird article I gave times that the bird sang. If I didn’t, I can certainly state that the song usually continued for about 30 minutes and always ended before ‘dawn’ had arrived. I have made my own reckoning of ‘dawn’ as when there is enough light to read by outside the house in the open air. I think I tried to find a definition of dawn, but whatever it was, it was as imprecise as mine.” * “1 November 2005: Dear Hollis, I didn’t answer your previous question about pbb’s’ best call times. Really, I’m not good at times and seasons! I did put a bit in my 1996 booklet Traveller’s Guide to Rosalie Shire: ‘If you see one of these birds first bowing its head, then lifting its hooked bill as if making a Shakespearian oration, then bowing again – stop to listen, for it is singing, and its flute-like calls are a delight.’ I’ve tried to note the time of day that I hear our birds at their best, since you asked. Maybe midday so far, but they don’t seem to call a lot lately. I do remember 30- 45 minute concerts in mid-summer, but that includes much mimicking of other birds too. My pre- dawn bird is still calling occasionally, now three plus two notes, then repeated and repeated, but still too far away for recording.” * “13 August 2005: Dear Hollis, Yes, I’ve written out a lot on the first two cassettes. That was when I though a musician friend of mine was going to write the ‘music’ notes for me. He didn’t. Maybe he couldn’t as he later let slip that he didn’t have perfect pitch. (You will have a laugh, because I am no musician.) Anyway, I see (i.e. heard) that I have put voice-over as an introduction for a few, but some have nothing at all. Perhaps you should take notes of what I say, plus what is written on the cassette covers etc. I thought the timing important. That the calls were usually for 20-30 minutes and finished just before ‘dawn’ which I decided as when there was enough light to read by. How did ‘he’ know when it was 30 minutes before dawn to start calling?” * “July 20, 2005: Dear Hollis, I’ve got out two pbb tapes from 1999. These may be the latest, as I think ‘my’ bird has gone, maybe died. (No, I found some for 2001 also.) I guess I sort of want to listen to them when I get really old, something lovely to listen to in my nursing home! These last ones are not as good as I remember the earlier ones. There was one year, maybe more, where the bird had half a dozen phrases that he put together in random order. These two I’m sending have other birdcalls on them. Do you know the calls of the spiny-cheeked and striped honeyeaters? There are also magpies, many superb fairy-wrens & willies, crows, etc, plus many cars going along the road, and a few dog calls and – calves! We used to have a breeding herd until we got too old. 1999 – I thought they were sold before that, but here are some calves calling!” * 1. Did you record from the same house/place every year? “8 June 2007: Yes, from the same house at what is now 9 Magpie Lane, Gowrie Junction 4352, 10 km NW of Toowoomba [as Crows fly], though from two different places in the house. The early tapes were recorded from the southern side and the later ones from the western side. I would have the tape recorder set up by my bed and just reach out and press the Play button when the singing started before dawn. Then I’d hope our dogs would continue to sleep on as well as the others [two women] in the house. The singing bird was generally 5 to 20 metres distant, except in I think the last recordings when the distance was much greater.” * 2. Would you have had significantly different recording positions to take in another territory? “8 June 2007: I never considered recording anywhere else due to the problems of finding another singing bird, getting into position in the cold of early Spring without disturbing him [I always thought ‘him’] and general laziness/having to get ready for the farming day, etc. * 3. What was the basic address of the recording? *8 June 2007: As above. I ‘board’ with a 225

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes mother and daughter farming family, since 1986, and we actively operated a breeding herd of Murray Greys along with growing lucerne and other fodder crops. It did not make a lot of money, and eventually the daughter took more and more work at the local university, did an MPhil, then a PhD, tutored, lectured, wrote textbooks, developed new courses, and eventually became head of research in one section. She retired just last year. With Diana working at the uni, they eventually sold the herd and gradually we converted the lucerne paddocks to forestry plots. These are now 10+ years old and jokingly we hope to get our gold-plated coffins from them! Otherwise they may perhaps be sold for poles or millable timber in 30 years! I’m now 74 years old and getting to be a bit of a crock, and Diana’s mother’s 93 and now has dementia, so we’re a fine old lot! What might be significant is the locality. The house is on a hundred-acre somewhat wooded block [and now unstocked, ‘Land for Wildlife’] sloping up behind the house and over the hill and down to a road on the other side. The 50 acres of lucerne-forestry blocks are across the road and lead down to Gowrie Creek. The changes in the last 20 years are two-way: more houses on one-acre blocks, so more people, cars, dogs etc, but also more trees which have been planted on the formerly bare paddocks. I still record 40-50 species of birds each week as I have done over the period. The Pied BBs are still here but, as I’ve told you, no one does a pre-dawn Spring call any more. Just recently, there has begun a burst in development with many more houses being built, though still on one-acre blocks generally. And we still have the creek flowing [from Toowoomba’s effluent] and housing not allowed along the creek blocks except for one per title deed. We have perhaps seven species of mammals, wallabies the most visible.” HT: The following Gloria Glass CDs, mostly of poor quality, are also backed up on three DVDs. 011- 01 47:20 9 Magpie Lane, 18/08/99 Gloria 19991A “Wednesday, 18th GG99.1A Gowrie 06:10 Glass: 9 August, 1999, I started about Junction QLD begins Magpie 6:10 a.m. after the pbb had been 4352 Lane, going for quite some time. [At Gowrie 9:00 in:] ‘That’s the end of that Junction not very good one the first QLD 4352 morning. 07 4630 01A: August 18, 1999 7381 01B: “August 19, 1999 5:40 a.m. to well after 06:00, but I cut off the end because he seemed to have lost the plot.” 01C: “August 21, 1999, he started about 05:25, it’s now 05:32, nothing terribly exciting. [End announce:} “06:02, tape ran out, it’s light enough to see outside, even to write.” 012- 01 47:49 9 Magpie Lane, ??/08/99 Gloria 19991B 01A: “It seems just GG99.1B Gowrie Glass magpies this morning. I think the Junction QLD butcherbirds are a bit far away.” 4352 HT: Magpies, then pbb’s but too distant to bother with. 01B [08:09 in]: August 26, about 05:45, he’s been going for a few minutes now. [10:24 in] “He’s moved to the other side of the house, so I’ll try again.” 013- 01 31:42 9 Magpie Lane, 30/08/99 Gloria 19992A “Second tape from 1999. GG99.2A/B Gowrie Glass Junction QLD 4352 013- 02 15:26 9 Magpie Lane, 02/09/99 Gloria 19992B HT: fair quality, tape GG99.2A/B Gowrie Glass noise. Junction QLD 4352 014- 01 36:19 9 Magpie Lane, ??/09/99 Gloria 19993A GG99.3A Gowrie Glass Junction QLD 4352 015- 01 68:29 9 Magpie Lane, ??/09/99 Gloria 19994A GG99.4A Gowrie Glass Junction QLD

226

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes 4352 016- 01 56:07 9 Magpie Lane, 10/09/99 Gloria 19994B GG99.4B Gowrie Glass Junction QLD 4352 017- 01 31:17 9 Magpie Lane, ??/09/99 Gloria 19995A GG99.5A/B Gowrie Glass Junction QLD 4352 017- 02 31:19 9 Magpie Lane, To Gloria 19995B GG99.5A/B Gowrie 23/09/99 Glass Junction QLD 4352 018- 01 46:49 9 Magpie Lane, 24/09/99 - Gloria 19996A GG99.6A Gowrie 1/10/99 Glass Junction QLD 4352 019- 01 46:59 9 Magpie Lane, To Gloria 19996B “With juvenile usurper GG99.6B Gowrie 01/10/99 Glass and dominant singer on 30/9/99 Junction QLD and maybe other days. This 1999 4352 song has about 6 phrases, sung in different order, the main one of two notes, the second note a semitone lower than the first. Quite different call from in previous years. Bird began this spring song mid-August 1999." 020- 01 46:52 9 Magpie Lane, From Gloria 19997A GG99.7A Gowrie 03/10/99 Glass Junction QLD 4352 021- 01 46:59 9 Magpie Lane, To Gloria 19997B “08/10/99 (447-519 on GG99.7B Gowrie 09/19/99 Glass CS), two birds for part of that; Junction QLD “Some 09/10/99, two birds near the end” 4352 other early morning calls” 022- 01 46:44 9 Magpie Lane, 10/10/99 Gloria 19998A GG99.8A Gowrie Glass Junction QLD 4352 023- 01 46:44 9 Magpie Lane, 10/10/99 Gloria 19998B “12/10/99 began 04:36 GG99.8B Gowrie – Glass am, stopped 05:05, sun reached Junction QLD 16/10/99 house 05:45. 13/10/99 similar. 4352 14/10 two phrases 05:20 but that was all (raining from 03:30). 15/10 04:49 hesitant start, then better; 04:55 second bird comes in; 05:08 tape turned off: birds calling at some distance; official sunrise 05:17. 16/10 04:40 about 5:00 of singing, but tape ran out, second bird came in at 04:54.” 024- 01 46:33 9 Magpie Lane, 17/10/99 Gloria “On 18/10/99 bird called from GG99.9A Gowrie – Glass about 04:30 to about 05:00. Junction QLD 23/10/99 Sunrise about 05:20.” 4352 025- 01 46:36 9 Magpie Lane, 17/10/99 Gloria “Last on tape 23/10/99 (called GG99.9B Gowrie – Glass 04:35 – 04:55, but tape ran out, Junction QLD 23/10/99 and bird calling too, but doesn’t 227

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes 4352 reach some high notes, or else doesn’t finish phrases.” 026- 01 30:28 9 Magpie Lane, From Gloria “4 August 2005: I’m sending off GG92.1A Gowrie 06/09/92 Glass another batch of tapes. There are Junction QLD eight altogether. 4352 * 1992 TWO TAPES The first one seems to have been a music tape that I’d had from my husband, as there are some songs on the end. I guess I just recorded over the top of the music! On both sides there is music at the end. Sorry. The second tape was better. But in all of them there are motor vehicle noises from time to time too. “Slow start. Side A recorded on Marantz machine, magpie and wrens, pbb very good, two phrases, then faint magpies.” 027- 01 14:23 9 Magpie Lane, From Gloria “1992 Side B more pbb, GG92.1B/91 Gowrie 06/09/92 Glass kookaburra.” Junction QLD “1991 you will probably find 4352 disappointing. There are a lot of other calls on the tape too, including cows! But at least I did type out what was on it. There seems to be nothing on Side B.” 027- 02 09:18 9 Magpie Lane, ??/??/91 Gloria “Grey bb, pbb, and willy wagtail; GG92.1B/91 Gowrie Glass Toowomba; special pre-dawn Junction QLD spring call.” 4352 028- 01 29:19 9 Magpie Lane, ??/??/92 Gloria “Spring pbb. Side A has some GG92.2A/B Gowrie Glass good calls, two phrases at least; Junction QLD magpies.” 4352 028- 02 31:24 9 Magpie Lane, ??/??/92 Gloria “Side B ok at beginning, then GG92.2A/B Gowrie Glass distant. Good superb fairy wren; Junction QLD more another day later.” 4352 029- 01 18:40 9 Magpie Lane, 31/08/94 Gloria “1994 TWO TAPES The August GG94.A/B Gowrie Glass one has more PBB calls and I Junction QLD see I had a shot at trying to 4352 indicate the notes. The September one seems to have mostly other birds with just a few pbb calls. (Again, the September tape seems to have been pre- loved, as at the end you get a bonus of Glor’s conversation with Fred Mathieson. That was in 1994 when I was editing his life story. Because it was difficult to have a conversation with him, I always ran the tape recorder so I had a record of what he said and could write it in after he left. Little did I know that that was the first of my historical works, and now 4 books and 1 CD later … well, I’m getting into my dotage now.)” 228

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes “Side A 31/08/94 05:30-05:45 five-note (high high) medium (low low) interspersed with H H L M H; then flew to distant tree and continued. Brown honeyeater in background at end.” 029- 02 26:52 9 Magpie Lane, 01/09/94 Gloria “01/09/94, also ‘Beethoven’ calls. GG94.A/B Gowrie Glass Side B 1/9/94 nearly thirty Junction QLD minutes 05:30 – 06:00. Pbb 4352 begins after five minutes or so, good for about ten minutes. Brown honeyeater in background. Another bird with ‘Beethoven’ calls; first bird is still calling in background.” 030- 01 62:22 9 Magpie Lane, 20/08/98 Gloria “1998 THREE TAPES Tape 1 is GG98.1A Gowrie – Glass running too fast in my ordinary Junction QLD 23/08/98 bedroom tape player. But when I 4352 put it in the Marantz that I recorded it in, I found the speed OK, so I hope you can use it. Tape 2 also seemed too fast in my bedroom player, but I see I have written on it that there is some good stuff. No.3 tape is running in the player now and it seems OK.” “August 20, 21, 22, and 23.” HT: August 20 ends at 10’47.3. At 11’31.6, GG announces, “It’s August 21, cloudy, windy, and a little bit of rain.” 031- 01 62:22 9 Magpie Lane, ??/??/98 Gloria “August 1998.” GG98.1B Gowrie Glass Junction QLD 4352 032- 01 60:24 9 Magpie Lane, 09/29/98 Gloria “Good three days.” GG98.2A Gowrie – Glass Junction QLD 01/10/98 4352 033- 01 62:21 9 Magpie Lane, 02/10/98 Gloria “Very good last day.” GG98.2B Gowrie – Glass Junction QLD 13/10/98 4352 034- 01 69:45 9 Magpie Lane, 15/10/98 Gloria “Whole CS covers 15/10/98 – GG98.3A1 Gowrie – Glass 12/11/98.” Junction QLD 19/10/98 4352 035- 01 25:36 9 Magpie Lane, 15/10/98 Gloria GG98.3A2 Gowrie – Glass Junction QLD 19/10/98 4352 036- 01 72:46 9 Magpie Lane, ??/??/98 Gloria “12/11/98. Last call ordinary.” GG98.3B Gowrie Glass Junction QLD 4352 037- 01 44:07 9 Magpie Lane, ??/09/01 Gloria “September dawn song.” GG01/G/FG Gowrie Glass Junction QLD 4352 037- 02 01:12 "The kindness Unknown Len Gillard: From Bird Calls of Eastern 229

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes GG01/G/FG and hospitality P.O. Box Australia by Len Gillard of many 108 (cassette), 1988, Gillard Bird friends, Prospect Cassettes. especially the TAS 7250 Allinghams of Kangaroo Hills, in making my wife and myself welcome on their properties where many of these recordings were made, is sincerely appreciated." 037- 03 01:19 HT: From A Field Guide to GG01/G/FG (03A – Australian Birdsong, Cassette 12: D) Crimson Chat to Torresian Crow, 1999, Bird Observers Club of 03A Maclean NSW ??/08/72 Norman Australia, P.O. Boxes 185, :11 Robinson Nunawading VIC 3131. 03B Lightning Ridge ??/04/81 Simon “Male and female antiphonal :31 NSW Bennett song.” 03C Wattemore ??/08/87 :12 Creek WA Rex “Short spaced song phrases; two 03D Swan Vale ??/10/67 Buckingha birds present, intervals between :08 NSW m calls reduced to a quarter.” John “Soft calls from a bird sitting on Courtney its nest.”

“Food-begging calls of nestling.” 038-GG02.1 01 61:28 9 Magpie Lane, 02/10/02 Gloria “Calls began, as in every other Gowrie Glass year, in August. Only in October Junction QLD did he come close enough to the 4352 house, but even then was generally not very close.” “21 September 2005: I’ve found another four tapes. These are from 2002. I think there are some calls that are different from those in other years. Also, this morning (Sunday), I was awakened at 5.22 am by a pbb calling: a totally new song, just of four quick notes followed by one note higher by a third or a fourth, then a pause and repeat. He kept it up until 5.32 or so, then moved away a bit, though I could still hear him faintly. I’ve now unearthed the tape recorder and got it ready to record him tomorrow morning. It was while doing that that I found these other 2002 tapes. PS It’s now Monday and, although I could hear the pbb calling the 2005 message, he wasn’t close enough for me to record him. Same for Tuesday.” “This side and another ten 230

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes minutes on the one day.” 039-GG02.2 01 62:03 9 Magpie Lane, ??/10/02 Gloria “Pre-dawn spring song; B to Gowrie – Glass 06/10, half of 06/10 on next tape.” Junction QLD 06/10/02 4352 040- 01 45:54 9 Magpie Lane, 06/10/02 - Gloria “Second half of 06/10 pre-dawn GG02.3A Gowrie ? Glass spring call.” Junction QLD 4352 041- 01 43:27 9 Magpie Lane, 16/10/02 Gloria “B side.” GG02.3B Gowrie & 17/10 Glass Junction QLD 04:35 – 4352 04:55 daily 042-GG02.4 01 47:13 9 Magpie Lane, ??/10/02 Gloria “End of CS: twenty minutes of Gowrie Glass 21/10, 04:22 - 04:57, just light Junction QLD enough then for me to read; B 4352 pre-dawn spring calls October.” Notes from Andrée Griffin: “2.7.05 Dear Hollis, Herewith my reel of pied butcherbird calls. I have separated the recordings with coloured tape to make it easier to sort them out. I hope they will be some help. Please return them when you have finished with them. Sincerely, Andrée Griffin” Notes from Syd Curtis: “Track 1 is as it went into the computer. Mostly very soft – even with the gain set to maximum with Peak when copying, but it may be the best if you intend to manipulate it with a computer yourself. I then did two things: first, I went through and increased the gain for each recording. Details below. Saved the result, which is Track 3 on the CD. Secondly, I applied the Waves ‘Telephone’ filter straight through to reduce the low frequency noise. It is Track 2. I haven’t listened to it, but it should give you a clearer idea of what you’ve got, and then you can work on Track 1 as you wish. For the record, I set the Telephone filter with bands 6-10 disabled; 1-5 linked and 1 set at 557hz – effectively a bass cut removing frequencies below 550.” 043-Griffin 01A 11:14 Kakadu NP, 18/09/81 Andrée HT: 12 cassette tracks without (01A – Nourlangie 05:00 – Griffin: CD marks. “Predawn calls.” L) Rock area, NT 05:30 4 Smith SC on CD time and gain in dB: Crescent, 00:00 - 01:43 15 Paluma QLD 4816 01B Between 16/12/87 Andrée “Dawn calls.” Southern Cross 05:50 Griffin SC on CD time and gain in dB: and Coolgardie 01:51 – 02:32 12 WA 01C No. 8 Tailuigs 15/06/77 Andrée “Short calls by two birds flying Dam, Mt. Isa 18:30 Griffin over.” QLD SC on CD time and gain in dB: 02:39 – 02:53 12 01D Croyden N 18/04/76 Andrée SC on CD time and gain in dB: QLD 07:30 - Griffin 02:57 – 04:06 10 08:00 01E Gilbert River N 18/04/76 Andrée SC on CD time and gain in dB: QLD 13:30 Griffin 04:11 – 05:24 8

01F Gilbert River N 30/04/70 Andrée SC on CD time and gain in dB: QLD 06:45 Griffin 05:30 – 06:15 4

01G Fanning River 24/05/73 Andrée “Short.” N QLD 08:30 Griffin SC on CD time and gain in dB: (between 06:20 – 06:32 15 Townsville and Charters Towers) 01H Bowen N QLD 08/05/73 Andrée “Early morning calls.” 231

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes 06:30 Griffin SC on CD time and gain in dB: 06:38 – 07:18 20 01I Kallimina Falls, 28/09/73 Andrée “Three calls in gorge.” Hamersley NP 05:30 Griffin SC on CD time and gain in dB: WA 07:23 – 07:38 14 01J Jerona (a 16/10/71 Andrée SC on CD time and gain in dB: property 05:05; Griffin 07:43 – 07:59 3 between 05:30/6:0 Townsville & 0 Ayr) QLD 01K Townsville 21/02/70 Andrée SC on CD time and gain in dB: Town Common 06:30 Griffin 08:04 – 09:42 4 QLD 01L Townsville 12/04/70 Andrée “Duet with magpie and peaceful Town Common 08:00 Griffin dove and brolgas and ?others.” QLD SC on CD time and gain in dB: 09:48 – 09:56 12 Extra: 10:00 – 11:14 8 043-Griffin 02 11:07 Andrée HT: same tracks on 01, edited by Griffin Syd Curtis. 043-Griffin 03 11:05 Andrée HT: same tracks on 01, edited by Griffin Syd Curtis. 044-Horton 01 00:07 Mount Isa QLD ??/04/84 Helen “Pbb’s are playful birds; I’ve seen Horton: the young ones play tug-of-war 246 with a stick. Their song is Kirralee measured and stately as Crescent, opposed to the grey bb whose Upper song is rollicking. The story goes Kedron that a pbb had copied a QLD 4055 postman’s whistle; several 07 3351 generations alter a young bird 8510 had a whistle in its repertoire, although the whistle no longer was used and he had never heard it. When it’s raining, they practice subsong. A pbb could have as much as a 25-hectare range.” 044-Horton 02 01:14 SE QLD coast ??/??/84 Helen “Subsong and some mimicking.” Horton 044-Horton 03 00:22 Kennilworth, ??/09/84 Helen “Good.” 100 km from Horton Brisbane QLD 044-Horton 04 01:04 Kimberley WA ??/07/85 Helen “Good.” Mid- Horton morning 044-Horton 05 01:14 Diura, Brisbane ??/10/85 Helen “Duet, good. One does one part (Mt. Nebo Horton only; other does only other.” Road, Jolly’s Lookout) QLD 044-Horton 06 00:24 Diura, Brisbane ??/10/89 Helen “Mimicking noisy pitta.” (Mt. Nebo Horton Road, Jolly’s Lookout) QLD 044-Horton 07 00:42 Diura, Brisbane ??/??/91 Helen “Male courting and displaying to (Mt. Nebo Horton female.” Road, Jolly’s Lookout) QLD 044-Horton 08 04:46 Diura, Brisbane ??/??/89 Helen “Includes duet; long and good.” (Mt. Nebo Horton 232

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes Road, Jolly’s Lookout) QLD 044-Horton 09 02:20 Diura, Brisbane ??/09/96 Helen “Many birds background (spiny- (Mt. Nebo Dawn Horton cheeked honeyeater, etc.” Road, Jolly’s Lookout) QLD 044-Horton 10 02:11 Diura, Brisbane ??/??/00 Helen “Family group feeding and (Mt. Nebo Horton working out dominance. The Road, Jolly’s young ones still in the family Lookout) QLD group stopped and cowered and moved back as he asserted his authority; he did it over and over while the others were couched down.” 044-Horton 11 00:53 Diura, Brisbane ??/08/00 Helen “Subsong in rain.” (Mt. Nebo Horton Road, Jolly’s Lookout) QLD 044-Horton 12 02:23 Milroy SW QLD ??/09/00 Helen “Brolgas; good.” Dawn Horton 044-Horton 13 01:12 Diura, Brisbane ??/??/99 Helen “Subsong in rain.” (Mt. Nebo Horton Road, Jolly’s Lookout) QLD 044-Horton 14 00:08 Diura, Brisbane ??/??/99 Helen “Dominance call – single bird— (Mt. Nebo Horton male or female? Fluffed itself up.” Road, Jolly’s Lookout) QLD 044-Horton 15 01:48 Diura, Brisbane ??/10/00 Helen “Mimicking boobook, magpie, (Mt. Nebo Horton peaceful dove, currawong, etc.” Road, Jolly’s Lookout) QLD 044-Horton 16 00:43 Diura, Brisbane ??/01/01 Helen “Mimicking.” (Mt. Nebo Horton Road, Jolly’s Lookout) QLD 044-Horton 17 03:26 Upper Kedron, ??/08 (or Helen “Kookaburra at end.” HT: At the Brisbane QLD 09)/03 Horton house I visited. Pre-dawn 044-Horton 18 01:20 Upper Kedron, ??/08(or Helen “Pre-dawn.” Brisbane QLD 10)/03 Horton Pre-dawn 044-Horton 19 00:48 Upper Kedron, ??/08 (or Helen “Extract of 17.” Brisbane QLD 09)/03 Horton Notes from John Hutchinson: “2 October 05, Dear Hollis, Thank you for your compliments of Save That Song. The Contact Call to me is a call made by birds on the move and changing position, typically a situation applicable to a group while feeding. They remain in the same general area but cannot see each other. Examples are the New Holland and white-plumed honeyeater. A call which may be called an Advertising Call is made when a bird announces its whereabouts, not when it is on the move but when stationary, i.e. when perching. This is a three-note call in the case of the pbb, and is demonstrated on my DVD. A three-note call isi also given when leaving a perch and flying to another. Again, this is an Advertising Call in that it announces an activity, but it is not intended for keeping contact. The pbb calls are so loud and far- reaching that they give direction and distance information rather than close contact information. The calls, of course, give additional information and probably a lot of it. I am leaving tomorrow on a trip as far as Brisbane (my sister-in-law June, 07 3269 7792). I suggest you ring me 04 0290 2330, and if I am not in a receiving area you could leave a message, and I could post a DVD when I reach a post office. Wishing you continued progress with your pbb studies. Sincerely, John” 045- 12 02:24 Roebuck 13/07/86 John N. From Australian Bird Calls— Hutchinson1 Plains, Broome, 06:23 Hutchinson Series 5: Dawn Chorus: Dawn W. Kimberley : 7 Lorna Choruses around Australia by 233

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes WA Street, John N. Hutchinson (CD and Dunsborou cassette). gh WA “60°F, 16°C. Nil wind. Alto- 6281 cumulus cloud. Cadjiput thickets interspersed with open grassed areas. Permanently moist and green. Undisturbed, natural habitat. Sub-tropical. Brown honeyeater, reed warbler, pbb, willy wagtail.” 045- 21 02:28 Cooloola NP 30/09/81 John N. “64°F, 18°C. Nil wind. Strato- Hutchinson1 QLD 06:45 Hutchinson cumulus cloud. Heathland with scattered trees and shrubs. Hakeas, gums, banksias, flowering blackboys. Crow, pheasant coucal, willy wagtail, pbb, scaly-breasted lorikeet, brown honeyeater.” 045- 22 01:39 Cooloola NP 26/09/81 John N. “58°F, 14°C. Slight wind. Light Hutchinson1 QLD 05:00 Hutchinson fog. Noosa sandplain. Heavy dew. Birds called from distant treeline across heathland. Ground parrot stronghold.” 046- DVD Unknown Unknown John N. From Bird Song: The Australian Hutchinson2 (no Hutchinson Bush in Sound and Motion by menu John N. Hutchinson (DVD), 2005. ) 047- Mutawinji recorded by David Lumsdaine, 1996, Tall Poppies (TP 091) 1. “Pied Butcherbirds of Spirey Lumdsdaine Creek” 1 * “My soundscapes are studies in rhythm, harmony and texture in the sounds of the natural world. To use Lévi-Strauss's convenient distinction, their essential stuff is raw as opposed to the cooked stuff which we usually call music. But to speak of anything as "a piece of music" is to indulge in a convenient fiction. Music is not a score on a library shelf, it's not the sound produced by a piano or an orchestra or a computer. Music is an activity, a particularly creative way of listening. The words "composer", "performer", ‘audience’ enable us to distinguish different roles or perspectives within the context of this activity, but they must never distract us from the essentially creative contribution of each participant. For me, composing is usually the notation on paper of a listening which goes on ‘inside’ my head. By contrast, these soundscapes are recordings of a very active listening which, we may say, has gone on ‘outside’ my head. In the making and editing of these recordings I'm organising my listening; that's to say, I'm composing it. The techniques I've used for recording the material in these soundscapes differ somewhat to those used in making specimen recordings of individual species. Rather than recording foreground solos, I have tried to capture solos and groups of solos in the context of their community, and to explore the perspectives of the sound stage from the closest to the most distant events. * “In composing the soundscapes I’ve tried to create the least distortion, in time and space, of the original events in order to retain the integrity of each locality. I’ve also tried to retain a sense of the rhythm of the original scene. Temporal condensation of the material has been made as tactfully as possible, the longest sequences representing those periods of the greatest sonic activity. Inconspicuous edits are used for minor condensation of the material, but hard edits are used to mark changes of perspective and larger changes of time. (There is no mixing of events recorded at different times in order to make a passage 'more interesting.') Most importantly: for environmental and musical reasons, I try to create a minimal disturbance in the field. Still, however much tact and cunning I may use, I'm inescapably a participant in the field of action I'm observing. Equally, I can't avoid shaping what I hear. The microphones were directed by one pair of ears, and no other pair of ears would have heard these sounds in the same way. * “East and West Spirey Creeks rise high in the south-east of the Warrumbungle mountains and meet to create an open valley. This valley is the home of the Pied Butcherbirds who were recorded between the 15th and 17th of September, 1983. * “Pied Butcherbirds live in family groups. Both sexes sing and their music is fundamental to communication and bonding between members of the group. The most consistent clues to recognising the voice of a Pied Butcherbird are the quality of the voice and the style, or character, of its singing. The members of any group will have a number of calls which they share with other Pied Butcherbirds, but 234

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes the musical content of the songs varies from one area to another, even between neighbouring territories. Essentially, their territory seems to be defined by the family songs which they learn from their parents and siblings, that is, by means of a musical tradition which each generation may take over and use in its own way. * “The Pied Butcherbird music most commonly heard consists of short antiphonal duos and trios which are sung throughout the day. The much longer, and more developed song‹usually a solo‹may be heard at night and at dawn in the breeding season. Because the Pied Butcherbird's song is delivered slowly, and well within the human audio spectrum, it is easy for us to follow it both in detail and broad outline. It is also easy for us to appreciate its harmony. * “The Pied Butcherbird is a virtuoso of composition and improvisation: the long solo develops like a mosaic, through the varied repetition of its phrases. In the course of the song, some elements remain constant, some elements transform through addition and elimination. The bird is a virtuoso of decoration: there is an extraordinary delicacy in the way it articulates the harmonic course of its song with microtonal inflections, or places its cadences with a bird's equivalent of tremolandi and flutter- tonguing. I've made a number of recordings of Pied Butcherbirds, and many of them are technically better than this set; but, beautiful as they may be, none of them matches the performance by these particular birds. Serendipity plays a large part in determining the musical quality of a soundscape; there are no retakes in the wild. * “In composing the original Spirey Creek soundscape, I placed the Pied Butcherbirds at its centre; their songs were my pathway into the valley, but the music really begins when we hear the whole valley singing with them.” 047- 01 21:30 Spirey Creek, ??/09/83 David See above. Lumdsdaine Warrumbungles Lumsdaine: 1 NP NSW 5 Holly Terrace, York, North Yorkshire YO10 4DS UK “2 Jul 2005, Dear Hollis, I have so often wished that I could have spent more time doing proper fieldwork, but we only have one life and it tends to be rather full. I'm glad you're going to work with ornithologists, because although the musician's observations are specially informed, they only really bite when grounded in informed observation. Time and again, I have felt that a Pied Butcherbird's thinking in sound is very close to my own and that, far from indulging in the pathetic fallacy, this insight is real. But it needs so much observation to bear this out! * “For fun, I'm appending an mp3 recording from Trephina Gorge (East MacDonnells) last July, made just as the sun strikes the western ridge where a lone dingo sang briefly at this time several mornings in succession. Of course it's just as much about the Pied Butcherbirds as the dingo. Are they reacting to its song? Are they commenting on it? Their calls before the dingo enters are quite different to the calls after - and their total silence during the dingo song- just as remarkable: Comment? Transformation? Is it all in the musician's imagination? (This recording is a straight cut.) * “You're lucky to be going recording under the wing of Jane Ulman. It seems a long time since I saw her. Please remember me to her and give her my greetings. I don't have any particular tips re the Warrumbungles. We were last there in September 2000, and I noted that the Spirey Creek song had changed considerably from that song, though it had been still recognisably similar in 1995. The PBb territories are usually (from my observation of the songs) quite big, but in the past there were at least 5 territories easily accessible. * “In my library there is quite a collection of PBb song from NSW, Queensland, NT and SA; if at some point it would be useful to you to have copies, let me know. I'm only too happy to assist some serious work. Best wishes, David Lumsdaine” 048- 01 00:47 Byron Bay 09/09/86 David “This is cut no 1 of the same bird Lumdsdaine NSW, village 05:15 Lumsdaine singing from 3 different 2 (inc. gardens), Fine songposts (2 trees, 1 telegraph coastal heath & pole) on the edge of the township shrubs itself. Good examples of the verse form in the dawn solo song.” 048- 02 01:16 Byron Bay 09/09/86 David “This is cut no 2 of the same bird Lumdsdaine NSW, village 05:25 Lumsdaine singing from 3 different 2 (inc. gardens), Fine songposts.” 235

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes coastal heath & shrubs 048- 03 02:24 Byron Bay 09/09/86 David “This is cut no 3 of the same bird Lumdsdaine NSW, village 05:35 Lumsdaine singing from 3 different 2 (inc. gardens), Fine songposts. It’s the longest cut of coastal heath & the three but isn’t quite as good shrubs as the other two – it’s further away, and closer to the noise of the sea.” 048- 04 08:44 Pebbly Beach, 23/09/83? David “The Singing Lesson – 2 birds Lumdsdaine Station Creek 09:00? Lumsdaine perched side by side on a 2 NSW, coastal Fine, banksias singing a solo song; heath, shingle windy one sings the fully decorated beach version of the local dawn solo, the second a more sketchy outline version. There are two cuts, the second closer and following straight on from the first. Continuous sound of surf and wind, otherwise excellent. I’ve given this cut A-because of its unique content. A beautiful study of what structure, tuning and melodic decoration might mean to PBBs. Date & time are a guess, but a good one (it left such a vivid memory).” 048- 05 05:01 Lamington 10/09/86 David “Singing in tall eucalypt at edge Lumdsdaine Plateau NP 05:25 Lumsdaine of clearing. Good specimen of 2 QLD, broad- Fine formal dawn song. Interrupted by leaved an attacking currawong, which evergreen drives the pbb off. Formal song mesophytic not resumed, but antiphonals temperate were prominent in the rest of the forest dawn chorus – probably four birds in group.” 048- 06 03:33 Lamington 11/09/86 David “In the open hillside again. A wide Lumdsdaine Plateau NP 06:45 Lumsdaine variety of antiphonal calls from 2 QLD, broad- Fine the group heard and recorded leaved earlier this same day. Original evergreen recording lasted about 20 mesophytic minutes; I’ve done a lot of temperate cutting.” forest 048- 07 01:51 Lamington 11/09/86 David “A series of solo calls, mostly Lumdsdaine Plateau NP 07:30 Lumsdaine segments of the dawn song 2 QLD, broad- Fine (heard earlier) and occasional leaved distant answering calls. Sounds evergreen like a young bird practicing.” mesophytic temperate forest 048- 08 01:52 Lamington 11/09/86 David “Another long sequence of Lumdsdaine Plateau NP 09:00 Lumsdaine isolated fragments from the dawn 2 QLD, broad- Fine song. It’s very beautiful for the leaved (apparent) interaction with other evergreen songs, notably currawong and mesophytic best, best of all, crimson rosella temperate piping.” forest 048- 09 04:21 Taree NSW, 21/09/87 David “4 pbb’s in tall eucalypts along 236

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes Lumdsdaine improved 10:30 Lumsdaine roadside, on road from Taree to 2 pasture, Fine Barrington Tops, 4 consecutive scattered trees cuts from the one location edited together. At 3’53 in there is a tiny song from a nearby bird which I can’t identify.” 048- 10 03:06 Warrumbungles 21/10/00 David “This is really a lovely, lazy Lumdsdaine NP, Camp 06:47 Lumsdaine habitat recording; there’s an 2 Blackman Fine extraordinary number of species NSW, eucalypt, in one small area. The songs get casuarina mix, a bit confused except for pbb’s freshwater singing in unison. White-winged stream/creek triller conspicuous behind.” 048- 11 01:08 Warrumbungles 24/10/00 David “This is the pbb who had some Lumdsdaine NP, Camp 04:58 Lumsdaine grey butcherbird elements in his 2 Blackman Overcast, song. Terrible background, but NSW, eucalypt, stormy use anyway for interest. He also casuarina mix, mimics the little friarbird. We only freshwater heard this song first thing in the stream/creek morning. Grey butcherbirds can be heard at the very end of the track. Singing in tall river oak.” 048- 12 02:53 Warrumbungles 26/10/00 David “Same bird (as stormy morning) Lumdsdaine NP, Camp 04:47 Lumsdaine with elements of grey butcherbird 2 Blackman Fine, in its song. Little friarbird gets in NSW, eucalypt, windy the way somewhat. This song is casuarina mix, more reminiscent of Byron Bay freshwater than Warrumbungles.” stream/creek 048- 13 02:41 Warrumbungles 20/09/83 David “A colourful and well-balanced Lumdsdaine NP, Spirey 05:30 Lumsdaine collection of many species, 2 Creek NSW Fine & particularly pbb’s, noisy friarbird, clear white-plumed honeyeaters, willy wagtail, fairy wrens, etc. Roos feeding.” 048- 14 01:58 Warrumbungles 20/09/83 David “A continuation from the previous Lumdsdaine NP, Spirey 06:00 Lumsdaine session. The pbb duet is well 2 Creek NSW Fine & foregrounded in a beautifully clear balanced setting.” 048- 15 00:25 Warrumbungles 28/08/85 David “Main paddock group. One set of Lumdsdaine NP, Spirey 06:45 Lumsdaine solo calls, then straight on to next 2 Creek NSW Fine track.” 048- 16 03:28 Warrumbungles 28/08/85 David “Main paddock group. Duets and Lumdsdaine NP, Spirey 06:46 Lumsdaine trios. Noisy background, but 2 Creek NSW Fine essential for the record on this group.” 048- 17 05:42 Warrumbungles 28/08/85 David “Main paddock group. Duets and Lumdsdaine NP, Spirey 07:00 Lumsdaine trios then mostly 1 bird. 2 Creek NSW Fine Background less noisy. Fine magpie imitations, see 2’24 & 4’59.” 048- 18 01:43 Warrumbungles 29/08/85 David “Main paddock group. Trios and Lumdsdaine NP, Spirey 07:30 Lumsdaine quartets. Magpie singing in 2 Creek NSW Fine centre. Creek noise, but captures everything.” 048- 19 02:35 Warrumbungles 30/08/85 David “Main paddock group. Trios and Lumdsdaine NP, Spirey 06:00 Lumsdaine quartets. Same position as 2 Creek NSW Fine previous day.” 048- 20 01:42 Warrumbungles 30/08/85 David “Main paddock group. Trios and Lumdsdaine NP, Spirey 06:32 Lumsdaine quartets. Less creek noise in this 2 Creek NSW Fine position.” 237

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes 048- 21 00:16 Warrumbungles 16/12/86 David “Just three ‘I am a butcherbird’ Lumdsdaine NP, Burbey 18:25 Lumsdaine calls. No other songs or calls.” 2 Canyon NSW Fine 048- 22 01:17 Warrumbungles 17/12/86 David “Could equally be labeled habitat Lumdsdaine NP, 06:15 Lumsdaine or grey shrike-thrush: the pbb 2 Wambelong Fine, still simply reiterates a two-note Canyon ostinato throughout, but it has nice harmonic implications.” 048- 23 02:05 Warrumbungles 17/12/86 David “Same bird as previous, Lumdsdaine NP, 06:30 Lumsdaine intermittently joined by another in 2 Wambelong Fine, still a curious fractured series of Canyon exchanges. Only one bird visible.” 048- 24 01:09 Laurie’s Creek, David “Recorded while waiting for grey Lumdsdaine Mowbray Lumsdaine goshawk, pbb then mistletoebird.” 2 Station QLD, eucalypt, casuarina mix, dry river bed with standing pools 048- 25 01:21 Ten Mile Bore, 19/10/00 David “Little friarbird singing close to Lumdsdaine Currawinya NP 05:12 Lumsdaine pbb with strange fretful (worried?) 2 QLD Fine call. Pbb takes no notice but continues exchanges with other pbb’s in vicinity of the bore. Is there a mix-up between two groups? One bird is very close to me.” 048- 26 02:40 Ten Mile Bore, 19/10/00 David “Same bird as previous track, Lumdsdaine Currawinya NP 05:18 Lumsdaine flies closer to another member of 2 QLD Fine the group. Grey shrike-thrush in background.” 048- 27 07:51 Kinchega 1st 01/10/84 David “Pbb is singing in midground Lumdsdaine Camp by 05:20 Lumsdaine surrounded by everybody else in 2 Darling River Fine the dawn chorus. The party of NSW, river red ravens drowns the pbb at times. gums, black But it’s a good sample of the box, dry plain, formal dawn song and a very slow-flowing lively riverside scene.” river 048- 28 02:02 Kinchega 1st 07/10/84 David “Just single notes from the same Lumdsdaine Camp by 06:15 Lumsdaine pbb territory which finished the 2 Darling River Fine formal song earlier this morning. NSW, river red A very pleasant habitat gums, black recording.” box, dry plain, slow-flowing river 049- 01 09:20 Kinchega 2nd 08/10/84 David “Good long dawn solo; other Lumdsdaine Camp by 05:15 Lumsdaine pbb’s can be heard in distance. 3 Darling River Fine Singing from isolated cyprus NSW about 400m from river. Bright moonlight. On CD divided into two parts, where the pbb moves for the first time.” 049- 02 11:17 Kinchega 2nd 08/10/84 David “Good long dawn solo; other Lumdsdaine Camp by 05:25 Lumsdaine pbb’s can be heard in distance. 3 Darling River Fine Singing from isolated cyprus NSW about 400m from river. Bright moonlight. On CD divided into 238

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes two parts, where the pbb moves for the first time. At 8:30 into the 2nd track the pbb moves further off again.” 049- 03 02:07 Kinchega, nr 11/10/84 David “Pbb antiphons in dawn chorus, Lumdsdaine Woolshed 05:35 Lumsdaine follows on from 1.54 white – 3 NSW, river red Fine rumped miners; magpie lark also gums, black to fore.” box, dry plain, pool, billabong 049- 04 02:23 Kinchega, nr 08/11/89 David “Overflow below the Woolshed. Lumdsdaine Woolshed NSW 05:00 Lumsdaine One bird lazily singing formal 3 Fine song in dawn chorus (it’s coming to the end – hear next track). A second pbb can be heard singing in the distance.” 049- 05 00:30 Kinchega, nr 08/11/89 David “Duet material from previous bird Lumdsdaine Woolshed NSW 05:01 Lumsdaine and another near the outflow. 3 Fine The second has a very different voice timbre to usual – is it a youngster?” 049- 06 01:03 Kinchega, nr 08/11/89 David “A solitary and apparently Lumdsdaine Woolshed NSW 06:01 Lumsdaine lethargic bird perched in a tree 3 Fine making a long series of single note calls, two of which are included at the beginning of this track; then, in response to a mimicking whistle from me (cut!), varies his tune.” 049- 07 02:36 Kinchega, Lake 09/11/89 David “Calls from two adults. Very Lumdsdaine Emu NSW, 05:38 Lumsdaine lethargic.” 3 river red gums, Fine, wind black box, dry rising plain, pool, billabong 049- 08 02:10 Kinchega, Lake 09/11/89 David “Two adults and three young on Lumdsdaine Emu NSW 07:27 Lumsdaine bough of red gum (same territory 3 Fine, wind as previous track).” beginning to gust 049- 09 02:26 Kinchega, Lake 09/11/89 David “Three young on bough of red Lumdsdaine Emu NSW 07:27 Lumsdaine gum (same territory as tracks 27 3 Fine, & 29). Quiet conversation from gusting young, loud calls from adults. wind Blue bonnets arrive and call.” 049- 10 00:12 Kinchega, Lake 09/11/89 David “Three young on bough of red Lumdsdaine Emu NSW 08:12 Lumsdaine gum (same territory as previous 3 Fine, tracks 27 & 29). One squirty call gusting from youngster.” wind 049- 11 00:35 Kinchega, Lake 09/11/89 David “Three young on bough of red Lumdsdaine Emu NSW 08:13 Lumsdaine gum (same territory as previous 3 Fine, tracks 27 & 29). Three young gusting making calls apparently based on wind ringneck piping? Hear succeeding tracks.” 049- 12 00:40 Kinchega, Lake 09/11/89 David “Three young on bough of red Lumdsdaine Emu NSW 08:15 Lumsdaine gum (same territory as previous 3 Fine, tracks 27 & 29). Three young gusting make a great variety of quiet wind conversational calls.” 239

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes 049- 13 01:13 Kinchega, Lake 09/11/89 David “Three young on bough of red Lumdsdaine Emu NSW 08:18 Lumsdaine gum (same territory as previous 3 Fine, tracks 27 & 29). Three young gusting make a great variety of quiet wind conversational calls. Two ringnecks fly in” 049- 14 05:17 Kinchega, Lake 11/11/89 David “6 of 6. Just back from the Lumdsdaine Emu NSW 06:09 Lumsdaine margin, 1 close, 1 mid-ground 3 Fine & still and 1 more distant pbb engage in conversation. Beautiful examples of the soft laughing call. The ‘hawk’ call is accompanied by a very formal bobbing or bowing of the close bird, perched on a bough of black box. A beautiful atmosphere from the lake behind. Around 4’ in the close bird moves a little way further off. Lovely congruence of magpie and pbb modes at end.” 049- 15 02:07 Sturt NP, Mt 24/10/84 David “Good close recording from bird Lumdsdaine Wood Station 05:00 Lumsdaine singing beyond Shearer’s Shed. 3 NSW, Very repetitive. Note the ‘flawed’ farmstead/stati note which begins the third on & sequence, and the varying canon surroundings, with a second bird in the small dam(s) background. Same bird continues with reeds, etc. in next track, but set further back in soundstage.” 049- 16 08:34 Leichardt River 21/11/97 David “Mainly two pbb’s, one mid- Lumdsdaine QLD, dry 04:46 Lumsdaine ground, the other distant. Halfway 3 savanna, Fine, still through, the mics are turned to scattered trees, focus on the closer bird.” slow-flowing river 049- 17 02:56 Leichardt River 21/11/97 David “Closer now to the distant bird of Lumdsdaine QLD 05:02 Lumsdaine previous cuts. There’s a third pbb 3 Fine, still involved now. Good ‘rounds’ between the birds. The songs and territories are so close that I wonder if these aren’t ‘cousins’ or satellite territories. After comment (excised on editing), cut 71 is closer again. Good ‘wok’ calls.” 049- 18 05:15 Leichardt River 21/11/97 David “Solo from same bird as previous Lumdsdaine QLD 05:17 Lumsdaine cut. At 1:35:40 on field tape, 4’24 3 Fine, still on CD track, the bird suddenly changes its song – mimics grey shrike-thrush? – and dives to the ground to pick up some item of food. Flies back to perch and is silent awhile (eating). Finished with fine fanfare (‘I am a pbb’) and flies off.” 049- 19 04:24 Leichardt River 21/11/97 David “Solo from the third neighbour. Lumdsdaine QLD 05:31 Lumsdaine Good variations on the local song 3 Fine, still material, but quite a distinct style. The bird comes to the natural end of his song and, after a few moments, flies off. Brolga flies over calling in background soon 240

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes after begging of cut.” 049- 20 05:33 The plain, Lawn 24/11/97 David “A very beautiful formal song, Lumdsdaine Hill NP QLD, 05:10 Lumsdaine jacky winter and blue-winged 3 dry savanna, Fine, still kookaburras behind.” scattered trees 050- 01 01;50 Trephina Gorge 28/07/04 David “A small party of pbb’s in the Lumdsdaine NT, eucalypt, 07:11 Lumsdaine eucalypts nearby appear to 4 casuarina mix, Fine respond to the calls of a distant dry river bed dingo, calling from the crest of with pools the gorge as it is lit by the firs rays of the sun. The pbb’s transfomraiton of the dingo’s howl is, of course, all my imagination, and/but I like it!” 050- 02 15:19 King’s Creek 03/09/00 David “Singing in tree in middle of Lumdsdaine Station NT, 05:15 Lumsdaine camp. Sounds of feet and noise 4 eucalypt, Fine of generator. There’s one figure casuarina mix which sounds as though a single note is interpolated by a second bird. I checked all round the singing bird and there was no second singer.” 050- 03 05:18 Newhaven NT, 10/08/04 David “First fifteen minutes of dawn Lumdsdaine spinifex, 07:00 Lumsdaine chorus (in two segments) an hour 4 saltbush, Fine before sunrise; prominent are the acacia scrub pbb’s, spiny-cheeked, brown, white-plumed and singing honeyeaters; later come the yellow-throated miners.” 050- 04 02:49 Florence 08/08/92 David “Family antiphons. Little friarbird Lumdsdaine Creek, 08:20 Lumsdaine and rainbow lorikeets, not to 4 Litchfield NP Fine mention spangled drongo. Open NT, partly woodland between Buley deciduous Rockhole and Florence Falls. tropical forest, Some noise from roadworks at dry river bed Florence Falls.” with pools, residual flow 050- 05 03:39 Florence Falls, 11/08/92 David “Family antiphons? Close to Lumdsdaine Litchfield NP 08:12 Lumsdaine same area, so probably same 4 NT, partly Fine family as recorded on 08/08/92. deciduous Some grader behind. Excellent tropical forest, clear examples of ‘prew’ call at freshwater opening.” stream/creek 050- 06 01:43 Warrumbungles 20/09/83 David “The next three tracks are out of Lumdsdaine NP, Spirey 05:00 Lumsdaine longitudinal order. It was only 4 Creek NSW Fine and while making this collection that I clear discovered the famous butcherbird of Spirey Creek, 1983, was missing from the general library. He is now restored.” “1 of 3. Pbb is singing his regular dawn song from isolated tall cedar in paddock, not far from creek, recorded at a distance of ca 50m, giving a good context to the song. For some reason, this has been put late into the general library (14/10/05).” 241

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes 050- 07 03:06 Warrumbungles 20/09/83 David “2 of 3. Pbb is singing his regular Lumdsdaine NP, Spirey 05:05 Lumsdaine dawn song from isolated tall 4 Creek NSW Fine and cedar in paddock, not far from clear creek, recorded at a distance of ca 30m. I have cut out a pan from this sequence which I though a nice touch 25 years go, but dislike now. Can be heard in original soundscape. Put late in the general library 14/10/05.” 050- 08 02:33 Warrumbungles 20/09/83 David “3 of 3. Pbb is singing his regular Lumdsdaine NP, Spirey 05:10 Lumsdaine dawn song from isolated tall 4 Creek NSW Fine and cedar in paddock, not far from clear creek, recorded at a distance of ca 20m. The most famous of all pbb recordings, but only put late into the general library 14/10/05.” 051- 01 05:57 Ned’s Corner, 08/08/03 Howard “Also grey bb.” Plowright Trust for 08:13 Plowright: Nature, 17 Chester Mmildura VIC, Street, near Surrey Hills homestead VIC 3127 051- 02 00:53 The Hummock, 09/08/02 Howard “Close, good calls, some wind.” Plowright Bundaberg 08:00 Plowright QLD 051- 03 05:53 Cougal CG 18/09/04 Howard “Beautiful clear calls although Plowright near Border 05:30 Plowright very low amplitude at first. Ranges NSW Windy.” 052-Powys1 01 01:25 Lawn Hill NP, 20/07/93 Vicki “All recordings made with Sony Gulf of 07:53 Powys: TCD.D10 PRO DAT and Sony Carpentaria Warm Rocklands, ECM-MS5 one-point stereo QLD, natural Glen Davis microphone.” freshwater Road, “Duet: two birds perched in trees, lakes and Capertee flutey ‘weedle-ordle-ah-dit-dee’; gorge fringed Valley trills (+ ’kerwow’ LFB; BHE).” with tropical NSW 2846 BLSA description: “Beautiful, vegetation, melancholy, flute-like piping sparse notes, including two-note woodland and phrases, and variations on a spinifex ridges phrase "weedle-ordle-ah-dit-dee"; beyond - birds low trills. Often in duet.” call from stony ridge tree- perches 052-Powys1 02 02:07 Near 8-Mile 28/07/93 Vicki “Duet: two birds perched in trees Creek, nrth 08:50 Powys (+ M-L; SC&LFBS; BSD; HEs; Hells Gate, Gulf Hot, PBB). Background sounds: of Carpenteria humid Magpie-lark; Silver-crowned and QLD, fw creek, Little Friarbirds; Bar-shouldered tropical Doves; honeyeaters.” vegetation, woodland 052-Powys1 03 01:35 Roper River, 05/08/93 Vicki “Duet: two birds perched in trees Elsey NP NT, 07:07 Powys (+ donkeys; apostlebirds; tropical Hot, BS&PD; HEs). Edit: one brief freshwater river humid cut.” fringed with tropical vegetation, woodland 242

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes beyond, birds call from tall eucalypts at campground 052-Powys1 04 01:45 Roper River, 05/08/93 Vicki “Duet: 2 birds perched in trees, t- Elsey NP NT 07:07 Powys note calls & fuller calls (+BSD, Hot, lorikeet, babblers)” humid 052-Powys1 05 00:50 Katherine 08/08/93 Vicki “Duet: two birds perched in trees Gorge NP NT, 06:54 Powys (+ BHE; SCC; people; magpie- tall eucalypts at Hot, lark, lorkeets; finches). Edit: one CG, freshwater humid brief cut.” river, tropical vegetation 052-Powys1 06 06:35 Palm Valley, 03/09/93 Vicki “One bird calling in full moonlight, Finke Gorge 05:23 Powys varied phrases (RufSnglk; NP NT, desert, Cool HBCuck; BlackDuck).” sparse trees, near campground, sandstone outcrops and cliffs, recent rain - bird called from part-way up stony ridge 053-Powys2 01 03:10 Miami 28/05/04 Vicki “Recorded with Sony WMD6C beachfront, Powys cassette recorder and Sony ECM Gold Coast MS5 one-point stereo mic. QLD Several pbb’s, people, cars, pushbike, ocean, birds perched in trees and on power poles.” 054-Powys3 01 01:39 Capertee 20/10/97 Vicki HT: This CD focuses on the Valley NSW 05:13 Powys species call. “Gurgling calls in far distance. DAT & ME67.” 054-Powys3 02 00:58 Capertee 20/10/97 Vicki “Whistled notes in far distance. Valley NSW 05:25 Powys DAT & ME67.” 054-Powys3 03 01:20 Capertee 28/09/00 Vicki “Intermittent flutey notes a bit off Valley NSW 08:46 Powys mic. DAT & ME67.” 054-Powys3 04 02:38 Capertee 22/10/01 Vicki “Probably duets in far distance. Valley NSW 05:00 Powys DAT & ME67.” 054-Powys3 05 01:04 Capertee 23/03/02 Vicki “A pair calling in distance, several Valley NSW 08:18 Powys duet phrases. DAT & ME67.” 054-Powys3 06 00:24 Capertee 23/03/02 Vicki “’Eight-two-two’ call given twice. Valley NSW 08:59 Powys DAT & ME67.” 054-Powys3 07 06:05 King’s Canyon 23/06/87 Vicki “After recent rain, and soon NT Around Powys interrupted by overhead scenic dawn flights. Microcassette. Several cuts.” 054-Powys3 08 03:19 The Olgas NT 21/06/87 Vicki “The previous day Ayers Rock Afternoon Powys was spectacular with waterfalls after at least an inch of rain. Microcassette. Several cuts. Hollis, the MP3 I previously emailed to you of a contact call from King’s Canyon was actually a contact call from the Olgas and is heard again on this track. Sorry for the mislabeling. You might like 243

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes to correct the label on the MP3 file.” 054-Powys3 09 14:38 Ormiston 25/08/86 Vicki “Slow, lazy, melodious notes from Pound NT Early – Powys 1 or 2 pbb’s, very clear, I must mid- have been close. There's a few morning brief breaks in the sequence. There was running water in the gorge so it must have been another wet winter. Microcassette. Quite a few cuts.” Notes from Andrew Skeoch: “Dear Hollis, I have prepared 2 discs of Pied Butcherbird calls for you. These are the best recordings of them I have from over the years, and come from a range of locations, mostly inland and NT. I am including a few photocopied pages of my 'notation' of these recordings, I hope it may be of some assistance in navigating your way around the recordings. * “I'll explain my notation; its my own system, very personal and idiosyncratic, but I hope you'll be able to decipher it easily enough – I draw what I hear on the tape, according to the timing. Each A4 page is ruled into 4 columns, each representing 15mins (there are small marks indicating minutes) - thus each page documents an hour of recordings, and two pages documents an entire 120 min DAT tape. * “As I listen to the tape playback, I draw the sounds I'm hearing vertically down the column (as time progresses) and horizontally (stereo field left to right), with each species drawn in a different colour (pencil, with colour usually related in some way to the plumage of the bird) and with heaviness/boldness indicating the volume or closeness of the call. I have some very subjective ways of drawing the sound of each birdcall, for instance those with short song phrases such as the Butcherbird I may generally draw as horizontal marks, whereas other species that may chatter on continually may end up as more sketchy vertical scribbles. I use abbreviations as well, such as PBu for Pied Butcherbird. * “Every new 'take' is marked by a solid line across the column, and the time the tape was turned off and then on again (although on my early recordings I just noted the total time of that take). So what you should be able to read off the page is a snapshot of what species are calling at any point on the tape, where they are most prominent, how they move around the stereo soundscape, plus extraneous noises such as wind, or me cluttering and bumping around (or even my tummy rumbling! - sorry about this, its one of the perils of hand-holding mics early in the morning when one has yet to have breakfast! - I notate them so I can be warned to remove them later, but in your case you are being blessed with a raw dump of the tape, occasional rumbles. * “Although my originals are colour, I am just sending you some b/w copies, which considering the sparse nature of these recording will probably give you all the info you need. For the long sequences recorded at Ormiston Gorge, I became fascinated with the principle calling bird's repertoire of musical phrases, and made some notation of these, numbering the different phrases as they emerged into the soliloquy. I have also added track numbers as they relate to the 2 CDRs I'm sending you. I have only included the pages for the Ormiston and Sundown sequences, as the other recordings are shorter and easier to follow, the notation wouldn't really add much to them.” 055-Skeoch1 01 05:39 Ormiston ??/10/98 Andrew “This sequence (tracks 1 – 4) Gorge NT Begins Skeoch: begins around around P.O. Box 2.30am, under a full moon. 02:30 188, Outback birds are very vocal Castlemain during the night around full e moon.” VIC 3450

055-Skeoch1 02 02:06 Ormiston Andrew Gorge NT Skeoch 055-Skeoch1 03 07:51 Ormiston Andrew Gorge NT Skeoch 055-Skeoch1 04 04:18 Ormiston Andrew Gorge NT Skeoch 055-Skeoch1 05 19:46 Ormiston ??/10/98 Andrew “Same location, but the following Gorge NT Skeoch morning. This sequence (tracks 5 – 8) goes on into the dawn chorus.” 055-Skeoch1 06 05:28 Ormiston Andrew Gorge NT Skeoch 244

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes 055-Skeoch1 07 03:42 Ormiston Andrew Gorge NT Skeoch 055-Skeoch1 08 25:47 Ormiston Andrew Gorge NT Skeoch 056-Skeoch2 01 09:20 Ormiston Andrew “The concluding section of the Gorge NT Skeoch above sequence.”

056-Skeoch2 02 04:49 Darwin, ??/09/98 Andrew “With geckoes, traffic, a peacock southern Skeoch and dog in background).” suburbs NT 056-Skeoch2 03 16:04 Sundown NP, ??/06/95 Andrew “These sequences (tracks 3 – 7) SE QLD Dawn + Skeoch come from a clear but cold sunny morning, beginning at dawn and continuing on until around 8.30am, in open country/dry woodland, hence a diverse range of birdlife around.” 056-Skeoch2 04 06:18 Sundown NP, ??/06/95 Andrew SE QLD Dawn + Skeoch 056-Skeoch2 05 01:06 Sundown NP, ??/06/95 Andrew SE QLD Dawn + Skeoch 056-Skeoch2 06 03:02 Sundown NP, ??/06/95 Andrew SE QLD Dawn + Skeoch 056-Skeoch2 07 07:17 Sundown NP, ??/06/95 Andrew SE QLD Dawn + Skeoch 056-Skeoch2 08 04:14 Todd River, E ??/07/98 Andrew of Alice Springs Pre-dawn Skeoch NT darkness 056-Skeoch2 09 04:23 Todd River, E ??/07/98 Andrew of Alice Springs Pre-dawn Skeoch NT darkness 056-Skeoch2 10 06:54 John Hayes ??/08/98 Andrew Rockhole, Skeoch eastern Macdonnell Ranges, 056-Skeoch2 11 01:08 Uluru NP NT ??/10/98 Andrew “I was hoping to get a longer Mid- Skeoch sequence, you can hear me walk morning away from tripod mounted mics, but tourists came walking around the corner after a minute or so, chatting away at the top of their voices.” 056-Skeoch2 12 06:00 Uluru NP NT ??/10/98 Andrew “A really interesting sequence of (against base Late Skeoch subsong, pity the wind was of rock). afternoon blowing half a gale!” 057-Ulman1 01 45:49 Mary Creek, far 22/10/94 Phillip and “Pre-dawn pbb with rooster.” N QLD, near Around Jane Mount Carbine 05:00 Ulman 058-Fletcher 01 06:36 WA Unknown Kerry HT: From her ABC radio work Fletcher Desert Mischief. 059-FVG 01 01:14 Murray River ??/10/97 Fred van “There is a marked geographical NP Gessel: variation in their song (dialects). I 64 Dorothy have also filtered most of these Avenue, calls. The ‘A’ or ‘B’ after the date Woy Woy is another call, sometimes of the NSW 2256 same bird but not always, at a different time on the same day.” 059-FVG 02 01:38 Mount Magnet 01/10/98 Fred van WA Gessel 059-FVG 03 01:25 Quilpie QLD 18/08/01 Fred van 245

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes Gessel 059-FVG 04 01:24 Quilpie QLD 18A/089/0 Fred van 1 Gessel 059-FVG 05 00:22 Mariamvale 27/11/99 Fred van “Two birds.” QLD Gessel 059-FVG 06 00:19 Wollembi NSW 04/06/88 Fred van Gessel 059-FVG 07 01:19 Sarina QLD 07/11/99 Fred van Gessel 059-FVG 08 00:15 Kakadu NT ??/12/83 Fred van “Alarm call.” Gessel 059-FVG 09 01:15 Warwick QLD 15/09/79 Fred van Dawn Gessel 059-FVG 10 01:45 Gibb River 31/08/98 Fred van “Two birds.” Road WA Dawn Gessel 059-FVG 11 01:42 Edith Falls NT 11/09/92 Fred van “Duet and alarm.” Gessel 059-FVG 12 00:25 Manilya WA 12/09/98 Fred van “Duet.” Gessel 059-FVG 13 02:06 Daly River NT 24/06/84 Fred van “Duet.” Gessel 059-FVG 14 01:07 Daly River NT 24A/06/84 Fred van “Duet.” Gessel 059-FVG 15 00:58 Widden Valley 02/10/90 Fred van “Single bird.” NSW Gessel 059-FVG 16 01:14 Karinja NP WA 04/09/03 Fred van 05:45 Gessel 059-FVG 17 00:36 Karinja NP WA 04/09/03 Fred van “Unfiltered.” 05:45 Gessel 059-FVG 18 00:25 Broome Bird 01/09/03 Fred van “Duet.” Observatory Gessel WA 059-FVG 19 00:30 Warrumbungles 11/09/00 Fred van “Single bird.” NSW Gessel 059-FVG 20 00:34 Smiths Lake 07/03/03 Fred van NSW Gessel 060- 01 18:43 CSIRO.428 02 15:43 03 16:07 02 12:26 03 16:52 062- 01 16:19 CSIRO.430 02 15:53 03 14:00 04 00:46 063- 01 16:04 CSIRO.431 02 16:07 03 12:48 064-Hansen 01 Unknown Unknown Andrew From Australian Birdsong Skeoch Improvisations by Mark Hansen and Sara (CD), 1997, Plateau Road Koschak Records. 064-Hansen 05 Unknown Unknown Andrew From Australian Birdsong Skeoch Improvisations by Mark Hansen and Sara (CD), 1997, Plateau Road Koschak Records. 065- Soun 00:25 Unknown Unknown Unknown ABC Archives and Library 246

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes ABC.ALS d file Services 066-Rankin1 MP3 00:54 Litchfield NP ??/08/90 Bill Rankin: “15 September 2005: Dear Hollis, NT 225 Pacey Here are a couple of calls Road, recorded in August 1990 on the Upper road to Litchfield NP NT. From Brookfield memory I think there were some QLD 4069 young birds in the group recorded.” 067-Rankin2 MP3 01:06 Litchfield NP ??/08/90 Bill Rankin HT: As above. NT 068-Rankin3 MP3 00:57 Warrumbungles 30/10/85 Bill Rankin “Sorry I can’t be more precise NP NSW with the Warrumbungles creek location—didn't make very precise notes in those days—but from memory the campground looked out over a large paddock which had an isolated hill with some trees on top. I remember because this is where the birds first called from. By the time I had walked to the hill they would stop calling. I did this for about 3 mornings before I finally got a recording. I suppose it's all changed by now. I haven't been back since. You mentioned that you might go to the Warrumbungles to record. This might be good for checking how the song compares today as to 20 years ago. I recorded this on 30/10/1985 in one of the camping grounds in the National Park (near a small creek if I remember correctly). I have had to clean up the recording a bit as it was recorded with a cassette recorder and a cheap microphone in one of my first parabolas. There was a lot of tape hiss and a bit of wind to take out. I took out a bit of space between the first couple of calls and the following few (to reduce the file size to send to you).” 069-Rankin4 MP3 01:15 Draper QLD 18/08/05 Bill Rankin “I have attached an Mp3 (890Kb) Approx. of my local pair of pbb’s duetting 10:00 on the powerlines. I had to cut out some low frequency traffic noise below 400Hz. Interesting little chirp like a sparrow each time the second bird joins in (not certain if male or female sings first).” 070- MP3 00:03 The Olgas NT c. Vicki “29 August 2005: I've been Powys.MP3. ??/06/86 Powys delving into my archives. It was 1 back in 1986 that I first started annotating my tape transcriptions with '822' for that specific call, hence I could find it just now from my notes. Here's three more 247

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes short clips of pbb’s, two are of the '822' call, the 3rd is of the rising harsh 'zip'-like call. * 1st call is very faint but is what I call the classic Central Australian 'eight-twenty-two' call with no preceeding 'zip', recorded at The Olgas c. June 1986 on microcassette.” 072- MP3 00:03 Near Gosses 08/09/93 Vicki * “3rd call is that rising harsh 'zip' Powys.MP3. Bluff NT Powys call same as John Hutchinson 3 recorded at Broome. Recorded near Gosses Bluff, Central Australia, September 8, 1993 on DAT. The pbb seemed to be taking delight in scaring the daylights out of flocks of budgies that were in the process of setting up nesting colonies. That zip call would send a cloud of budgies into flight. The zip call might therefore be an aggression/territorial call?” 073- MP3 00:02 Capertee ??/??/02 Vicki * “The term 'diagnostic' is in Powys.MP3. Valley NSW Powys common usage and not my own 4 term. It refers to a sound that can definitely identify a particular species of wildlife, whether or not the species has been sighted. Useful for bird/frog surveys etc. The pbb '822' call that I have is from Capertee Valley, recorded 2002, I'll MP3 it to you as a short clip in separate email.” * “Around Australia the number of syllables seems to vary according to location – John Hutchinsons's Broome pbb added extra syllables with 'eeeeeeight- twenty-to-two', the Capertee bird merely said 'eight-two-two', while the birds I think from Central Australia say 'eeeeeeeight- twenty-two'. I'll keep looking to see if I can find more examples on my field tapes of that particular call.” 074-Pollack1 Pollock/Brereton CD for Hollis 1. Pollock’s Bird and Animal calls (edited version) 14:14 2. Prof. Brereton: Rosella Communication (ed. version) 13:56 3. Oriole subsong (Beerburrum State Forest, Qld.) 01:00 4. Pollock’s Bird and Animal calls as copied 14:19 5. Prof. Brereton: Rosella Communication as copied 13:25

“14 March 2006: Dear Hollis, Harold Pollock made wildlife films and also gramophone records (45 RPM discs) of Australian bird and animal sounds. One such is his Bird and Animal Calls of Australia (Jacaranda Press, 1968). This starts with Butcherbirds – first Pied then Grey. I have copied from turntable to computer with only moderate success. Some turntable rumble is audible, and I have some doubts about the speed. I think the result runs too fast and therefore, when editing the result to remove clicks, etc., I also slowed the recording. Likewise with the ABC “Insight” program talk on Rosella 248

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes Communication by Professor Le Gay Brereton, University of New England, the copy I made from my old Uher tape seemed to be fast, and I slowed it to 90%. On the CD, I give you these edited versions of them, but add at the end, the copies as I made them at first. See whether you agree with me on the speed question. * “Completing what I shortened in an email, Harold says in the book: ‘If I were asked to name the most melodious song-bird I have heard anywhere in the world, I would immediately choose the handsome Pied Butcherbird. Larger than the English starling, the Organ-bird as it is often called, has a wonderful range of flute-like notes which it often renders while perched on the topmost branches of a dead tree. These black-throated fellows often sing in pairs, one bird's song complementing the other's in an engaging manner. They bow and spread their wings as they call in charming fashion. Perhaps their song is heard at its best in spring and autumn. They are found almost throughout Australia.’ The bird which gives the first three stanzas on the recording was recorded at daybreak, on a misty day, in beautiful Numinbah Valley, south-eastern Queensland. The other calls, also rendered by a single bird, were recorded at about 5 a.m. on the golf course at Murwillumbah, northern New South Wales. This bird in my opinion is a maestro. In all my years of wandering in the Australian outback, I have never heard such a fine and varied butcher-bird song. Experienced bird men who have listened to the record agree with my opinion.’" * “At 00:31.5 there are few notes of what I reckon to be Crimson Rosella plus some I don’t recognise. No other Rosella and I wonder if it is mimicry. Do Pied Bbs mimic? Pollock does not comment. And at 00:35 some magpie warbling continues into Bb. More mimicry? And it gets worse/better. I’ll be interested to hear what you make of it. A number of species of birds at times indulge in what has sometimes been called “sub-song”, where they just warble on, apparently without its having any particular significance, and mimicry is sometimes included. I hadn’t noticed Bbs doing this, but then I hadn’t taken much notice of them ‘pre-Hollis’. So I wonder if Harold was in fact recording Bb subsong, which would account for the greater variety of sounds. It is unfortunate that he does not give the date or even time of the year for his recordings.” * “On 12 December, 1973, I recorded an Oriole doing what I regarded as sub-song. It was so misguided as to include Bb (threat?) calls ... and was chased vigorously by a real Bb with snapping beak. This was in Beerburrum (north of Brisbane) exotic pine plantations. I’ll put the Oriole on CD after the first versions of the other two. Grey rather than Pied Bb mimicry, I fear. At 00:38/39, and 52/53 in track 3.” * “Harold’s Currawongs (at 02:52) are giving what I grew up knowing as their rain corroboree. Curtis family lore had it that when they gathered in a flock and sang en masse like this, it meant that rain was coming. As a child, of course, I never bothered to check to see whether rain did follow. But once when I was recording lyrebirds (what else!) in Mt Warning N. P., I recorded such a chorus at the caravan park. Next day it rained and kept raining so much that the creek came up over the bridge and I had to stay a couple of extra days before I could get out.” * “04:49 – Emu. Since you are considering musical aspects of bird-song, and one wouldn’t regard emus as “musical”, but maybe one should – a little Emu anecdote. Prior to 1975, Qld national parks were administered by the Dept of Forestry. I headed a small NP Section in the ‘60s, and in a report someone had written about the drumming noise an Emu makes. No computers in those days. One wrote drafts in long-hand to be typed up by our Section’s typist. And in this case her fingers made the same sort of mistake I’m continually making where one finger gets ahead of another, so what we got – and cheerfully chanted about the office – was, ‘an eum makes a rataplan.’Do you agree, listening to Harold’s recording, that ‘an eum makes a rataplan’?” * “At 07:42 we start on Side 2 of the record – mammal sounds. Non-musical and unattractive. I leave them there in case they are of curiosity value.” * “It seems agreed that Pollock is deceased, probably about 10 years ago, but no-one came up with information about any relatives. The best advice I got was from Peter Fullagar: Harold Pollock died some years ago. His recordings (all of them as far as I can tell) were left in the care of Rex Buckingham and have now passed to the ANWC with Rex's bequest, where they have been incorporated within the Wildlife Sounds Library. Harold often 'camped' in his caravan with the Buckinghams when not in the field and as a consequence he stored his recordings with those in Rex's sound library. Harold's collection still requires proper cataloguing because he had no data sheets, as such, and simply wrote bits of information on his tape reel boxes. Rex had started to catalogue these tapes but had made little progress before he also died. I expect Lila Buckingham might be able to recall when Harold died, but that would be the end of the line as far as I am aware. Lila's address last time I was in touch was: 102/155 Warrigal Road, Burwood, VICTORIA 3125. Tel: (03) 98 314 202.” Bird and Animal Calls of Australia by Harold J. Pollock (Jacaranda Press, 1979). Side 1 Pied Butcherbird, Grey Butcherbird, Grey Thrush, Black-backed Magpie, Bell-miner, Eastern Whipbird, Rufous Song-lark, Black-backed Gull, Emu, Emu chick, Cassowary, Bush Curlew, Laughing 249

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes Kookaburra, Brolga. Side 2 Male Koala calling, Female Koala calling, Koalas fighting, Baby Koala about 6 months old, Koalas courting, Squirrel Glider (Petaurus norfolcensis), Tasmanian Devils, Fruit-bats or Flying Foxes (on South Molle Island), Dingoes. Wonder birds of Australia and their calls by Harold J. Pollock (Jacaranda Press, 1979). Side 1 Birds with musical voices: Pied Butcher-bird, Australian Magpie, Grey Shrike-thrush, Bell Miner. Birds with bell-like voices: Bell Miner, Crested Bell-bird, Birds that whistle: Whistling Kite, Rufous Whistler, Crimson Rosella. Birds that trumpet: Black Swan, Brolga. Birds that mimic other birds: Superb Lyrebird. Side 2 Satin Bowerbird. Bird that meows like a cat: Green Catbird. Birds with strange voices; Eastern Whipbird, Gang-gang Cockatoo, Noisy Friar-bird. Birds with loud voices: Varied Honeyeater, Southern Logrunner. Bird with tiny voice: Scarlet Honeyeater. Birds that grunt: Australian Cassowary, Emu, Australian Pelican. Bird with a spine-chilling voice: Bush Stone-curlew. Birds that yodel: Grey-crowned Babbler, Black Butcherbird. Bird that ascends the scale: Pallid Cuckoo. Bird that descends the scale: White-throated Warbler. Bird that laughs: Laughing Kookaburra. Birds that call in the night: Boobook Owl, White-tailed Nightjar. 074-Pollack1 01 14:16 First three Pre-1980 Harold J. See above. (pbb stanzas: First three Pollock 00:01 – Numinbah stanzas at 01:17) Valley SE QLD; daybreak then, a single on a misty bird on the golf day; then course at approx. Murwillumbah 05:00 N NSW. 074-Pollack1 02 13:56 See above. See above. No pbb. 074-Pollack1 03 01:00 Harold J. See above. Oriole subsong Pollock mimicry of a pbb. 074-Pollack1 04 14:19 Unknown Pre-1980 Harold J. See above. Edited version of (pbb Approx. Pollock Track 01. 00:01 – 05:00 01:22) 074-Pollack1 05 13:25 See above. See above. No pbb. 075-GG 01 05:01 Gowrie Unknown Gloria 02 32:47 Junction QLD Glass Track 2 very faint, not useable. 076- 01 13:13 Hugh River NT 12/03/00 Jaroslav Around Alice Springs. Kovaricek 06:15 Kovaricek: KOVA Production s 15 McBeath Drive SKYE 5072 jarokova@ yahoo.com 076- 02 08:58 Emily Gap NT 23/07/00 Jaroslav Around Alice Springs. Kovaricek 06:45 Kovaricek 076- 03 10:26 Emily Gap NT 03/12/00 Jaroslav Around Alice Springs. Kovaricek morning Kovaricek 076- 04 10:33 Finke River at 16/09/00 Jaroslav Around Alice Springs. Kovaricek Glen Helen NT 05:50 Kovaricek 076- 05 05:11 Glen Helen 16/09/00 Jaroslav Around Alice Springs. Kovaricek river 06:20 Kovaricek 076- 06 13:51 Undoolya Road 23/06/00 Jaroslav Around Alice Springs. Kovaricek 07:00 Kovaricek 077-Baylis 01 10:28 Great Wall of 03/09/00 Tony Baylis This song started pre-dawn and China near 04:54 Utopia continued through dawn; bird was Hall’s Creek Road singing from low shrub on WA Brooweena hillside. Bird was not observed QLD 4620 during recording; I saw it as it 250

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes flew away (two birds present). Made on Sony MD MZ-R50 with Sennheiser MKH816 mic, range c. 40 metres. Some EQ applied. 077-Baylis 02 12:45 Great Wall of 03/09/00 Tony Baylis Continuation of Tr.1 after moving China near continua- mic a few metres. Some EQ Hall’s Creek tion of applied. WA Tr.1 077-Baylis 03 11:18 Utopia 01/09/05 Tony Baylis Two birds observed in mango Environment 08:39 tree in garden. One bird singing Reserve QLD initially, then the two birds duetting. Recording made on Nagra ARES-BB with Sennheiser MKH816 or MKH 40 mic, range c. 18 metres. Raw copy. 077-Ulman 04 15:20 Jim’s Place, Jane Singing dingo with pbb phrases south of Alice Ulman on piano. Springs NT 077-Ulman 05 03:07 Emily Gap, 03/10/06 Jane Pbb’s and native bees, just after Alice Springs 07:30 Ulman Hollis switched her recorder off. NT 077-Ulman 06 06:11 Alice Springs 07/10/06 Jane Alice magpie and pbb distant. Telegraph pre-dawn Ulman Station NT around 05:30 077-Ulman 07 07:20 Alice Springs 07/10/06 Jane Closer. Telegraph pre-dawn Ulman Station NT around 06:30 077-Ulman 08 00:34 Alice Springs 07/10/06 Jane Closer. Telegraph pre-dawn Ulman Station NT around 06:30 078-Ulman 01 55:19 Alice Springs 07/10/06 Jane Telegraph around Ulman Station NT 07:00 078-Ulman 02 03:00 Alice Springs 07/10/06 Jane Telegraph around Ulman Station NT 07:00 079- 01 46:48 Horseshoe 17/11/06 Del From cassette #1. Mimicry. TurnbullCS Bay, Magnetic Turnbull Island QLD 080- 01 46:31 Horseshoe 18/11/06 Del From cassette #2. Very good TurnbullCS Bay, Magnetic Turnbull mimicry. Island QLD 081- 01 46:52 Horseshoe 22/11/06 Del From cassette #3. “30 November TurnbullCS Bay, Magnetic Turnbull 2006, Dear Hollis, I’m sending Island QLD you three back, with no. 4 I’m getting clue-ee!! 1 and 2 are recorded on one side have not run them so take your choice. (No. 3 I messed up as I tried both sides.) The male and female both sing; the male is very bold and talks to me 6 inches from my face—the female is timid—they are both becoming less vocal and feel they are getting ready to migrate, at the moment shedding their plumage and really appreciating washing in the bird 251

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes bath. They both tolerate the cat and dog and they reciprocate.” 082- 01 22:23 Horseshoe 30/11/06 Del From cassette #4. TurnbullCS Bay, Magnetic Turnbull Island QLD 082- 02 47:59 Horseshoe 08/12/06 Del From cassette #5. TurnbullCS Bay, Magnetic 12/12/06 Turnbull Island QLD 083- 01 46:32 Horseshoe 12/12/06 Del From cassette #6. “13 December TurnbullCS Bay, Magnetic 13/12/06 Turnbull 2006, Dear Hollis, Whilst running Island QLD this one through on the side it is on, there’s the most amazing song. He just adores Jayne Rutter and sings his little heart out.” 084- 01 31:15 Horseshoe 19/12/06 Del From cassette #7. TurnbullCS Bay, Magnetic Turnbull Island QLD 084- 02 19:14 Horseshoe 20/12/06 Del From cassette #8. TurnbullCS Bay, Magnetic Turnbull Island QLD 085- 01 42:23 Indooroopillly, 23/10/95 Gayle From cassette #25. “Pied JohnsonCS QLD Johnson Butcherbird Dawn Song 23.10.05. Times spoken on tape, starts when quite dark. Best bit of recording up to when tape width is 4 mm. Bout continuous with various interruptions, change of position, minor interaction with other birds, until clear dawn song at approximately 11-12 mm. Dawn song continues intermittently after good day song starts. Recording occupies most of tape but much repetition of dawn song and best bits early on. Indooroopilly - don't know the name of the street but it was near Central Avenue on the east side of the railway line. Could find you the name of the street if you wanted a more precise location. One bird only.” 086- 01 36:38 Carey Street, 1/9/98 Gayle From cassette # 44. “Dawn Song. JohnsonCS Bardon, QLD Johnson The pied butcherbird starts when the width of wound on tape is 4 mm. Day song starts when there is approximately 7 mm. Day song and dawn song overlap for a while. A fairly long bout of dawn song (presumed male only, sung before other pied butcherbirds up and about), interrupted at one stage by day song (I presume a female.). Bird later change position and continued dawn song. Bout finished when tape width is 1-2 mm. The bird singing was Leworthy Lew. Carey St is near Leworthy St. I probably called the tape Carey St because 252

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes I did some other recordings there.” 087- 01 29:36 Lake 2/10/98 Gayle From cassette #50: “These three JohnsonCS Broadwater, 06:55 Johnson cassettes include two new birds QLD and one old bird, same 151, 41 E/27, year/different day as compared 30 S with the last two I sent you. All told now you should have birds: Indooroopilly, Boundary Bob at Rainworth, Leworthy Lew at Bardon, and Country Cousin from Lake Broadwater.” “Pbb dawn song at Lakeview; then gbb song at Lakeview and Camp Wilga; then a flock of corellas. Lakeview is the property that was owned by Jack and May Bennie. Lake Broadwater is about 20 km west of Dalby. I have the latitude & longitude in my thesis.” 088- 01 43:06 Boundary 12/8/96 Gayle From cassette #31: “Magpie JohnsonCS Road, Johnson dawn song. Pbb dawn song. The Rainworth best bits are near the beginning Gulley QLD of this section. It then dithers on and off till tape is 1 cm. wound on. Then magpie dawn again. Then a lot of me talking. Then gbb day song. Boundary Road. Rainworth. I recorded the same bird on two different dates in 1996. i assumed it was the same bird because only one male sings early dawn breeding song in a given territory during the breeding season. So if I had this right I would have included recordings of Boundary Bob in the first lot of CDs I sent to you and also in the second lot. Rainworth is a small suburb next door to Bardon. Officialdom would like to subsume Rainworth & make it all Bardon, which is already a large suburb but there is local resistance. Rainworth Gulley is a location near Boundary Road where I recorded Grey Butcherbirds. It has nothing to do with Pied Butcherbirds.” 089- 01 52:47 Boundary 30/10/96 Gayle From cassette #36: “Mostly me JohnsonCS Road, Johnson talking, then gbb til tape wound 6 Rainworth mm. Then pbb dawn song “A Gulley song for all time. Simpson QLD Road/Leworthy St/Mestor Avenue area, then blank for awhile (mic off?), then starts again, goes for awhile then another blank (mic off), then more talking. Tape now ½ through. Then no more on this side. 4 Nov 96: Drongo with 253

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes Boundary Bob in the background. Same songs as on 12/8/96 (same pbb). Very little pbb, mostly gbb. Pbb only at beginning of tape; rather incidental recordings.” 090- 01 02:57 Rockview, 03/05 Stuart Sequence of song phrases PowysCD Capertee Fairbairn Valley NSW, woodland 090- 02 00:52 Darwin NT, 09/98 Andrew PowysCD suburban Skeoch 090- 03 00:16 Announce. PowysCD 090- 04 04:54 Brisbane, Helen PowysCD Menindee, Horton Kimberely, Mt. Isa 090- 05 00:09 Announce. PowysCD 090- 06 01:05 SA, mallee Doug Holly PowysCD 090- 07 00:12 Announce. PowysCD 090- 08 01:46 Roper River 05/08/93 Vicki PowysCD NT, tropical Powys vegetation 090- 09 00:08 Announce. PowysCD 090- 10 Broome WA 23/03/99 David “Individual and duet.” PowysCD Stewart 090- 10 02:00 Broome WA & Broome: Stuart PowysCD West Wyalong 05/90; Fairbairn NSW WW: 10/98 090- 11 00:11 Announce. PowysCD 090- 12 00:18 Broome WA & Stuart PowysCD West Wyalong Fairbairn NSW 090- 13 00:11 Announce. PowysCD 090- 14 01:08 Broome WA & Stuart PowysCD West Wyalong Fairbairn NSW 090- 15 00:10 Announce. PowysCD 090- 16 01:18 Palmerston, 12/09/89 David From CD Favourites. PowysCD Darwin NT pre-dawn Stewart 090- 17 01:16 Capertee Vicki Warbling song. PowysCD Valley NSW, Powys dry woodland 090- 18 02:02 Mournpall L., 12/11/99 Jenny Juvenile pbb. PowysCD Hattah-Kulkye 16:00 Beasley NP, VIC, near Murray River 090- 19 00:14 Announce. PowysCD 090- 20 01:29 Green Lake 24/10/97 Jenny PowysCD near Big Desert 04:00 Beasley VIC 254

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes 090- 21 00:19 Near Announce. PowysCD 090- 22 00:27 Near Alton QLD 03/09/69 Syd Curtis Duet. PowysCD 090- 23 00:06 Announce. PowysCD 090- 24 00:23 Beerwah SF 1970s Syd Curtis PowysCD near Brisbane QLD 090- 25 00:42 Announce. PowysCD 090- 26 00:19 Beerwah SF 1970s Syd Curtis PowysCD near Brisbane QLD 090- 27 01:10 Announce. PowysCD 090- 28 02:46 Moorestone 09/82 Cyril Melodious song phrases. PowysCD Station near pre-dawn Hembrow Camooweal QLD 090- 29 01:10 Charleville 09/98 Doug Holly Melodious song phrases. PowysCD QLD, woodland dawn 090- 30 01:05 Windmill Creek, 10/98 Doug Holly Melodious song phrases. PowysCD Cape York QLD dawn 090- 31 01:56 Wogarno Hill, 15/10/98 Jenny Pre-dawn calls, also insects PowysCD Wogarno dawn Beasley (katydids?). Station WA, outback 090- 32 00:14 Fred van Short extract to show the PowysCD Gessel aggression call that Jenny’s bowerbird mimicked. 090- 33 00:16 Announce. PowysCD 090- 34 00:43 Mt. Magnet WA 01/10/98 Fred van PowysCD Gessel 090- 35 00:35 Harding River 08/98 Fred van PowysCD WA Gessel 090- 36 00:37 Gibb River 09/98 Fred van PowysCD Road WA Gessel 090- 37 00:33 Gibb River 31/08/98 Fred van Two birds caling. PowysCD Road WA dawn Gessel 090- 38 00:29 Broome Bird 01/09/03 Fred van Duet. PowysCD Observatory Gessel WA 090- 39 00:32 Murray River 10/97 Fred van PowysCD NP SA Gessel 090- 40 00:36 Main Well 14/08/06 Fred van One bird calling. PowysCD Gammon Gessel Range SA 090- 41 00:23 3rd Bore, Plenty 04/07/04 Fred van PowysCD Highway NT Gessel 090- 42 00:48 Edith Falls NT 11/09/92 Fred van Antiphonal calls. PowysCD Gessel 090- 43 01:03 Quilpie QLD 18/08/01 Fred van PowysCD Gessel 090- 44 00:28 Miriam Vale 27/11/99 Fred van Two birds. PowysCD QLD Gessel 090- 45 00:49 Mt. Walsh QLD 03/97 Fred van PowysCD Gessel 090- 46 00:29 Sarina QLD 07/11/99 Fred van PowysCD Gessel 255

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes 090- 47 00:56 Widden Valley 04/04/94 Fred van PowysCD NSW Gessel 090- 48 00:50 Old Bar, Taree 21/03/07 Fred van PowysCD NSW Gessel 090- 49 00:38 Smiths Lake 25/02/07 Fred van Male and female calling. PowysCD NSW 07:22 Gessel

090- 50 00:28 Voice announce only. PowysCD 091-MISC 01 03:19 Picaninny Ck, 10/08/87 Vicki “Habitat: stoney creek bed, arid, Bungle Bungles dawn Powys sparse vegetation. Temp: mild. NP WA Micro-cassette. Intermittent phrases, two-note calls, in distance, voice intro, three consecutive sequences.” 091-MISC 02 05:13 Keep River NP 06/08/87 Vicki “Habitat: arid, sandstone and WA a.m. Powys woodland. Temp: mild. Micro- cassette. Four consecutive sequences: intermittent calls including two-note calls.” 091-MISC 03 01:01 Keep River NP 06/08/87 Vicki “Habitat: arid, sandstone and WA a.m. Powys woodland. Temp: mild. Micro- cassette. One phrase only.” 091-MISC 04 00:12 Palm Valley NT ??/07/87 Vicki “Habitat: arid, sandstone, shrubs Powys and trees. Temp: mild. Micro- cassette. One phrase only.” 091-MISC 05 00:19 Palm Valley NT 21/08/90 Vicki “Habitat: arid, sandstone, shrubs Powys and trees. Temp: mild. WMD6C2XELT. One phrase from two birds.” 091-MISC 06 04:10 Koolpin Gorge, 20/07/90 Vicki “Habitat: fw stream, tropical Kakadu NP NT Powys woodland. Temp: hot. WMD6C2XELT. Song phrases from one or two birds, honeyeaters in background.” 091-MISC 07 03:20 Todd River E of 08/08/95 Andrew “Favourite Australian Birdsong, Alice Springs predawn Skeoch Tr. 11.” NT around 05:00 091-MISC 08 04:30 Andrew “A Morning in the Australian Skeoch Bush, Tr. 8: Pied Butcherbirds The sublime song of the Pied Butcherbird (0:06, 0:30, 0:47...) carries across an open area in the forest. From nearby exposed perches, a male and female sing in antiphonal duet, creating what seems to be a single pure fluted melody. It may seem that there is only one bird singing,, but if you listen closely you can hear them both, and perhaps picture them with their heads thrown back, bobbing and stretching as they call (try 1:32 or 3:40; notice the second note, lower and more mellow than the others, which is contributed by the partner, probably the female. By comparison; at 1:22, the male sings his melody alone). Another 256

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes pair of Butcherbirds may be heard in the distance (1:46, 1:56 & 2:15). Also to be heard are a Kangaroo 'grunting' (or perhaps 'belching' - who knows?) (0:49), a White-faced Heron calling as it flies lazily overhead (3:59), and a flock of Little Lorikeets (1:38, 1:53) as they shoot out from the crown of a eucalypt where they have been feasting on gum blossoms. In the distance are a variety of other birds, including Jacky Winters (..1:16..1:47..), a Restless Flycatcher "Chewie, chewie, chewie.." (..2:32, 2:38..), a Striped Honeyeater (bubbly "Wirrawee..") (2:40, 3:09), Fuscous Honeyeaters "T,t,t,t,t" (3:26.., 4:19), and Willie Wagtails. A Turquoise Parrot may be heard occasionally (3:42, 3:50, 3:57, 4:08, 4:11, 4:14) before...” 091-MISC 09 06:15 Main waterhole 04/10/98 Andrew “Spirit of the Outback, Track 1: at entrance to 03:00 Skeoch Ormiston Gorge, full moon, 3 Ormiston a.m. Our recording opens at one Gorge, Western of the most spectacular locations Macdonnell in central Australia, and features Ranges NT the purest calls of any Australian songbird. The location is Ormiston Gorge, a huge valley carved through the ancient Macdonnell Ranges, west of Alice Springs. It acts like a cathedral, reflecting and echoing sounds off sheer rock walls. At the bottom of the chasm are permanent waterholes, with huge River Red Gums growing next to the water's edge. Crickets chirrup softly from dense grasses around the waterhole, and what may be a katydid can be heard later (4.27, 4.37, 5.40). A Sheath- tailed Bat flies quickly through the tree canopy overhead, you may just be able to hear its sharp 'chipping' (around 0.15-0.37), which may be echo-location, or possibly vocalisation. Green Tree Frogs (2.03-2.30) shelter in rock underhangs near the water, and call intermittently. It is the early hours of the morning, and a full moon casts a silvery light with deep shadows. A Pied Butcherbird is roosting in a tree opposite the waterhole. It's calls (0.40 on) are a succession of musical phrases, which are 257

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes repeated and restated at intervals, forming a repertoire of over a dozen melodic fragments and variations. There are many bird species that are known to call throughout much of the night, especially at full moon. Often, their calls are lazier and more languid than at dawn or during the daytime. Here the Butcherbirds call intermittently, unhurried, their calls echoing up and down the gorge. On the water float a pair of Australasian Grebes (1.52, 1.56, 2.02...and softly at 5.05), and from overhead comes the rasp of a Barn Owl as it flies up the gorge (2.43 & 3.00). Black-fronted Dotterels are often found on the banks of permanent water bodies in central Australia, and seem to have a habit of giving a song flight in the pre-dawn hours. Here a pair of them take to the wing, and you can hear them flying from one end of the waterhole to the other and back (3.24, 4.50...). Hooded Robins are often fairly silent throughout the day, but at this time of the morning they are very definitely vocal; their calls heralding the very beginning of the dawn chorus (3.33, 3.48, 4.01...).” 091-MISC 10 04:36 Near Luritja ??/10/98 Andrew “Spirit of the Outback, Track 6: Road (Kings Late Skeoch Mulga afternoon. It is late Canyon to afternoon afternoon, and we return to the Uluru) NT open plains of Mulga woodland country. A Pink Cockatoo flies past, giving a cry that can be heard over large distances (0.01- 02, 0.08, 0.12 0.15. 0.21). Magpie-larks are well known throughout Australia, and here they are nesting in a Ironwood tree, flying in to and from their mud-built nest. Their territorial calls are penetrating (0.17-19, 0.28-30, 0.36-40, 1.33), but they also have some lovely, and less- often heard, fluting calls (0.50- 53). Also to be heard are a tiny Weebill, Australia's smallest bird (0.08, 0.16), a single begging call from a juvenile Pied Butcherbird (0.24), and a Spiney-cheeked Honeyeater in the background (0.13-16, 0.43-50, 1.06-09, 1.18- 1.22, 1.36-40, 1.51-53). The Ground Cuckoo-shrike is 258

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes somewhat rare in central Australia but immediately recognised by the whistles and cackles of its electrifying call (0.59 - 1.37, 1.42, 1.49, 1.54, 2.03). White-winged Trillers are more common, and found wherever there are scattered trees. As well as its 'trilling' call (2.15, 2.18, 2.25, 2,29, ...), you can also hear something quite unusual; a kind of hissing, produced in this case by a female bird with its bill open (1.56, 2.42, 2.50). As well as being an extraordinary vocalisation, the sound is very quiet, almost inaudible. This raises an interesting question; if another bird couldn't hear it, then what is the purpose of this call? There are several other calls to be enjoyed here; the evocative 'creaking' of a Torresian Crow (1.58, 2.08, 2.11...), along with its call (3.23, 3.29...), a Ringneck Parrot flying past (2.20-25) and then calling in the background, an Australian Magpie (2.56, 3.08...I love the whip at the end of this call; 3.19!), and a Grey Butcherbird (3.45-51). Brown Songlarks and Budgerigars are in the distance.” 091-MISC 11 06:03 Main waterhole ??/10/98 Andrew “Spirit of the Outback, Track 11: at entrance to Night Skeoch Ormiston Gorge, the following Ormiston night We return to Ormiston Gorge, Western Gorge for the last track, recorded Macdonnell the evening after the first. Now RangesNT the Pied Butcherbird is roosting in a different place, this time a few hundred metres up the gorge. We can hear other Butcherbirds even further away, calling distantly on the night air (0.04, 0.11, 0.17...). Several Black-tailed Rock Wallabies are feeding quietly on moist vegetation near the waterhole, and every now and then one can be heard dislodging rocks as they move around (1.32, 1.37, 3.29, 4.02, 4.26, 5.09) - you can even hear one snorting (4.29). The pair of Australasian Grebes (2.07..., and splashing 2.39 & 3.01) are still on the water, and the Black- fronted Dotterels give a distant songflight (1.51-2.05, 3.33-3.41).” 091-MISC 12 00:59 Buckingbong 19/09/06 Andrew “You can hear me walking away State Forest, 07:36 Skeoch from the mic set-up at the 259

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes southern NSW beginning of the take.” 091-MISC 13 00:20 Syd Curtis No pbb. Lyrebird rhythm section. 091-MISC 14 00:11 Wogarno Hill 09-10/05 Jenny “This one was at Wogarno Hill in WA Beasley September/ October 2005, two phrases, from Jenny's track on the Audiowings CD. The pbb repeated the 2nd phrase over and over without much variation, and I just love it! , I wonder if the attached clip is the same jazzy call you heard.” 091-MISC 15 11:11 Uluru NP NT ??/10/98 Andrew “The Experience of Uluru, Track Skeoch 1: Dawn across Uluru. The first flush of dawn is lightening the Eastern Sky near Uluru. The desert appears amost flat to the horizon; the low sandhills providing almost no topographical relief. Uluru itself glows dully with the approaching dawn. The half light reveals a landscape of red sand, spinifex grasses and stunted bushes. Yet this seemingly inhospitable country is home to an extraordinary abundance of birdlife. Across the sandhills, the desert is awakening; coming alive with birdsong. As our recording begins, much of what you hear comes from the varied calls of Crimson Chats. These tiny and spectacularly coloured birds are one of the most common in this arid country. Mostly their calls comprise of high twitters and little whistles (0.00 throughout), but they also have a very sweet multi-syllable song (1.16, 1.23, 1.29, 1.41...). Quite often the outback landscape is filled with their soft little calls, although you may not be aware of them because they are so delicate as to be almost subliminal. You can hear them at various times throughout this track. Variegated Fairy-wrens are also common, and equally spectacularly coloured, little birds. They announce their territory with a silvery ripple or trilling reel (1.26, 1.46, 2.02...). Only the dominant male in each family group has the full irridescant blue plumage, the females being quite dapper and drab. We call them 'flying mice'; anyone who knows how a group of Fairy-wrens will flutter low from one bush to another with plump little bodies and long tails trailing, 260

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes will understand why! Later you can hear their scratchy contact calls (between 5.30-6.30). A pair of White-fronted Honeyeaters call from two bushes nearby. They are nomadic birds and feed on the desert grevillias which bloom here. They have a spectacular dawn song, comprising whips!, chips!, wheezy, metallic trills, and sounds that defy description, but would humble an electronic synthesizer, or perhaps 'R2D2' on high voltage! (3.02 on to about 3.50, when forground bird flies to a bush further away, and then it and another bird can be heard 'in duet'). And they are loud - up close they make your ears ring. They also have an evocative little 'dup', contact call (several around 2.56 - 3.00 as first bird flies in) which are heard here interspersed within their song. White-browed Babblers have the most amusing calls; they grizzle and 'mieow' at each other as they move around (4.53, 5.08, 5.16, ... 5.42, 5.57, 6.18, ...), occasionally getting quite worked up. They are always found in family groups of a dozen or less birds, and their vocal antics act to keep the group together as they forage among low bushes. In the outback are also found Grey- crowned Babblers (hear them on 'Spirit of the Outback'), which mostly frequent rocky gorge or watercourse country; the White- browed's being more often open country birds. The sun is beginning to rise above the horizon. Circling incessantly in the air above are dozens of Masked Woodswallows, giving their pleasant raspy 'chap!'s and sparrow-like calls on the wing (from around 7.30 to the end of the track, but omnipresent around 8.00-8.50). They form gregarious and noisy flocks, and alternate between aerial feeding, and perching in groups, often on the branches of a dead mulga bush. They are also known as Blue Martins, as they have a lovely blue-grey plummage, and their aerial behaviour resembles that of Martins or Swallows. Pied 261

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes Honeyeaters are also nomadic blossum feeders, and in our experience, are often found together with closely related Black Honeyeaters. Pied Honeyeaters have a soft and toneful little call; a succesion of 'morse code' like whistles (most prominently 9.34, 9.40, 9.45, 9.48, 9.52...). These are given from an exposed perch almost incessantly during the breeding season. Every few minutes the male embarks on a spectacular songflight, fluttering upwards and calling loudly, hovering around a hundred feet up in the air, before folding his wings and plummeting head first (still calling), to dive into another bush at the last minute. There are many other species to be heard in the background of this track; a Willy Wagtail (repetatively at beginning 0.15, 0.20, 0.24, 0.28, 0.33...), Spiney-cheeked Honeyeaters (dawn song a soft, quick series of whistles notes, descending slightly; in background 0.26-0.30, 0.35-0.38, 0.42-0.46, 0.50-0.54 ...), Crested Bellbirds (1.39...heard better on next track), a Pied Butcherbird (tuneful melody way off in distance, from 2.19 - about 6.00), a Weebill (very subliminally 5.32, 5.40), Budgerigars; small flocks flying past (you can just hear their wing noise, 6.42-50) and a single bird taking off and flying after them (6.49-53), a White-winged Triller (repeated calls, noticably in middle distance 7.52-7.57, 8.09-8.16, ...), and lastly a Brown Songlark giving his twangy songflight (flying past from 9.06- 9.30 and in bg 9.55-10.14, overhead 9.11-9.24).” 091-MISC 16 04:48 Kantju Gorge, 10/10/98 Andrew “The Experience of Uluru, Track Uluru NP NT 17:00 Skeoch 7: Kantju Gorge is indeed one of the sheltered cutbacks at the base of Uluru. The PiBu was recorded at around 5pm in the afternoon, 10th October 1995. Kantju afternoon As late afternoon comes to the rock, Uluru gradually deepens in colour, and by sunset lights up the most vivid fiery red. Close up to the rock, and the sheltered area of Kuntju Gorge is a good 262

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes place to experience this, the colours dominate the senses. In many ways we think this is a more spectacular way of experiencing the sunset at Uluru than from a distance. Crickets chirrup from the long grasses around the waterhole, and Yellow-throated Miners can be heard noisily and gregariously in the background (throughout, but approaching by around 2.24 - 2.39, with group calls around 3.11-3.14, 3.22-3.30, ...4.03- 4.13). A Little Woodswallow circles high above (0.11, 0.15, 0.19, 0.21, 0.23, 0.27, 0.31 ...), following the contours of the rock wall. Black-faced Cuckoo- shrikes are commonly seen around the base of the rock, and have a pleasant trilling song. Here a pair of them can be heard, one perched close by (0.40, 0.46, 0.51, ...1.30, 1.33, 1.39, ... 2.05 ...) and the other further away, before they both fly off (2.21). The song of a Pied Butcherbird echoes warmly off the sheer walls of Kantju Gorge (3.00, 3.09, 3.17, ...). Pied Butcherbirds have the most serene and etherial of all Australian birdsong, and in the outback, you hear their purest dialect. Either in the vast open spaces of the plains, or echoing within narrow gorges and ravines, they are spectacular, and a feature of any inland experience. The opening and closing tracks of our 'Spirit of the Outback' album feature them recorded in the vast acoustic of Ormiston Gorge. You can also hear a juvenile bird softly in the foreground (2.38, 2.48, 2.57, 3.01).” 091-MISC 17 01:37 Fred van Australian Bird Call Series, Birds Gessel of the Greater Sydney Region, A Regional Field Guide, Volume 5, CD3, Fred Van Gessel, Tr43 PBB. 091-MISC 18 00:27 ABC online guide. 091-MISC 19 00:36 Stuart Audio Wings #16 Nov 06. Fairbairn Goshawk and PBB.

091-MISC 20 01:17 Darwin NT Dave “Australian Birdcall Favorites, Tr. Stewart 13 PBB.” 091-MISC 21 00:56 Broome Bird Dave “Bird Calls of the Broome Region, Observatory Stewart Tr. 76: PBB Song (song WA. individual) and song (pair duetting).” 263

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes 091-MISC 22 01:16 Palmerston NT Dave “Australian Bush Sounds, Tr 33, (near Darwin) Stewart Dawn songster, PBB.” 092-Rankin 01 10:22 Litchfield NP 1/10/90 Bill Rankin “By the way I figured out that the "wheezing" is actually a Blue- winged Kookaburra, but it must have been hidden in a tree behind the Butcherbirds because I didn't see it at the time and no mention of it in the notes. It actually calls over the top of the Butcherbirds which is what confused me into thinking it was a Butcherbird.I knew I had heard that sound before!“ “The Litchfield have the wheezy call which I thought was a Blue- winged Kookaburra? Now that I listen to it again the ending two notes couldn't be a Blue-winged Kookaburra, but I wasn't sure that it was all one bird or a couple of different birds as I couldn't see any of them other than the Butcherbirds. Bill.” “So that call on top of the Butcherbirds in the Litchfield track is a Helmeted Friarbird?” “Recording 9002: Road into Litchfield NP 01/10/1990. This recording has pops from recording with Dolby switched on! (well I didn't know any better in those days.)” 092-Rankin 02 00:23 Warrumbungles Bill Rankin “Recording 8507 Warrumbungles National Park 27/10/1985. (I have a single notation of "Pincham" which I think was the name of the camping area.” 092-Rankin 03 00:58 Warrumbungles Bill Rankin “Recording 8509 As above (note that I have not edited any of these and the quality of these early ones is only fair) You may have to boost the levels a bit on these two.” 092-Rankin 04 01:42 Warrumbungles 31/10/85 Bill Rankin VP: "31-10-1985, 6.30 am", distant calls only and different phrases to next track, too short and not useful to me.” 092-Rankin 05 00:24 Warrumbungles Bill Rankin VP: “It has the same song phrases as Bill sent you previously, but this track is less than half a minute long.” 092-Rankin 06 14:29 Draper QLD 03/07/05 Bill Rankin “Recording 2512 at Draper in Queensland 03/07/2005 about a day after we arrived in Qld.” VP: “Draper (voice id on this track), 2 birds calling with plenty of 822 calls, good quality and should be useful to you.” 092-Rankin 07 01:31 Draper QLD Bill Rankin “Recording 2513 as above (these are daytime calls, not pre dawn 264

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes stuff).” 092-Rankin 08 06:11 Brookfield 19/11/05 Bill Rankin “Recording T101 Brookfield 19/11/2005 recorded the day I received my new Sound Devices Recorder, and I must have had a filter switched in or some wrong setting because this sounds muffled. I would not normally let this recording out but as you say in the name of science.” 092-Rankin 09 06:10 Brookfield Bill Rankin “Recording T3-1 Brookfield 27/08/2006 daytime calls (finally getting my act together!).” 093-Beasley 01 17:29 Wogarno 15/10/05 Jenny “11 July 2007 Hi, Hollis, Glad you Station, 04:30, Beasley received the CD OK. I don't know WA dawn just what makes the background breaking sounds, but would welcome an ID. Vicki has asked for this on the latest Audiowings CD, so perhaps we will get an answer. My impression would be an insect or amphibian. The time was 0430 am on 15th October 2005, dawn just breaking. We had camped by the hill overnight.” 094-Russell 01 34:36 Vajradhara Summer “27 July 2007 Hello Hollis, I hope & Friends Gonpa NSW 2006- this finds you well, and making 2007 good progress with your thesis. We (my wife and I) were recently given a CD of birdsong recorded at a Buddhist retreat in 'the semitropical hills of northeastern NSW'. On it is a seven-minute track of “Rodney, the Pied Butcherbird singing in a tree in the evening, followed by his son, Rupert, still learning to sing”. The recording is pretty good, although not done with a great microphone, perhaps. I can hear some elements in Rupert's song that are similar to those in the Grey BB song. Best wishes, Alan” 094-Russell 02 03:08 Vajradhara Summer “Vajradhara Gonpa is located on & Friends Gonpa NSW 2006- a 200-acre nature preserve in the 2007 semitropical hills of northeastern NSW. “’Dawn birds’. Kookaburras, the lone Koel, Myna Birds, Whip Birds, Butcher Birds, Russell (the boss Crow) with Sheryl (his wife) feeding the kids.” 094-Russell 03 08:41 Vajradhara Summer “’Currawong Chorus’. A chorus of & Friends Gonpa NSW 2006- about eight Currawongs singing 2007 all of their songs at the same time.” 094-Russell 04 03:16 Vajradhara Summer “’Rodney, the Pied Butcher Bird’. & Friends Gonpa NSW 2006- Singing in a tree in the evening. 2007 Followed by his son, Rupert, still 265

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes learning to sing.” 094-Russell 05 02:52 Vajradhara Summer “’Russell’s Love Talk’. Russell & Friends Gonpa NSW 2006- opens his heart in a moment of 2007 intimacy.” 095-Fullagar 01 1:01:56 Broome WA 11/10/92 Peter “5 August 2007 Dear Hollis, Pied Fullagar Butcherbird CD posted yesterday! Only two cuts but one is a long sequence of the morning song of an individual. It is not absolutely all the song as I was moving in to the bird occasionally. Time stamp seems to indicate that there was an interval of about 2 hours from start to finish of this recording session. However, the start was not really a start because the bird had been singing intermittently all night. The breaks will not be obvious. DAT recorders are troublesome on this point when the pause button is used. You should be able to hear the change sometimes. The other recording is, by comparison, very poor. Not much use I suspect but it was from another locality. These are all I have on Pied Butcherbird. Obviously, I have not really tried to record them! Peter” 095-Fullagar 02 01:12 Mitchell QLD ??/08/67 Peter Fullagar 096- 06 01:56 WA Jenny Pied butcherbird. Audiowings Beasley #17 096- 08 00:14 Fred Van Pied butcherbird aggression call. Audiowings Gessel #17 096- 10 00:43 Mount Magnet Fred Van Pied butcherbird. Audiowings WA Gessel #17 096- 11 00:35 Harding River Fred Van Pied butcherbird. Audiowings WA Gessel #17 096- 12 00:37 Gibb River Fred Van Pied butcherbird. Audiowings Road WA Gessel #17 096- 13 00:33 Gibb River Fred Van Pied butcherbird. Audiowings Road WA Gessel #17 096- 14 00:29 Broome WA Fred Van Pied butcherbird. Audiowings Gessel #17 096- 15 00:33 Murray River Fred Van Pied butcherbird. Audiowings NP SA Gessel #17 096- 16 00:36 Gammon Fred Van Pied butcherbird. Audiowings Range SA Gessel #17 096- 17 00:23 Plenty Highway Fred Van Pied butcherbird. 266

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes Audiowings NT Gessel #17 096- 18 00:48 Edith Falls NT Fred Van Pied butcherbird. Audiowings Gessel #17 096- 19 01:03 Quilpie QLD Fred Van Pied butcherbird. Audiowings Gessel #17 096- 20 00:28 Miriam Vale Fred Van Pied butcherbird. Audiowings QLD Gessel #17 096- 21 00:50 Mt. Walsh QLD Fred Van Pied butcherbird. Audiowings Gessel #17 096- 22 00:30 Sarina QLD Fred Van Pied butcherbird. Audiowings Gessel #17 096- 23 00:56 Widden Valley Fred Van Pied butcherbird. Audiowings NSW Gessel #17 096- 24 00:50 Taree NSW Fred Van Pied butcherbird. Audiowings Gessel #17 096- 25 00:38 Smiths Lake Fred Van Pied butcherbird. Audiowings NSW Gessel #17 097-Glass 01 39:28 Gowrie 22/09/07 Gloria “Forgive the shaky start and the Junction QLD and Glass FAINT part for 5-10 minutes. I 23/09/07 then went closer, through our pre-dawn fence into neighbour’s, who we don’t know! Then crossed their place to stand near a post for better calls. The pbb was in the next property. Continues with RUFOUS songlark (not Brown as I said) and others. Next recording is wholly in our property? High on the hill and then lower. At about 2/3 through tape, I’m walking back in half-light and letting the recorder run. Then I left the recorder on a shed roof to run out while I went down to the house for breakfast. Channel-bills and pbb usual calls. Nothing on other side of tape.” 097-Glass O2 12:43 Gowrie 29/09/07 Gloria “Pre-dawn calls. Near house. Junction QLD pre-dawn Glass Only short, one day, turned out to be near our house after I’d walked up the hill and down and back to near the house? Sorry about the brown bird shouting in our ears. I didn’t even hear them when taping. Second side blank.” 098-Curtis 01 02:12 Alton QLD 03/09/69 Syd Curtis Pied Butcherbirds. “10 December (240km W 2007 Dear Hollis, I found this Brisbane and a short recording of pbb that I’d little S) completely forgotten I had. I think you won’t have any from this part of Queensland. you might find Alton on a map, about 240 miles 267

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes west of Brisbane and a little south in latitude. On the banks of the Moonie River – a tributary of the Murray which reaches the sea near Adelaide. Alton is shown on my 40 mile/inch map of Queensland. An important town, to be shown on a map of the whole of Queensland, one might think. Not so. Nature, we are told, abhors a vacuum. And cartographers abhor empty spaces. There’s nothing much to show on a map in a couple of hundred miles between Dalby and St. George: a flat landscape with just the Moonie River wandering across it. Alton apparently was designated as a village and so helps fill a blank space on the map, but no one chose to live there. Leastways not in 1969 when I visited, and I’d be surprised it if has changed since. Just a single unoccupied house - local government owned, I think, or possibly Country Women’s Association. I have forgotten which. But there was a large population – of frogs! Alton is situated beside a billabong of the Moonie- a bedn of the river that has been cut off and is only connected to the river in flood time. My work in national parks administration had taken me to that part of the State, and Alton was a convenient and pleasant camping spot. There must have been recent heavy rain and the frogs were going well. I spent a couple of happy hours that night with spotlight and recorder. And the Butcherbird, I see from my notes, was in the same general area. On Portion 10, Parish of Alton to be precise;’ Wednesday, September 3, 1969. Probably a duet, but I didn’t write any notes about it. (It wasn’t a recording trip; I simply took the recorder along for the fun of it.) And if cartographers abhor empty space, I tend to feel largely empty CDs are a waste. So I give you the frogs as well as the Butcherbird.” 098-Curtis 02 02:48 Alton QLD Syd Curtis “Frogs at Alton. One comment is (240km W necessary: the prominent voice in Brisbane and a a short section shortly before the little S) end of this track (from 2:23 to 268

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes 2:35) is a “frogmouth” – a nocturnal bird (genus Podaragus) which flew into a tree near me. I couldn’t resist recording it then; I can’t resist leaving a bit of it in, now.” 098-Curtis 03 03:22 Tamborine 23/12/71 Syd Curtis “Treefrog. Southern Orange-eyed Mountain Treefrog to give its full name, Litoria chloris. This brings back memories of childhood for me. We lived on Tamborine Mountain in a house about ten yards from a patch of rainforest. My mother was a keen naturalist with a special fondness for birds. She had a bird-bath at the edge of the rainforest – a circular concrete trough about four feet in diameter and a few inches deep. After heavy rain, these frogs would congregate at the bird-bath, view mat. They have powerful voices and tended to keep going all night. Sometimes this got to be just too much for my parents, and they would catch the frogs and release them well away from our home, reckoning that by the time they made it back, if they did, they would have lost the urge to sing. No recording gear back in the 1930s of course.” 098-Curtis 04 01:07 Tamborine Syd Curtis “Territorial frog. For a few years Mountain starting in 1969 I was doing some serious research on a lyrebird on Tamborine Mountain. Automatic recording gear that took a ten- second sample of sound every 6 minutes, 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. each day. (When it worked!) Had to change the tape every two weeks. Often I drove from Brisbane to arrive before daylight to hear the lyrebird start the day. On this occasion I was well ahead of the lyrebird and frogs were calling down the creek. They were spaced out along the bank. I made myself comfortable, recorder on the ground, and recorded a bit. Then played it back. Clearly I was too close. Infringing on that frog’s territory. He changed his call to what I assume was a challenge to the intruder, then actually hopped up onto the recorder. The first glimmer of light was starting to appear; I headed for the lyrebird’s territory. Great Barred Frog, Mixophyes iteratus, just for the 269

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes record.” 098-Curtis 05 01:19 Tamborine Syd Curtis “’Toc.’ We nearly always have Mountain one of these resident in the waterlily tub in our garden. Very well-behaved: never wanders away from the tub and remains discreetly out of sight. Very important, for Anne has a genuine medical phobia about frogs, and if visible, he would have to go! And the simple, staccato ‘toc’ call is so un-frog- like, as not to be objectionable, it seems. But the ones on this track were on Tamborine Mountain where they are joined by various birds to make a pleasant chorus. First, just a single frog to demonstrate the explosive nature of those ‘toc’ calls’ next, somewhat in the background, with a Tusked Frog, Adelotis brevis, more prominent with its pleasant, almost musical, ‘r-ook’ call; then with birds, a cicada and the Tusked Frog making a pleasant chorus; and finally what they sound like when really massed around a small lagoon in the rainforest.” 099- 01 03:28 Bungle Bungles ??/07/07 Howard Plowright WA campsite 06:10 Plowright 0100-Powys 01 04:20 Capertee 14/02/08 Vicki “Mild to warm; stereo mics Valley NSW 09:44 Powys Sennheiser ME64 x 2 in ORTF configuration, with Sony TCD D10 DAT, and volume boosted later in Peak. Slow and lazy phrases, possibly two birds for each occasion, I could not get really close. Noisy friarbird gets in the way sometimes in track 2, but there are some reasonable phrases towards the end of tr. 2, and some gurgles at the beginning. In tr. 1 they are pretty much in the distance.” 0100-Powys 02 05:32 Capertee 25/03/08 Vicki Foggy, sun breaking through Valley NSW 11:32 Powys after rain overnigiht, mono gun mic Sennheiser ME67 with Sony TCD D10 DAT, and volume boosted later in Peak. 0101-Ulman 01 19:54 Ruby Gap, near GPS Ruby Gap: Arltunga, and 23.28.863;134.58.179; Jervois, Central GPS Jervois: Australia 22.57.??; 136.08.??. FILMS: 0102-Acera 01 17:04 Lawrence, 29 ??/??/08 Santi and 11 March 2008. Watching it Two DVDs 02 27:37 kms Linda again, I realised that the butcher North of Acera birds, when they compose their Grafton, musical verses, not always is with northern NSW the friend/s beside them. 270

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes Sometimes it is with some other bird that you can hear quite far away. I have always been interested in the relationship audience-performer (in trying to find ways for the audience feeling more fulfilled by the performing act. So many times, by involving them as creators of the act). And that is what comes to me when I hear these other butcher birds in the distance that don't appear in the performing area but are part of the orchestra - the audience popping in, everyone seated on the edge of their seats ready to prompt their musical verse. I bet you are going to make some beautiful melodies. Warm regards, Santi

13 March 2008. Hi Hollis, This is Linda, partner of Santi who filmed the butcher birds. It is amazing, isn't it? So glad you enjoyed it. Like everything beautiful there's a poignancy to the story. To the left of the table the birds sit on, hidden behind the bit of shed wall, was a poor little injured young adult butcherbird in a big cage. I am a licensed wildlife carer, and some idiot had been feeding wild birds in his garden then left a rat trap in the same area with food in it. This poor bird had been caught, at his lower back. I could tell you more about that but to cut it short, the vet said to give him a chance, which I did, for a couple of weeks, during which he steadily deteriorated physically and became sadder and sadder (no song at all) and I had to euthanase him, as he couldn't be successfully released, and clearly hated being in captivity (also illegal to keep a wild bird in captivity). But that film was made almost immediately after he arrived, and I think they're welcoming him (they will accept an unknown young one, but not a new fully adult bird). They came two dusks in a row, and after that only one came, and obsessively hung around all day trying to attack ours through the cage, no singing, then later through a closed window. What was really sad was ours didn't 271

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes even try to get away or fight back - just stayed within range (until we realised and prevented it). Apparently butcher birds will mesmerise other birds or ill ones of their own, and will kill them if they can, sometimes through cage bars if there's enough space. So the quartet happened just at that short window of time between his first arrival, and the others realising he was ill. If you listen carefully you can hear his poor little plaintive cry under the other birds, much softer but audible. Hope that's interesting Hollis. All the very best, Linda

9 April 2008. It is very interesting what you mention about the birds imitating the pitch of the sounds in the background. We have a couple of wind chimes in the shed and one of these Japanese wind bells. I can't watch the movie now unless I get into YouTube, but the sound that is normally more audible is the one of the Japanese bell. What an ear you got! It was filmed in a small town named Lawrence, 29 kms North of Grafton, Northern NSW. Cheerio, Santi

21 June 2008. Hi Hollis, Yes, it is pretty haunting. The serenading group came the first day the injured one had arrived in the morning, but not until the end of the day. Same on second day. It was almost overwhelming in its intensity. After that, only one young male which kept watch and systematically intimidated 'ours' in quite a scary way, so that I had to create a physical separation. I can only think that happened because after the wonderful welcome, the mob had realised there was no hope for him. We hear lots of gorgeous butcher bird song but nothing like that normally. The sound you think might be a dove I think may be the injured one. Have you been able to detect its little plaintive cry? Rythmic, single pitch and with a gentle tone like a dove, very soft; nothing like the others' song. I can tell, maybe you can too, that it's responding 272

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes to the other butcher birds. It is much softer but clearly audible at times. Very melancholic. We have a couple of dove species around here but I don't think they are heard in the footage. I see a young butcher bird from the window where I work, who comes each day to a corner of the roof and pokes around in an open pipe end, adjacent to some telephone cables. Yesterday I saw it come along with a dead mouse, sit on the cables a bit, then put the mouse into the pipe, leave it there and fly away! A kind of storage space? It would be good to watch the footage together one day but logistically hard. Linda

22 June 2008. Yes, almost too poignant. I think the film was made over the two days. Santi isn't sure either - our memories of exactly what time of day differ a bit. If we'd known how important it would be to someone we would obviously have been more meticulous noting times etc. What I am positive about (as I kept notes) is that they came two days in a row then no more. Amazing you dreaming about it. You are right, the vigilante bird (as with the injured one) had a paler browner head and paler plumage all over; and I don't know if it was a male or a female, just had a strong feeling it was a male by its behaviour. Not very scientific, and rather sexist of me - apologies. The vigilante kept trying to attack our one through the bars of the cage, going for the eyes, and the poor little thing seemed to become mesmerised and didn't move out of range. That's when I intervened, but didn't want to deprive our one of a view to the exterior. Vigilante then sat outside the window, as close as possible, all day long. A bit like being in jail and having a hitman watching your every move so that the prospect of liberation becomes tainted. Trying not to anthropomorphise, or make you upset, Linda 0103-Bauer 01 05:24 Fairholme ??/??/08 Rusell “During the first two minutes you One DVD College, Bauer, have to endure my poor attempts 273

PIED BUTCHERBIRD RECORDINGS/FILMS BY OTHER RECORDISTS Date CD ID Track Duration Location Time Recordist Notes Toowoomba Office at trying to encourage the bird to QLD Q1122, whistle a duet with me. From USQ Too- around 2:00 onwards there’s woomba, some nice video of the bird being Darling attracted by the sound of another Heights bird in a tree about 40 metres QLD 4350 away.” PBB stuffed 01 00:03 Lamington NP ??/09/74 Jean C. The toy’s label reads, in part: toy Roché? “Wild Republic Birds with real bird calls! … Authentic bird calls provided by CEBA, Centre Bioacoustique Alpin, recorded in September 1974, near Lamington National Park, Australia. Typical male song.”

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APPENDIX I:

SAMPLES OF SUPPLEMENTAL ANALYSIS SHEET AND SUMMARY SHEET

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276

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APPENDIX J:

NOTATION METHOD DEVELOPED BY SKEOCH

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APPENDIX K:

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APPENDIX L:

COMPACT DISC RECORDING DETAILS

301

Recording track titles and details

Tracks 1-5 Cumberdeen Dam V & T Notturno (1:48) Cappricio (2:55) Tema (1:21) Multifonica (1:59) Toccata (2:25) Joanne Cannon, bassoon.

Track 6 Lamington Plateau (8:23) Jim Denley, flute.

Track 7 The bass of Broken Hill (4:27) Mike Majkowski, bass.

Track 8 Banana paper (6:21) Mike Majkowski, bass.

Track 9 Ormiston Gorge: A canonic manipulation (8:45) Mike Majkowski, bass; Andrew Skeoch, soundscape recordist.

Track 10 Gowrie Creek (4:30) Mike Majkowski, bass; Jon Rose, violin.

Tracks 11-14 Pied butcherbird suite 1. Batá fourths: Brookhill (2:03) 2. Tag (1:26) 3. Waltz with tree frogs (3:43) 4. Butch (1:37) James Cuddeford and Hollis Taylor, violin; Errki Veltheim, viola; Daniel Yeadon, cello.

Track 15 Bird-Esk (14:25) James Cuddeford and Hollis Taylor, violin; Errki Veltheim, viola; Daniel Yeadon, cello.

The CD is pocketed in the back cover.

302

APPENDIX M:

DIGITAL VIDEO DISC (DVD) DETAILS

303

DVD details

Quicktime files: Black and white miniatures, for toy piano and video 1. Pied butcherbird, Magnetic Island (2:08) 2. Distressed piano, Central Australia (1:54) 3. Ping-pong (1:36)

Word files: Original fieldwork recordings with preliminary analysis: 1. 2005 Fieldwork Preliminary Analysis 2. 2006 Fieldwork Preliminary Analysis 3. 2007 Fieldwork Preliminary Analysis 4. 2008 Fieldwork Preliminary Analysis

The DVD is pocketed in the back cover.

304

APPENDIX K:

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