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Refugee Review Tribunal

AUSTRALIA

RRT RESEARCH RESPONSE

Research Response Number: IDN30694 Country: Date: 5 October 2006

Keywords: Indonesia – – Chinese – State Protection

This response was prepared by the Country Research Section of the Refugee Review Tribunal (RRT) after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the RRT within time constraints. This response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim to refugee status or asylum.

Questions: 1. Apart from a is there anything else that readily identifies someone as being ethnic Chinese. 2. Would they be expected to speak Mandarin or ? 3. What beliefs or way of life could be considered to be significant as holding oneself out to be “Chinese”? 4. Is there record of the May (year unknown) riot in Tangerang? 5. Were “horrifying sex acts” targeted against ethnic Chinese reported? 6. What are conditions for Chinese in Tangerang? 7. Are Chinese shopowners and residences routinely looted? 8. Are they protected by the Government in this area? 9. What does “pribumi Muslim” mean? 10. Are there ‘reliable” rumours of “ethnic cleansing” of Chinese in this area and Indonesia generally?

RESPONSE

1. Apart from a name is there anything else that readily identifies someone as being ethnic Chinese. 2. Would they be expected to speak Mandarin or Cantonese? 3. What beliefs or way of life could be considered to be significant as holding oneself out to be “Chinese”?

Identifying someone as being ethnic Chinese in Indonesia is difficult as many differences exist amongst the group. Categorising individuals as ethnic Chinese on the basis of their name, appearance and/or skills can also be problematic. Self-categorisation or categorisation by a native Indonesian may be the only way to determine if an individual is ethnic Chinese.

The information provided in response to these questions has been organised under the following six headings: • Ethnic Chinese Identity in Indonesia; • ; • Appearance; • Language; • Religion; and • Tangerang.

Ethnic Chinese Identity in Indonesia

According to Minority Rights Group, “identifying someone in modern-day Indonesia as ethnic Chinese is not easy, because the physical characteristics, language, name and lifestyle of Chinese are not always distinct from those of the indigenous population” (US Citizenship and Immigration Services 1999, IDN99001.ZNY – Indonesia: Information on ethnic Chinese in Indonesia, 23 July – Attachment 1).

According to Chang-yau Hoon, a PhD candidate in Asian Studies at the University of Western , being Chinese in Indonesia is not the same as being Chinese in or Chinese in or . Hoon notes that Chineseness is “constantly changing” and that ethnic identity “is not based upon intrinsic characteristics such as race, blood, tradition and ancestry but varies from generation to generation and is shaped by local circumstances” (Hoon, Chang-Yau 2004, ‘How to be Chinese: Ethnic Chinese experience a “reawakening” of their Chinese identity’, Inside Indonesia, April-June – Attachment 2).

Mely G. Tan, Senior Researcher at the Indonesian Institute of Sciences notes that while “the majority of Indonesians tend to group all ethnic Chinese together as one entity, there are clear differences among them”:

• Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia can be distinguished between and peranakan although this distinction is now being questioned:

The totok are those who are usually not of mixed descent, whose have been in Indonesia for two or three generations, have had a education and a Chinese cultural orientation, primarily indicated by the fact that they speak Mandarin or one of the Chinese dialects at home – at least, the older generation. By occupation, most of these totok are in business and trade.

The peranakan are those who are of mixed descent, who families have settled in Indonesia for at least three generations, who may have had some Chinese language school education but do not speak Chinese as the home language, and whose cultural orientation is more towards the culture of the area in which they have settled. By occupation, many of them have had a university education and are in the free professions (physicians, dentists, engineers, lawyers, accountants), but a sizable number are also in business and trade.

Today the validity of this distinction into totok and peranakan is being questioned, especially the distinction into tokok. This is no doubt largely due to the fact that since 1966 Chinese language schools have been closed down, and in 1967 the government issued a regulation prohibiting the use of in public places, and the expressions of cultural elements construed to be of Chinese origin, such as the Chinese lunar new year, outside the home environment (Tan, Mely G 1997, ‘The Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia’, Ethnic Chinese as Southeast Asians, ed , Allen & Unwin, Sydney, p.42 – Attachment 3).

• Ethnic Chinese can be distinguished by area of settlement:

There are other ways of distinguishing among the ethnic Chinese. It can be by area of settlement, where their cultural life and values are strongly influenced by the culture of the dominant ethnic groups of the area. This form of acculturation is expressed in the use of the local language or a mixture of the local language and Indonesian at home, for instance, Javanese in Central and East , Sundanese in , Minangkabau in West , Menadonese in North , in the Moluccas, and Balinese in (Tan, Mely G 1997, ‘The Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia’, Ethnic Chinese as Southeast Asians, ed Leo Suryadinata, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, p.44 – Attachment 3).

• Ethnic Chinese can be distinguished by generation:

Another distinction is by generation: the older generation (50 years and over) who still speak their local language, and Dutch or Chinese, depending on their educational experience; and the younger generation (in particular those under 35, who were born a few years before or after the upheaval of 1965), who speak mostly Indonesian and, among those who have studied abroad, the language of the country they studied in, usually English (Tan, Mely G 1997, ‘The Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia’, Ethnic Chinese as Southeast Asians, ed Leo Suryadinata, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, p.44 – Attachment 3).

Tan notes that “the trend is definitely towards integration and identification as Indonesians, albeit still recognizing their Chinese origin”. Tan believes that the cultural identity of ethnic Chinese in Indonesia constitutes a continuum with those who completely identify themselves as Indonesian at one end and those who are still Chinese-orientated at the other. In between are the majority of ethnic Chinese, “who are culturally more Indonesia-orientated, speak Indonesian or the local language at home, do not speak Chinese at all, and are minimally knowledgeable about Chinese religion and tradition” (Tan, Mely G 1997, ‘The Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia’, Ethnic Chinese as Southeast Asians, ed Leo Suryadinata, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, pp.53-57 – Attachment 3).

A Post article dated 1 September 2003 reports on Ignatius Wibowo, a Jesuit priest, lecturer at the and director of the Centre for Chinese Studies. The article notes that one of the biggest problems ethnic Chinese in Indonesia face is confusion over their identity, some Chinese still find it hard to adapt to Indonesian society while others have integrated. Wibowo notes that “the latter were also victims of the May riots, which shows that the Indonesian people themselves have not fully accepted them” (Gunawan, T. Sima 2003, ‘Wibowo strides between two worlds’, Jakarta Post, 1 September – Attachment 4).

Names

Minority Rights Group reports that the use of Chinese names was banned by the Indonesian government. Therefore the absence of a does not necessarily mean that the individual is not ethnic Chinese:

In 1966/67 most ethnic were forced to take , with very few Chinese Indonesians keeping their original Chinese (US Citizenship and Immigration Services 1999, IDN99001.ZNY – Indonesia: Information on ethnic Chinese in Indonesia, 23 July – Attachment 1).

Appearance

According to Human Rights Watch, “ethnic Chinese Indonesians are physically easily distinguishable as Chinese by other Indonesians, though for non-Indonesians, the physical distinction can be difficult” (Human Rights Watch 1999, US Citizenship and Immigration Services 1999, IDN99001.ZNY – Indonesia: Information on ethnic Chinese in Indonesia, 23 July – Attachment 1).

A Jakarta Post article dated 13 June 2006 reports that being Muslim and marrying a “native” will not save ethnic Chinese Indonesians from harm as they look Chinese:

I have a Chinese-Indonesian friend who is Muslim. He married a “native” woman. During the riots of in May 1998, I told him he was lucky that he could go anywhere safely, because he had successfully assimilated with the Indonesian majority. His answer surprised me: “Nobody will ask about my religion or my wife,” he said. “People will look at my face and because I look like a Chinese, my religion and my wife will not save me from harm” (Hadipuro, Wijanto 2006, ‘Being a Chinese-Indonesia’, Jakarta Post, 13 June, Minorités website http://www.minorites.org/article.php?IDA=16590 – Accessed 3 October 2006 – Attachment 5).

Language

According to Ethnologue: of the World, five Chinese languages are spoken in Bali and Java: • Hakka: 640,000 speakers in Indonesia (1982); • Mandarin: 460,000 speakers scattered throughout Indonesia (1982); • Min Dong: 20,000 speakers in Indonesia (1982); • Min Nan: 700,000 speakers in Indonesia including (1982); and • Yue/Cantonese: 180,000 speakers in Indonesia (1982) (Gordon, Raymond G Jr (ed) 2005, ‘ (Java and Bali)’, Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 15th ed, SIL International, Dallas http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=IDJ – Accessed 27 September 2006 – Attachment 6).

Minority Rights Group reports “that there are many in Indonesia today who identify themselves as ethnic Chinese but who do not speak a Chinese language” (US Citizenship and Immigration Services 1999, IDN99001.ZNY – Indonesia: Information on ethnic Chinese in Indonesia, 23 July – Attachment 1). An inability to speak a Chinese language may be explained by the fact that Chinese language schools were closed down in 1966 and the use of Chinese characters in public places was prohibited in 1967. It may also be explained by an individual’s level of assimilation into Indonesian society (Tan, Mely G 1997, ‘The Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia’, Ethnic Chinese as Southeast Asians, ed Leo Suryadinata, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, pp.42, 44 & 53-57 – Attachment 3). Please note: Chinese can now be taught in Indonesia (May 1999) and Chinese characters displayed in public places (February 2001) (Hoon, Chang-Yau 2004, ‘How to be Chinese: Ethnic Chinese experience a ‘reawakening’ of their Chinese identity’, Inside Indonesia, April-June – Attachment 2).

Religion

The ethnic Chinese in Indonesia practice a number of religions including , , , and (Tan, Mely G 1997, ‘The Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia’, Ethnic Chinese as Southeast Asians, ed Leo Suryadinata, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, pp.55-56 – Attachment 3; Taufiqurrahman, M 2006, ‘A Chinese-Indonesian history of discrimination’, , 26 May – Attachment 7; and US Department of State 2006, International Religious Freedom Report 2006 – Indonesia, 15 September, Section I & III – Attachment 8).

Tangerang

Wikipedia1 reports that Tangerang “has a significant community of Indonesian Chinese”. Wikipedia notes that “while almost none speak any dialect of Chinese, they are culturally very strongly Daoist” and despite being “ethnically mixed…identify themselves as Chinese”:

Tangerang also has a significant community of Indonesian Chinese, many of whom are of Cina Benteng extraction. Benteng means ‘fortress’ in Indonesian. They were descended from laborers who were brought there by the Dutch colonials in the 18th and 19th centuries, and most of them are still laborers and farmers. They are culturally distinct from other Chinese communities in the area: while almost none speak any dialect of Chinese, they are culturally very strongly Daoist and maintain their own places of worship and community centers. They are ethnically mixed, yet identify themselves as Chinese. A large Chinese cemetery is also located in Tangerang, most of which are now developed into suburban communities such as Lippo Karawaci and Alam Sutra.

Most of the Chinatown of Tangerang is located at Pasar Lama, Benteng Makasar, Kapling, Karawaci (not Lippo Karawaci) (Wikipedia 2006, ‘Tangerang’, 26 August http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangerang – Accessed 29 September 2006 – Attachment 9).

4. Is there record of the May (year unknown) riot in Tangerang?

Riots took place in Jakarta and Tangerang in May 1998. The violence, directed mostly at ethnic Chinese, resulted in the death of 1,188 and a damage bill of around US$250 million:

Jakarta’s death toll was initially put at 499 (army spokesperson, 17 May), then at 293 (police spokesperson, 23 May). A team led by the well-known Jesuit Sandyawan Sumardi said on 18 May that 1188 had died in Jakarta and Tangerang, including deaths by shooting and beating. The same report also mentioned Chinese being stripped and raped by rioters. Most deaths were of looters trapped in burning supermarkets.

Coordinating Minister for Finance and Economy Ginanjar Kartasasmita on about 18 May put the damage in Jakarta at Rp 2.5 trillion (about US$ 250 million at prevailing rates). He said 2479 shop-houses had been damaged or destroyed mostly by fire. (The shop-house is the typical, small, almost invariably Chinese, business upon which urban society depends). In addition he listed 1026 ordinary houses, 1604 shops, 383 private offices, 65 bank offices, 45 workshops, 40 shopping malls, 13 markets, 12 hotels, 24 restaurants, 11 parks, 9 petrol stations, 11 police posts. Then there were 1119 cars, 821 motorcycles, 8 buses, 486 traffic

1 Users should be aware that Wikipedia is a Web-based free-content encylopaedia which is written collaboratively by volunteers. The Research Service recommends that users of Wikipedia familiarise themselves with the regulatory practices which Wikipedia employs as a preventative measure against vandalism, bias and inaccuracy. For more information, see the recommended background reading available in the Wikipedia Topical Information Package.

signs and lights. The police later (22/5) gave considerably lower figures: 1344 buildings of all kinds, 1009 cars, 205 motorcycles.

…Let’s look at a map of Jakarta and see what happened. Immediate trigger for the Jakarta riot was the shooting of four students at the elite in Grogol, , on 12 May. The shootings shocked democracy activists around the country. They had been demonstrating persistently and entirely peacefully (with as the only exception) for weeks against the government. After a commemorative ceremony at the campus ending late in the morning of Wednesday 12 May, rioting broke out around the campus. Some reports mention lots of angry shouts against the armed forces.

Rioters – the young urban poor, not students – spread out in several directions and start setting fire to car showrooms, hotels, shops, a hospital. The following important roads are mentioned: Kyai Tapi, Gajah Mada, Hayam Wuruk, Daan Mogot, Latumeten, Pesing, , Kedoya arterial, , the Grogol-Kali Deres road, also Jalan Juanda behind the presidential palace, and the Cawang-Grogol flyover. Electronics shops in , the Chinatown of Jakarta, are looted. All shops in nearby close down, and pretty soon all business and traffic in the entire close down. There is also an angry demonstration in the elite business district of Jl Sudirman, a long way to the south of Grogol.

Rioting mostly spreads westward toward and into Tangerang – past the international airport. A hospital is attacked, as are two churches in Tangerang. Cars are stopped on tollways and checked for Chinese – many cars are put to the torch on the tollway, whose operators are soon told to abandon their post. Even though no one is collecting fees, the toll roads are soon deserted. Tens of thousands of rioters far outnumber the security forces, who mostly stay away from trouble rather than risk defeat or a bloody massacre.

…Rioting goes on right throughout the night. The next day, Thursday 14 May, it continues in Hayam Wuruk and Gajah Mada, Jalan Samanhudi, Suryopranoto (‘Krekot’), but spreads to many other areas of Jakarta than just West Jakarta where it had started. On this day the large malls seem to become particular targets – this is where many looters die when fires are lit and they are unable to escape. The worst is Yogya Plaza in Klender, , with 174 charred bodies recovered.

Places mentioned in the reports now range all over Jakarta: -Cipulir-Cileduk, Jalan Kosambi Raya, Cengkareng Ring Road, Jalan Salemba, Jalan Sahari (including tycoon Liem Sioe Liong’s house), Jalan , to the east of Freedom Square, up to Pluit and the harbour area, down to , Senen, Cikini, and east to Kalimalang, Kranji, and . There is even some in in the south.

By Friday 15 May the city is exhausted but rioting continues in a new area: Cinere, near the elite Blok M area of . Actions on some toll roads continue – Rambutan- Cawang, Grogol-Kampung Rambutan. Mostly, Jakarta is counting its dead. Scavengers are having a field day with the rubble. Thousands mill around to observe the damage, leaving police edgy about the potential for more trouble. Over a thousand looters have been arrested in the later stages of the riots (‘The May riots’ 1998, Inside Indonesia, 29 May – Attachment 10).

For further information on the May 1998 riots in Indonesia please see Question 1 of Research Response IDN30246 (RRT Country Research 2006, Research Response IDN30246, 26 June – Attachment 11).

A Jakarta Post article dated 16 May 2005 reports that a group of human rights activists and victims have published a book on the May 1998 riots. The article notes that “no one has been brought to book so far in connection with the pogrom”:

“Why can this country not find one single person who can be held to account for the violence?,” Raymond [Simanjorang of the Indonesian Association for the Advocacy and Defense of Human Rights] asked.

…Lawyer and rights activist Albert Hasibuan urged the government to fully investigate the riots to prevent any repetition in the future.

“We must ascertain who was responsible for the anarchy. No matter what verdict the ad hoc tribunal may hand down, someone must be tried for these crimes,” stressed Albert, a former member of Komnas HAM who was involved in preparing an earlier report for then president BJ Habibie (‘The May riots: Remembering the terror’ 2005, Jakarta Post, 15 May, Action in Solidarity with Asia and the Pacific website http://asia-pacific- action.org/southeastasia/indonesia/netnews/2005/ind_20v9.htm – Accessed 29 September 2006 – Attachment 12).

5. Were “horrifying sex acts” targeted against ethnic Chinese reported?

On 18 May 1998, a team led by the well-known Jesuit Sandyawan Sumardi reported that ethnic Chinese women were stripped and raped during the May 1998 riots in Jakarta and Tangerang (‘The May riots’ 1998, Inside Indonesia, 29 May – Attachment 10).

On 13 July 1998 the Volunteers for Humanity published a report entitled Mass Rape in the Recent Riots. A summary of their findings follow: • 168 rapes were reported, with 152 from Jakarta and its environs, including Tangerang; • Volunteers for Humanity believe that the number of victims is “undoubtedly much higher”; • The rapes occurred only in West Jakarta, and other areas, including Tangerang, “where there were concentrations of Chinese homes and businesses”; • The rapes and sexual abuses were directed at the Chinese as most victims were Chinese; • Volunteers for Humanity found that the “similar patterns in the modus operandi of the rapes strongly indicate that the events were planned and undertaken in an organized manner”; • The victims “were threatened and intimidated as were their relatives, hospital staff and doctors who treated them, and the volunteers themselves” (Volunteers for Humanity 1998, Mass Rape in the Recent Riots, 13 July, Harvard School of Public Health website http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/Organizations/healthnet/reprorights/docs/indonesia.PDF – Accessed 22 September 2006 – Attachment 13).

Human Rights Watch reports that “statements from Indonesian government officials on the rapes have evolved from tentative criticism to condemnation as international anger increased to scepticism to outright denial that any rapes occurred.” For more information please see Section IV of Indonesia – The Damaging Debate on Rapes of Ethnic Chinese Women dated September 1998 (Human Rights Watch 1998, Indonesia – The Damaging Debate on Rapes of Ethnic Chinese Women, September, Vol. 10, No. 5(C) http://www.hrw.org/reports/pdfs/i/indonesa/indon989.pdf – Accessed 22 September 2006 – Attachment 14). A statement by the Indonesian government, reported in BBC News on 21 December 1998, “says more than sixty ethnic Chinese women were raped during the riots last May, but is says there is no evidence the attacks systematically targeted the Chinese community” (‘Indonesia says ethnic Chinese women raped in May riots’ 1998, BBC News, 21 December http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/240081.stm – Accessed 22 September 2006 – Attachment 15).

6. What are conditions for Chinese in Tangerang? 7. Are Chinese shopowners and residences routinely looted? 8. Are they protected by the Government in this area?

No information on the conditions for ethnic Chinese in Tangerang was found amongst the sources consulted. No information on whether ethnic Chinese shop-owners and/or residences are routinely looted in Tangerang was found amongst the sources consulted. No information on state protection of ethnic Chinese in Tangerang was found amongst the sources consulted.

The US Department of State’s Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2005 provides the following information on the treatment of ethnic Chinese in Indonesia in 2005:

Instances of discrimination and harassment of ethnic Chinese declined compared with previous years. Recent reforms increased religious and cultural freedoms. However, some ethnic Chinese noted that public servants still discriminated in issuing marriage licenses and in other services and often demanded bribes or a citizenship certificate, although such certificates were no longer legally required. In 2004 an attorney advocate for the rights of ethnic Chinese noted that more than 60 articles of law, regulation, or decree were in effect that discriminated against ethnic Chinese citizens. NGOs such as the Indonesia Anti- Discrimination Movement urged the government to revoke these articles (US Department of State 2006, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2005 – Indonesia, 8 March, Section 5 National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities – Attachment 16).

The US Department of State’s International Religious Freedom Report 2006 reports that the Indonesian government recognised Confucianism as an official religion in early 2006. Confucians in Indonesia, of which 95% are ethnic Chinese, are now able to register their marriages and births and obtain a National Identity Card. Taoism is not recognised as an official religion by the Indonesian government and as a result Taoists cannot register their marriages and births nor can they obtain a National Identity Card:

The civil registration system continued to restrict religious freedom of persons who did not belong to the six recognized faiths; animists, Baha’is, and members of other small minority faiths found it impossible to register marriages or births. Couples prevented from registering their marriage or the birth of their child in accordance with their faiths had to either convert to one of the recognized faiths or misrepresent themselves as belonging to one of the six. Those who chose not to register their marriages or births risked future difficulties: a child without a birth certificate cannot enrol in school and may not qualify for scholarships. Individuals without birth certificates do not qualify for government jobs.

…The Government requires all adult citizens to carry a National Identity Card (KTP), which identifies, among other things, the holder’s religion. Members of faiths not recognized by the Government generally cannot obtain KTPs unless they incorrectly identify themselves as a member of a recognized religion. During the period covered by this report, some Civil Registry officials rejected applications submitted by members of unrecognized faiths, while others accepted applications but issued KTPs that inaccurately reflected the applicants’ religion. Some animists received KTPs that listed their religion as Islam.

…Some citizens without a KTP had difficulty finding work. Several nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and religious advocacy groups continued to urge the Government to delete the religion category from KTPs (International Religious Freedom Report 2006 – Indonesia, 15 September, Section II Restrictions on Religious Freedom – Attachment 8).

A Jakarta Post article dated 21 September 2006 reports that Justice and Human Rights Minister Hamid Awaluddin will issue a ministerial decree this weekend to effect the implementation of the Citizenship Law which was passed in July 2006. A Jakarta Post article dated 12 July 2006 reports that the new law allows Indonesians of Chinese decent to hold several key government posts, including president as well as redefining “indigenous Indonesian” to include all citizens who never assume a foreign citizenship (Hera, Diana 2006, ‘Law provides more inclusive definition of being Indonesian’, Jakarta Post, 12 July, Action in Solidarity with Asia and the Pacific website http://www.asia-pacific- action.org/southeastasia/indonesia/netnews/2006/ind26v10.htm – Accessed 2 October 2006– Attachment 17; and Hera, Diani 2006, ‘Decree ready to implement citizenship law’, Jakarta Post, 21 September http://www.thejakartapost.com/yesterdaydetail.asp?fileid=20060921.A06 – Accessed 2 October 2006 – Attachment 18).

For more information on the situation of ethnic Chinese in Indonesia, including whether they are able to access state protection, please see the following RRT products: • RRT Country Research 2006, Research Response IDN30246, 26 June – Attachment 11; • RRT Country Research 2006, Research Response IDN30158, 16 May – Attachment 19; • RRT Country Research 2005, Research Response IDN17690, 5 December – Attachment 20; and • RRT Country Research 2003, Research Response IDN15918, 27 May – Attachment 21.

9. What does “pribumi Muslim” mean?

Pribumi means indigenous and is used to denote ethnic Indonesians while non-pribumi means non-indigenous and is used to denote ethnic Chinese (Tan, Mely G 1997, ‘The Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia’, Ethnic Chinese as Southeast Asians, ed Leo Suryadinata, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, pp.58-59 – Attachment 3).

10. Are there ‘reliable” rumours of “ethnic cleansing” of Chinese in this area and Indonesia generally?

No information on ethnic cleansing of Chinese in Tangerang or Indonesia since the May 1998 riots was found amongst the sources consulted.

List of Sources Consulted

Internet Sources: Government Information & Reports Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada http://www.irb- cisr.gc.ca/en/research/rir/index_e.htm?action=search US Citizenship and Immigration Services http://www.uscis.gov/graphics/index.htm US Department of State website http://www.state.gov/ (UN) UNHCR http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/home Non-Government Organisations Amnesty International (AI) http://www.amnesty.org/ Human Rights Watch (HRW) http://www.hrw.org/ International Crisis Group (ICG) http://www.crisisweb.org/ Minorities at Risk http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/inscr/mar/ Minority Rights Group International http://www.minorityrights.org/ International News & Politics BBC News http://news.bbc.co.uk/ The Jakarta Post http://www.thejakartapost.com/ Search Engines Ethnologue, Languages of the World http://www.ethnologue.com/ Google http://www.google.com.au/ Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page

Databases: FACTIVA (news database) BACIS (DIMA Country Information database) REFINFO (IRBDC (Canada) Country Information database) ISYS (RRT Country Research database, including Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, US Department of State Reports) RRT Library Catalogue

List of Attachments

1. US Citizenship and Immigration Services 1999, IDN99001.ZNY – Indonesia: Information on ethnic Chinese in Indonesia, 23 July.

2. Hoon, Chang-Yau 2004, ‘How to be Chinese: Ethnic Chinese experience a “reawakening” of their Chinese identity’, Inside Indonesia, April-June.

3. Tan, Mely G 1997, ‘The Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia’, Ethnic Chinese as Southeast Asians, ed Leo Suryadinata, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, Chapter 2. (RRT Sydney Library)

4. Gunawan, T. Sima 2003, ‘Wibowo strides between two worlds’, Jakarta Post, 1 September.

5. Hadipuro, Wijanto 2006, ‘Being a Chinese-Indonesia’, Jakarta Post, 13 June, Minorités website http://www.minorites.org/article.php?IDA=16590 – Accessed 3 October.

6. Gordon, Raymond G Jr (ed) 2005, ‘Languages of Indonesia (Java and Bali)’, Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 15th ed, SIL International, Dallas http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=IDJ – Accessed 27 September 2006.

7. ‘A Chinese-Indonesian history of discrimination’, Jakarta Post, 26 May.

8. US Department of State 2006, International Religious Freedom Report 2006 – Indonesia, 15 September.

9. Wikipedia 2006, ‘Tangerang’, 26 August http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangerang – Accessed 29 September 2006.

10. ‘The May riots’ 1998, Inside Indonesia, 29 May.

11. RRT Country Research 2006, Research Response IDN30246, 26 June.

12. ‘The May riots: Remembering the terror’ 2005, Jakarta Post, 15 May, Action in Solidarity with Asia and the Pacific website http://asia-pacific- action.org/southeastasia/indonesia/netnews/2005/ind_20v9.htm – Accessed 29 September 2006.

13. Volunteers for Humanity 1998, Mass Rape in the Recent Riots, 13 July, Harvard School of Public Health website http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/Organizations/healthnet/reprorights/docs/indonesia.PDF – Accessed 22 September 2006.

14. Human Rights Watch 1998, Indonesia – The Damaging Debate on Rapes of Ethnic Chinese Women, September, Vol. 10, No. 5(C) http://www.hrw.org/reports/pdfs/i/indonesa/indon989.pdf – Accessed 22 September 2006.

15. ‘Indonesia says ethnic Chinese women raped in May riots’ 1998, BBC News, 21 December http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/240081.stm – Accessed 22 September 2006.

16. US Department of State 2006, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2005 – Indonesia, 8 March.

17. Hera, Diani 2006, ‘Law provides more inclusive definition of being Indonesian’, Jakarta Post, 12 July, Action in Solidarity with Asia and the Pacific website http://www.asia- pacific-action.org/southeastasia/indonesia/netnews/2006/ind26v10.htm – Accessed 2 October 2006.

18. Hera, Diani 2006, ‘Decree ready to implement citizenship law’, Jakarta Post, 21 September http://www.thejakartapost.com/yesterdaydetail.asp?fileid=20060921.A06 – Accessed 2 October 2006.

19. RRT Country Research 2006, Research Response IDN30158, 16 May.

20. RRT Country Research 2005, Research Response IDN17690, 5 December.

21. RRT Country Research 2003, Research Response IDN15918, 27 May.