Rauscher, Johnsen Southern Forest Science:

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use management of the Nation’s forest Past, Present, and Future resources for sustained yields Past, Present, and Future of wood, water, forage, wildlife, and recreation. Through forestry research, cooperation with the H. Michael Rauscher and Kurt Johnsen, Editors States and private forest owners, and management of the National Forests and National Grasslands, it strives—as directed by Congress—to provide increasingly greater service to a growing Nation.

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Southern Research Station General Technical Report SRS-75 2004 AUTHORS H. Michael Rauscher, Forester, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Asheville, NC 28806; and Kurt Johnsen, Supervisory Plant Physiologist and Project Leader, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709.

FRONT The Macon Fire Since the 1930s, In early global As they did in The Bent Creek Divers estimate Laboratory in survey crews have change research reforestation Experimental abundance of COVER Georgia has a long been collecting at the Duke efforts a century Forest, known for trout in a study PHOTOS history of provid- information about Forest in Durham, ago, disease its work on oak of fish habitat in (left to right): ing solutions on forest conditions NC, chambers resistant seedlings regeneration, the Southern wildfire control, on thousands of were constructed continue to play an also conducts Appalachians. prescribed burn- permanent plots to measure the important role in research on bears (Photo by ing, and smoke established on effects of acid the sustainability and other species P. Flebbe) management— public and private rain and ozone of southern in mountain solutions that will land—their results on loblolly pines. forests. (SRS landscapes. come into play form the basis of (Photo by M. photo) (SRS photo) again as more and economic forecasts Schoeneberger) more southerners of timber markets, leave cities and public land suburbs and move management into the wildland policies, and urban interface. incentives for (SRS photo) afforestation on private lands. (Photo by M. Ward)

BACK Researchers Since the 1930s, When introduced Mycorrhiza is a After Hurricane Declining frog and who are located the weirs at the insect pests beneficial fungus Hugo scored a toad populations COVER on university Coweeta Hydro- threaten forests, that has been direct hit on the sometimes are cited PHOTOS campuses often logic Laboratory researchers often found to promote wetlands and as “early warning (left to right): serve in adjunct have provided find solutions by root formation flatlands of South signs” of adverse faculty positions long-term data combining new and tree growth Carolina in 1989, changes in the and as advisors on the effects of study results on sites disturbed artificial cavities environment. for graduate natural events and with techniques by mining and served as temp- Whether such students. (Photo human activities, learned from old other commercial orary shelters changes result from by D. Dwinell) with early studies enemies like the activities. (SRS for critically local disturbance or on clearcutting, southern pine photo) low populations from global climate mountain farming, beetles. (Photo of red-cockaded change, the unique grazing, and road by B. Lea) woodpeckers. vocalizations of building giving (SRS photo) amphibians may hold way to later the ecological key. research on air Here, a field scientist pollution, insect calibrates a frog- infestations, logger (an automated and prescribed recording device to burning. (SRS detect changes photo) in the amphibian populations of a southern wetland. (Photo by Z. Hoyle) Southern Forest Science: Past, Present, and Future

H. Michael Rauscher and Kurt Johnsen, Editors

October 2004 Southern Research Station P.O. Box 2680 Asheville, NC 28802

Contents

List of Figures ...... v List of Tables ...... ix Foreword ¬ Pete Roussopoulos and Steering Committee ...... x Looking Back

Chapter 1. A History of Southern Forest Science, Management, and Sustainability Issues ¬ H. Michael Rauscher ...... 3 Chapter 2. Southern Forests: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow ¬ R. Neil Sampson ...... 5 Chapter 3. Southern Forest Resource Conditions and Management Practices from 1900-1950: Benefits of Research ¬ James P. Barnett ...... 15 iii Chapter 4. Southern Forest Resource Conditions and Management Practices from 1950-2000: Benefits of Research ¬ Jacek P. Siry...... 23 Chapter 5. The Southern Forest Resource Assessment: What We Learned ¬ David N. Wear and John G. Greis ...... 33 Productivity

Chapter 6. Productivity ¬ Thomas R. Fox and Ray R. Hicks, Jr...... 47 Chapter 7. Silviculture and Management Strategies Applicable to Southern Hardwoods ¬ Ray R. Hicks, Jr., William H. Conner, Robert C. Kellison, and David Van Lear ... 51 Chapter 8. The Evolution of Pine Plantation Silviculture in the Southern United States ¬ Thomas R. Fox, Eric J. Jokela, and H. Lee Allen ...... 63 Chapter 9. Reproduction Cutting Methods for Naturally Regenerated Pine Stands in the South ¬ James M. Guldin ...... 83 Chapter 10. The Role of Genetics and Tree Improvement in Southern Forest Productivity ¬ R.C. Schmidtling, T.L. Robison, S.E. McKeand, R.J. Rousseau, H.L. Allen, and B. Goldfarb ...... 97 Chapter 11. Forest Mensuration with Remote Sensing: A Retrospective and a Vision for the Future ¬ Randolph H. Wynne ...... 109 Forest Health

Chapter 12. Healthy Forests in the South: Challenges for the 21st Century ¬ Theodor D. Leininger and Gregory A. Reams...... 119 Chapter 13. Restoration of Southern Ecosystems ¬ John A. Stanturf, Emile S. Gardiner, Kenneth Outcalt, William H. Conner, and James M. Guldin...... 123 Chapter 14. Understanding and Controlling Nonnative Forest Pests in the South ¬ Kerry O. Britton, Donald A. Duerr II, and James H. Miller ...... 133 Chapter 15. Advances in the Control and Management of the Southern Pine Bark Beetles ¬ T. Evan Nebeker ...... 155 Chapter 16. The Impact and Control of Major Southern Forest Diseases ¬ A. Dan Wilson, Theodor D. Leininger, William J. Otrosina, L. David Dwinell, and Nathan M. Schiff ...... 161 Chapter 17. Monitoring the Sustainability of the Southern Forest ¬ Gregory A. Reams, Neil Clark, and James Chamberlain...... 179 Water and Soils

Chapter 18. Water and Soils ¬ Carl C. Trettin ...... 191 Chapter 19. Influences of Management of Southern Forests on Water Quantity and Quality ¬ Ge Sun, Mark Riedel, Rhett Jackson, Randy Kolka, Devendra Amatya, and Jim Shepard ...... 195 Socioeconomic

Chapter 20. Policy, Uses, and Values ¬ H. Ken Cordell ...... 227 Chapter 21. Forest Values and Attitudes in the South: Past and Future iv Research ¬ Michael A. Tarrant and R. Bruce Hull IV ...... 231 Chapter 22. Nonindustrial Forest Landowner Research: A Synthesis and New Directions ¬ Gregory S. Amacher, M. Christine Conway, and J. Sullivan ...... 241 Chapter 23. Recreation and Nontimber Forest Products ¬ H. Ken Cordell and James L. Chamberlain ...... 253 Chapter 24. Timber Market Research, Private Forests, and Policy Rhetoric ¬ David N. Wear and Jeffrey P. Prestemon ...... 289

Contents, continued Contents, Biodiversity Southern Forest Science: Forest Southern Past, Present, and Future Present, Past, Chapter 25. Biodiversity and Southern Forests ¬ Eric T. Linder ...... 303 Chapter 26. Population Viability as a Measure of Forest Sustainability ¬ Eric T. Linder, Nathan A. Klaus, and David A. Buehler ...... 307 Chapter 27. Responses of Southeastern Amphibians and Reptiles to Forest Management: A Review ¬ Kevin R. Russell, T. Bentley Wigley, William M. Baughman, Hugh G. Hanlin, and W. Mark Ford ...... 319 Chapter 28. Monitoring Tree Species Diversity over Large Spatial and Temporal Scales ¬ James F. Rosson, Jr., and Clifford C. Amundsen ...... 335 Chapter 29. Population Growth and the Decline of Natural Southern Yellow Pine Forests ¬ David B. South and Edward R. Buckner ...... 347

Climate Change

Chapter 30. Overview of Global Climate Change and Carbon Sequestration ¬ Kurt Johnsen ...... 361 Chapter 31. Implications of Global Climate Change for Southern Forests: Can We Separate Fact from Fiction? ¬ Hermann Gucinski, Ron Neilson, and Steve McNulty .... 365 Chapter 32. Carbon Sequestration in Loblolly Pine Plantations: Methods, Limitations, and Research Needs for Estimating Storage Pools ¬ Kurt Johnsen, Bob Teskey, Lisa Samuelson, John Butnor, David Sampson, Felipe Sanchez, Chris Maier, and Steve McKeand ...... 373 Chapter 33. Forest Carbon Trends in the Southern United States ¬ Robert A. Mickler, James E. Smith, and Linda S. Heath ...... 383 List of Figures Page Figure 5.1—The region addressed by the Southern Forest Resource Assessment (Wear and Greis 2002a)...... 33

Figure 5.2—Removals by destination product, southwide, all species, 1952 to 1996 (Wear and Greis 2002a)...... 36

Figure 5.3—Population, in millions, for the United States and for the 13 States in the assessment area (Wear and Greis 2002a)...... 37

Figure 5.4—Forecast percent change in annual softwood harvest levels, 1995– 2040, by survey unit of the Forest Inventory and Analysis Program of the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service (Wear and Greis 2002a)...... 38

Figure 5.5—Percent of forest cover by county, 1992 (Wear and Greis 2002a)...... 39 v Figure 5.6—Forest area in the Southern United States, 1630 to 1999 (Wear and Greis 2002a)...... 39

Figure 5.7—Forecast of the area timberland by forest types, 1995 to 2040 (Wear and Greis 2002a)...... 39

Figure 5.8—Number of terrestrial vertebrates in Southern States listed as endangered (Wear and Greis 2002a)...... 41

Figure 5.9—Distribution of mussel species by aquatic fauna provinces (Wear and Greis 2002a)...... 42

Figure 8.1—Number of acres of pine plantations in the Southern United States from 1952 to 1999 (data from U.S. Department of Agriculture 1988, Wear and Greis 2002)..... 64

Figure 8.2—Estimated total yield and pulpwood rotation age in pine plantations in the Southern United States from 1940 through 2010...... 64

Figure 8.3—Estimated contributions of intensive management practices to productivity in pine plantations in the Southern United States from 1940 through 2010...... 64

Figure 8.4—Growth increases in southern pine plantations due to tree improvement practices in the Southern United States (adapted from Li and others 1997, Todd and others 1995)...... 67

Figure 8.5—Effect of competition control on growth of loblolly pine at age 8 (adapted from Miller and others 1995)...... 70

Figure 8.6—Growth response of loblolly and slash pine on a variety of soil types following midrotation application of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) fertilizer (adapted from North Carolina State Forest Nutrition Cooperative 1997)...... 71

Figure 8.7—Relationship between leaf area index and growth rate in southern pine plantations...... 75

Figure 8.8—Performance of loblolly pine families [identifications are (A) 07–56, (B) 08–59, and (C) 01–64] as site quality increases (adapted from McKeand and others 1997)...... 75

Figure 8.9—Integration of rooted cuttings and somatic embryogenesis into a clonal forestry program for southern pines in the United States...... 76

Figure 9.1—Trends in forest area occupied by forest type and year, 1952–96 (Sheffield and Dickson 1998)...... 83

continued List of Figures, (continued) Page Figure 9.2—The strip clearcutting method demonstrated in a loblolly-shortleaf pine stand, Crossett Experimental Forest, near Crossett, AR. Photo courtesy of James M. Guldin 2003...... 85

Figure 9.3—The seed tree reproduction cutting method applied operationally in a loblolly-shortleaf pine stand managed by forest industry, Ashley County, AR. Photo courtesy of James M. Guldin 1984...... 87

Figure 9.4—The shelterwood reproduction cutting method applied in a research study on the Escambia Experimental Forest, near Brewton, AL. Photo courtesy of James M. Guldin 1982...... 88

Figure 9.5—The group selection method in application to longleaf pine in a Farm Forestry Forty demonstration on the Escambia Experimental Forest, near vi Brewton, AL. Photo courtesy of James M. Guldin 1982...... 89

Figure 9.6—Stand structure in a stand under management using the selection method, Good Farm Forestry Forty demonstration, Crossett Experimental Forest, near Crossett, AR. Photo courtesy of James M. Guldin 1984...... 89

Figure 9.7—Diameter distributions of the Good Forty and the Poor Forty on the Crossett Experimental Forest in the first 35 years of the demonstration— (A) Good Forty in 1937, 1951, and 1971; (B) Poor Forty in 1937, 1951, and 1971...... 90

Figure 14.1—Amount of defoliation by the European gypsy moth 1940–2003...... 139

Figure 14.2—Logistic spread model for invasive nonnative plants...... 143 Southern Forest Science: Forest Southern Past, Present, and Future Present, Past, List of Figures, continued Figures, of List Figure 15.1—Diagram of adults, gallery patterns, and attack sites of the southern pine bark beetle guild (Ips vulses, I. grandicollis, I. calligraphus, Dendroctonus frontalis, and D. terebrans). Painting by Richard Kleifoth in 1964, Southern Forest Research Institute, Jasper, TX; photo by Dr. Ronald Billings in 1981, Texas Forest Service, Lufkin, TX...... 156

Figure 16.1—Live oak injured by heavy tree-clearing equipment at a residential building site in Austin, TX, providing entry points (infection courts) for introduction of the oak wilt fungus into the living sapwood by insect vectors. Photo by A. Dan Wilson...... 162

Figure 16.2—Zone lines observed in decayed wood of sugar maple colonized by Daldinia concentrica, mycosymbiont of Xiphydria maculata woodwasp larvae. These antagonistic interactions form between the decay zones of xylariaceous wood decay fungi around woodwasp galleries, and represent areas delimiting their territory defended by the production of dark inhibitory compounds. Photo by A. Dan Wilson. .... 169

Figure 17.1—An interpenetrating pattern for a five-panel design. No element has another member from the same panel as an immediate neighbor. There is one plot per hexagon (Roesch and Reams 1999)...... 182

Figure 17.2—Number of nontimber forest products enterprises by county for seven Southern States...... 185

Figure 19.1—Provinces of the Bailey ecoregion and annual runoff of the Southern United States...... 196

Figure 19.2—Seasonal distribution of streamflow from four representative forested watersheds across the Southern United States: (A) Arkansas mountains, (B) North Carolina Coastal Plain, (C) Texas shrubland, and (D) Georgia Piedmont (PPT= precipitation; PET= potential evapotranspiration)...... 198 continued List of Figures, (continued) Page Figure 19.3—Annual streamflow responses to repeated harvesting of mixed hardwood forest (watershed 18 at Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory) (adapted from Swank and others 1988)...... 199

Figure 19.4—Cumulative sediment yield measured at one Appalachian watershed at Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory (A) in one of the first-order streams below a logging road during the first 32 months after treatment, and (B) in the ponding basin of the second-order stream (Swank and others 2001)...... 204

Figure 19.5—Predicted long-term annual water yield response to forest removal at a 4-km resolution. Values are displayed at a 30-m land use/landcover resolution...... 216

Figure 26.1—Habitat potential for the chestnut-sided warbler on the Cherokee National Forest under five management alternatives over a 60-year time horizon...... 312 vii

Figure 28.1—Spatial distribution of clearcut timberland in Mississippi. Each dot represents 500 ha of clearcut timberland, harvested between 1977 and 1994. During this period, 1.6 million ha were clearcut...... 341

Figure 28.2—Mean species richness per sample unit for Mississippi, by survey year, for all sample units. The error bars represent 2 standard errors of means...... 341

Figure 28.3—Mean species richness per sample unit for Mississippi, by survey year, for sample units that had no evidence of harvesting disturbance during the four survey measurements. The error bars represent 2 standard errors of means...... 341

Figure 29.1—The conversion of forested land to other land uses in the United continued Figures, of List States from 1982 to 1997 (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service 2001)...... 347

Figure 29.2—Actual and predicted decline of natural southern yellow pine timberland in the South (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service 1988; Wear and Greis 2002)...... 348

Figure 29.3—Increases in oak-hickory, oak-pine, and pine plantation stands from 1953 to 1997 (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service 2001)...... 348

Figure 29.4—Acreage of naturally regenerated longleaf-slash pine, loblolly- shortleaf pine, and oak-hickory forests in the Eastern United States in 1997 by ownership class (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service 2001)...... 351

Figure 29.5—The afforestation of nonforested land to timberland in the United States from 1982 to 1997 (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service 2001)...... 351

Figure 29.6—The amount of land in pine stands and amount of natural regeneration (age class 1 to 5 years) for five southern yellow pines...... 352

Figure 29.7—Acreage of natural even-aged pine stands by species and 5-year age classes. The number on each graph represents the ratio obtained by dividing the number of acres in the 0- to 10-year age class by the number of acres in age class 41 to 50 years...... 354

Figure 31.1—The reconstructed Earth surface air temperature record for the past millennium (http://www.ipcc.ch/present/graphics/2001syr/ppt/05.16.ppt)...... 367

Figure 31.2—Predicted change in water supply stress defined as the ratio of the 2025 demand and supply divided by the 1990 ratio of demand and supply. Higher stress is the result of both increasing demand (population pressure) and the changed supply (climate driven) (McNulty and others 2004)...... 369 continued List of Figures, (continued) Page Figure 32.1—(A) standing biomass and (B) annual biomass production for fertilized trees from the Southeast Tree Research and Education Site located in North Carolina. The stand was established in 1985 and data are from 1995, 3 years after fertilization commenced...... 374

Figure 32.2—Stem biomass estimates obtained by applying six independently derived biomass equations for two tree size or tree age classes. Confidence intervals (CI) of 95 percent are shown for each size class...... 375

Figure 32.3—Standing volume estimates, using two growth-and-yield equations, for 10-year-old loblolly pine stand trees grown for the last 5 years under four treatments: control (C), irrigation (I), fertilization (F), and irrigation plus fertilization (IF). Treatments are described in Albaugh and others (1988)...... 375 viii Figure 32.4—Relationship between litterfall, estimated leaf area index (LAI), and nondestructive measures using a LI-COR LAI-2000 from the Southeast Tree Research and Education Site...... 376

Figure 32.5—Taproots excavated from a 20-year-old plantation in South Carolina, showing the variation in root morphology. Photos by Lance Kress...... 377

Figure 32.6—Relationship between aboveground biomass and coarse root biomass across sites. Note: All estimates are via biomass sampling except those for the Williamsburg site, where stem volumes were estimated using a volume equation and converted to carbon values as described in text and value was adjusted to add branch

Southern Forest Science: Forest Southern and leaf carbon using Baldwin and others (1997). Southeast Tree Research and Past, Present, and Future Present, Past, List of Figures, continued Figures, of List Education Site (SETRES) estimates are via Albaugh and others (1998); Bainbridge, GA, from Samuelson and others (in press); Williamsburg, Co., SC; Duke Forest, NC, from Ralston (1973); and Clemson, SC, from Van Lear and others (1984, 1995)...... 378

Figure 32.7—Percent soil carbon (C), by soil profile depth, over time, for stands from the long-term site productivity experiment located in the Croatan National Forest in coastal North Carolina. The previous stand was harvested and the new stand planted in year zero...... 379

Figure 33.1—Aboveground carbon (C) density (Mg C/ha) for forested lands in 1997 in the Southern United States...... 389

Figure 33.2—Mean net annual tree growth 1953–97 in terms of carbon (C) density (Mg C/ha/year) for forested lands in the Southern United States...... 389

Figure 33.3—Estimated total aboveground forest carbon (C) stock for (A) Southcentral and (B) Southeastern States 1953–97. Total C mass (Mt) is for all productive forest land within each State. Aboveground C includes that in live and dead trees, understory vegetation, down dead wood, and the forest floor...... 390

Figure 33.4—Estimated mean annual change in aboveground forest carbon stock 1953–97. Estimates are for productive forest land...... 391

Figure 33.5—Estimated mean annual change of carbon in the harvested products categories 1953–97...... 391

Figure 33.6—Estimated annual net primary production [g carbon (C) m2/year] for all forest types using the Hadley2Sul climate scenario for (A) 2000, (B) 2050, and (C) 2100...... 392 List of Tables Page Table 2.1—1980–99 population by State, southern region, and nationally with 2004 projection...... 12

Table 4.1—Intensively managed planted pine growth and yield data (wood volume) for medium sites and 25-year rotation...... 25

Table 4.2—Extent of intensive forest management practices in the South...... 27

Table 4.3—Growth rates (wood volume) for intensively managed planted pine (MIC 5) and SRTS-FIA forest management types...... 28

Table 8.1—Growth rates of pines throughout the World...... 73

Table 13.1—Longleaf pine restoration prescription depends upon site type and the condition of the overstory and understory...... 126 ix Table 14.1—Examples of intentionally introduced invasive nonnative weeds...... 135

Table 16.1—Global class membership (identity) of aroma profiles for sapwood cores of selected southern hardwoods based on electrical aroma signatures obtained from the 32-sensor array of the Aromascan A32S...... 168

Table 16.2—Determinations of global class memberships (identity) of aroma profiles for four Armillaria spp. based on electronic aroma signature comparisons with an Armillaria reference library database obtained from the 32-sensor array of the Aromascan A32S...... 168

Table 16.3—Symbiotic insect-wood decay fungi pest complexes that cause synergistic defect losses of hardwood lumber volume in southern and eastern hardwood species. .. 170

Table 17.1—The degree to which the FHM and FIA programs are currently addressing the criteria and indicators of the Montreal Process as specified in the 1995 Santiago Agreement ...... 183

Table 19.1—Hydrologic characteristics of eight major physiographic regions in the Southern United States...... 197

Table 26.1—Habitat variables and descriptions used to construct chestnut-sided warbler model...... 311

Table 29.1—Changes in timberland area over a 44-year period for selected species in the United States...... 349

Table 29.2—Acres of southern yellow pines in the Eastern United States during the 1990s, number of Forest Inventory and Analysis survey plots (data generated from Forest Inventory Mapmaker Version 1.0: run Oct 15, 2001), and the authors’ predicted decline in natural stands for the mid-21st century...... 352

Table 29.3—Inventory of Table Mountain pine growing stock by diameter class for two periods...... 355

Table 32.1—Site mean, mean square error, and estimated sample size needed, by soil profile depth, to detect 10-percent differences between treatment means for root biomass (A) and percent soil carbon (B)...... 379

Table 33.1—Mean aboveground carbon density of productive southern forests (timberlands) by forest type and carbon pool, 1997...... 387

Table 33.2—Mean aboveground tree carbon mass of southern forests by forest type and ownership classifications, 1997...... 388

Table 33.3—Hadley 2000, 2050, and 2100 minimum, maximum, and average net primary production for all forest types...... 391 Foreword

Forest science, like any science, is a continuous process. Research scientists collaborate in a largely informal, world-wide network to produce new knowledge— most frequently in the form of peer-reviewed articles—published in the scientific literature. It is difficult, even for those working in some area of forest science, to be aware of and understand the impact of this steady accumulation of theoretical and practical knowledge. For nonscientists, keeping up with forest science knowledge is indeed a daunting task.

It is equally difficult to appreciate the career-long contributions to forest science knowledge of the many, many dedicated researchers in the South we must thank for x painstakingly building the level of understanding of ecosystems and their management that we have attained today. Research scientists are usually rewarded individually for their particular contributions. However, the collective effort of that broad and deep community of scientists who have worked at universities, at State research centers, in private industry, and at Federal agencies for nearly a century is seldom formally recognized. It is the aggregate effort of these men and women in all fields of southern forest science that we have to thank for the huge improvement in our understanding and management skill.

This book was produced as a way to recognize and celebrate that contribution. It was produced to highlight the summits of knowledge that we have attained. It was Southern Forest Science: Forest Southern Past, Present, and Future Present, Past, produced to point out the marvelous results generated by the scientific method applied over a long period of time by dedicated, and often brilliant, forest scientists. Finally, it was produced in recognition that access to knowledge and the ability to use it wisely have always been the hallmarks of successful individuals, organizations, and nations.

As we celebrate the first centennial of Forest Service stewardship, we gratefully dedicate this work to all who have toiled to advance the frontier of knowledge about southern forests and their management.

Peter J. Roussopoulos Director, Southern Research Station U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Asheville, North Carolina Looking Back Southern Forest Science: 2 Past, Present, and Future Looking Back aaeet n utiaiiyIse...... 3 Management, ...... andSustainability Issues. What We Learned Chapter 5. 1950–2000: Benefits of Research Chapter 4. 1900–1950: Benefits of Research Chapter 3. Yesterday, Today, andTomorrowChapter 2. Chapter 1. Conditions andManagement Practices from Conditions andManagement Practices from

SouthernForest Resource TheSouthernForest Resource Assessment: SouthernForest Resource AHistory Southern Forests: of SouthernForest Science, ...... 33 ...... 5 ...... 23 ...... 15 ...... Chapter 1. A History of Southern Forest Science, Management, and Sustainability Issues

H. Michael Rauscher1 pristine wilderness largely untouched by human hands. This limited understanding of the ecological dynamics of the pre-European he 13 Southern States from Virginia to South found its way into our history books and Texas have a combined area of approximately has resulted in a distorted popular vision of what T 500 million acres. Our understanding of the the natural southern forest ecosystem was and complex cultural and ecological history of this should be today. 3 large region is still evolving. It may be fair to say that until recently, our view of the native peoples The second chapter “Southern Forests: of the South and the landscape in which they lived Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow” by R. Neil derived chiefly from reports provided by the few Sampson focuses on the events that most strongly European explorers who traveled through this affected the land, forests, and people of the South region between A.D. 1500 and A.D. 1700. Their between 1900 and the present. Until about 1880, factual descriptions were accurate, but their European settlement and forest exploitation understanding of the native cultures and ecology tended to be concentrated on flat lands adjacent was limited and this led to erroneous conclusions to rivers. Thus we learn that a map of forest (Owen 2002). conditions in the South at that time clearly indicates the patterns of rivers, which show up Native Americans have lived in the South as areas where all of the merchantable pine had for about 10,000 years. Early estimates of pre- been cut. The coming of the railroad opened up European population density, which were based the interior South to economical forest harvesting, on early English accounts, are now thought to be mining, and agriculture. The railroad was the key much too low (Carroll and others 2002). It is now to getting products to market profitably. Between believed that there were 1.5 to 2 million members 1860 and 1920, 90 million acres of mature longleaf of the Mississippian cultures living in the region in pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) stands were harvested the year 1500. Diseases introduced by the Spanish (Barnett 2004). Land was cheap and plentiful, and explorers in the next 100 years greatly reduced this led to large-scale land speculation, timber the size of this population and resulted in the exploitation, and finally resale of the denuded land collapse of the Mississippian culture by 1600 to farmers. Large areas of marginal land, thus, (Carroll and others 2002). It is now thought that came into cultivation or were used for grazing and approximately two-thirds of the Native American then slowly abandoned as the soil was eroded and population in the South was eliminated (Owen its fertility depleted. Copper and iron smelters 2002). As a result, the large areas that had been sprung up in many areas of the South, and their used for farming and fire-managed forest lands acid fumes and fuel needs denuded thousands of throughout the South changed between 1600 and acres of land. These deplorable conditions brought 1700 from “a mosaic of open pine and hardwood about the rise of the conservation movement woodlands, prairies, meadows, and oak or pine around 1900; purchasing of unwanted land by savannas in a variety of successional stages” the public to create the first national forests (Carroll and others 2002) to a forest that was in the East; creation of the U.S. Department much denser in both its overstory and understory of Agriculture Forest Service and State forestry (Owen 2002). It was this rapidly revegetating, agencies; and the beginning of scientifically dense forest with a large proportion of remnant based forest management. old growth that the Europeans interpreted as The third chapter “Southern Forest Resource Conditions and Management Practices from 1900–1950: Benefits of Research” by James P. Barnett tells the story of forest science 1 Forester, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Asheville, NC 28806. Southern Forest Science: 4 Past, Present, and Future Looking Back forests represent <3percentofglobalconifer 2004). TheSouth’s plantedandnaturalpine of abandonedagriculturalland (Wear andGreis 54 millionacres,mostlyasa resultofreforestation the areainplantedpineisexpected toexpand productivity wasincreasing continuously. By 2040, management wasintensifying rapidlyand acres ofpineplantationsintheSouth.Pine 2004). By1997,however, therewere30million as nonstockedandinneedofreforestation(Siry forests while7millionacreswerestillclassified only 2millionacreshadbeenplantedinpine thelargeCCCreforestationcampaign, Even after primarily innaturalstandsandwithlowintensity. 2004). profitable thanpinemanagement(Siry because hardwoodmanagementhasbeenless hardwood managementthaninpine there hasbeenlessresearchandinvestmentin received substantialresearcheffort.However, forest land,andmanagementofhardwoodshas forests occupymorethanhalfoftheregion’s of intensiveplantedpinemanagement.Hardwood oftheSouth’sdistinctivesystem tells thestory scale between1950and2000.Thischapter most importantly, large implementedonavery management developedearlierwasrefinedand, by JacekP Practices from1950–2000:BenefitsofResearch,” Forest ResourceConditionsandManagement continues inthefourthchapter, “Southern great ecologicalimportance. South’s deciduoushardwoodforests,whichhave region intheworldandtorestoremountain Coastal Plainthemostproductivetimbergrowing forest managershaveusedtomaketheSouth’s forest scienceprovidedthebasicknowledgethat ofachievementin 2004). Thisfirsthalfcentury in theSouthhasmadetremendousgains”(Barnett support andprimitiveworkingconditions,forestry professional forestersanddespitelittletechnical onlyahandfulof needs.“With conservation effort totackleourNation’shugeforestandsoil use thismanpowereffectivelyinthefirstmajor had advancedfarenoughsothatwecould our reforestationknowledgeandtechnology to provideemploymentsome3millionmen, Corps(CCC)wasestablished Conservation about reforestation.By1933whentheCivilian land. In1900wehadlittlescientificknowledge forest landandthecontrolofwildfireonthat reforestation ofthemillionsacrescutover urgent needsbetween1900and1930werethe during thefirsthalfof20 In the 1950s, southern pinesweremanaged In the1950s,southern offorestscienceintheSouth The story . Siry. Thebasicknowledge offorest th century. Themost LITERATURE CITED findings ofthisassessment. Wear andJohnG.Greisisasummaryofthe Assessment: WhatWe byDavidN. Learned” Forest Southern chapter entitled“The Resource (Wearthese concerns andGreis2002).Thefinal Assessment wasinitiatedin1999toaddress ForestGreis 2004).TheSouthern Resource sustainability oftheSouth’sforests(Wear and to questionsaboutthehealth,productivity, and increased substantiallyintheSouth,leading and developmentoflandforurbanuseshas in 1900. 90 millionacresoflongleafpineforestintheSouth acres ofpineplantationsisstillmuchlessthanthe States. Itshouldbepointedoutthatthe30million known orappreciatedbythepeopleinUnited isnotwidely South. Thisimpressivesuccessstory timberthantheU.S. world suppliesmoresoftwood inthe 2004).Nootherregionorcountry (Siry harvests percent ofglobalindustrialsoftwood forest cover, andyettheregionsuppliesnearly19 Wear, forest DavidN.;Greis,JohnG.,eds.2002.Southern Wear, forest DavidN.;Greis,JohnG.2004.Thesouthern Siry, JacekP Owen, Wayne. ofnativeplantcommunitiesin 2002.Thehistory WayneCarroll, D.;Kapeluck,Peter R.;Harper, RichardA.;Van JamesP Barnett, Southern ResearchStation. 645p. Southern NC: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture, Forest Service, resource assessment.Gen.Tech. Rep. SRS–53.Asheville, Research Station:33–44. U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Southern Service, present, andfuture.Gen.Tech. Rep.SRS–75.Asheville, NC: Michael; Johnsen,Kurt, forestscience:past, eds.Southern In:Rauscher,resource assessment:whatwelearned. H. Forest ResearchStation:23–31. Southern Service, SRS–75. Asheville,NC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture, forest science:past,present,andfuture.Gen.Tech. Rep. In: Rauscher, H.Michael;Johnsen,Kurt, eds.Southern resource conditionsandmanagementpractices:1950–2000. ResearchStation:47–61.Chapter2. Southern Service, Asheville, NC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest forest resourceassessment.Gen.Tech. Rep.SRS–53. the South.In:Wear, DavidN.;Greis,JohnG.,eds.Southern ResearchStation:583–605.Chapter24. Southern NC: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Service, resource assessment.Gen.Tech. Rep.SRS–53.Asheville, In: Wear, DavidN.;Greis,JohnG.,eds.Southernforest forestlandscapeandassociatedresources. of thesouthern Lear, DavidH.2002.Backgroundpaper:historicaloverview 15–22. Agriculture, Forest ResearchStation: Southern Service, Tech. Rep.SRS–75.Asheville,NC:U.S.Departmentof forestscience:past,present,andfuture.Gen. Southern 1900–1950. In:Rauscher, H.Michael;Johnsen,Kurt, eds. forest resourceconditionsandmanagementpractices: In thelastquartercentury, timberharvesting . 2004. The impact of research on southern forest . 2004.Theimpactofresearchonsouthern . 2004.Theimpactofresearchonsouthern Chapter 2.

Southern Forests: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow

R. Neil Sampson1 INTRODUCTION he story of the southern forests is a rich one, told in many ways by many people. This brief th Abstract—In the 20 century, southern forests T review will touch on three aspects of that changed dramatically. Those changes pale, story—land, forests, and people. It will feature however, when compared to what happened to two snapshots in time—1900 and 2000—spanning 5 a century of great change to illustrate insights the people of the region. In addition to growing that could be of some value as we enter this 21st over fourfold in numbers, the South’s population century. The main events that shaped the land, has urbanized, globalized, and intellectualized in th forests, and people of the South in the last century 100 years. Rural and isolated in the 19 century, are well known. They include: they are today urban and cosmopolitan. One result has been a complete change in the approach to • The decline of agriculture and mining in the region, and the legacies these activities left forestry. No longer an industrial process harvesting behind on the land what nature has grown, it is now a scientifically based management process that produces a • The movement of the timber industry to wide variety of goods and services. Thus what the region is happening in today’s southern forest is unlike • The development of professional forestry anything that would have been imagined 100 and land management years ago. A large part of that is due to the • The creation and growth of the U.S. advances in forest science and its wholesale Department of Agriculture Forest Service adoption by industrial corporations, nonindustrial (Forest Service), the National Forest System, forest owners, and public agencies. and the State forestry agencies

As the human population has grown and • The rise of the conservation movement urbanized, however, a new threat to forest with its new agencies and programs management has arisen. Urban pressures not • Two World Wars and the accompanying surges only convert land from forest to other uses, they of demand for natural resources also pressure forest managers to eliminate practices • Population growth and associated urbanization that offend the sensibilities of urban people. This “proximity pressure” threatens to take far more As this history unfolds, it reveals changes of forest out of sustainable management than actual such magnitude that, had they been foretold by land use conversion will take. In some southern scholars in 1900, those good people would have no areas, it may eliminate forest management entirely doubt been made a laughingstock. As we enter the st in the coming century. 21 century, we ask ourselves whether it is possible that changes of similar magnitude lie in store for Forest science is, thus, challenged to find new the region. If so, we can only speculate as to what ways to manage forests and communicate the those new situations may be and how people and organizations may need to respond to them. values of that management in ways acceptable to urban neighbors. If they do not, they will face the reality that knowing how to manage a forest well is of little value unless there are forests where management can occur.

1 President, The Sampson Group, Inc., Alexandria, VA 22310. Southern Forest Science: 6 Past, Present, and Future Looking Back percent ofthenationaltotal (Williams 1989). and by1919itwassaidtobe producingaround37 producing morelumberthan anyotherregion, however, itwasestimatedthattheSouth South contributingabout25percent.By1900, somewhere around40billionboardfeet,withthe at estimated theannualnationaltimberharvest of 250millionacresforestatthattime.He thatwouldmeansomewhereintherange correct, the regionstillretaineditsforestcover. Ifhewas suggested thatsomewherearound50percentof (Fernowreserve” 1896).For theSouth,Fernow only approximationsandmustbetakenwiththat Thedatagiven,therefore,are on partialreturns. andbased areavowedlyimperfect lumber industry tothe existence. Eventhecensusfiguresreferring commercial species oftheday, andFernow hadthis ( this tosay: Agriculture (USDA), DivisionofForestry had 1896, ChiefFernow oftheU.S.Department were littlemorethaneducatedguesses.In and estimatesoftheforestresource,forexample, the Tennessee Valley inthisway: as late1936,oneauthordescribesthepeoplein transportation systemsoftheday. For example, influence bythelimitsofcommunicationand insulatedfrom morethanlocal often “southern,” Bureau 1990). (U.S.Census rural South wasoverwhelmingly areasatthetimeanditisclearthat rural around 60percentofallAmericanswerelivingin 1900. Thatsamesourceshowsthatsomewhere around 21millionpeoplelivingintheregion elseisdifferent. Everything common statisticbetweenthenandnow. in thelastcentury, andisperhapstheonly billion acres.Thatsizehasnotchangedmarkedly T AND PEOPLEIN1900 THE PAST—LAND, FORESTS, P. echinata Longleaf ( Land andforeststatisticswerefewin1900, And theregion’sinhabitantswereclearly According toU.S.censusfigures,therewere value of these crafts islow(Chase 1936). value ofthesecrafts specialized economyoftodaytheexchange havelapsedorbecauseinthehighly crafts are poorbecausemanyoftheirancient standards, anddesperatelypoor. They salty, independent,illiteratebymodern The people.arehospitable,proud, Texas, withatotalareaofjustoverhalf inabroadbandfromVirginiarunning to he South consists of 13 Southern States he Southconsistsof13Southern

“There are no forestry statisticsin arenoforestry “There Mill.) pinewere themostimportant Pinus palustris Mill.) andshortleaf and valleysfilled withsmoketestifiedto the could plowthe landwastheimportantconcern, of Agriculture,Forest 1988). Service pine treesintopaperproducts (U.S.Department a byproductoftheprocess of pulpingtoturn early logging.Today, theseproductscomeas behindby distillation oftheoldstumpsleft By 1920,muchofitwascomingfromthesteam by tappingtreesandcollectingtheresultingsap. At ofthecentury, theturn thesewereproduced pines. entirely bydistillingthegumofsouthern rosin andturpentinethatwereproducedalmost torotorburn. branch, withtheremainderleft valuable pinetreeswereutilizedonlytothelowest per acre(Williams 1989).For themostpart, it wouldyieldfrom6to12thousandboardfeet were buyinglandfor$1.25anacre,estimatingthat for freeornearlyfree,aswell.Privatespeculators free fortheasking,andpubliclandcouldbetaken virtually nonexistent.Inmanyareas,treeswere virtually cutoutby1913(Williams 1989). board feetperyearby1905,andthespecieswas rosetoaround1billion happened: cypressharvest cable-skidded. With thesemethods,twothings a centralaccessroutetowhichthelogscouldbe channels thatwereblastedintotheswamptogive pointby“pullboats”thatpliedalong rafting or bymenwadinginthewater, tobeskiddeda fromboats enough saptofloat,thenharvested were girdledandkilledsothattheywouldlose cypress ( over. Intheswampswherehighlyvalued logs tomarketmadethoseareasthefirstbecut forfloatingheavy The highvalueofthewaterways merchantable pinehadbeencut(Williams 1989). defined, shownasregionsfromwhichallofthe ofriversandstreams wasclearly the pattern In an1880mapofforestconditionstheSouth, quotations” (Fernow 1896). cut asalmosttohavedisappearedfrommarket of theMississippiBasinhasbeensolargely he wrote,“oncecommonintherichbenchlands andcooperage.”“Blackwalnut,” construction beingused“almostexclusivelyfor harvested, ( He alsonotedthat,amongtheoaks,whiteoak pines.” of lumberthantheotherSouthern has beenofmuchlessimportanceasasource States.Thusfarit field’ pineoftheSouthern to sayaboutloblolly( Quercus alba For in1900, getting ridoftreessothey farmers forestproductswerethe Other majorsouthern Forest andmanagementwere conservation wastelling. offorestharvest The pattern Taxodium L.) hadbeenthetypemost spp.)wasfound,thetrees P. taeda L.): “Itisthe‘old widespread use of fire as a primary land clearing erosion. A 1911 soil survey of Fairfield County, tool (Plair and Spillers 1960). Any lumber SC, for example, determined that 90,000 acres company that employed a technical forester for of formerly cultivated land should be classified as his knowledge of forest management would have rough gullied land as a result of erosion (Bennett been laughed out of the woods. You didn’t need a 1939). Those gullies, common across the region’s college degree to swing an axe or wrestle floating sloping lands, were beginning to be a major logs out of a swamp. topic of concern. Hugh Hammond Bennett, who would become the national leader in a new soil Technology was coming into the woods rapidly, conservation movement, wrote the following cutting costs, increasing output, and expanding the about the soil erosion situation in the South: logger’s reach across the landscape. Oxen skidding was slow and expensive, so wherever possible, it A much lighter rain than formerly now was being supplemented or replaced by splash turns the Tennessee River red with wash dams, dynamited channels, pull boats, and other from the red lands of its drainage basin. forms of water transport. Where the land was Added to the severe impoverishment of a 7 dry, railroads expanded rapidly to access valuable tremendous area of land throughout this pine timber. Much of that technology was highly great valley, and its extensions southward damaging to the environment, but those concerns into Georgia and Alabama and northward were many decades from being effectively voiced. into Virginia, are the gullied areas, which It was a time of “cut out and get out” to maximize are severely impaired or completely the profits from land speculation. ruined by erosion ravines that finger out 2. Chapter through the numerous hill slopes and even For the lumber companies, the last profits from many undulating valley areas. Field after the land often came from selling it to would-be field has been abandoned to brush, and farmers, and many set up real estate offices to the destruction continues (Bennett and promote the virtues of farming on the cutover Chapline 1928). lands. But the soils were often sandy or swampy, and while a few farmers succeeded on the better In other places, the environmental effects lands, many simply played out their money and of industry were plainly evident. In eastern abandoned the place (Williams 1989). By 1920, Tennessee and northern Georgia, the acid fumes Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow Today, Yesterday, it was estimated that 30 million acres of cutover from copper and iron smelting killed thousands forest showed little prospect of restocking or of acres of forest (Yarnell 1998). Stuart Chase helping the region recover its resource strength (1936) describes one such scene in Tennessee: (Williams 1989). The road curved around the crest and Thus the forest legacy in the early parts of Ducktown rose before us – a little village the 20th century was one of cutover pine lands, and a huge smelter perched on a hill. In a a depleted cypress resource, and high-graded great circle about the smelter, measuring hardwood forests. As timber harvesting and perhaps ten miles in diameter, every living agricultural land clearing continued, the region’s thing had been destroyed by the sulphur forest acreage declined, reaching a low some time fumes. These were bad lands without around 1920 (U.S. Department of Agriculture, the balance and natural composure Forest Service 1988). Adding to the region’s forest of a desert. woes was the chestnut blight {Cryphonectria The picture that emerges from this long parasitica (Murrill) Barr [formerly Endothia look back is pretty grim. Across the southern parasitica (Murrill) Anderson & Anderson]}. landscape, the evidence of land misuse would have The killer fungus reached Virginia in 1912 and been appalling to today’s eyes. But the beginnings by 1920 had largely eliminated one of the most of the conservation movement were taking root, valuable species in the southern hardwood forests and the warnings were beginning to be heard (Yarnell 1998). across the land. In some respects, those warnings Equally significant to the region’s landscapes, sound overly alarmist today, but then they were a agriculture was undergoing major change. wake-up call. There was much talk of a “timber King cotton was under siege by the boll weevil famine,” for example. How wrong was Pinchot (Anthonomus grandis grandis), and crops (1910) when he wrote: were rapidly vanishing from hillside soils where cultivation had exposed susceptible soils to rapid Southern Forest Science: 8 Past, Present, and Future Looking Back which privatelumbercompanies weremanaging Pinchot wasintentonchanging themannerin of USDA’s DivisionofForestry in1898,Gifford hebecameChief Estate inthe1890s,andalsoafter evident, ormoreneeded,thanintheSouth. problems ofAmerica.Nowherewasthismore faces, itbegantoaddresstheseriousresource conducted bytheDepartmentofAgriculture Congress (1935)thatthesoilerosionsurveys March 20,1935. Subcommittee of HouseCommitteeonPublicLands, A TO THESOUTH LAND MANAGEMENT COMES ledthewayinexperimentation. often a moresustainableapproachtolandmanagement, oranindustrialcorporation,required family farm the futureoftheirlife’sinvestments,whetherina combat landwaste.Privatecitizens,seeingthat research andpracticeprovidednewtoolsto The increaseinscientificknowledgethrough policies, agencies,programs,andexpenditures. neededtosupportnewpublic of publicconcern andprivatebusiness,createdtheclimate service and Bennett,alongwithdozensofothersinpublic support thelatterview. PioneerslikePinchot disaster? Thereisampleevidence,Ithink,to trendsbeforetheycontinuedto destructive management problemsandeffectivelycorrect could addressland that anawakenedcitizenry werefalse,ordoesitindicate that thewarnings intosteriledesert.Doesthisindicate land turn materialized, nordidmillionsofacresAmerican 2 Bennett,H.H.1935. Statementpresentedbefore From thetimeofhisworkonBiltmore Or whataboutBennett,whotestifiedin The timberfamine,ofcourse,never s the20 emerge. Slowlyinmanyplacesandwith movementwasbeginningto conservation and oncewasgoodsoil. patches. Mostofthishadbeencultivated, crop production,exceptforoccasional erosion insofarashavingfurtherusefor essentially destroyedbywindorwater . revealed51,465,097acresofland the land. householdin effects willbefeltinevery timber faminesoseverethatitsblighting States hasalreadycrossedthevergeofa reliable tomakeitcertainthattheUnited The figurescitedare,however, sufficiently th century dawned,amajornational century 2 Agriculture, Forest 2000). Service acres intheregion(U.S.Department of national forests,comprising some12.3million systemof late 1930s,leadingtothecurrent purchases continuedacross theregioninto price of$5.65peracre(Clepper1975).The acres wereapprovedforpurchaseatanaverage the lawwasenacted.In1912,287.7thousand under theWeeks Act startedimmediatelyafter could overcomeit(Clepper1975).Landpurchases persistent andgrowingpowerofcitizen’sgroups andonlythe purchase offorestreserves, opposition totheuseofFederal fundsforthe Federation ofWomen’s Clubs.Therewaspowerful American CivicAssociationandtheGeneral in thepoliticalwarswereorganizationslike officialsinitsleadership.Alsocritical forestry 1875 andcountedvirtuallyallofthetopnational Association (AFA), whichhadbeenfoundedin among theseactorswastheAmericanForestry political actionbycitizens’organizations.Chief South. Theseactionswerelargelytheresultof the landsthatbecamenationalforestsof Weeks Act openedthewayforpurchaseof tothe Foresttransferred andthe1911 Service, 1905 (Steen1976). System wascreatedunderitsmanagementin named Forest whentheNationalForest Service workloadplacedonthenewly the enormous not somuchbyfailuresintheprogramas continued foronlyadecadeorso,displaced plan. Thisfocusonassistingprivatelandowners a timbermarkingplan,andfireprotection logging, whichtreestoleaveasaseedsource, recommendations onminimumtreesizefor worked togatherdataforaplanthatcontained A 50-manteamfromtheBureauofForestry 80 percentofallthelongleafpineforestinTexas. which owned1.2millionacresthatcontainedabout help them(Steen1976). and boardtoFederal agentswhowouldcomeand offer, sendingcashandofferingfreetransportation Manycompaniesacceptedthe instructions.” expenses ofDepartmentagentswhogive advice and“theprivateownerswillpaythe approach, Federal technicianswouldprovide of AgricultureWilson notedthat,underthisnew technical assistancetothecompanies.Secretary which launchedanambitiousprogramof over theUSDA job,heissuedCircular21, the Nation’sforests.Within taking weeksafter The administration of the forest reserves was The administrationoftheforestreserves One examplewastheKirbyLumber Company, The Weeks Act and later the Clarke-McNary Although spared much of the Dust Bowl damage Act spurred great growth in the cooperation (except in Oklahoma and Texas), the South was the between the Forest Service and the State focal point of much of the new activity because of forestry agencies. By the 1920s, thousands the widespread damage caused by gullying. As the of landowners were receiving technical forestry new Soil Conservation Service was moved into advice from State service foresters, supported USDA in 1935, it was given supervision of over 450 by a combination of Federal and State CCC camps that provided the manpower needed cooperative funds. to address soil and water conservation problems. The CCC boys attacked gullies with little more During this same period (1903 to 1928), Hugh than shovels and axes and, in the process, Bennett was conducting soil surveys throughout demonstrated that this serious erosion could the Southern States, and his warnings about the be halted (Sampson 1985). extent and danger of soil erosion were attracting increasing attention. Finally in 1929, Congress To help facilitate the local work of soil and appropriated $160,000 for soil erosion studies water conservation, a new form of local special 9 and Bennett was placed in charge of the work Government was created—the soil conservation (Sampson 1981). district. As with many other innovations, it saw its first implementation in the South as Brown Creek THE NEW DEAL’S CONSERVATION DECADE District in North Carolina became the first to be formed (Sampson 1985).

he 1930s brought enormous change to the 2. Chapter forestry and land conservation programs Another influential venture of the period was T of the United States. It was a time of great started in 1927 when the AFA set out to raise environmental and social stress. Thousands money for an educational campaign on forest fire of displaced people, jobless and destitute, fled prevention and control aimed at the rural people damaged farm and forest lands to seek work of the South. Known officially as the Southern in cities, where there were few opportunities Forestry Educational Project, it was launched following the stock market crash of 1929. For in Florida, Georgia, and Mississippi with the President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the challenge purchase and outfitting of five trucks. Each truck seemed twofold—economic recovery and

had an electric generator to power a motion and Tomorrow Today, Yesterday, environmental repair. His proposal, in 1933, for picture projector and carried two men—a lecturer a Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) to provide and a projector operator. Movies produced by needed employment and tackle the forest and soil the USDA and the AFA were shown in thousands conservation needs of the Nation, was passed into of rural towns and were often the first motion law by Congress after only 10 days (Sampson and pictures seen by many of the residents. At the DeCoster 1997). Young men were put to work for end of the first year of operation, it was estimated $30 a month in salary, half of which was to be sent that the trucks had traveled 78,000 miles into home to their families. In addition, they were 94 counties and reached 700,000 people (Clepper provided room, board, uniforms, and medical care. 1975). By the time it was closed down in 1931, it In its 9 years of existence, some 3 million was estimated that the “Dixie Crusaders,” as the CCC men were provided with work and teams had begun to be called, had reached some 3 training, for a total cost of some $2.5 billion million people in the 3 Southern States and South (Zimmerman 1976). Some of their impressive Carolina, which had been added to the program forestry accomplishments included the (Clepper 1975). construction of more than 1,300 fire lookout While these were only a few of the activities towers, almost 40,000 miles of telephone lines, underway, what also emerged in the 1930s was over 50,000 miles of roads and trails, 1.25 billion a new framework of Federal and State policy trees planted, and over 2 million man-days of in regard to forests. In general, it emphasized fire fighting. Many of the campground facilities, the protection of forests from wildfire and the lodges, and recreational sites developed by the protection of wildlife from overharvesting. It CCC remain in use today. promoted the management of forests, farmlands, In 1934, as the first national soil erosion and wildlife with methods based on scientific surveys were being completed, dust from the principles and carried out most of its activities drought-stricken Great Plains darkened skies through a variety of cooperative arrangements in Washington, DC, and a new national soil that often involved several Federal, State, and conservation program was born (Sampson 1981). local agencies (MacCleery 1992). Southern Forest Science: 10 Past, Present, and Future Looking Back cropland intograssortrees. Undertheprogram, reduce cropsurplusesthrough conversionof SoilBank—wasenacted tohelp reserve—the Agriculture, Forest 1958). Service keeping itproductive(U.S.Departmentof getting thatvastacreageintoproductionand tree plantingwasoneofthemosteffectiveways nonstocked orpoorlystocked,theAgencysaidthat (23 percentofthecommercialforestarea)asbeing national need.Citingmorethan114millionacres wasstillthattreeplantingamajor Service and shelterbelts. tree plantingforreforestation,windbreaks, purposes. Includedinthosepurposeswas sharing withprivatelandownersforconservation Administration, Congressauthorizedcost the creationofAgriculturalAdjustment 1999).In1936through (Moulton andHernandez as thoseproducedbytheCCCin1930s. increases intreeplantinghavebeenassignificant landowners toreforesttheirland.Recent private played animportantroleinspurring aggressive treeplanter, publicprogramshave future hingingonnewtreecrops,wasthemost 1976). real momentum(Zimmerman to landowners,thattheprogramwasablegain as increasededucationalandtechnicalassistance programsaswell State treeseedandnursery authorized Federal cost-sharingsupportfor Actwas notuntilthe1924Clarke-McNary that andit these weretheexceptions,notrule, planted some15,000acres(Williams 1989).But contract, andtheGoodyearsofBogalusa,who pinesundera1913 about 27,000acrestosouthern HardtnerofLouisiana,whoplanted such asHenry TREE PLANTING—PUBLICANDPRIVATE increase intreeplantingprograms. cooperative achievementwasthedramatic 1992).Anotherimportant the 1970s(MacCleery acres ayear, beganadeclinethatlastedthrough asmuch50million wildfires, whichhadburned programs werebeginningtobemoreeffective,and the endof1930s,cooperativefiresuppression the dramaticreductioninannualwildfirearea.By new policyapproach,oneofthemorenotablewas P In 1956,thefirstversionof aconservation But inmidcentury, theappraisalofForest While theforestproductsindustry, withits While thereweremanyachievementsofthis through theworkofpioneeringlandowners had startedintheSouthearly1900s lanned reforestationthroughtreeplanting of usefulproduct. toobtainasimilaramount forest areharvested mill insomeplaces.Asaresult, feweracresof and logswith2-inchtopsare beingsenttothe efficiency oftimberutilization isextremelyhigh, timber in<25yearsmany places.The the pasthalfcentury. over for forestmanagementandconservation almost doubled,signalingamajorachievement on asimilararea,theamountofstandingtimber others 1993,SmithandSheffield2000).Thus from 88to152millioncubicfeet(Powell and region, whilehardwoodtimbervolumesrose rose from60.5to105millioncubicfeetinthe increased significantly. timbervolumes Softwood the amountoftimbergrowingonlandhas 2000). Whilethatacreagechangewasmodest, (Powell andothers1993,SmithSheffield declined from204.5to201millionacresin2000 weretaken,theareaoftimberlandhas surveys suggest that,since1952whenthefirstreliable some 20to50millionacres.Morecomparabledata rough estimatewasaccurate,that’sareductionof acres (SmithandSheffield2000).Ifthe1896 forest intheSouthisnowaround214million haschanged.The amountoftotal everything care ofskilledhands. ofthemanagementand and services—because full varietyofeconomicandenvironmentalgoods intact overcenturies,continuingtoproducea forest ecosystemsthatremainproductiveand It couldaspiretoproducesustainableforests— with morethantimbersupply.be concerned had progressedfarenoughsothatitcould By 2000,thescienceofforestmanagement revolution. forests, ledtoamajorconservation lands,including the mismanagementofrural T CONSERVATION CHALLENGESHIFTSGEARS 1999). Hernandez intheSouth(Moultonand States hasoccurred to 82percentofthetreeplantinginUnited of theseprograms.Overthelast20years,from65 had resulted.TheSouthhastakenfulladvantage estimated thatmorethan2.5millionacresoftrees launched. Itisstillineffect,andby1992itwas Program—was Reserve the Conservation rental for10years.In1985,asimilarprogram— USDA costsharedtreeplantingandpaidland Today, pinesproducemerchantable southern ofchange,virtually During thatcentury century has shown that an early concern for hasshownthatanearlyconcern century land, andpeopleoftheSouthoverlast his rapid overview ofthechangesinforests, his rapidoverview High-flotation machines move through pine fragmented, and that has both environmental and plantations, thinning out excess trees and sending economic consequences. From an environmental them off to market without leaving soil ruts— point of view, habitats may become disconnected, in places without leaving a mark to show they making normal movements of plants, animals, have passed. Riparian buffers and streamside and genotypes more difficult. Those that become management zones protect the most productive isolated may find it more difficult to thrive, or habitats on the landscape and, as a result, plants even survive. From an economic standpoint, every and critters great and small share the forest with forestry operation becomes more expensive as commercial timbering operations. forest tract size declines and, at some point, the The forest products industry, once noted prices received for forest products go down as well primarily for its cut-and-run strategies, is today (Thorne and Sundquist 2001). All of these effects the largest single employer of professional make forest production increasingly marginal and, foresters (Society of American Foresters 2001) at some point, landowners simply give up on using and a leader in defining and applying the the forest as a production asset and either hold it 11 principles of sustainable forest management as an amenity or sell it to the highest bidder. (AF&PA 2001). There is much to be learned, Either way, the area available for sustainable but the science and art of forest management forest management is diminished. has clearly matured significantly. Finally, however, is the third aspect of the pressure—the one that may be most difficult The revolution in U.S. forestry has been 2. Chapter compared with the transition made thousands of to identify and quantify. This can be labeled years ago by agriculture—from a foraging activity proximity pressure and it works like this—as that simply harvested what nature had provided urban populations move into a rural area, the to a cropping activity involving planting, tending, opposition to rural land uses is almost certain and harvesting (Sedjo 1991). to rise. For farmers, it is the objection of urban citizens to the smells of livestock or the dust and Now, however, a new conservation question noise of farm operations. For forest managers, has emerged as a result of the enormous land it is opposition to the sight of a clearcut harvest, use changes in the 20th century, and it may be the the weight of log trucks on local roads, or the most challenging that the forestry profession has pressure of land taxes that respond to potential and Tomorrow Today, Yesterday, faced to date. That question, in short, is: “How land sale value rather than forest production much forest will be available for sustainable forest values (Sampson and DeCoster 1997). The management in the future?” We may know how to pressures can be either direct or indirect, but they manage the land, but if manageable land is not are cumulative. They make continued production available, that skill is of little value. seem risky, and when landowners decide that there There are, perhaps, three aspects to this is little or no future for production agriculture or threat to the future of forests and forestry in the forestry in their area, that decision becomes self- South. First is the direct conversion of forest land fulfilling. Long-term investments such as tree to other uses. No longer is agriculture the major planting or timber stand improvement are no consumer of forest land as it was in the past. longer made, and even the most conscientious Today, it is urban development that moves land landowners become land speculators—waiting out of forest production (U.S. Department of to turn their life’s work and investment into cash Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation for retirement. Service 2001). The amount of land converted is As landowners reduce their forest management, fairly modest. Between 1992 and 1997, it amounted either through land sales or simply slowing down, to about 1 million acres in the Nation according to they produce less wood for local mills and less the USDA’s National Resource Inventories. Given work for local contractors. At some point, usually the increases in forest productivity and efficiency when a market downturn makes things even more that have emerged from forest science in the latter difficult, those mills close or those contractors decades of the 1900s, that loss alone is probably decide to move or go out of the business. In not terribly significant. return, the remaining landowners who are still But it is not just the loss of forest land, it is the trying to manage their forests find their economic pattern of that loss that leads to the second aspect opportunities diminishing, either through reduced of the change. Forests are being increasingly market competition, reduced availability of contractors, or the total lack of one or the other. Southern Forest Science: 12 Past, Present, and Future Looking Back sprawl, andchanges inforestownership have its past.Population growth, urbanandsuburban of thatlandislikelytobegreatly differentfrom quarter-century, onmuch thefutureofforestry in Virginia hasbeen relativelystableforthelast They foundthatwhiletheamount offorestedland future forestproduction(LiuandScrivani1997). ofitsavailabilityfor commercial forestinterms study publishedin1997thatanalyzedState’s the SouthusingaVirginia DepartmentofForestry To addressthisquestion,wedevelopedmapsof ofitsimplicationsforproductionforestry? terms third oftheNation’spopulation. some 90millioninthe13-Statearea—almostone- population oftheregionin1900!Sonowthereare many newpeoplemovedintotheSouthastotal between 1980and2000—aperiodof20years—as of theregionroseby20million.Thatmeansthat Note thatbetween1980and1999,thepopulation Census figuresandprojectionsfor1980to2004. Look, forexample,attable2.1,takenfromU.S. isdubiousinmanyareas. the futureofforestry becoming increasinglyurbanized,andasaresult, South. Thefacts,however, arethattheSouthis therural the Northeastbutnotlikelytoconcern scenario limitedtotheheavilypopulatedareasof land forsustainedproduction. the localopportunitytoownandmanageforest The resultisacontinueddownwardspiralin igna535266173868415726321588929 1,538,859 41 20 7,296,332 11 5,770,552 900,166 24 6,884,125 10 21,714,566 4 336,697 733,647 5,818,327 29 8 19,989,393 6,187,358 254,782 3,478,481 5,485,923 188,749 41 4,019,194 16,986,510 1,711,344 5,345,266 305,794 2,905,761 12 54 3,361,437 14,218,841 4,877,185 8,060,154 3,855,261 2,235,556 4,450,485 13 4,099,292 2,774,493 3,145,585 8,429,990 283,556 4,585,757 5,274,351 7,590,605 3,486,703 4,394,632 492,203 3,965,923 2,573,216 16,085,294 3,024,740 7,698,381 Virginia 2,725,840 6,628,637 3,121,614 4,219,973 Texas 4,591,457 15,018,424 3,685,296 2,519,711 6,478,216 Tennessee 2,568,170 5,879,261 4,205,883 12,937,926 South Carolina 4,385,470 3,660,129 5,462,825 Oklahoma 2,350,725 9,744,073 North Carolina 4,040,587 Mississippi 2,284,614 Louisiana 3,893,267 Kentucky Georgia Florida Arkansas Alabama tt 9019 9920 Change 1980–99 2004 1999 1990 1980 State Table 2.1—1980–99population by State, southernregion, andnationally with 2004projection ainl2519322701612031872240884,9,1 20 45,192,515 29 282,490,898 270,361,877 20,026,256 247,051,601 93,675,173 225,169,362 87,972,237 77,597,917 National 67,945,981 Southern region But howcanweassessthispopulationchangein To thatmaysoundlikea someobservers, chance at20psm. a 50-percentchanceat45psm;and75-percent (psm); thatthereisa25-percentchanceat70psm; approaches zeroat150peoplepersquaremile that theprobabilityofsustainablemanagement came fromresearchbyWear andothersindicating offuturetimberproduction. be doubtfulinterms caused some20percentoftheState’sforeststo 3041 Cornwallis Road, ResearchTriangle3041 Cornwallis Park, NC27709. ResearchStation, ForestrySouthern SciencesLaboratory, in Virginia. [Numberof pagesunknown].Onfilewith: population growthontimbermanagement andinventories per yearuntil2020(Wear andGreis2002). in theSouthatrateofaround1.1millionacres forecasts thaturbanizationwillcontinuetoexpand ForestSouthern ResourceAssessment,which forestry. Thatconclusionhasbeenfortifiedbythe the abilitytomanageforestlandsforproduction significant areasoftheSouthareatrisklosing lands weremostinvolved.Theresultsindicatethat increased populationdensityandwhereprivate where forestcoverwaslikelytocoincidewith map oflandownershipandcovertoidentify combined thesedatawithanationalcoarse-scale management (Dobsonandothers2000).We populationdensitiesonfutureforest the current a coarse-screenanalysisofthelikelyimpacts produced byOakRidgeNationalLaboratorytodo utilized anewpopulationdensityanalysis 3 Wear, D.N.;Liu,R.;Foreman, M.1996.Theeffectsof The basisforassessingpopulationpressures 3 Usingthosethresholds,we ubrpercent number NEW APPROACHES TO NEW REALITIES The truth is, most places, lots of people f there is to be a healthy, viable, sustainable are watching. And they are not uncritical. forest resource in the South through the 21st They expect forest managers to create I century, what does it need? And how can forest situations, views, and environmental science contribute to that need? There may be impacts that are acceptable. And the several ways: definition of “acceptable” is somewhat fluid. Expectations rise. 1. Help define and promote sustainable forestry in all its different expressions So forest science cannot rest on the many There are many programs emerging to laurels it has created in the 20th century. promote sustainable forestry. Most will, The questions coming up are equally, if not it appears, have some sort of certification more, difficult, and the public pressure to linkage, where the land management is “get it right” will steadily increase. The audited by an independent third party and amount of good forest land available for 13 some sort of product mark tells consumers sustainable management is decreasing that the wood products they purchase while the need for forest products and have come from a sustainably managed services—both timber and nontimber— forest. This is a new movement, marked is rising. The margin for error is declining. by a full share of controversy and The need for a vibrant, growing forest complication as different systems compete science in the South has never 2. Chapter to win the attention of both forest owners been higher. and the public. My advice—do not get caught in the competition. It, in itself, LITERATURE CITED is healthy, as it forces all the systems to AF&PA. 2001. SFI 2001 6th annual progress report on the seek improvement. Encourage all these sustainable forestry initiative (SFI)SM program. Washington, systems so that a forest landowner, DC. [Not paged]. whether they are a small private owner or Bennett, H.H. 1939. Soil conservation. New York: McGraw- a large corporate owner, can find a system Hill. 993 p.

that fits their needs. When the end result and Tomorrow Today, Yesterday, Bennett, H.H.; Chapline, W.R. 1928. Soil erosion: a national is better forest management, the name menace. USDA Circ. 33. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the system that brought it about of Agriculture. 36 p. is inconsequential. Chase, Stuart. 1936. Rich land, poor land. New York: 2. Help find ways to reach urban audiences Whittlesey House. 361 p. and help them appreciate the value of Clepper, Henry. 1975. Crusade for conservation: the centennial well-managed forests as part of the urban- history of the American Forestry Association. Washington, DC: American Forests. 92 p. wildland infrastructure Dobson, Jerome E.; Bright, Edward A.; Coleman, Phillip R. We must quit thinking of urban areas [and others]. 2000. LandScan: a global population database as one thing and rural areas as another for estimating populations at risk. Photogrammetric (Gordon and others, in press). There Engineering & Remote Sensing. LXVI (7). [Not paged]. is a continuum of places that make up a Fernow, B.E. 1896. Facts and figures regarding our forest landscape, and without the rural aspects, resources briefly stated. USDA Circ. 11. Washington, DC: the value of many landscapes as a human U.S. Department of Agriculture. 8 p. habitat is reduced. But unless urban Gordon, John C.; Sampson, R. Neil; Berry, Joyce K. [In press]. people value rural landscapes, including The challenge of maintaining working forests at the WUI. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida. rural forests, those rural landscapes will disappear under the invisible pressures Liu, R.; Scrivani, J.A. 1997. Virginia forest land assessment. Charlottesville, VA: Virginia Department of Forestry. 18 p. we have discussed. + appendices. 3. Bring new forest management techniques MacCleery, Douglas W. 1992. American forests: a history of into the urban-wildland intermix resiliency and recovery. FS–540. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 58 p. Urban people will appreciate and tolerate Pinchot, Gifford. 1967. The fight for conservation. Seattle: forest management more when that forest University of Washington Press. 152 p. management is sensitive to their lifestyle needs. No longer can forest managers handle their land as if nobody is watching. Southern Forest Science: 14 Past, Present, and Future Looking Back Thorne, S.;Sundquist,D.2001.NewHampshire’svanishing Thorne, Steen, HaroldK.1976.TheU.S.Forest ahistory. Service: Society ofAmericanForesters. 2001.Membershipprofile, Smith, W. Brad;Sheffield,Raymond M.2000.Abriefoverview Sedjo, Roger. 1991.Forest resources:resilientandserviceable. Sampson, R.Neil;DeCoster, LesterA.1997.Publicprograms Sampson, R.Neil.1985.For loveoftheland.LeagueCity, Sampson, R.Neil.1981.Farmland orwasteland:atime Powell, DouglasS.;Faulkner, JoanneL.;Darr, DavidR.[and Plair, T.B.; Spillers,A.R.1960.Forestry In: onthefarm. Protection ofNewHampshireForests. 153p. Forest LandBaseStudy. Concord,NH:Societyforthe forests intheGraniteState.ReportofNewHampshire forests: conversion,fragmentationandparcelizationof Seattle: UniversityofWashington Press.356p. 2001. Bethesda,MD.[Notpaged]. accessed unknown]. ofthe1997RPAoverview data.www.fs.fed.us. [Date of theforestresourcesUnitedStates,1997.An 81–120. challenges. Washington, DC:ResourcesfortheFuture: renewable resources:historicaltrendsandcurrent In: Frederick, Kenneth D.;Sedjo,RogerA.,eds.America’s Washington, DC:AmericanForests. 100p. areaderonprogramsandoptions. for privateforestry: Districts.338p. TX: NationalAssociationofConservation to choose.Emmaus,PA: RodalePress.422p. Range ExperimentStation.[Numberofpagesunknown]. of Agriculture,Forest RockyMountainForest Service, and Gen. Tech. Rep.RM–234.Ft.Collins,CO:U.S.Department others]. 1993.Forest resourcesoftheUnitedStates,1992. Foresters: 240–250. six decadesofgrowth.Washington, DC:SocietyofAmerican Clepper, Meyer, Henry; ArthurB.,eds.Americanforestry: Zimmerman, Elliot. 1976. A historical summary ofStateand Elliot.1976.Ahistoricalsummary Zimmerman, Yarnell, Appalachians:ahistory SusanL.1998.TheSouthern Williams, Michael.1989.Americansandtheirforests:a Wear, forest DavidN.;Greis,JohnG.,eds.2002.Southern U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,NaturalResources U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest 2000.1997 Service. U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest 1988. Service. U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest 1958. Service. U.S. CensusBureau.1990.1990censusofpopulation Private Forestry. 119p. U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Stateand Service, intheU.S.Forestprivate forestry Washington, Service. DC: Research Station.45p. U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Southern Service, of thelandscape.Gen.Tech. Rep.SRS–18.Asheville,NC: Press. 599p. historical geography. Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity [Date accessedunknown]. www.srs.fs.fed.us/sustain/report/summry/summary.pdf. Forest ResearchStation.103p.http:// Southern Service, SRS–54. Asheville,NC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture, report.Gen.Tech.resource assessment:summary Rep. [Date accessedunknown]. resources inventory. Washington, DC.www.nrcs.usda.gov. report:1997national 2001.Summary Service. Conservation [Number ofpagesunknown]. RPA: assessmentoftheNation’s For. Resour. Rep.24.Washington, DC.512p. forthefuture. The South’sfourthforest:alternatives Rep. 14.Washington, DC.713p. Timber resourcesforAmerica’sfuture.For. Resour. www.census.gov. [Dateaccessedunknown]. and housing.Washington, DC:U.S.CensusBureau.

forests. Washington, DC. Chapter 3.

Southern Forest Resource Conditions and Management Practices from 1900–1950: Benefits of Research

James P. Barnett1 land was considered by many as open rangeland and was heavily grazed by cattle and hogs. These activities further increased the difficulty Abstract—The vast harvest of the native forests of reforestation. The rebuilding of the forest th th of the South in the 19 and early 20 centuries resource had become a major challenge as created a great need for reforestation and well as a silvicultural opportunity. 15 silvicultural knowledge. An emphasis on forestry This chapter describes the initiation and the research that changed the face of the South scope of forest research in the South through the began with the establishment of the Southern World War II era. Because there is a great deal and Appalachian Forest Experiment Stations in of information about the postwar period, it is 1921. Working under primitive conditions, early necessary to limit the scope of the paper to the researchers provided the information that was earliest part of the period. The objectives of used to restore the southern forests. A key to this the paper are to provide a sense of the research environment during the period, to describe the success was the interaction and cooperation of major scientific accomplishments of the period, workers in universities, State service, Federal and to identify some of the scientists who service, and forest industry. contributed to these accomplishments.

INTRODUCTION THE NEED FOR MANAGEMENT lthough southern pines were the basis for the eorge W. Vanderbilt was early to recognize oldest forest industry in America, the forests the need for reforestation of cutover land, A of the Southern United States were little and hired Gifford Pinchot as a forester for th G influenced by humans until the mid-19 century. his Biltmore Estate near Asheville, NC. Dr. Carl Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) was the Schenck, who replaced Pinchot in 1885, established focus of the early lumber business in the South— the first scientifically based forestry school in primarily for export. A decline in the supply of this country on the Biltmore Estate. Through longleaf pine in the Carolinas was noted about his school and influence, Dr. Schenck became 1860. However, intensive harvesting of this species one of the founders of modern American forest continued to spread westward across the South management, and the Biltmore Forest School throughout the early 1900s. As the harvesting became known as the cradle of scientific forestry of the 90 million acres of mature longleaf stands in America. moved westward, the development of railroad logging continued to increase the efficiency of Northern investors came into the South harvesting. Thus it is not surprising that in the following the Civil War. Late in the 1880s, they west gulf region the supply of seed trees became purchased land inexpensively and built mills insufficient to regenerate the species. Across the for processing timber. For example, the Great southern Coastal Plain, loblolly pine (P. taeda L.) Southern Lumber Company in Bogalusa, LA, ran began to naturally regenerate cutover longleaf four 8-foot band saws at full speed for more than pine sites. However, many millions of acres of two decades, producing 1 million board feet of forest land in both the mountains and Coastal lumber every 24 hours (Kerr 1958). Plains had already been converted to agriculture. Late in the post-Civil War period while lumber Much of this land was found to be unsuitable for production in the South was at an all-time high, row crops and was abandoned. Other large areas a few farsighted individuals began to work on of cutover lands that were not converted to a reforestation program that would provide for agriculture needed reforestation. This cutover a continuing forest resource. In 1913, Henry Hardtner, who became known as the “father of forestry in the South,” established plots on the 1 Chief Silviculturist, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Pineville, LA 71360. first reforestation reserve in Urania, LA, to Southern Forest Science: 16 Past, Present, and Future Looking Back of <$20,000per station,theyaccomplished primitive conditionsandwith annualbudgets of theAppalachianStation) workedunder Frothingham, McCarthy, Korstian, andHaasis and Wyman Station and oftheSouthern foresters (Forbes, Hine,Shivery, Hadley, UnitedStates.Althoughthese in theSouthern two-thirds oftheprofessionalforestersworking types. Thetworesearchstationsemployedabout (Appalachian Station)forthemountainhardwood the AppalachianForest ExperimentStation types (fromSouthCarolinatoeastTexas), and pine responsible forresearchinthesouthern Station)wasprimarily Station (Southern respectively. Forest TheSouthern Experiment Stations atNewOrleans,LA,andAsheville,NC, andAppalachianForestSouthern Experiment Department ofAgricultureestablishedthe Louisiana” (Chapman1926). Pine onCutoverLandsinLaSalleParish, NaturalRegenerationofLongleaf Determining Urania studiesweresummarizedin“Factors (Wheeler 1963).TheearlyresultsofChapman’s and fireplotsaswellotherrelatedstudies H.H. Chapmanestablishedlongleafpinethinning decades. StudentsunderthedirectionofProfessor training. Thisprogramcontinuedforseveral classes toUraniafor3monthsofpractical School ofForestry startedsendingitsgraduating In1917,theYale reserve. plots onHardtner’s problems thatneededstudy, established large ESTABLISHMENT OFRESEARCH PROGRAMS a placeintheeconomicuseofforestlands. in whichforestry, andgrazingallhad farming, 1917 promotedthesensibleuseofcutoverlands Conference oftheSouthheldinNewOrleans recognition ofthissituation,aCut-OverLand trees replacedoldforests(Maunder1963).In or ofhowthegrowthratewasincreasingasyoung of thereproductivevigorlogged-overforests, hadanyrealconcept foresters norlumbermen remarkedthatevenby1920neither Service, G. Greeley, ChiefForester oftheU.S.Forest opportunities forprofit(Maunder1963).William belief thatcutoverlandsofferedlong-term with theStateofLouisiana.ItwasHardtner’s cutover forestlandsunderareforestationcontract Lumber Company, placed25,719acresofhis 1963). Hardtner, asPresidentoftheUrania support andguidepinereforestation(Wheeler T In 1921,theForest oftheU.S. Service U.S. Forest inanefforttoidentify Service, apparent in1915whenSamuelT. Danaofthe he needforadditionalresearchwasbecoming Reforestation SUCCESSES OFEARLY RESEARCH South werejustbeingestablished. Forestry programsatotheruniversitiesinthe of Forestry’s trainingprogramatUrania,LA. Estate atAsheville,NC,andtheYale School exceptions wereprogramsattheBiltmore established bytheFederal Notable Government. research intheSouthapartfromprograms UnitedStates. forests oftheSouthern ofthenative from thelarge-scaleharvesting efforts todealwiththemanyproblemsresulting research appreciation oftheneedforforestry 1928. Passage ofthisactsignaledageneral ForestMcSweeney-McNary ResearchAct of untilCongressionalpassageofthe occurred twenties, butlittleexpansionoftheprogram researchers joinedthestationsinmid- some remarkablethings.Afewotherpioneering planting stock formanyoftheexperiments. An first industrialforesters,supplied thelaborand Lumber Companyforester andoneoftheNation’s storing technology. J.K.Johnson,GreatSouthern understanding ofpineseed testing,treating,and was criticaltodevelopment oftheneeded of theBoyceThompsonInstitute(Barton1928) Station(Nelson1938)andLela Barton Southern Nelson,PlantPhysiologist,ofthe with Mary techniques. Wakeley’s collaborativeresearch productionandoutplanting successful nursery Company personnel,PhilipWakeley developed technology (Heyward1963b). thatresultedingreatlyimproved observation planting wastheimpetusforexperimentationand The successofthisfirstlarge-scalecommercial seeds sownonridgesmadewithmuleandplow. The companyplanted800acreswithloblollypine had initiatedanhistoricplantingprogramin1920. Company, Lumber theGreat Southern Company projectoftheUraniaLumberthe thrivingforestry LumberSouthern Company. Following avisitto substation, whichwassupportedbytheGreat in 1924andwasassignedtotheBogalusa,LA, Philip Wakeley Station attheSouthern arrived Reforestation researchbegantoflourishwhen in the1920sand1930swithmeagerresources. undertake thismassiveeffortwasdeveloped (Wakeley 1954). Thetechnologyneededto B Prior toWorld War II,therewaslittleforestry With Lumber helpfromGreatSouthern y conservative estimate,13millionacres y conservative were inneedofplantingaslate1954 forestland (about 10percent)ofsouthern outstanding result was the publication “Artificial (P. echinata Mill.) seedlings < 4 years of age, Reforestation in the Southern Pine Region,” which but not after that age; and (3) although longleaf has guided pine planting for the entire South seedlings will survive a fire, they will not survive since the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) damage by hogs. days (Wakeley 1935a). This 1935 publication Based on his observations at Urania, Professor became the basis of an expanded version “Planting Chapman of Yale advocated the use of fire in the Southern Pines,” which was published after longleaf stands. He stated that fire controlled the war and became the primer for reforestation brown-spot needle disease (Mycosphaerella in the South (Wakeley 1954). dearnessii Barr.) and promoted early height Reforestation research was transferred from growth (Wakeley and Barnett, in press). Research Bogalusa to Alexandria, LA, during the CCC station researchers did not agree with Chapman’s period with establishment of the Forest Service’s conclusions. The Southern Station’s study of Stuart Nursery at nearby Pollock. With the help a 1928 wildfire in an 800-acre longleaf pine of CCC crews, nearly two-thirds of a million plantation of the Great Southern Lumber 17 seedlings were outplanted in research tests on the Company indicated that brown-spot would quickly Palustris Experimental Forest and surrounding reinvade longleaf plantations, but that Chapman Kisatchie National Forest (Wakeley and Barnett, was correct in his contention that fire benefited in press). initiation of longleaf pine seedling growth. Professor Chapman’s research changed the A colorful individual who made a unique 3. Chapter prevailing opinion that all fire was bad. Chapman contribution to the development of reforestation strongly supported the use of fire in longleaf pine technology was F.O. (Red) Bateman, Chief Ranger Research ts of reforestation and management, stating that “. . . of the Great Southern Lumber Company. Bateman prohibition of use of controlled fire will effectively had no formal training, but between 1921 and exterminate this species in the region described” 1936, he made notable contributions to early fire- (Chapman 1941). fighting practice and fire suppression work. He also developed the details of the first successful During the 1930s, other fire studies resulted in large-scale nursery and associated planting a tentative fire danger meter for the longleaf-slash technology for the southern pines (Wakeley pine (P. elliottii Engelm.) type. George Waltner,

1941, 1976). Wakeley (1976) said he was “one sociologist, and Dr. John Shea, psychologist, were 1900–1950: Benefi of the greatest silviculturists the South has contracted to study the forest fire-starting motives known” and “thousands of acres of Great of local residents (Wheeler 1963). Dr. Shea Southern’s plantations, and in a real sense, reported that many of those who started fires most of the pine plantations in the South, stand craved excitement in “an environment otherwise as a monument to his genius.” barren of emotional outlets” (Kerr 1958).

In cases where some remnant seedlings or Forest Survey stands remained, the research R.R. Reynolds conducted at the Crossett Experimental Forest Early surveys of forest resources were provided management guidelines for the use of mandated by Congress. In 1930, Congress uneven-aged and selection methods. This research appropriated funds to begin a forest survey of program became recognized nationally and the southern hardwood region. “The Trees of the was an early example of a partnership between Bottom Lands of the Mississippi River Delta forest industry and Government research Region,” by John Putman and Henry Bull (1932), (Reynolds 1951). was issued as the first in the Southern Station’s Occasional Paper series. This publication was well Fire received and later led to the establishment of the station’s bottomland hardwood research center The effect of fire in forests was a matter at Stoneville, MS. of great interest and controversy among early foresters. In 1916, results of observations in The Southern Forest Survey was authorized by Henry Hardtner’s reserve were published the McSweeney-McNary Act and began in 1931. in the Louisiana Conservation Commission I.F. “Cap” Eldredge assumed direction of this biennial report (Wheeler 1963). The findings survey at the Southern Station and significant are summarized as follows: (1) fires occurring resources were allocated to the work. Beginning in from December 1 to March 1 are not destructive 1934, a series of releases established the value of to longleaf pine; (2) fire will kill shortleaf pine the effort. New releases were eagerly awaited, and Southern Forest Science: 18 Past, Present, and Future Looking Back observe generation after generationofsuch generation after observe Station andassignedR.A.St. Georgetobreedand at BentCreekintheAppalachian a smallinsectary Insects andDiseases situation inLouisiana. ofthehardwood to beginaneconomicsurvey College ofForestry, assisted byJohnPutman, and expensesofG.H.LentzNewYork State State ofLouisianaprovided$5,000forthesalary hardwood researchbeforelate1928whenthe Stationwasnotallowedtoconduct Southern the SouthbeforeWorld War IIperiod.The was stationedatBentCreekduringthe1930s. a professionalforesterbytheForest Service, many yearstheonlywomantobeemployedas hardwoods (Haig1946).MargaretS.Abell,for significant roleintheintroductionofheartrot Buell andAbell1935).Fire wasfound toplaya the effectoffireonhardwoodquality(Buell1928, future volumesofAppalachianhardwoodsand Abell publishedreportsofmethodsforestimating needed tomanagehardwoods,andwithMargaret dealingwithsilviculturalpractices information Appalachians couldbemanaged.Buellpublished howthecutoverareasofSouthern determine inthemid-1920sandinitiatedstudiesto arrived Vanderbilt’s BiltmoreEstate.JesseBuell tests establishedbyPinchotandSchenckon Haasis assumedresponsibilityforexperimental experimental forest.EarlFrothingham andF.W. Forest, butaportionwassetasideforthe from Vanderbilt becamethePisgahNational George Vanderbilt. Mostofthelandpurchased of landthattheForest purchasedfrom Service Forest, whichwasestablishedin1925onaportion Appalachian Station’sBentCreekExperimental Hardwood Management across theSouth. the basisfordevelopmentofforestindustry acres wereinventoried)anditsresultsprovided This wasatremendoustask(morethan215million Printing Office”(Wakeley inpress). andBarnett, State reportsissuedfromtheGovernment formal werereworkedinto had beenissued,whichinturn trees, and53releases boundaries ofthesouthern of Tennessee southandwesttothewestern ironed theStatesfromSouthCarolinaandpart Forestof 1942,theSouthern had“grid- Survey move intotheSouth(Wheeler1963).Byend these becamethebasisforpulpindustry’s In 1925,theBureauofEntomology established There waslittleotherhardwoodsresearchin Early hardwoodresearchwasfocusedatthe Ralph Lindgrenreportedin 1928and1929that value ofunseasoned(notkiln dried)lumber. of abluestainfungusthatgreatly reducedthe second-growth lumberwas therapiddevelopment Products of thetrees(Haig1946). death ordinarily beusefulforabout30yearsafter that theirinsect-and-disease-resistantwoodwould as sourcesoftanninandpulpwood.Itwasfound howlongthedeadtreeswould be useful determine (Frothingham 1924). Studieswereestablishedto eliminating thespeciesfromtheseforests Appalachian Mountainsinthe1920seffectively and westwardintotheforestsofSouthern & Anderson.Theblightsweptsouthward Endothia parasitica Appalachian forestsbytheblightcaused (Marsh.) Borkh.]waseliminatedfromthe northcentral Alabama. for thediseasedconditionofshortleafpinein proposed thename“little-leafdiseaseofpines” Pines” (Siggers1949).Siggers(1940)also and OutbreaksoftheFusiform Rust ofSouthern of LongleafPine”(Siggers1932)and“Weather Brown-SpotNeedleBlight papers suchas“The accomplishment. Hisresearchculminatedin f. sp. ( rust and fusiform to conductresearchonbrown-spotneedleblight of Paul V. Stationin1928 SiggerstotheSouthern spray treatmentforbrown-spot.Theassignment and aBordeauxmixturebecamethestandard successful, potential control.Thetestswerevery evaluating theuseoffungicideBordeauxasa Washington, DC,Wakeley initiated astudy in Hartley oftheBureauPlantIndustry outplanting.Atafter thesuggestionofDr. Carl affecting longleafpineseedlingsinnurseriesand entomological training. a significantaccomplishmentsincehehadlittle ( oftheNantucketpinetipmoth the lifehistory populations inthemid-1930s(Snyder1935). pinebeetle factors onthedevelopmentofsouthern abouttheinfluenceofenvironmental information Stationbegantopublish Snyder oftheSouthern ( pinebeetle “public enemies”asthesouthern Rhyacionia frustrana Dendroctonus frontalis An earlyproblemexperienced intheuseof The valuablechestnut[ Brown-spot needleblightwasamajordisease At Bogalusa,Wakeley (1935b)workedout fusiforme ) beganaperiodofsignificant Cronartium quercuum (Murrill) Anderson (Murrill) Comstock)in1927–28, Zimmermann). T.E. Zimmermann). Castanea dentata treatment of lumber with ethyl mercuric chloride Forest Service 1929). They were used widely and eliminated the blue stain problem (Wheeler 1963). contributed greatly to an understanding of the Lindgren’s accomplishment had a great impact growth potential of the four principal southern on the forest products industry. Within 2 years, pines and the practical forest management of the the results were applied in over 200 pine and pine types (Wakeley and Barnett, in press). This hardwood mills across the country and were being publication was long out of print and copies were put into use abroad (Lindgren and Verrall 1950). virtually museum pieces when it was reprinted as a result of customer demand in the 1970s. Another early effort focused on improvements to chipping for resin production in the naval stores A number of spacing and thinning studies were industry. Len Wyman was assigned to a substation established with both pines and hardwoods. Early in Stark, FL, in 1921. Wyman’s work changed the on, there was no replication in these or any other gum naval stores industry across the South. He studies. Nevertheless, they did begin to provide worked effectively with industry to reduce the size good management guidelines. With the assignment of the chipping streak. This reduction resulted in of Roy Chapman to the Southern Station in 1927, 19 a substantial saving in labor and in tree mortality practical statistical techniques began to be more and also increased considerably the length of time widely applied. Chapman was assigned to train a tree could be worked (Wakeley and Barnett, in under Francis X. Schumacher for 3 years and press). To increase production of gum naval stores developed a friendship with R.A. (later Sir Ronald) for war needs, the station intensified experiments Fisher, one of the founders of modern statistics, with chemical stimulation, and in a few years whose published works and personal advice did 3. Chapter again revolutionized naval stores techniques by much to shape Chapman’s and the station’s introducing developments in this field. As old- scientific direction (Wakeley and Barnett, Research ts of growth stands suitable for chipping were cut, the in press). stumps resulting from harvesting were distilled for naval stores products (Kerr 1958). Genetics and Tree Improvement In 1937, the South had a total of 38 pulpmills In 1922, Professor H.H. Chapman published in operation or under construction. Much of the his remarkable treatise on studies establishing the credit for the rapid expansion of pulping southern existence of a natural hybrid between longleaf and loblolly pine, Sonderegger pine (P. sondereggeri wood goes to Dr. Charles Herty (Heyward 1963a). x 1900–1950: Benefi Herty served as head of the Department of H.H. Chapm.) (Chapman 1922). He named the Chemistry at the University of North Carolina and hybrid after V.H. Sonderegger, who was then was elected president of the American Chemical Louisiana State Forester. Society in 1915. He became enthralled with the In 1929, Wakeley performed the first controlled prospect of producing newsprint from southern hybridization of southern pines, a cross of longleaf pines and established a laboratory (Industrial and slash pine (Wakeley 1981). He also established Committee of Savannah, Inc.) in Savannah, GA, the first provenance test of southern pine. Planted to evaluate pulping technology. He traveled widely in 1926–27 and remeasured at 15 years of age, to promote the use of second-growth timber as a loblolly pine from four different seed sources source of pulp for newsprint. His showmanship showed a striking range in wood production and genius for publicity developed confidence (Wakeley 1944). Because of the detailed original in the potential to produce paper from southern descriptions, the 23 acres of these early pine pulp. experimental plantings became a valuable asset in forest genetics research. This research was Mensuration and Statistics aggressively pursued by a number of organizations One of the earliest studies undertaken by after World War II and in 1954 led to the founding the Southern Station made use of temporary of the Southern Institute of Forest Genetics on sample plots in even-aged, second-growth stands the Harrison Experimental Forest. throughout the South. The data obtained were compiled into normal volume, stand, and yield Watersheds tables for unmanaged second-growth loblolly, H.G. Meginnis reported to the Southern Station shortleaf, longleaf, and slash pines. The tables in 1929 and began work in an erosion control were published in 1929 as Miscellaneous program. The effort was centered in northern Publication 50 of the U.S. Department of Mississippi where 35 percent of two counties was Agriculture (U.S. Department of Agriculture, covered with gullies as much as 100 feet deep Southern Forest Science: 20 Past, Present, and Future Looking Back areas wereclosed,andmost regularresearch consolidate gains.Manyexperimental forest themselves thintomakemeasurements and andolderonesspread service formilitary left The War Years agricultural crop(Demmon1937). in theSouthgreatlyexceededthatofanyother Forests,” statedthatthevalueofforestresources early evaluationsin“EconomicsofOurSouthern E.L. Demmon,Director, insummarizingthe pineregion. of timbergrowinginthesouthern for initiatinginvestigationsoffinancialaspects special appropriationof$22,800fromCongress work inforesteconomics,havingreceiveda Forest Economics resources (DouglassandHoover1988). and unrestrictedloggingonsoilwater woodlandgrazing, effects ofmountainfarming, 1994). Earlystudiesdocumentedtheharmful experimentation couldbegin(Stickneyandothers watersheds hadprogressedenoughsothat stations wascreated.By1939,calibrationof numerous ground-waterwells,andmeteorological 1934, andanetworkof56standardraingauges, beganin intensive programofweirconstruction standardization ofthegaugedwatersheds.An Director C.L.Forsling requiredaperiodof Franklin, NC,in1933.AppalachianStation Experimental Forest wasestablishednear flow andprecipitation.Asaresult,theCoweeta to provideforcontinuousmeasurementsofstream establish completewatershedinstrumentation These studiesledtorecognitionoftheneed was usedsuccessfullywithartificialrainfall. forested oragriculturalcover, andaninfiltrometer fromfiverepresentativetypesof runoff surface Experimental Forest nearAsheville,NC,tostudy 1932, plotswereestablishedattheBentCreek banks andabandonedagriculturalland.In erosion controlandmethodsofstabilizingroad Station in1926andledresearchdealingwith productivity (Meginnis1933). for managingerodedsoilsandrestoring established theprotocolsusedacrossSouth matter topairedwatersheds.Hisresearch for erosioncontrol,andappliedlitterorganic compared useofplantedpinesandotherspecies bysoiltype, quantified erosionandrunoff (Wakeley inpress).Meginnis andBarnett, During theearlytomid-1940s, youngermen Stationbegan In July1929,theSouthern Charles HurshbeganworkattheAppalachian SIGNIFICANCE OFTHISRESEARCH Experiment Station). theAppalachianForestStation (formerly Forest Southeastern newly formed Experiment tothe AppalachianStation)tothe transferred and Florida(SouthCarolinahadalreadybeen research inTennessee andrelinquishedGeorgia Stationassumedresponsibilityfor The Southern boundaries ofthetwostationswererealigned. (Wheeler 1963). anddecayinwoodstructures termites fire protectionofcriticalareas,andcontrolling for loggingandmillingequipment,improving installations,evaluatingpriorityrequests military drainage,camouflaging in connectionwithairfield vegetation, measuringinfiltrationratesofsoils ofundesirable production, freeingairfields goldenrod ( dandelion ( ( assisted waragenciesinestablishingcorkoak for theWar ProductionBoard.Thestationsalso requirements offorestproductsfordefense aboutsupplies,output,and information stations hadmajorprogramsforgathering was postponedforthedurationofwar. The all Southern States. all Southern economic resource in lands arenowaprimary forest them. Asaresult,ourrestored southern understanding providedby thosewhopreceded continue tobuildonthestrong scientific knowledge andfilledgapsinit.Researchers researchhasrefinedthis decades, forestry of theSouth’sforestlands.Inmorerecent have resultedingreatprogresstherestoration provided thebasicmanagementguidelinesthat producing forestproducts.In<20years,they soil erosion,andimprovedtheefficiencyof improvement, developedmethodsforcontrolling of statisticaldesignandthevaluetree understanding oftheimportanceuse pests anddiseases.Theyalsodevelopedan howtocontrolimportantinsect and learned development andexpansionofforestindustries, foreststhatledto ofthesouthern began surveys began tounderstandtheroleoffireinforests, developed reforestationtechniques,studiedand South hasmadetremendousgains.Researchers W Quercus sober At theendofWorld War II(1946),the ith onlyahandfulofprofessionalforesters, primitive working conditions, forestry inthe primitive workingconditions,forestry and despitelittletechnicalsupport Taraxacum Oligoneuron L.) plantations,developingRussian

kok-saghyz Small) plantsforrubber Rodin) and LESSONS LEARNED My thanks to Dr. Anna Burns of Louisiana ow did our early research professionals with State University at Alexandria and Drs. Ron limited resources accomplish so much in a Schmidtling, Cal Meier, and David Loftis of the Hrelatively short period of time? Dedication, Southern Research Station for constructive peer cooperation, and teamwork were characteristics reviews of early drafts of the manuscript. of the early research program. Not only did the individuals support each other’s efforts, they LITERATURE CITED developed excellent relationships with scientists Barton, L.V. 1928. Hastening the germination of southern in universities and other agencies, as well pine seeds. Journal of Forestry. 26: 774–785. as with foresters in forest industry and State Buell, Jesse H. 1928. What can be done with Southern organizations dedicated to solving problems Appalachian cut-over areas? Southern Lumberman. 133(1734): 211–212. common to all organizations. Wakeley and Barnett (in press) quote a passage in Macaulay’s Buell, Jesse H.; Abell, Margaret S. 1935. A method for estimating future volumes of partially cut stands in the “Horatius” that describes their attitude: Southern Appalachians. Tech. Note 11. Asheville, NC: U.S. 21 For Romans in Rome’s quarrel Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Appalachian Forest Experiment Station. 76 p. Spared neither goods nor gold Nor son nor wife nor limb nor life Chapman, H.H. 1922. A new hybrid pine (Pinus palustris x In the brave days of old. Pinus taeda). Journal of Forestry. 20: 729–734. Then none was for the party. Chapman, H.H. 1926. Factors determining natural Chapter 3. Chapter Then all were for the State. reproduction of longleaf pine on cutover lands in LaSalle Parish, Louisiana. Bull. 16. New Haven, CT: Yale University Then the rich man helped the poor School of Forestry. 44 p. Research ts of And the poor man loved the great. Chapman, H.H. 1941. Note on the history of a stand of pine Then lands were fairly portioned. timber at Urania, LA. Journal of Forestry. 39: 951–952. Then spoils were fairly sold. The Romans were like brothers Demmon, E.L. 1937. Economics of our southern forests. Occas. Pap. 59. New Orleans: U.S. Department of Agriculture, In the brave days of old! Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 10 p. Douglass, J.E.; Hoover, M.D. 1988. History of Coweeta. In: CONCLUSIONS Swank, W.T.; Crossley, D.A., Jr. Ecological studies: forest

he South’s forests were largely overexploited hydrology and ecology at Coweeta. New York: Springer- 1900–1950: Benefi during the early 1900s. Vast areas had been Verlag: 18–31. Vol. 66. T converted to agriculture and then abandoned Frothingham, E.H. 1924. Some silvicultural aspects of the or were harvested and not regenerated. The chestnut blight situation. Journal of Forestry. 22: 861–872. knowledge needed for the restoration of these Haig, I.T. 1946. Anniversary report 1921-1946, twenty-five forests was sorely lacking. The establishment of years of forest research of the Appalachian Forest the Southern and Appalachian Stations in 1921 Experiment Station. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest provided the impetus to develop the scientific Experiment Station. 71 p. base for this restoration effort. An important Heyward, Frank. 1963a. Charles Herty—Mr. pulp and paper. component of this effort was interaction and Forests & People. 13(1): 28–29. cooperation with those in universities and forest industry that had the same intense motivation Heyward, Frank. 1963b. Col. W.H. Sullivan—Paul Bunyan of Louisiana forestry. Forests & People. 13(1): 20. to restore the southern forest lands. Kerr, Ed. 1958. History of forestry in Louisiana. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana Forestry Commission, Office of the State ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Forester. 55 p. wish to express my respect for Philip C. Lindgren, R.M.; Verrall, A.F. 1950. Fungus control in Wakeley. His counsel to me early in my career, unseasoned forest products. Forest Farmer. 9(5): 53–54. keen observations of nature, and dedication to I Maunder, Edwood. 1963. Henry Hardtner signs the first forest science has been an inspiration to me during reforestation contract. Forests & People. 13(1): 56–57, my research endeavors. I have drawn heavily 124–125. from Wakeley’s document “A Biased History of Meginnis, H.G. 1933. Tree planting to reclaim gullied lands the Southern Forest Experiment Station Through in the South. Journal of Forestry. 31: 649–656. Fiscal Year 1933,” which is now in press, for this historical perspective of the initiation of forestry research in the South. Southern Forest Science: 22 Past, Present, and Future Looking Back U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest 1929.Volume, Service. Stickney, Patricia LloydW.; L.;Swift, Swank,Wayne T. 1994. Snyder, T.E. 1935.The Siggers, P Siggers, P Siggers, P Reynolds, R.R.1951.GuidetotheCrossettExperimental Putman, J.A.;Bull,H.1932.Thetreesofthebottomlands investigationsondry, L. 1938.Preliminary Nelson, Mary cold Agriculture, Forest 202p. Service. Misc. Publ.50.Washington, DC:U.S.Department of pines. yield, andstandtablesforsecond-growthsouthern ForestSoutheastern ExperimentStation.115p. NC: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Service, Laboratory, 1934–1994.Gen.Tech. Rep.SE–86.Asheville, management andecologicalstudiesatCoweetaHydrologic Annotated bibliographyofpublicationsonwatershed Station: 1–2. Agriculture, Forest Forest Southern Service, Experiment South. For. Notes18.NewOrleans:U.S.Departmentof rust of southern pines. Journal ofForestry. pines.Journal ofsouthern rust 47:802–806. Forest Forest Southern Service, ExperimentStation.2p. Notes. 31.NewOrleans:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture, ofForestry.pine seedlings.Journal 30:579–593. Forest Forest Southern Service, Experiment Station.65p. Forest. NewOrleans: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture, ForestSouthern ExperimentStation.207p. Orleans: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Service, of theMississippiRiverDeltaregion.Occas.Pap. 27.New Forest Experiment Station.19p. U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Southern Service, pineseed.Occas.Pap.storage ofsouthern 78.NewOrleans: .V. 1949.Weather andoutbreaksofthefusiform .V. 1940.Thelittle-leafdiseaseofpines.South.For. .V. 1932.Thebrown-spotneedleblightoflongleaf Ips engraverbeetlesintheSouth. Wheeler, PhilipR.1963.Thecomingofforestresearch. Wakeley, JamesP PhilipC.;Barnett, Wakeley, PhilipC.1981.Silviculturalresearch—aperspective. Wakeley, PhilipC.1976.F.O. (Red)Bateman,pioneer Wakeley, pines. PhilipC.1954.Plantingthesouthern Wakeley, PhilipC.1944.Geographicseedsourceofloblolly Wakeley, PhilipC.1941.F.O. ofForestry. Bateman.Journal Wakeley, PhilipC.1935b.Notesonthelifecycleof Wakeley, PhilipC.1935a.Artificialreforestationinthe Forests &People. 13(1):66–67,96,98–101,110–111. Research Station. Southern Service, Asheville, NC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest research intheSouth:apersonalhistory. Gen.Tech. Rep. Forest Forest Southern Service, ExperimentStation:1–5. Rep. SO–34.NewOrleans:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture, silviculturalresearchconference.Gen.Tech.southern J.P In: Barnett, ofForestsilviculturist. Journal History. 20(2):91–99. of Agriculture,Forest 233p. Service. Agric. Monogr. 18.Washington, DC:U.S.Department ofForestry.pine seed.Journal 42:23–33. 39: 950. Forest Experiment Station.8p. U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Southern Service, Louisiana.Occas.Pap.southeastern 45.NewOrleans: Nantucket tipmoth U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest 115p. Service. pineregion.Tech.southern Bull.492.Washington, DC: ., ed.Proceedingsofthefirstbiennial Rhyacionia frustrana Rhyacionia frustrana . [Inpress].Earlyforestry Comst. in Chapter 4.

Southern Forest Resource Conditions and Management Practices from 1950–2000: Benefits of Research

Jacek P. Siry1 (Pinus spp.). Research findings have influenced planted pine management in the South in important ways.

Abstract—Over the past five decades, research Over the past five decades, the South has progress and implementation have been the experienced rapid growth in planted pine area leading factors supporting the rapid development and productivity. These gains were made possible 23 in part by research that paved the way for the of southern forestry. The South has become development and widespread application of new the leading timber-supplying region in the United technologies including genetic improvement and States, taking advantage of a large accumulation application of fertilizers and herbicides. Today of growing stock and a substantial investment the South is the leading U.S. regional and global in intensive, research-based management supplier of softwood timber. Extensive forest treatments. This chapter focuses primarily on management that emphasized the exploitation intensive management of planted pine forests. of existing resources has been abandoned in the Plantations commonly receive high levels of all South and has been replaced by an intensive, inputs and are major beneficiaries of research primarily softwood-producing industry propelled advances. High plantation growth rates are by implementation of research. essential if our increasing demand for wood is to be met and if harvest pressure on the remaining OVERVIEW OF SOUTHERN FOREST RESEARCH AND MANAGEMENT: 1950–2000 natural forests is to be reduced. he contributions to southern forestry made by forest scientists employed by the INTRODUCTION U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest th T uring the first half of the 20 century, Service (Forest Service), forestry schools and forest researchers established the basic departments, forest industries, and other forestry Dmanagement guidelines for forest organizations during the past half-century were management in the South. They developed enormous. Scientists developed knowledge and reforestation techniques, learned how to control technologies that constituted an essential basis forest fires, carried out surveys of southern forest for rapid gains in the production of timber and resources, learned how to protect forests from nontimber goods. Extensive cooperation among insects and diseases, developed soil protection scientists at various organizations and the techniques, and introduced new technologies that combination of research and implementation greatly increased the efficiency of wood products made possible by Federal, State, and industrial manufacturing. These achievements were essential programs were of great importance in the not only for restoring southern forests but also development of southern forestry. The following for making possible their future expansion. brief overview of major research advances in During the second half of the 20th century, southern forestry is based largely on Johnston’s these basic forest management guidelines were (1989) record of a great history of forestry refined on the basis of new knowledge, and more research in the South. importantly, many of them were implemented Growing demand for wood and research in on a very large scale in the South. Although forest products manufacturing were important this chapter provides a brief overview of major factors in increasing utilization of southern forests. advances in forestry research, it focuses on Research led to the development of technology for research related to management of planted pine producing kraft pulps from the wood of southern pines, and the availability of this technology resulted in the rapid expansion of the southern 1 Assistant Professor, University of Georgia, D.B. Warnell pulp and paper industry. New technologies School of Forest Resources, Athens, GA 30602. Southern Forest Science: 24 Past, Present, and Future Looking Back combined with advanced forest surveys provided combined with advancedforestsurveys conditions. Biometricandeconomic research analyzed presentandfuture timbersupply assistance programs.Further, researchers research helpedestablisha numberofforest benefit fromintensifiedmanagement, economic By demonstratingthatevensmallownerscan the developmentofintensivepinemanagement. investment opportunitiesandneeds,stimulating practices. Economicresearchidentifiedpromising effects ofthinningandothermanagement models foranalyzingtimbergrowth,yields,and nutrient cycling.Scientistsdevelopedandused vegetation control,soilsandfertilizers, better knowledgeofsilviculturalpractices, and foresttypesintheregion.Researchprovided guidelines forthemanagementofallmajorspecies important intheSouth.Forest scientistsdeveloped timber growing. timber growthandencouragedinvestmentin largegainsin 1969). Thisprogresspermitted Forest(Southern ResourcesAnalysisCommittee to about2millionacresperyearbythemid-1960s acres peryearfrom1931to1935;thiswasreduced bywildfireaveraged38million The areaburned demonstrated thevalueofcontrolledburning. anddamage causedbywildfirewhileit burned Fire research,forexample,helpedreducearea effective plantingmethods,andprotectforests. establish productivetreenurseries,develop the knowledgeneededtosecureseedsources, fires, pests,anddiseases.Researchprovided site-preparation methods,andprotectionfrom large quantitiesofgoodseedlings,effective land wasabundant.Plantingprogramsrequired of pineplantationprogramsatatimewhen natural forestsandencouragedthedevelopment with theexhaustionofconvenientsuppliesfrom was alsodeveloped. andmachinesforin-woodschipping, harvesters equipment forloggingoperations,suchastree lumber yields,especiallyfromsmalllogs.New equipment andcuttingpracticesthatincreased sawmilling efficiencybydevelopingnew oriented strandboard.Researchalsoimproved products, suchasfiberboard,particleboard,and followed bythedevelopmentofavarietypanel pinesinthe1960swas technology forsouthern For example,thedevelopmentofplywood development ofwood-manufacturingindustries. their commercialvalueandleadingtotherapid pines,increasing created newusesforsouthern Timber managementresearchhasalwaysbeen Increasing demandforsmallwoodcoincided planted inpine hadexpandedtoabout30 million acres wereinplantedpineforests. Thearea and inneedofregeneration. Only2million acres oftheregion’stimberland werenonstocked low intensityinnaturalstands. Morethan7million forestsweremanagedprimarily with southern forests.Inthe1950s, on thecharacterofsouthern of bestmanagementpractices. practices onwaterqualityandtothedevelopment investigation oftheimpactforestmanagement ledtoexpanded Growing environmentalconcerns increase theavailabilityofwildlifehabitat. toimprove thequalityand prescribed burning and developedguidelinesforuseofthinning management practicesonrecreationopportunities investigated theimpactofintensiveforest interest intheseareas.For example,scientists considerableresearch and wildlifestirred State HardwoodResearchCooperative2001). and profitablegrowthincreases(NorthCarolina stands showpromiseofprovidingsubstantial innaturalhardwood silvicultural interventions applications canbeexpected.Trials ofearly increase,moreresearcheffortand returns dwindle andhardwoodpricesmanagement regeneration. Asavailablehardwoodinventories expanded researchintheirsilvicultureandnatural hardwoods andhasprovidedincentivesfor has fosteredincreasedutilizationofsouthern however, andtheavailability ofthistechnology applied intensivesilviculture. have generallybeeninsufficienttojustifywidely supply, frommanagingthemactively andreturns for thisisthathardwoodshavebeeninample (Hicks andothers2001,Kellison 2001).Onereason hardwood managementthaninpine has beenmuchlessresearchandinvestmentin much promiseofincreasedproductivity. Butthere poplar ( sycamore ( stands. Plantationsofcottonwood( hardwood forestsinbothnaturalandplanted guidelines forregenerationandcultureof substantial researchefforts.Researchprovided half oftheSouth’sforestland,alsoattracted management tosupportindustrialexpansion. investments inlandacquisitionandintensive growth, mortality, andutilization,helpingguide aboutforestinventory,better information Substantial researcheffortshadagreatimpact Finally, growingdemandfor forestrecreation Research producedhardwoodpulptechnology, Hardwood forests,whichcovermorethan Liriodendron tulipifera Platanus occidentalis L.)haveshown L.),andyellow- Populus spp.), acres by 1997, along with rapidly intensifying and stocking, nutrition, thinning, harvest age, management and increasing productivity and the management of future stands on leased (Smith and others 2001). and company-owned forest land. Participating companies accounted for 16.3 million acres of Planted pine management has changed planted pine, or about 90 percent of pine plantation southern forestry dramatically. While the South area in forest industry ownership in the region. accounts for only 40 percent of the Nation’s forest land area and 22 percent of its softwood growing The survey provided the basis for the stock, it supplies 64 percent of all softwood development of five management intensity classes harvested in the United States. Today, the South’s (MIC) for planted pine (Siry and others 2001). pine plantations account for nearly 19 percent of MIC 1 represents traditional management the world’s area of fast-grown industrial wood consisting only of site preparation and planting. plantations. While the region’s planted and natural MIC 2 represents low intensity that involves site pine forests represent < 3 percent of global preparation and planting of genetically improved conifer forest cover, they supply nearly 19 percent seedlings. MIC 3 describes moderate intensity 25 of global industrial softwood roundwood harvests with fertilizer application. MIC 4 stands for high (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United intensity in which herbicide use is added to MIC 3 Nations 2002, Smith and others 2001). No other treatments. Finally, MIC 5 represents very high region or country in the world supplies more intensity, with multiple applications of fertilizers softwood timber than the U.S. South. and herbicides. Chapter 4. Chapter Table 4.1 presents total and average annual INTENSIVE PLANTED PINE MANAGEMENT

yields of merchantable wood for planted pine on Research ts of IN THE 1990S medium-quality sites at age 25. Total yields range ine plantations are managed much more from about 2,700 cubic feet per acre for MIC 1 intensively now than they were formerly, to nearly 4,600 cubic feet per acre for MIC 5 P when management consisted primarily of (Siry and others 2001). These total yields translate site preparation and planting. Today’s intensive into average annual growth rates ranging from management relies heavily on the widespread 109 cubic feet per acre for MIC 1 to 183 cubic feet application of research-based approaches per acre for MIC 5. These data show that very such as the planting of genetically improved intensive management can produce almost 1950–2000: Benefi seedlings and the application of fertilizers and 70 percent more volume than traditional herbicides. The management of industrial pine management produces. plantations is a particularly good example of the contribution of intensive management technologies to greater growth because such Table 4.1—Intensively managed planted pine growth management involves high levels of all inputs and yield data (wood volume) for medium sites and and because industrial plantations benefit 25-year rotation greatly from research advances. The results of a forest industry management Management Total wood Average annual survey2 were used to estimate current operational intensity class yield at age 25 growth rate results of intensive management of planted ft3/ac ft3/ac/yr pine. The survey was designed by the American Forest and Paper Association’s Resource Planning MIC 1 - traditional 2,716 109 Act (RPA) Task Group and was used to collect MIC 2 - genetics 3,135 125 data about industry land and management MIC 3 - MIC 2 + F 3,433 137 practices for use in the 2000 RPA Timber MIC 4 - MIC 3 + H 4,033 161 Assessment. The survey covered the 13 Southern MIC 5 - MIC 4 + 2nd States and collected data on tree planting, F and H 4,587 183 genetic improvement, control of vegetation MIC 1 = site preparation and planting; MIC 2 = site preparation and planting of genetically improved seedlings; MIC 3 = moderate intensity with fertilizer application; MIC 4 = high intensity in which herbicide use is added to MIC 3 treatments; MIC 5 = very high 2 Goetzl, A. 1998. AF&PA southern forest management intensity survey: data summary and survey results. intensity with multiple applications of fertilizers and herbicides; [Number of pages unknown]. On file with: American F = fertilization; H = herbicide application. Forest and Paper Association, 1111 Nineteenth Street, NW, Suite 800, Washington, DC␣ 20036. Southern Forest Science: 26 Past, Present, and Future Looking Back ( slash ( Most treeimprovementeffortwasdirectedat stimulated theestablishmentofseedorchards. large quantitiesofpineseed,andthisdemand Rapidly expandingplantingprogramsdemanded andwoodquality(Zobel1974). rates, treeform, on siteadaptability, diseasetolerance,growth began intheSouthasearly1950s. industrial treeimprovementprogramsthat were madepossiblebygeneticresearchand 420 cubicfeetperacreatage25.Suchincreases T Genetic Improvement INTENSIVE TIMBERGROWING METHODS such sites, phosphorus fertilizationresultedin such sites,phosphorus 1982).On responses (PritchettandComerford sitesproducedspectacular phosphorus-deficient fertilization ofslashpineforests growingon work until20yearslater, whenremedial Foresters, however, showed littleinterestinthis established intheSouthasearlymid-1940s. Fertilization summarized inZobelandSprague(1993). of treeimprovementresearchintheSouthis are reducedbyasmuch25percent.Thehistory quercuum ( rust stem qualityandfusiform Genetically improvedtreesalsodisplay over unimprovedseeds(Liandothers1998). produced woodvolumegainsof17to30percent Talbert 1984).Second-generationtreebreeding first-generation seedorchards(Zobeland percent volumeincreasesintreesgrownfrom Improvement Programhaveyielded7-to12- Cooperative TreeState University-Industry outbytheNorthCarolina studies carried were established. later subsided.Very fewhardwoodplantations theworkonpinesstartedand work beganafter State University. Hardwoodtreeimprovement the UniversityofFlorida,andNorthCarolina Texas AgriculturalandMechanicalUniversity, cooperative treeimprovementprogramsat in theestablishmentofindustry-university interest ingeneticimprovementhasresulted on longleafpine( P. taeda Genetic improvementofpineswasfocused Pine fertilizationresearchtrialswere The 42yearsofloblollypineimprovement wood volumebyabout15percent,ornearly genetically improvedgrowingstockincreases he forest industry survey indicatesthatuseof survey he forestindustry Pinus elliottii L.),butsomeemphasiswasalsoput f. sp. fusiforme P. palustris Engelm.)andloblollypine ) infectionratesthat Mill.).Continued Cronartium Zutter 1993). and slowergrowth(Clason 1993, Gloverand pine trees,resultinginhigher seedlingmortality availability ofmoisture,nutrients, andsunlightto can overtopyoungpinesand greatlyreducethe hardwood development.Hardwood competition favors frequency andincreasedpineharvesting, succession, whenaccompaniedbyreducedfire that invadepinesites(Waldstad 1976).Natural the Southisdifficultyofcontrollinghardwoods Herbicide Application (Allen 2001). approaches tositenutrientmanagement research focusesondevelopingmoreintegrated and diseases(Allen1983,Ballard1984).Presently, nutrient additionsandtreeresistancetopests potassium andboron,interactionsbetween the effectsofapplicationsnutrientssuchas treatments thatmayinfluencenutrientavailability, interactions offertilizationwithothersilvicultural in hardwoodstands. little plantations; theyhavebeenusedvery exclusively inintensivelymanagedpine rotation. To date,fertilizersareappliedalmost acre, or15percentperapplication,fora25-year of nitrogenincreaseyieldby400cubicfeetper and200poundsperacre per acreofphosphorus indicate thatmidrotationapplicationsof25pounds survey Operational datafromtheforestindustry supply additionalnitrogenandphosphorus. while applicationsinestablishedstandsusually deficiencies, aimed atamelioratingphosphorus nitrogen. Fertilization atplantingisfrequently and commonly suppliednutrientsarephosphorus young ages,andinmidrotation.Two ofthemost for operationaluseoffertilizersinforestry. applying fertilizersanddevelopedtechnologies researched possibilitiesofincreasinggrowthby Carolina programonloblollypine.Bothprograms program focusedonslashpineandtheNorth and NorthCarolinaStateUniversity. TheFlorida research cooperativesattheUniversityofFlorida late 1960stotheestablishmentofindustry-funded at ornearplanting. addition years inresponsetoasinglephosphorus as 50cubicfeetperacreyearforupto20 viable pineplantations.Volume gainswereashigh shortages virtuallyprecludedtheestablishmentof great volumeandvaluegains,asphosphorus The largestprobleminintensivepineculture Scientists havemovedtoinvestigate Fertilizers arenowappliedatplanting, Growing interestinforestfertilizationledthe Foresters did not initially consider herbaceous values also indicate that intensive management competition a major impediment to pine growth, offers attractive returns—values associated with so early forest herbicide research focused on very intensive management (MIC 5) are more control of hardwoods in pine stands (Gjerstad than 1.6 times higher than returns associated with and Barber 1987). Research developed rules for traditional management (MIC 1). The increased herbicide selection, dosage, timing, and application returns reflect higher production values resulting methods. In the 1980s, research trials indicated from increases in timber volume and quality. that herbaceous vegetation does compete with These returns are sufficient to justify investment young pine seedlings and that its elimination can in improved timber management practices on a increase survival and growth rates of young pines large scale. (Creighton and others 1987, Lauer and others 1993, Yeiser and Williams 1996, Zutter and Miller EXTENT OF INTENSIVE FOREST 1998). This has led to the development of MANAGEMENT PRACTICES approaches for controlling both woody and orest Service, Forest Inventory and Analysis 27 herbaceous vegetation. (FIA) data spanning from 1982 to 1999 show The forest industry survey indicates that F increases in rates of harvesting, planting and control of vegetation has the largest impact on natural regeneration, timber stand improvement, wood volume growth. In MIC 4, woody plant and chemical application in the South (Siry 2002). treatment in year 1 increased yield by about 600 Intensive management is practiced primarily in cubic feet per acre at age 25. In MIC 5, herbicides planted pine forests, where most planting, site 4. Chapter were applied twice; herbaceous plant treatment preparation, fertilizer and herbicide use, and at planting was followed by woody plant treatment thinning occur. The FIA data also indicate that Research ts of in year 3. These applications increased yield by as natural pine, oak (Quercus spp.)-pine, and upland much as 750 cubic feet per acre at age 25, or by and bottomland hardwood forests are managed nearly 28 percent over untreated stands. with considerably lower intensity. Herbicides are used for site preparation before Several authors have presented survey stand establishment, release from hardwood and information that shows what forest management herbaceous competition in young stands, and practices are employed, and how extensively they timber stand improvement in midrotation. are employed, by important owner groups in the 1950–2000: Benefi Herbicide treatments gain popularity because South (Moffat and others 1998, Siry and Cubbage they are cheaper, more effective, and easier to 2001, Siry and others 2001). Table 4.2 summarizes apply than others. To date, herbicide research this information and information provided by other and applications have been limited primarily to sources that are described subsequently. intensively managed southern pines, but there is growing interest in herbicide applications in Table 4.2—Extent of intensive forest management hardwood forests. Fitzgerald (1980) provides practices in the South an historical overview of herbicide research and use in forestry. Management Forest land Forest type treatment area RETURNS FROM INTENSIVE MANAGEMENT hile intensive management can greatly million acres increase pine growth and yield, investment returns will largely determine how widely it Planted pine Genetic W improvement 26 will be applied and how intensive it will become. Fertilization 11 The costs of genetically improved seedlings, Herbicide use 11+ herbicides, fertilizers, and other treatments increase the total management costs per acre. Natural pine Some practices 6 However, production rates may increase Oak-pine such as fertili- 3 sufficiently to decrease average production Upland hardwood zation and/or 5 costs and justify increased investment in timber Bottomland thinning were management. Real rates of return for planted pine hardwood or will be used 3 management now vary from nearly 10 percent (MIC 1) to 12 percent (MIC 5) (Siry and others 2001). Net present values and soil expectation Southern Forest Science: 28 Past, Present, and Future Looking Back and 8millionacresofhardwoodforests. are plannedfor3millionacresofoak-pineforests promoting treatmentshavebeenappliedonor seedlings andmanagedmoreintensively. Growth- replantedwithpine natural pineforestsareoften receive suchtreatments.Following harvesting, pine forestshavereceivedorarescheduledto that onlyabout6millionacresofexistingnatural and quality, resultsindicate islimited.Survey thinning ofeven-agedstandstopromotegrowth application oftreatmentssuchasfertilizationor at higherlevelsofintensity, whichincludesthe basis andreceivenotreatments.Management managedcustodiallyonaneven-aged are often herbicide treatmentseachyear. forestlandreceive 2 millionacresofsouthern herbicide useintheSouth,approximately is treatedannually. holdfor Ifthesepatterns 1 percentofforestlandintheUnitedStates (Michael2000)indicatethatnearly patterns employed widelyintheSouth.Pesticide-use management, anditisclearthattheyare ofuseinpine herbicides havealonghistory about theextentofherbicideuse.However, which fertilizersareappliedwillatleastdouble. twice throughouttherotation,thenareaon continue andpineplantationsarefertilizedatleast plantingtrends ages isincreasing.Ifcurrent the areafertilizedatplantingandyoungtree While midrotationfertilizationismostcommon, of forestacreagefertilizedintherestworld. South. Thisareaisestimatedtoexceedthesum than 11millionacreshavebeenfertilizedinthe were fertilizedin2000.Since1969slightlymore pinestands almost 1.6millionacresofsouthern Forest NutritionCooperative(2001)indicatethat (Li andothers1998). planted intheSoutharegeneticallyimproved Today, virtuallyallseedlingsofpinespecies established usinggeneticallyimprovedseedlings. Pine plantationson26millionacreswere of seedlingsthatwerenotgeneticallyimproved. consisting onlyofsitepreparationandplanting plantations wereestablishedundermanagement Natural pine,oak-pine,andhardwoodstands It isdifficulttoobtainreliableinformation Data collectedbytheNorthCarolinaState In theSouth,onlyabout4millionacresofpine the areaofintensivelymanagedpineplantations. with growth increasesarepositivelycorrelated production. Theanalysisalsoindicatesthatpine 26 milliontonsperyeartotheregion’ssoftwood andBailey2003).Thisincreaseaddedabout (Siry by 22percentfromthemid-1980stomid-1990s planted andnaturalstandscombined)increased average annualpinegrowthintheSouth(for feet peracreyear. stands, whichgrowatanaveragerateof72cubic can growmorethantwiceasfastnaturalpine intensively managedpineplantations(MIC5) productionrates.Veryrecently observed management (MIC5)hasthepotentialtodouble intensiveplanted pine This impliesthatvery SRTS modelvaluesforaveragesitesatage25. MIC 1)to95percent(for5)abovecurrent Industrial yieldsarefromabout15percent(for andothers1999). (Abt andothers2000,Siry cubic feetperacreyearfora25-yearrotation the South,growthofplantedpineaverages94 all sites,managementintensities,andownersin estimates employedarebasedonFIAdata.Across and others2000).Theempiricalgrowth-and-yield timbersupplyconditions(Abt forecasts southern Timber Supply(SRTS) model,whichanalyzesand T MANAGEMENT PRACTICES EFFECTS OFINTENSIVEFOREST An analysisbasedonFIAdataindicatesthat a Supply model;FIA=Forest Inventory andAnalysis. fertilizers andherbicides;SRTS =Subregional Timber MIC 5=very high intensity with multipleapplications of and SRTS-FIA forest management types intensively managed planted pine(MIC 5) Table 4.3—Growth rates (wood volume) for lne ie(I )183 SRTS-FIA Planted pine(MIC5) aaeettp growth rate Management type SRTS-FIA data are average values for allsite indexes. with empiricalratesusedintheSubregional intensively managedplantedpine(MIC5) able 4.3comparesthegrowthrateofvery a-ie51 72 42 42 94 Bottomland hardwood Upland hardwood Oak-pine Natural pine Planted pine a Average annual ft 3 /ac/yr From the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, planted indicates that this is entirely possible. Today’s pine area increased by 7 million acres to about challenge is to develop approaches that combine 30 million acres while natural pine area decreased various intensive management treatments in by 5 million acres to 33.5 million acres. ways that generate the maximum returns in an environmentally responsible manner. Growth rates for oak-pine and hardwood forests are substantially lower than those for planted More frequent and more widespread application pine. Oak-pine growth rates average about 51 of fertilizers and herbicides could increase cubic feet per acre per year for 60-year rotations. productivity substantially. Nearly half of the Growth rates for hardwood forests are still lower, South’s forest acreage would benefit from timber averaging 42 cubic feet per acre per year for 60- stand improvement, including herbicide use year rotations. Growth rates in very intensively (Waldstad 1976). Nutrient-deficient sites are also managed pine plantations (MIC 5) are nearly widespread, and even sites previously thought 3.6 times as great as average oak-pine growth not to be nutrient deficient can benefit from rates and nearly 4.4 times as great as average fertilization (Allen 2001). There is also abundant 29 upland and bottomland hardwood growth rates. evidence that appropriate repeated fertilizer Intensively managed plantations of hybrid poplars applications produce additional response from and other hardwood species grow rapidly, but forest stands (Ballard 1984). For example, annual their area is very small. fertilization and multiple applications of herbicides resulting in total control of competing vegetation DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS on loblolly pine research sites in Georgia produced 4. Chapter lanted pine forests account only for about annual growth rates ranging from 325 to 490 cubic ts of Research ts of 15 percent of southern timberland but for feet per acre (Borders and Bailey 2001). Such P a much greater share of softwood growth growth rates are about twice as high as current and harvests. The SRTS model indicates that rates in intensively managed industrial pine pine plantations now account for about 56 percent plantations (MIC 5). of total softwood growth in the South (Prestemon Genetic improvement of trees appears to hold and Abt 2002). The model indicates that pine the greatest long-term promise. Although realized plantations will overtake natural pine forests genetic-related gains in wood volume have not in supplying softwood timber between 2000 averaged more than 30 percent to date, the best 1950–2000: Benefi and 2005 as planted trees mature and reach second-generation loblolly families have shown merchantable size. Within a decade, harvests volume increases of up to 66 percent and improved from pine plantations will amount to nearly a stem straightness, wood quality, and resistance to third of total softwood and hardwood timber diseases (Li and others 1998). Continuing progress production in the South. in breeding technologies, including controlled mass The ability of pine plantations to supply the pollination and vegetative propagation (rooted majority of softwood harvests is a clear indication cutting and tissue culture), and eventually genetic of their great relevance for sustainable wood engineering of trees, promises even greater gains supply and conservation of the remaining natural in wood volume and quality. The limits of such forests. Since the area of commercial timberland gains are today largely unknown. is expected to remain relatively stable, existing Over the past five decades, forest research forests will have to be utilized more intensively has developed powerful new timber-growing to satisfy timber demand. Intensive management technologies. The use of genetically improved of planted pine makes it possible to grow more seedlings, fertilizers, and herbicides in intensively wood on less land. Plantation success means managed pine plantations now results in growth that harvesting pressure on natural forests, old- rates that are nearly twice as high as those growth forests, and environmentally sensitive associated with traditional management consisting areas will be reduced as timber demand is met of site preparation and planting. Wider and more primarily by wood grown on plantations. This intensive application of growth technologies now creates new opportunities for conservation of in use could double or triple the current the natural forests. production levels for intensively managed pine. Ever-increasing demands for wood and Such increases will be essential for sustaining and other forest products and services imply that expanding southern timber harvests while limiting the productivity of pine plantations will have to pressures on the remaining natural forests. continue to grow. Progress made in recent years Southern Forest Science: 30 Past, Present, and Future Looking Back Kellison, R.2001.Statusofhardwoodresearchandoperations researchinthe offorestry Johnston, H.1989.Ahistory Hicks, R.;Kennard, D.;Rauscher, M.[andothers].2001. Glover, G.;Zutter, B.1993.Loblollypineandmixedhardwood Gjerstad, D.;Barber, B.1987.Forest vegetationproblems Food andAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations Fitzgerald, C.H.1980.Forest herbicides.Somehistory, nature, Creighton, J.;Zutter, B.;Glover, G.;Gjerstad,D.1987.Planted Clason, T. 1993.Hardwoodcompetitionreducesloblolly pine Borders, B.;Bailey, R.2001.Loblollypine-pushingthelimitsof Ballard, R.1984.Fertilization offorestplantations.In:Bowen, Allen, L.2001.Silviculturaltreatmentstoenhanceproductivity. Allen, L.1983.Forest fertilization.In:Forest soilsshortcourse. Abt, R.;Cubbage;F.; Pacheco, forest G.2000.Southern LITERATURE CITED I ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 4 p.[Item8]. Extension Forestry, Technology. OfficeofInformational Atlanta: Regional Southern proceedings [CD-ROM]. M.; Hubbard,W., forestscienceconference eds.Southern UnitedStates.In:Johnsen,K.;Rauscher,in theSouthern DC: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest 78p. Service. UnitedStates.Misc.Publ.1462.Washington,Southern Technology.Office ofInformational 8p.[Item16]. Atlanta: RegionalExtensionForestry, Southern [CD-ROM]. W., forestscienceconferenceproceedings eds.Southern hardwoods. In:Johnsen,K.;Rauscher, M.;Hubbard, upland Silviculture strategiesapplicabletosouthern Research. 23:2126–2132. ofForestand manualsitepreparation.CanadianJournal stand dynamicsfor27yearsfollowingchemical,mechanical, John Wiley. 523p. vegetation managementforconiferproduction.NewYork: in theSouth.In:Waldstad, D.;Kuch, P 243 p. (FAO). 2002.Yearbook offorestproducts,2000.Rome,Italy. AL:AuburnAuburn, University:1–15. and use.In:Proceedingsofforestherbicideconference. 223–227. ofAppliedForestry. Journal technique. Southern 11(4): control, treatmentdurationandherbicideapplication responsestoherbaceousvegetation pine growthandsurvival Research. 23:2133–2140. plantation productivity. ofForest CanadianJournal ofAppliedForestry. Journal growth. Southern 25(2):69–74. York: Academic Press.516p. G.; Nambir, E.,eds.Nutritionofplantationforests.New Science. 283p.Vol. 2. In: Evans,J.,ed.Theforestshandbook.London:Blackwell Cooperative. 175p. Raleigh, NC:NorthCarolinaStateForest Fertilization (SRTS) model.Forest 50(4):25–33. ProductsJournal. resource assessmentusingthesubregionaltimbersupply thank James Barnett, Jerry Michael,Mike Jerry thankJamesBarnett, their helpfulcomments. Rauscher, andtwoanonymousreviewersfor ., eds.Forest Smith, W.; Vissage, J.;Sheffield,R.;Darr, D.2001.Forest Siry, J.;Cubbage,F.; Malmquist,A.2001.Potential impactof Siry, J.;Cubbage,F.; growth Abt,R.;Mills,J.1999.Southern Siry, J.;Cubbage,F. oftimberland investment 2001.Asurvey Siry, J.;Bailey, pinegrowthand R.2003.Increasingsouthern Siry, J.2002.Intensivetimbermanagementpractices. Pritchett, W.; responseto N.1982.Long-term Comerford, Prestemon, J.;Abt,R.2002.Timberproductssupplyand North CarolinaStateHardwoodResearchCooperative.2001. North CarolinaStateForest NutritionCooperative.2001. Moffat, S.;Cascio,A.;Sheffield,R.1998.Estimationsoffuture Michael, J.2000.Pesticides andtheirimpacts usedinforestry Li, B.;McKeand, S.;Weir, R.1998.Tree improvementand Lauer, D.;Glover, R.;Gjerstand,D.1993.Comparisonof Service, NorthCentralResearchStation.190p. Service, 219. St.Paul, MN:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture, Forest resources oftheUnitedStates,1997. Gen.Tech. Rep.NC- 51(3):42–48. Journal. and yieldtimbersupplyintheSouth.Forest Products increased managementintensitiesonplantedpinegrowth Assessment Consortium.13p.+appendix. Research Triangle Park, Forest NC: Southern Resource and yieldmodelsanalyses.SOFAC Res.Rep.16. School ofForestry andWildlife Sciences.203p. economics workshop.Auburn, AL:Auburn University, South. In:Proceedingsofthe31 management organizationsforestlandinthe 53(1):32–37. Journal. its implicationsforregionalwoodsupply. Forest Products Research Station:327–340. Department ofAgriculture,Forest Southern Service, assessment. Gen.Tech. Rep.SRS–53.Asheville,NC:U.S. In: Wear, forestresource D.;Greis,J.,eds.Southern 640–644. 46: Plain soils.SoilsScienceSocietyofAmericaJournal. Coastal fertilizationonselectedsoutheastern phosphorus ResearchStation:299–325. Southern NC: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Service, resource assessment.Gen.Tech. Rep.SRS–53.Asheville, demand. In:Wear, forest D.;Greis,J.,eds.Southern State University. 62p. Thirty-eighth annualreport.Raleigh,NC:NorthCarolina University. 16p. Thirtieth annualreport.Raleigh,NC:NorthCarolinaState Assessment Consortium.7p.+appendix. Research Triangle Park, Forest NC:Southern Resource survey. Stateforester’s results oftheSouthern SOFAC Rep. forest managementintensityonNIPFlandsintheSouth: society. 53:81–91. on waterquality. weedscience In:Proceedingsofsouthern unknown]: [Publisherunknown].[Notpaged]. forest geneticsandtreeimprovement.[Placeofpublication breeding intheU.S.In:IUFROdivision2conferenceon oftwocyclesloblollypine sustainable forestry-impact Forest Research.23: 2116–2125. of pine responsethroughmidrotation.CanadianJournal duration andmethodofherbaceousweedcontrolonloblolly st annual southern forest annualsouthern Southern Forest Resources Analysis Committee. 1969. The Zobel, B.; Sprague, J. 1993. A forestry revolution: the history South’s third forest-how it can meet future demands. [Place of tree improvement in the Southern United States. Durham, of publication unknown]: Southern Forest Resources NC: Carolina Academic Press. 160 p. Analysis Committee. 111 p. Zobel, B.; Talbert, J. 1984. Applied forest tree improvement. Waldstad, J. 1976. Weed control for better southern pine New York: John Wiley. 505 p. management. Weyerhaeuser For. Pap. 15. Hot Springs, AR: Weyerhaeuser Company, Southern Forestry Research Zutter, B.; Miller, J. 1998. Eleventh-year response of loblolly Center. 44 p. pine and competing vegetation control to woody and herbaceous plant control on a Georgia flatwoods site. Yeiser, J.; Williams, R. 1996. Planted loblolly pine survival and Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 22(2): 88–95. growth responses to herbaceous vegetation control. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 20(1): 53–57. Zobel, B. 1974. Increasing productivity of forest lands through better trees. The S.J. Hall lectureship in industrial forestry. Berkeley, CA: University of California, School of Forestry and Conservation. 20 p. 31 Chapter 4. Chapter ts of Research ts of 1950–2000: Benefi

Chapter 5.

The Southern Forest Resource Assessment: What We Learned

David N. Wear INTRODUCTION and John G. Greis1 he forests of the Southeastern United States are diverse and dynamic. They T have been utilized heavily since European settlement, and their current condition reflects a long history of land use. At the beginning of Abstract—The Southern Forest Resource 33 the 20th century, a 100-year period of intensive Assessment was initiated in the spring of 1999 agricultural exploitation gave way to a period to address broad questions concerning the status, of forest recovery and growth. In the last quarter trends, and possible future of southern forests. of the 20th century, however, timber harvesting The overall objective of the assessment was to and land development for urban uses increased develop a thorough and objective description substantially. As a result, questions have emerged of forest conditions and trends in the South, and regarding the health, productivity, and ultimately to present it in a way that would help the public the sustainability of the South’s forests and the understand a complex and dynamic resource. benefits they provide. Findings of the assessment highlight the forces of The Southern Forest Resource Assessment change at work in southern forests and potential (SFRA) was initiated in the spring of 1999 to ecological and economic implications. address broad questions about the status, trends, and potential future of southern forests (fig. 5.1). The assessment was chartered by southern offices of the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the Tennessee Valley Authority; and it was conducted in collaboration with State agencies represented by the Southern Group of State Foresters and the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies. Approximately 89 percent of the South’s forests are held by private owners. The assessment was, thus, a somewhat unusual undertaking, one in which Government agencies evaluated the status and future of a largely private sector of the economy. For this reason, the assessment was chartered as an information-gathering activity. Figure 5.1—The The overall objective of the assessment was to region addressed develop a thorough and objective description of by the Southern forest conditions and trends in the South, and to Forest Resource present this description in a way that would help Assessment (Wear and Greis 2002a). the public understand a complex and dynamic resource situation. This role, i.e., monitoring change at a broad scale and describing cumulative change, has been described by the National 1 Research Forester and Project Leader, U.S. Department Research Council (1998) as a logical and important of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, role for Government in the area of private forestry. Research Triangle Park, NC 27709; and State and Private Forestry Environmental Program Specialist, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Region, Atlanta, GA 30367, respectively. Southern Forest Science: 34 Past, Present, and Future Looking Back issues thattheyfeltneeded tobeaddressed and were encouragedtoraiseany concerns In eachofthesesessions,the participants concentrating ononeoffour broadtopicareas. divided intofourseparatesessions, each objectives andgeneraldesign, thegroupwas oftheproject’s audience withanoverview the otherinevening.After presentingthe and workshop wasconductedintheafternoon five locationsintheSouth.At eachlocation, one two publicworkshopswereconductedateachof organizing publicinput. set ofquestionsthatprovidedaframeworkfor werethensummarizedintoan initial concerns and (4)forestconditionshealth.These ecosystems, (3)waterandaquatic topic areas:(1)social-economic,(2)terrestrial andorganizedaround4broad workshop format agenciesusinga from participatingGovernment byagroupofabout75experts were drafted the Biosphere1996).Initialsetsofconcerns AppalachianManand Assessment (Southern Appalachian approach utilizedintheSouthern addressed. Thiswasdonebyemployingan was todefinethesetofquestionsthatwouldbe Defining theQuestions and futureissuesregardingtheSouth’sforests. data uponwhichtodiscussanddebatecurrent knowledgeand ofcurrent public withaplatform review ofoutputs.Itwasdesignedtoprovidethe definition ofissues,scope,analysisprotocols,and utilize considerableamountsofpublicinputinthe ASSESSMENT PROCESS the South. andforestsciencein for theconductofforestry and (3)examinetheimplicationsofthesefindings discuss themajorfindingsofassessment, andtoconducttheassessment,(2) to structure chapter, we(1)examinetheprocessthatwasused Inthis to examineitseffectivenessonsuchterms. has onlyrecentlybeencompleted,itistooearly associated policyissues.Becausetheassessment on thechangesaffectingthesesystemsand ecosystems, therebyfocusingpublicdiscourse uncertainties atplaywithinaregion’sforested can beusedtohighlightthemajordynamicsand T To gatherpublicinputontheinitialquestions, The firststepinconductingtheassessment A descriptiveassessmentsuchastheSFRA designed tobeaccessiblethepublicand Lee (1993)hascalled“civicscience.”Itwas he SFRA canbeviewedasanexerciseinwhat reactions tothe team’sefforts. conduct itsbusinessandto solicit publicinputand inaway thatallowedtheteamto were structured These meetingswerealsoopen tothepublicand data, andtocoordinatework totheextentpossible. meetings wereheldtodiscuss progress,share the courseofanalysis,twoassessmentteam build aresearchteamtoconductthework.During latitude toconsultwithvariouscolleaguesor then commenced.Eachquestionmanagerhadthe eventually finalized.Analysisofthequestions were alsosubjecttopublicreviewand were postedontheSFRA Web site.These question managerspreparedstudyplansthat their proposedapproaches. managers’ interpretationofthequestionsand and providedinputregardingthequestion of thepublicparticipatedinthesediscussions groups organizedbybroadcategories.Members discussed theirquestionsandapproachesin for overlapoftheanalyses,questionmanagers addressing eachquestion.Becauseofthepotential of assessingthefeasibilityandmethodsfor convened foraninitialmeetingwiththeobjective constituted theassessmentteam.Theteamwas individuals, whowerecalledquestionmanagers, to conducttheanalysisforeachquestion.These analyst wasselectedbytheSFRA planningteam forests.Anindividualscientistor to southern analysis ofaresourceorsocialissuerelated Conducting theAnalysis refine thequestions. The additionalreviewinputwasusedtofurther Web siteandwereagainreviewedbythepublic. questions andsubpointswerepostedontheSFRA summarized bythequestion.Thesepreliminary subpoints recordedthedetailsofmajorpoints input frommorethan700participants,andthe question wasbased.Thequestionssummarized (labeledsubpoints)onwhichthe major concerns Each ofthesequestionswaslinkedtotheset practical andconsistentwithoverallobjectives. totheextent that wouldaddresspublicconcerns setofquestions then developedapreliminary the SFRA Web site.Theassessmentleaders andwerepostedon content-analysis software were takenbymailandemail. on theSFRA Web site,andpubliccomments compiled. Theinitialquestionswerealsoposted by theassessment,andthesewererecorded Following theinitialassessmentteammeeting, Each questiondefinedtheobjectiveofan The commentswerethencompiledusing Preliminary findings were not discussed in open analyses. The availability of data and assessment team meetings. This was consistent documentation is intended to enable the public with a policy that findings would not be released to conduct followup analysis and to replicate the without careful peer review. A closed meeting of work conducted within the assessment. The data the assessment team was held in January 2001 to could also provide a benchmark for future discuss preliminary findings and to improve the updating of assessment findings. coordination of analyses of related questions. ASSESSMENT FINDINGS Reviewing the Results he full suite of assessment findings is Answers to the questions were drafted as contained in the 23 technical reports that separate reports and summarized in a summary T constitute the chapters of the SFRA technical report, which compiled and synthesized major report (Wear and Greis 2002b). The following findings from the separate reports. These findings sections summarize the major findings described were then evaluated using a peer-review process in the SFRA summary report. 35 patterned after standard approaches utilized by scientific journals. For each report, a number FORCES OF CHANGE of experts (peers) were selected to review and e evaluated the forces of change that have comment on the accuracy and adequacy of the reshaped and continue to reshape forests in response. These experts were selected from a set five categories: (1) land markets, (2) timber

W 5. Chapter of candidates provided by members of the public, markets, (3) social institutions, (4) biological by agency representatives on the planning team, factors, and (5) physical factors. While each of and by the question managers themselves. A these areas defines important mechanisms of single-blind peer-review procedure was employed;

change, it is clear that they interact in their effects Learned We What i.e., the identities of the reviewers were kept on southern forests. In each area, we examined the confidential in order to obtain candid remarks on history and status of these changes and, where the reports. Reviews were compiled and returned possible, explicitly projected potential changes. to the authors of each report for consideration as they revised their chapters. The assessment Land Markets coleaders managed the peer-review process, From 1700 to 1930, land clearing for agriculture including evaluation of responses to reviews and timber production completely restructured by the authors. southern ecosystems. Clearing for agriculture After the individual chapters were revised to greatly diminished the area of forested wetlands, address comments raised through peer review, especially in the Mississippi River Alluvial Valley. they were released as draft reports. The draft Agricultural uses reached their zenith in the late reports (including the draft summary report) 19th century. Wholesale land abandonment then were published via the SFRA Web site, and the set the stage for a long period of forest draft summary report was printed for distribution reestablishment and growth. upon request (Wear and Greis 2001). Since the 1940s, there has been little net Draft reports were reviewed over a 90-day change in forest area in the South. Current forest comment period. Comments were taken via a area is 214 million acres, or about 91 percent of threaded message board organized by individual that recorded in 1907. However, there have been reports on the SFRA Web site and through the large offsetting changes: forest land has been mail. As public comments were received, they were converted to urban and agricultural uses in some classified by specific points raised, were organized places, and agricultural land has been converted by chapter, and were distributed to authors. to forest in others. Comments were used to revise reports and to Forecasting models indicate that 12 million identify additional relevant data and research forest acres will be lost to urbanization between that had a bearing on the assessment questions. 1992 and 2020. An additional 19 million acres are Final products of the assessment include a forecast to be developed between 2020 and 2040. technical report that addresses the individual Forecasts also indicate conversion of 10 million questions (Wear and Greis 2002b) and the final acres from agricultural land to forest between summary report (Wear and Greis 2002a). They 1992 and 2020 and conversion of another 15 million also include all data used in the analyses and acres by 2040. Most forest loss is expected to be complete documentation of data sources and Southern Forest Science: 36 Past, Present, and Future Looking Back

Removals volume (billion cubic feet) on multiplevaluesobtainedfromforests. intheSouth.Morerecentprogramsfocus history planting oftreeshavehadalongandsuccessful forest properties. taxes encourageownerstoliquidateorsplitup investmentsinforestry,long-term andinheritance incometaxcodehasmixedimpactson The current are frameworkswithinwhichforestsmanaged. Social Institutions and47percentforhardwoods. for softwoods production isforecasttoincreaseby56percent all ofthisgrowthwillcomefromtheSouth,where about one-thirdbetween1995and2040.Nearly production intheUnitedStateswillincreaseby from 3to16percentofoutput. the greatestincreaseinproductshare,growing Since 1952,hardwoodpulpwoodhasexperienced (25 percent),andhardwoodpulpwood(16percent). pulpwood of theregion’swoodoutput),softwood sawlogs(28percent products, includingsoftwood world (fig.5.2). inthe more timberthananyothercountry 6.3 to15.8percent.Theregionnowproduces its shareofworldproductionincreasedfrom production increasedfrom41to58percent,and production morethandoubled.ItsshareofU.S. Timber Markets in thewest. forest gainsareexpectedtobeconcentrated partoftheSouth; concentrated intheeastern 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 Forest incentiveprogramsthatsubsidizethe programs Laws, regulations,andGovernment Models oftimbermarketsforecastthat The Southproducesagreatvarietyoftimber Between 1952and1996,theSouth’stimber all species, 1952to 1996 (Wear andGreis 2002a). Figure 5.2—Removals by destination product, southwide, 9215 9816 9717 9618 911996 1991 1986 1976 1972 1967 1963 1958 1954 1952 All otherproducts Fuelwood Pulpwood Veneer logs Saw logs Year wildlife communities. plants andanimalstoaffect nativeplantand areas islikelytoincreasethe spreadofnonnative spread fromtheNorth.Expansion ofurban insects affectinghardwoods willcontinueto public forests.Multiplenonnativediseasesand heavily stockednonindustrialprivateandaging and ecologicalchangeintheSouth,especiallyon continue tocausesubstantialeconomicdamage ecosystems. southern mammals arealsohavinglargeimpactson and hemlockadelgid( balsam woollyadelgid( the gypsymoth( nonnative insectsthathavebeenintroducedare clavigignenti-juglandacearum canker( J. Hunt],andbutternut oak wilt[ dogwood anthracnose( have beenintroducedtotheSouth.Theseinclude the 1930s.Severalotherspecies-specificdiseases removed animportantcanopyspeciesbeginningin parasitica parasitica hardwood forests.Chestnutblight{ forests,especially and continuetoaltersouthern significant pests. quercuum ( rust andfusiform Zimmermann) pinebeetle( Southern and configurationofpineforestshaschanged. managers intheSouthasspeciescomposition pines havebecomeproblematicforforest Biological Factors in high-growthareas. forest treatmentswilllikelycontinuetoexpand urbanization. Thenumberofregulationsaffecting be closelylinkedtopopulationgrowthand The expansionoflocalregulationsappearsto dependingonStateandFederalto vary priorities. nearly doubledbetween1992and2000. management. Thenumberofsuchregulations has markedlyaffectedlanduseandforest more urbanized,aproliferationoflocalregulations South.However,rural inareasthatarebecoming The southern pinebeetleisexpectedto The southern vines,birds,and Nonnative trees,shrubs, Nonnative diseasesandinsectshavealtered Native plantdiseasesandinsectsaffecting Funding offorestincentiveprogramsislikely islimitedinthe Direct regulationofforestry Ceratocystis fagacearum Ceratocystis fagacearum (Murrill) Anderson&Anderson]} (Murrill) [formerly Barr (Murrill) f. sp. fusiforme Lymantria dispar Adelges tsugae Dendroctonus frontalis Discula destructiva Adelges piceae ) areeconomically ). Amongthe Sirococcus Cronartium (T.W. Bretz) Linnaeus), Cryphonectria Endothia Annand). Ratzeburg), ), Physical Factors I-85 from Raleigh, NC, to Atlanta, GA; I-65 from Many southern forest types are fire adapted, Birmingham, AL, to Nashville, TN; and I-81 from and exclusion of fire has altered their species Chattanooga, TN, to Wytheville, VA. composition, flammability, and management. Forecasts for the period 1992 to 2020 indicate The reintroduction and continued use of fire that there will be outward growth and increased will present challenges as concerns related to human impacts on forests surrounding urban urbanization and air pollution become more centers such as Atlanta, Nashville, and Charlotte important. The ambient environment influences and along the Atlantic and gulf coasts. These forest growth and vigor. Ozone pollution is forecast wildland-urban interfaces have effects on many to increase by 20 to 50 percent between 1990 and forest values. 2025, and growth reductions in southern pines are expected as a result. Future changes in Wood products—With expansion in forest temperatures could positively or negatively production has come an expansion in jobs and affect forest growth and species ranges depending income derived from the wood products industry. 37 on the extent of the change and the availability In 1997, timber harvests led to more than 700,000 of moisture. Acid deposition is expected to jobs in the wood products sector and more than significantly impact the region’s forests only $118 billion in total industry output. Total in the Southern Appalachians. economic impacts of these activities were about 2.2 million jobs (5.5 percent of total jobs) and

SOUTHERN FOREST CONDITIONS $251 billion of total industry output (7.5 percent 5. Chapter e also examined the current status and of industry output). potential future of various aspects of forest Timber harvesting and management of timber

W conditions and the services and direct production are prevalent in all parts of the region Learned We What benefits that forests provide. We examined but are especially concentrated on the Atlantic southern forest conditions from four different and Gulf Coastal Plains. perspectives: (1) social and economic systems; (2) forest area and condition; (3) terrestrial It is predicted that timber production will ecosystems; and (4) water quality, wetlands, increase most in areas to the north and west of the and aquatic ecosystems. traditional timber production core of the South— that is, into Tennessee, North Carolina, Arkansas, Social and Economic Systems and western Virginia (fig. 5.4). Social context—The population of the South has grown faster than the national average (fig. Increases in timber harvests are not expected 5.3). As a result, the share of the U.S. population to deplete inventories, but there is considerable residing in the South has increased to more than variability among States and forest types. 32 percent. Although population growth occurred Softwood inventories are forecast to increase largely in urban areas through 1980, it has now gradually between 1995 and 2040. Hardwood spread across nearly all southern counties. inventories are forecast to expand between 1995 and 2025, but to fall slightly between 2025 and The South’s population has also become more urban. These changes are reflected in values that 300 have shifted away from a strong commodity Assessment area United States orientation to a more biocentric view. 250 The South’s population is forecast to continue growing, both absolutely and in relation to that 200 of the United States as a whole, thus putting 150 increasing pressure on forests, especially in urbanizing areas. 100 Population (milion) Population

People and forests—Comparisons of the 50 distribution of population and forests indicate areas in which access to forests and their benefits 0 is especially limited. These areas are concentrated 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Year in Florida, in northern Virginia and northern Kentucky, and along interstate highway corridors Figure 5.3—Population, in millions, for the United States and for the 13 States in the assessment area (Wear and Greis 2002a). Southern Forest Science: 38 Past, Present, and Future Looking Back aesthetic needs. enhance environmentalquality, and theymeet recreational opportunities,theyprotectand of wealthbysupplyingwoodproductsand of lifeinseveralways.Theyprovideforproduction Quality oflife— among variousrecreationgroupswillincrease. to beincreasinglycongested,andcompetition Recreational activitiesonpubliclandareexpected based recreationalopportunitiesintheSouth. appears tobelimitedcapacityexpandforest- use ofpubliclands. considerable pressureforincreasedrecreational is towardlessaccess.Consequently, thereis unavailable forpublicrecreation,andthetrend of thiscontribution.Muchprivatelandis tourism onpubliclandsrepresented56percent jobs.Recreation-based 2.88 percentofsouthern outdoor recreationcontributedbetween0.64and and incomeintheSouth.In1997,tourismbasedon Recreation isanimportantsourceofemployment recreational usesofalltypeshaveincreased. changes inincomeandotherdemographics, activities. Drivenbyagrowingpopulationand ofrecreational opportunities forabroadarray Recreation— 2025, andsoonerinsomeStates. removals exceedinggrowthregionallybyabout 2040. Thisreflectsforecaststhatshowhardwood of Agriculture Forest Service (Wear andGreis 2002a). Inventory and AnalysisProgram of theU.S. Department harvest levels, 1995–2040, by survey unit of theForest Figure 5.4—Forecast percent change inannualsoftwood Change inpercent Given current land ownership patterns, there landownershippatterns, Given current 258 Ð453 146 Ð258 -50 Ð6 66 Ð146 6 Ð66 Southern forestsprovide Southern Forests contributetoquality (fig. 5.7).Areas ofallotherforesttypesare increase by67percentto54 millionacresin2040 (28 percent),andagricultural fields(25percent). hardwood forests(47percent), naturalpineforests previously supportedhardwood ormixedpine- plantations wereestablishedonlandthat acres in1999.Inthe1980sand1990s,pine from about2millionacresin1953to32 Theareainplantedpineincreased harvesting. to nonforestusesorplantedstandsfollowing ofthepinecomponent,orconversion harvesting of naturalsuccessiontouplandhardwoods, pine standsdecreasedbyabouthalfastheresult leveled off. Theareaofnaturallyregenerated somewhat betweenthe1950sand1970sbuthas The areaoflowlandhardwoodforestdeclined The areaofuplandforestincreasedgradually. forest typeschangedfromthe1950sto1990s. remained relativelyconstant,thedistributionof Broad foresttypes— ownership arecontinuing. indicate thatdecreasesinforestindustry results ofthemostrecentforestinventories only 2percentbetween1995and2040.Preliminary management organizations. including ownershipbytimberinvestment and anincreaseinothercorporateownership, ownershipbetweenthe1980sand1990s industry by otherindividuals. 12 percentbyothercorporations,and45 owned byforestindustry, 21percentbyfarmers, Twenty-two percentofprivatetimberland is The remaining89percentisprivatelyowned. agencies. managed byvariousGovernment percent oftimberland(21.4millionacres)is has beenrelativelystablesincethe1970s.Eleven percent ofthetotalin1907(fig.5.6).Forest area (fig. 5.5),60percentofthetotalin1630and91 has morethan214millionacresofforestland Forest areaandownership Forest AreaandConditions in localareas. This willprobablyleadtodebateaboutforestuses aesthetic andenvironmentalbenefitsforothers. increased wealthforsomepersons,butlossof production coreoftheSouthmaygenerate inareasoutsidethe increases inharvesting quality oflifeforlocalresidents.Predicted The areaofpineplantations isforecastto Total areaofforestlandisforecasttodecline by Ownership ischangingwithadecreaseinforest Changes intheuseofforestswillaffect While totalforestareahas —The Southnow 39

Percent forest cover 0 Ð 20 21 Ð 40 41 Ð 60 61 Ð 80 81 Ð 100 Chapter 5. Chapter

Figure 5.5—Percent of forest cover by county, 1992 (Wear and Greis 2002a). What We Learned We What

400 expected to decline gradually over this period. 350 Forests of all types will be lost to urban uses and 300 gains in acreage in planted pine will come mainly from planting of agricultural fields. 250

200 Landscape structure—Satellite images of forest

150 cover in the early 1990s indicate areas where Area (million acres) forest is highly contiguous. These areas include 100 the Blue Ridge Mountains, the Cumberland 50 Plateau, the Allegheny Mountains, the Ozark- 1630 1907 1938 1953 1963 1982 1989 1999 Ouachita Highlands region, and some coastal Ye a r areas. Areas where forest cover is highly Figure 5.6—Forest area in the Southern United States, fragmented include the Piedmont, central 1630 to 1999 (Wear and Greis 2002a). Tennessee, and the Ridge and Valley ecoregion. Population growth and other factors are expected to make Piedmont forests especially 120 1995 2020 2040 susceptible to increased fragmentation through 2040. 100 Forest inventory—Southern forests accumulated 80 considerable volumes of timber between the 60 1950s and 1990s. Inventory grew from 148 to 256 billion cubic feet, reflecting rapid growth of stands 40 established since the 1930s. Recent inventories indicate a general slowing in the rate of Timberland (million acres) 20 accumulation for hardwoods and a leveling off 0 of accumulation for softwoods. Planted Natural Mixed Upland Lowland Agriculture pine pine oak-pine hardwood hardwood Forecasts indicate that softwood growth will Forest types overtake and exceed removals by a slight margin in the next few years. As a result, softwood Figure 5.7—Forecast of the area timberland by forest inventories are predicted to increase steadily types, 1995 to 2040 (Wear and Greis 2002a). Southern Forest Science: 40 Past, Present, and Future Looking Back Abundant forestcommunities— Terrestrial Ecosystems less certain. and pest-relatedmortalityonproductivityare of climatechange,otherenvironmental established tosupplytimberproducts.Theeffects were notrealized,morepineplantationswouldbe suggest thatifanticipatedproductivitygains timber marketconditions.For example,models of bothfutureforestconditionsand regenerated forests. more thandoubletheyieldsfromnaturally with standardsitepreparationandplanting, can be65percentgreaterthanthoseassociated Yields associatedwithhigh-intensitymanagement timberyields. management hasincreasedsouthern Timberland productivity— onesby2040. exceeding current in about2025andthendeclinetolevelsjust Hardwood inventoriesareforecasttopeak are expectedtooutstripgrowthbyabout2025. between 1995and2040.Hardwoodremovals (5) glades, barrens, andprairies;(6) longleafpine (5) glades,barrens, pocosins; (4)bottomlandand floodplainforests; spp.- ( seven classes:(1)oldgrowth; (2)spruce-fir settlement. Mostofthesecommunities arein 98 percentoftheirhabitatsince European endangered communitieshavelostmorethan on rareforestcommunities.Fourteen critically wildlifeandplantspeciesfocus about southern forestcommunities— Rare partoftheregion. in thenorthern forests,especially the potentialtorestructure insects anddiseasesaffectinghardwoodshas a problemintheSouth.Thecomplexofnonnative epidemics frompubliclandmaycontinuetobe the absenceofactivemanagement.Spillover planted outsideoftheirnaturalrangeandin Epidemics arelikelywherepineshavebeen economically importantpestofpineforests. Appalachians andtheOzarks. decline, whichisespeciallysevereintheSouthern changes maybeadiseasecomplexcalledoak by thechestnutblightcontinues;latestofthese past 30years.Thechainofforestchangesbegun economic impactthananyforestpestoverthe pinebeetlehashadagreater problems. Southern in theSouthbutaresubjecttoseveralhealth hardwood andpineforesttypesremainplentiful Future productivityisakeydeterminant Southern pinebeetlewillcontinuetobean Southern Abies spp.);(3)wetlands,bogcomplexes, and Intensive Many concerns Upland Picea critically imperiled. Areaswheretheconcentration and 19are are classified as speciesofconcern, in theUnitedStates.Fifty-four amphibians The Southisthecenterofamphibian biodiversity and 28areclassifiedascritically imperiled. concern 132 areconsideredtobeof conservation vertebrate speciesknownto existintheSouth, Wildlife speciesofconcern— within thesamelandscapes. andmatureforestspeciesoccurring shrub-scrub, management istosupportthearrayofgrassland, mature forests. are affectedbyscarcityorfragmentationof andgrasslandhabitatsthan of shrub-scrub species arethreatenedbyincreasedisolation certain amphibians.Across theSouth,more especially importantforsomespecies, configuration andforestmanagementmaybe Mississippi AlluvialPlain.Effectsoflandscape as thePiedmont,InteriorLowPlateau,and urban andagriculturalusespredominatesuch in heavilyforestedareasthanwhere effects ofcertainpracticesarelikelytobelower influence mobilewildlifespecies.Fragmentation can employed. Broaderlandscapepatterns conditions andthemanagementpractices for wildlife.Impactsdependonspecificsite management canhaveimportantimplications Effects offorestmanagement— migrants andforestinteriorspecialists. population declinesareanticipatedforneotropical species mostadverselyinthePiedmont,where species, andhabitatmodification. through predation,displacementofnative feral cats,dogs,andpigs,influencewildlife disturbances. Nonnativeanimals,forexample, or eliminatinghabitatandbyincreasing affects birdpopulationsbyfragmenting Effects oflandusechanges— by landdevelopmentandfireexclusion. Remnant longleafpineforestsarethreatened mainly byairpollutionandanonnativeinsect. to beunderthegreateststress—stresscaused appears decisions ofnumerousowners.Spruce-fir ownership, sotheirfuturedependsonthe land. Theremainderaregenerallyinprivate forests—arefoundlargelyonpublic spruce-fir B.S.P white-cedar [ ( Pinus palustris The ultimatefuturechallengeforforest Predicted changesinlandusemayaffectbird Two ofthesevenclasses—old-growthand .] swamps. Chamaecyparis thyoides Mill.)forests;and(7)Atlantic Of the1,208 Urbanization Forest (L.) of endangered species is high include the Southern and urbanization have ranked highest, with Appalachians, the Atlantic and Eastern gulf coast silviculture ranking next to last. When properly flatwoods, the gulf coast marsh and prairie, and implemented, best management practices peninsular Florida (fig. 5.8). Loss of habitat is (BMP) are effective in controlling pollution from the primary cause of species endangerment. silvicultural activities. Twelve of the thirteen Southern States have monitored BMP compliance Habitat protection will be difficult in view and reported results. Because different States of the rapid urbanization forecast for the South. employ different survey methods, regional trends Forestry operations can have impacts on certain cannot be identified. However, consistency among amphibians, especially those that depend on both States is improving; six States have adopted wet and upland habitats. similar procedures since 1997. Conservation issues—Public land is relatively As timber production increases in the South, scarce in the South (11 percent of forest acreage) effective BMP implementation will become even but plays an important role in conservation of more crucial for protecting water quality. 41 specific forest types and wildlife species. More often, the management of private land determines Wetlands—Approximately 32.6 million acres the future of imperiled species and rare forest of forested wetlands occur in 10 Southern States communities. Effective conservation often (those that constitute the assessment area minus requires collaboration, giving rise to multiple- Virginia, Texas, and Oklahoma). These wetlands owner consortiums. account for 64 percent of the total forested wetland 5. Chapter area in the conterminous United States. Losses Although scarce, public land has unique of forested wetlands have been quite widespread, ecological value because it can provide a but have been noticeably concentrated in the dependable supply of interior forest habitat and Mississippi Alluvial Valley and the Coastal Plain Learned We What older forests. In areas that are becoming urban, of the Carolinas. Rates of loss have declined since public tracts can serve as anchors for conservation the 1970s, but impacts and functional changes strategies pursued by multiple owners. The continue to occur. effective reintroduction of fire to many forest ecosystems will remain a critical forest Land management practices and urbanization conservation challenge. are expected to continue to alter the function of wetlands. Wetland restoration efforts will continue, Water Quality, Wetlands, and but their likelihood of success is not clear. Forest Aquatic Ecosystems management practices will play an important role Water quality—About 30 percent of the South in the persistence of certain amphibian species. has relatively good water quality, 36 percent has Aquatic species of concern—The South supports moderate water-quality problems, and 15 percent a great diversity of aquatic species. Several has serious water-quality problems. The leading hundred species of concern are found among causes of water-quality impairment have been the amphibians, mussels, crustaceans, fish, snails, siltation, pathogens, and nutrients. Of the 11 major and aquatic insects of the region. Especially high sources of water-quality impairment, agriculture numbers of mussel, fish, and amphibian species are critically imperiled as a result of modification to aquatic and wetland habitats (fig. 5.9). For many mussels and certain other species, 15 declines will continue because of the effects of 6 essentially irreversible actions such as dam 15 7 construction, agricultural conversions, and the 8 5 11 introduction of nonnative species. Many aquatic species of concern are narrow endemics. The 11 13 11 effects of development and management activities 23 10 may be disproportionately large for the small

26 areas they occupy.

Figure 5.8—Number of terrestrial vertebrates in Southern States listed as endangered (Wear and Greis 2002a). 5

Southern Forest Science: 42 Past, Present, and Future Looking Back 5 .Total forestareawillremainstable,but 4. ThepopulationoftheSouthisgrowing, 3. Urbanizationpresentsasubstantialthreat 2. TheSouthisaneconomically, culturally, and 1. T DISCUSSION fauna provinces (Wear andGreis 2002a). Figure 5.9—Distribution of musselspeciesby aquatic 3 shift initsforestarea. shift regionwillexperienceawestward southern partoftheSouth.Overall, western land isexpectedtotakeplacelargelyinthe areas, whileafforestationofagricultural is forecasttobeconcentratedineastern agricultural toforestuses.Urbandevelopment from uses areexpectedtobeoffsetbyshifts and 2040.Lossesofforestareatourban in thetotalareaofforestsbetween1995 will continue.We forecastlittlenetchange subregional andcompositionalchanges of forests. people placeonforestsaswelltheuses for thenatureofvaluesanddemandsthat is changing.Thesechangeshaveimplications and thesocialcontextofforestmanagement and healthofforests. effectsontheextent,condition, permanent will havethemostdirect,immediate,and Of thevariousforcesofchange,urbanization to theextent,condition,andhealthofforests. forces ofchangeareaffectingitsforests. ecologically complexregion,andanumberof forests. future statusofsouthern regardingthepresentand broad observations he findingsoftheassessmentledustosome 7 49 Mobile Apalachicola Cumberland Florida South Atlantic Atlantic North 43 Central Texas Sabine Ozark Mississippi Rio Grande 60 30 9 22 4 8. Southern forestshaveprovedtoberesilient, Southern 8. oflanduseandharvesting Changingpatterns 7. Investmentinpineplantationsisforecastto 6. Timberproductionisforecasttoexpand, 5. therefore, atrisk.Throughthe20 but somecomponentsarescarceandare, traditional productioncoreoftheSouth. debate overforestusesinareasoutsidethe increased benefitsforothers,and could leadtoincreasedcostsforsomepeople, However, changesinforestconditions abrupt imply morejobsinthewoodproductssector. Forecasts ofincreasingtimberharvests visual backdrops,andenvironmentalquality. by providingopportunitiesforrecreation, contribute tothequalityoflifeinregion half ofthelocalbaseeconomy. Forests also hasrepresentedmorethan related industry percentages aremuchhigherandforest- partsoftheSouth,these In somerural of jobsand8percentincomeintheregion. nowaccountsforabout6percent industry the peopleofSouth.Thewoodproducts will haveimportanteffectsonthelivesof at abroaderlandscapescale. documented attheforeststandlevelthan and management.Theseeffectsarebetter ecological changes,dependingonstandorigin plantation acreagecouldalsoresultinvarying during the1980sand1990s.Increasesinpine removals 35 percentofannualsoftwood 15 percentoftimberland,buttheycontributed example, plantedforestsaccountedforonly plantations enhancetimberproductivity. For forests.Pine characteristics ofsouthern This willhaveimplicationsfortheecological demand. expand tomeetincreasedsoftwood decline slightlybetween2025and2040. inventories willexpanduntil2025andthen to expandthroughoutthatperiod.Hardwood inventorieswillcontinue percent. Softwood by 56percentandhardwoodoutputs47 outputswillexpand 1995 and2040,softwood levels.Between inventories belowcurrent but itisnotexpectedtodepleteforest critically imperiled)andincreasingly rare vertebratesare species (28terrestrial presence ofnumerousimperiled animal Amongthesearethe reasons forconcern. regions intheworld.However, thereare to becomeoneofthemostproductiveforest cutover, exhausted,anderodedcondition the Southhasrecoveredfromalargely th century, forest communities (14 communities have flatwoods, one of two areas in the South with the been reduced to < 2 percent of their area highest concentrations of endangered animal and at the time of European settlement). plant species, contain many imperiled amphibians, crustaceans, and reptiles. These problems are of 9. To borrow the adage from economics, scarcity especially great concern in the Florida Panhandle. defines value. The rare forest communities in the South have disproportionately high Implications of the Assessment for ecological value. Thus, much concern about Forest Research biodiversity is focused on these relatively small shares of the forest landscape. At the conclusion of an effort such as the SFRA, it is important to consider what we were unable to Subregions of Concern do. In contrast to most bioregional assessments conducted in the United States to date, which have The assessment also allowed us to define where been motivated by a crisis of one sort or another change and the potential implications of change (Gordon 1999), the SFRA can be viewed as an are focused within the South. In particular, we 43 “anticipatory assessment” (Johnson and others identified three areas in the region where concerns 1999). It was intended to provide a complement regarding forest sustainability may be especially of information to illuminate a dynamic resource high. These are (1) the Southern Appalachians, (2) situation and illustrate critical areas before an the Piedmont, and (3) the Lower Atlantic and Gulf actual crisis erupted. Coastal Plains. In the following discussion, these regions are considered individually. The assessment was successful in describing 5. Chapter several emerging issues that could affect the Southern Appalachians—This region will be sustainability of the South’s forests, but more influenced by a combination of human, biological,

information is needed to better identify problems Learned We What and physical factors over the next two decades. and potential solutions. Each technical chapter Population growth and land use changes will of the assessment identifies research needs, increase the human presence in many forests. and eight broad areas of investigation were Demands for forest-based recreation are focused highlighted. The following are some key areas on the Southern Appalachians, and increased of uncertainty: competition among recreation user groups is anticipated. A complex of forest health issues is • The effects of population growth on forest affecting all forest types in this region and has the ecosystems potential to restructure forest ecosystems there. • The influence of changing market and other Piedmont—The Piedmont, from Virginia to values on land use and management choices Georgia, is expected to lose more forest area than • The determinants of overall forest any other part of the South. This heavily forested productivity for all benefits region already has a very low ratio of interior forest to total forest, indicating a high degree of • Forecasts of changes in ecological structure forest fragmentation. Fragmentation is likely to and functions continue with growth of populations in urban • Broadening the scale of forest research to counties and interspersed rural counties. better address questions at regional levels Consequently, wildlife habitats will be altered for certain neotropical migrant and other important • The role of fire in forests and the effective bird species. Because populations will grow and use of fire forest area will decline, we also expect an • The influence of changing forest structure, increasing scarcity of forest-based recreational and especially the influence of pine opportunities for city dwellers. plantations, on ecosystem function and wildlife Lower Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains— • Developing new forest management Coastal flatwoods areas are forecast to lose much strategies for a variety of settings of their forest area to urban development. Forest loss combined with intensified forest management A finding from the assessment as a whole is could have cumulative negative effects on coastal the inability to fully link findings into an wetlands, both through direct wetland loss and integrated multidisciplinary analysis of forest through modification of hydrological regimes. The ecosystems. The assessment highlights the fact Southern Forest Science: 44 Past, Present, and Future Looking Back LITERATURE CITED research community. important challengefortheSouth’sforest of scientificinvestigation.Thisdefinesan in generalthatisatitsroottheresultofform shortcoming ofecosystemandresourcescience Our inabilitytomakethesecausallinksreflectsa the distributionandpersistenceofrelatedspecies. and conditionofwetlandssubsequentlyon demand forwoodproductsonthedistribution us todirectlyevaluatetheimpactsofexpanded complexity ofadynamicandhighlydiverseregion. cannot yetbereadilyintegratedtoaddressthefull that fundamentalknowledgeinvariousdisciplines Gordon, John C. 1999. History andassessments: punctuated Gordon, JohnC.1999.History Island Press:43–54. crossroads ofmanagementandpolicy. Washington, DC: Greene, S.,eds.Bioregionalassessments:scienceatthe nonequilibrium. In:Johnson,K.N.;Swanson,F.; M.; Herring, Such ananalysiswould,forexample,allow Wear, forestresource DavidN.;Greis,JohnG.2002b.Southern Wear, forestresource DavidN.;Greis,JohnG.2002a.Southern AppalachianManandtheBiosphereCooperative Southern National ResearchCouncil.1998.Forested landscapesin Lee, K.1993.Compassandgyroscope.Washington, DC: Johnson, K.N.;Swanson,F.; M.;Greene,S.1999. Herring, Service, Southern ResearchStation.103p. Southern Service, Asheville, NC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest report.Gen.Tech.assessment: summary Rep.SRS–54. Research Station.635p. Department ofAgriculture,Forest Southern Service, assessment. Gen.Tech. Rep.SRS–53.Asheville,NC:U.S. of Agriculture,Forest Region.118p. Southern Service, report.Rep.1of5.Atlanta:summary U.S.Department Appalachianassessment: (SAMAB). 1996.TheSouthern DC: NationalAcademy Press.229p. management ofAmerica’snon-Federal forests.Washington, perspective: prospectsandopportunitiesforsustainable Island Press.[Notpaged]. 398 p. management andpolicy. Washington, DC:IslandPress. Bioregional assessments:scienceatthecrossroadsof Productivity Southern Forest Science: 46 Past, Present, and Future Productivity nSuhr oetPoutvt...... 97 in SouthernForest Productivity...... Genetics andTree Improvement The Role of Chapter 10. for 83 Naturally Regenerated ...... PineStands intheSouth. Reproduction Cutting Methods Chapter 9. 63 in theSouthernUnited States...... Pine Plantation Silviculture Chapter 8. Southern Hardwoods Chapter 7. Chapter 6. a Retrospective 109 andaVisionfor theFuture...... Forest Mensuration with Remote Sensing: Chapter 11. Management Strategies Applicable to

Productivity TheEvolution of Silviculture and ...... 47 ...... 51 ...... Chapter 6. Productivity

Thomas R. Fox and the Biltmore Estate led by the work of Olmstead, Ray R. Hicks, Jr.1 Pinchot, and Schenck in the 1890s. Although tremendous strides have been made in the management of most forest types, progress has been uneven. Economic factors associated with he South is blessed with abundant and the development of southern pine-based pulp and diverse forest resources. Today, forests paper industry, which started in the 1920s and 47 T cover approximately 215 million acres in 1930s, fostered the development of pine plantation the South, which represents 29 percent of the management using an agronomic approach. forest land in the United States (Conner and The work of research scientists and practicing Hartsell 2002). Maintaining the productivity foresters in the U.S. Department of Agriculture of these forests is essential to the economic, Forest Service (Forest Service), southern forestry environmental, and social well being of the South schools and universities, State forestry agencies, and the Nation. The forest products industry and private industry in pine tree improvement ranks among the top industries in most Southern and intensive silvicultural practices has greatly States and is the largest industry in several. The improved the productivity of southern pine wood products sector contributed 770,000 direct plantations. Similar but less sustained efforts jobs and over $120 billion in total industry output were periodically directed toward intensive in 1997 (Abt and others 2002). management of plantation hardwoods, generally The diversity of forest ecosystems in the South with mixed results. The research efforts directed is also large, ranging from mixed, mesophytic toward the management of natural hardwood, hardwood forests of the Southern Appalachians, pine, and mixed hardwood-pine stands have been to the planted pine forests of the Coastal Plain less concerted than that associated with intensive and Piedmont, to the bottomland hardwood pine plantation silviculture. However, individual forests along major rivers throughout the region. research programs within the Forest Service In 1999 there were 65 million acres of upland and at several southern forestry schools have hardwood forests, 30 million acres of lowland maintained a strong and consistent focus on these hardwoods, 29 million acres of mixed pine- forest types. Most notable are the Forest Service hardwood forests, 33 million acres of natural research units at Bent Creek and Coweeta focused pine, and 30 million acres of pine plantations on upland hardwoods, the program at Mississippi in the South excluding Kentucky (Conner and State University on silviculture of bottomland Hartsell 2002). These forests provide a wide hardwoods, the industry-sponsored Hardwood variety of goods and services other than timber, Research Cooperative at North Carolina State including a diverse range of habitat for wildlife, University, which has strong programs in both recreational opportunities, and clean air and upland and bottomland hardwoods, and the Forest water. These goods and services contribute Service Research Work Unit at Crossett, AR, that to an improved quality of life for an increasing has developed uneven-aged silvicultural systems population that has become more urbanized. for southern pines. Modern forest management regimes must Six chapters are included in this section on provide these noncommodity benefits. productivity. Three of these chapters review and Management practices have been developed highlight the progress made on silviculture of the and refined for each of the major forest types in major forest types in the South. This is followed the South since the advent of scientific forestry at by a chapter on the history and accomplishments of tree improvement programs in both southern pine and hardwoods. The final chapter discusses 1 Associate Professor of Forestry, Virginia Polytechnic the links that exist between silviculture and Institute and State University, Department of Forestry, Blacksburg, VA 24061; and Professor of Forestry, West remote sensing, specifically focusing on the use Virginia University, Division of Forestry, Morgantown, WV of remote sensing as a mensurational technique. 26506, respectively. Southern Forest Science: 48 Past, Present, and Future Productivity that hasaccompanied therapidexpansion ofpine is thesignificantincreasein per-acreproductivity in 1999(Wear andGreis2002). Moreremarkable from <2millionacresin1952 to32millionacres has increasedsignificantly over thelast50years pine silviculture.Theacreage inpineplantations the historicaldevelopmentofintensivesouthern Fox, EricJ.Jokela,andH.LeeAllenreviews UnitedStates”byThomasR. the Southern Evolution ofPinePlantationSilviculturein been exploitedandhigh-graded. are notactivelymanagedandhavehistorically contribute tothefactthatmosthardwoodstands stands occuronsmall,privatelyownedtracts, factors, alongwiththefactthatmosthardwood greatlyinstumpagevalue.These that vary equipment andcontainadiversityofspecies occur onsitesthataredifficulttooperate complicated becausemanyhardwoodstands silvicultural practicesinhardwoodstandsare then presented.Theauthorsalsodiscusshow commercially valuablespeciesofhardwoodsis techniques forregeneratingandculturingthe A detaileddescriptionofthesilvicultural ofhardwoodforests. composition andstructure influencethe fires, bothhistoricalandcurrent, forests andhowtheextentfrequencyof understanding oftherolefireinhardwood ownership. Emphasisisplacedonourimproved that existandtheirinfluenceonobjectivesof thetypeofhardwoodstands play indetermining andtheroletheseforces ownership patterns and They thenaddressthelandusehistory various typesofhardwoodforestsintheSouth. edaphic, andclimaticfactorsthatcharacterizethe lumber andveneer, andfiberforpulppaper. provide ecologicalandhabitatdiversity, valuable forests.They and economicroleinsouthern stands. Hardwoodsplayanimportantecological pine a significantcomponentofmanysouthern systems oftheSouth.Inaddition,hardwoodsform bottomland standsthatborderallthemajorriver Appalachiansandthe forests oftheSouthern dominated byhardwoods,suchasthemesophytic forestsare landscape.Somesouthern the southern Hardwoods compriseasignificantcomponentof and bottomlandhardwoodforestsintheSouth. Van Learaddressesthemanagementofupland William H.Conner, RobertC.Kellison, andDavid Hardwoods”byRayR.Hicks,Jr.,Southern and ManagementStrategiesApplicableto The thirdchapterinthissection“The The authorsfirstsummarizethephysiographic, The secondchapterofthissection“Silviculture Precision silvicultureofpineplantationsinthe21 inanenvironmentallysustainablemanner.returns basis tooptimizegrowthratesandfinancial andmanagedonasite-specific embryogenesis elite genotypesproducedthroughsomatic by theauthorsincludesclonaldeploymentof are discussed.Avisionofthefuturepresented specific, rotation-longsilviculturalmanipulations silvicultural practicesinvolvingintegrated,site- state-of-the-arta decade-by-decadebasis.Current modeling, andlandclassificationarepresentedon competition control,fertilization,growth-and-yield practices,sitepreparation, improved nursery improved plantationyieldsoftreeimprovement, since1950.Thecontributionsto have occurred changes inpineplantationsilviculturethat volume (Wear andGreis2002). it accountsfor35percentoftheannualharvest percent ofthetotalforestlandbaseinSouth, Although plantedpineaccountsforonly15 lengths havebeencutbymorethan50percent. plantations hasmorethandoubled,androtation plantations. Meanannualincrementofpine is frequentlythe onlyoptionfinanciallyavailable requiredbysociety.services Naturalregeneration healthy foreststhatprovide avarietyofgoodsand practices thatestablishand maintainproductive, must bemanagedusingclassical silvicultural the South(Wear andGreis2002).These stands natural pineormixedpine-hardwoodforestsin 62millionacresof stands. Therearecurrently of forestlandintheSouthwillremainnatural pointsoutthatalargepercentage author correctly increased significantlyoverthelast50years, Although theacreageinpineplantationshas natural pineandmixedpine-hardwoodstands. M. Guldin,discussesmanagementpracticesin Regenerated PineStandsintheSouth”byJames “Reproduction CuttingMethodsforNaturally continue tobeneeded. concerted, cooperativeresearcheffortswill plantation silvicultureincreasesinthefuture, in thepast.Aslevelofcomplexitypine to developtheneededsilviculturaltechnology the financialorintellectualresourcesrequired authors isthatnoonesingleorganizationhad the chapter. Thetake-homemessagefromthe plantation silvicultureisemphasizedthroughout in thesuccessfuldevelopmentofintensivepine cooperative researchandtechnologytransferhad coming outofprecisionagriculture.Therolethat intheSouthwillembraceadvances century The authorsofthischapterhighlightthe The fourthchapterinthissection st to nonindustrial landowners. Longer rotations has recently increased because of work in the required to produce large-diameter pine trees developing field of forest biotechnology. Hardwood and other multiple-use benefits associated with species, most notably those in the genera Populus them, such as aesthetics and wildlife habitat, may and Eucalyptus, are proving to be much easier not be feasible in plantation systems. Certain to study and manipulate through tissue culture, landowners and segments of the general public genetic mapping, and genetic engineering may reject the clearcut and plant approach techniques than conifers. Hardwoods will required in plantation silviculture. Regulatory probably serve as model systems where requirements, including best management the gains in biotechnology are first realized practices in all Southern States, prohibit in forestry. clearcutting in streamside management zones. The authors of this chapter provide a thorough Management prescriptions involving natural review of the history of forest tree improvement regeneration that avoids high-grading and in the South from its infancy in the 1920s. They protects water quality must be developed for include a discussion of both southern pine and 49 these sensitive, high-quality sites. hardwood tree improvement programs. They The author reviews silvicultural practices that illustrate how the observations and efforts of establish and maintain naturally regenerated pine practicing foresters played an important role and pine-hardwood mixtures. He discusses both during the early phases of tree improvement. even-aged and uneven-aged reproduction cutting These initial efforts were superseded by methods, including seed tree and shelterwood well-coordinated, sophisticated, cooperative 6. Chapter

systems and group and single-tree selection. research programs involving Federal and State Productivity

He illustrates how both even-aged and uneven- Governments, universities, and private industry. aged systems can be effective in southern pine Today approximately 1 billion southern pine stands depending upon which species are present, seedlings are planted annually, nearly all of the site preparation practices, and the manner them the product of tree improvement programs. that required intermediate treatments, such as The authors discuss the productivity gains made release, are employed to assure adequate seedling using first-generation slash (Pinus elliottii establishment and rapid stand development. The Engelm.) and loblolly pine. Gains are estimated importance of residual overstory basal area, timing to be 15 to 20 percent over unimproved, natural of harvests to take advantage of cone crops and populations. Additional gains will be made seed production, appropriate site preparation to from the deployment of advanced generation create suitable seed beds, control of competing material from elite populations through vegetation, and control of stand density are techniques such as open-pollinated single-family emphasized as key components of a successful block plantings, and full-sib deployment using natural regeneration system in southern pine. control mass pollination. Clonal forestry looms on the horizon as an opportunity to exploit the The fifth chapter in this section “The Role full genetic potential of various commercial of Genetics and Tree Improvement in Southern species through the development of tissue culture Forest Productivity” by R.C. Schmidtling, T.L. techniques, such as rooted cuttings and somatic Robison, S.E. McKeand, R.J. Rousseau, H.L. embryogenesis. The science of genomics will Allen, and B. Goldfarb documents the impacts that provide improved tools such as marker-aided tree improvement activities have had in the South selection that will increase the efficiency of tree over the last 50 years. The contributions of applied improvement programs. The authors conclude tree improvement to the increased productivity of with a cautionary note on the need to conserve southern pine stands are recognized throughout long-term genetic diversity while managing for the world as one of the major success stories of short-term productivity gains. modern forestry. Beginning with the pioneering work of Wakeley on seed source variation in The final chapter in this section, “Forest southern pine in the 1920s, research on tree Mensuration with Remote Sensing: A improvement in southern pines has progressed to Retrospective with a Vision for the Future,” the point where loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) is by Randolph H. Wynne, discusses the role today probably the most domesticated and best of remote sensing as a tool that practicing understood conifer in the world. Again, hardwood foresters can use to improve forest productivity. species have received less attention in the South As management practices intensify, foresters than have pines. However, interest in hardwoods require more detailed information upon which Southern Forest Science: 50 Past, Present, and Future Productivity woods shouldnotbeoverlooked.Theauthorthen the efficiencyoftheirday-to-dayactivitiesin as anavigationtoolusedbyforesterstoincrease and simplifynavigation.Thevalueofaerialphotos to stratifyandmapstands,calculatelandarea, hasbeen,andcontinuestobe, data inforestry The mostwidespreaduseofremotelysensed 25 percent)tobeofgreatvalueformanyuses. exceeding on aerialphotoswastoohigh(often the variationinstand-volumeestimatesbased used tocreatephotovolumetables.Historically, obtained fromconventionalaerialphotosand crown dimensions,andcovercanbe properties suchasstanddensity, treeheight, This sectionexplainshowtreeandstand estimation usingaerialphotosisthenpresented. management. Asectionontimbervolume the longuseofaerialphotostoimproveforest discussion ofremotesensing,whichreviews fromtimbermanagement. financial returns than simplyoptimizinggrowthandassociated production isamuchmorecomplicatedtask andtimber endangered species,wilderness, recreation, wildlifehabitat,waterquality, For example,meetingtheneedsforaesthetics, demands placedonforestresourcestoday. by anyforesterattemptingtomeetthecompeting sophisticated managementscenariosareneeded with thedesiretooptimizefinancialreturns, associated at thislevelofintensityisoften objectives. Althoughforestmanagement management regimesthatbestmeetlandowner sophisticated, fullyintegratedrotation-long decisionprocesstodevelop into aforester’s remote sensingcanbequicklyintegrated as precisionforestry. fromdigital Information management thatcanbebroadlycharacterized the agriculturalmodelofintensive,site-specific to basetheirdecisions.Forestry ismovingtoward The chapterbeginswitharetrospective Wear, forest DavidN.;Greis,JohnG., eds.2002.Southern Conner, R.C.;Hartsell,A.J.2002.Forest areaandconditions. Abt, K.L.;Winter, S.A.;Huggett,R.J.,Jr. 2002.Localeconomic LITERATURE CITED paradigm. component ofthenewprecisionforestry these newtechniquesandtoolswillbeanintegral with adiscussionofhowremotesensingutilizing ratio ofthistechnology. Thechapterconcludes increasing efficiencywillimprovethecost/benefit and thatthecombinationofdecreasingcost acquired withthesenewtechniqueswilldecrease author isoptimisticthatthehighcostofdata estimates oftreeandstandparameters.The and lessbiasedthanconventionalphoto-based measurements areprovingtobemoreaccurate and standdensityisdiscussed.Lidar-based accurately estimatecanopyheight,crowndensity, laserto and ranging),whichusesanairborne stands. Thedevelopingtooloflidar(lightdetecting are beingusedtoimprovevolumeestimatesof and computertechnologies,explainshowthey discusses newdevelopmentsinremotesensing Southern ResearchStation.635p. Southern NC: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Service, resource assessment.Gen.Tech. Rep.SRS–53.Asheville, ResearchStation:357–401. Southern NC: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Service, resource assessment.Gen.Tech. Rep.SRS–53.Asheville, In: Wear, DavidN.;Greis,JohnG.,eds.Southernforest ResearchStation:239–267. Southern Service, 53. Asheville,NC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest forestresourceassessment.Gen.Tech.Southern Rep.SRS– impacts offorests.In:Wear, DavidN.;Greis,JohnG.,eds. Chapter 7.

Silviculture and Management Strategies Applicable to Southern Hardwoods

Ray R. Hicks, Jr., William INTRODUCTION H. Conner, Robert C. Kellison, n this chapter, we discuss the silviculture 1 and David Van Lear and management of upland and bottomland I hardwoods in the Southeastern United States. We begin by briefly describing the physiographic, edaphic, and climatic conditions for each forest 51 Abstract—Southern hardwood forests stretch type. Land use history and ownership patterns from the Virginias to Florida and from the mid- are then discussed because these factors are Atlantic to Missouri. They can generally be important in determining what types of stands grouped into upland forests and bottomland occur and the objectives of landowners. Finally we forests. The upland hardwood forests of the describe the appropriate silvicultural techniques southern region are usually associated with the for regenerating and culturing the commercially mountainous topography of the Appalachians and valuable species in each management type. Ozarks. Bottomland hardwoods are found along the floodplains of larger rivers in the Atlantic and Upland Hardwoods Gulf Coastal Plains, including the Mississippi River The southern upland hardwoods occur floodplain. Southern hardwood forests are owned extensively in the Southern Appalachians, by a variety of governmental and private owners, on the Cumberland Plateau, and in the Ozark but the vast majority of owners are nonindustrial region. A diverse array of hardwood species is private individuals. These owners seldom engage represented by genera such as Acer, Carya, Fraxinus, Liquidambar, Liriodendron, Prunus, in intensive forest management, often exploiting and Quercus. The southern upland hardwoods the resource. The silvicultural systems applicable include pine-hardwood mixtures in the Piedmont to the management of hardwoods are the same and southern Coastal Plains, but by far the most as those recommended for pines, but in hardwood commercially significant upland hardwoods in management, reliance on natural regeneration is the South occur in the Southern Appalachian more common than use of plantation silviculture. region. For purposes of this discussion, the Oak species are very important in the southern Southern Appalachian region includes the hilly or hardwood forests, and lack of oak regeneration mountainous area west and north of the Piedmont in present-day forests is a major concern. Lack and south of the glaciated portion of Pennsylvania. of fire and the resurgence of white-tailed deer Using Fenneman’s (1938) classification, this region throughout the southern region are proposed as is termed the “Appalachian Highlands,” and reasons for poor oak regeneration. Many stands, contains parts of the Blue Ridge, Ridge and Valley, and Appalachian Plateau physiographic provinces. either due to their stage of development or The Appalachian Highlands are classified as being neglect, are in need of intermediate management in the Eastern Broadleaf Forest Province (Bailey operations such as thinning and improvement 1996). The climate is continental and part of cutting. Crop-tree management is a method that the Humid Temperate Domain (Bailey 1996). is particularly useful in southern hardwoods. It Rainfall is favorable for plant growth and is was concluded that although hardwoods make well distributed throughout the year. Highest up a significant part of the southern forest precipitation rates occur in the southern Blue resource, they are generally managed with less intensity than pines, and hardwood management is an opportunity area for the South in the future. 1 Professor of Forestry, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506; Professor of Forestry, Baruch Institute of Coastal Ecology and Forest Science, Clemson University, Georgetown, SC 29442; Professor Emeritus, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695; and Professor of Forestry, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, respectively. Southern Forest Science: 52 Past, Present, and Future Productivity underlain byalluvial andmarinesediments of with inherently fertilesoils.TheCoastal Plain is agricultural usebecauseit occupied levelterrain converted toagriculturalcrops. Itwastakenfor United Statestobe the firstinSouthern difficulty ofclearingland,this ecosystemwas 1995). Despitethedensetree coverandthe and minorriverseastoftheGreatPlains(Hodges Illinois andtosomeextentalongallthemajor along theMississippiRiverfloodplaintosouthern the RioGrandeRiver. Theyalsooccurnorth Atlantic coastandwest along thegulfcoastto tipofPennsylvaniathe eastern southalongthe gulf lowlands(Fenneman 1938)extendingfrom the Atlantic Plainphysiographicdivisionandthe in thebroad,LowlandCoastalPlainProvinceof Bottomland Hardwoods and firesorfromrevegetationofabandonedfields. second growth,resultingfrompreviouslogging of theforestsAppalachianHighlandsare as beingintheoak-chestnutforestregion.Most substantial portionoftheAppalachianHighlands oaks ( the AppalachianHighlands.Theseincludeseveral the AppalachianHighlands. foundin complex, steep,androckyterrain with thegeologicmaterialstoproduce folding, andgeologicweatheringhaveinteracted Precambrian rockoutcropscanbefound.Faulting, BlueRidge, higher elevationsofthesouthern rock.Atand smallareaswithsedimentary rock substrateswithsomeigneousintrusions Blue Ridgeiscomposedprimarilyofmetamorphic sharply foldedRidgeandValley Province.The and limestonesshalespredominateinthe throughout theAppalachianPlateauProvince, Pennsylvanian periodcapthehighestmountains predominantly sedimentary. Sandstonesofthe geology oftheAppalachianHighlandsregionis annual precipitationaverages40to50inches.The per year(Hicks1998).Across mostoftheregion, annual precipitationaverages60to80inches Ridge oftheCarolinasandnorthGeorgia,where part ofthe20 Anderson&Anderson]} duringtheearly (Murrill) [formerly Barr (Murrill) the chestnutblight{ Borkh.], aspeciesthatwasallbuteliminatedby American chestnut[ Ehrh.). Theareawasalsoaprimerangefor Ehrh.), andAmericanbeech( tulipifera maples ( Southern bottomlandhardwoodsoccur mainly Southern Deciduous hardwoodspeciespredominatein Quercus Acer L.), black cherry ( L.), blackcherry spp.),yellow-poplar( th century. Braun(1950)classifieda spp.), hickories( Castanea dentata Cryphonectria parasitica Cryphonectria Endothia parasitica Prunus serotina Prunus Fagus grandifolia Carya Liriodendron spp.), (Marsh.) many purposes. Theycontrolledthecomposition and others2002). NativeAmericansused firefor of yearspriortotheadvent ofEuropeans(Carroll manipulated byNativeAmericans forthousands UnitedStateswere forests oftheSoutheastern Pre-European Forests are increasing(Hodges1995). composition andquality, eventhoughvolumes influences hasbeenageneraldegradationof uncontrolled fires.Theoverallresultofthese agriculturaluse,grazing,and timber harvesting, forests havebeeninfluenceddramaticallybypast and Buford1998,Megonigalothers1997). they arehighlyvariable(Conner1994,Conner rates inthemorefloodedareascanbehigh,but conditions (McKevlin andothers1998).Growth which haveevolvedspecialadaptationstothese yearhavefewerspecies, extended periodsevery growth (Smith1995).Areasthatarefloodedfor the mostdiverseforestsandsustainexcellent flooding formostoftheyear. Theseareassupport in theportionsoffloodplainthatarefreefrom others 1998).Bottomlandhardwoodforestsoccur [ elm ( Nutt.), wateroak( styraciflua pennsylvanica ( ( sugarberry [ water hickory these includeredmaple( bottomlands; are commonthroughoutsouthern occur.few gymnosperms Anumberoftreespecies predominate,buta (Hosner 1962).Angiosperms others 1960)ofwhich40arecommercialvalue including morethan70treespecies(Putnamand precipitation does(Kellison andothers1998). larger impactondownstreamfloodingthanlocal (some coverhundredsofthousandsacres)hasa occur. Upstreamprecipitationinlargewatersheds magnitude anddurationofthefloodingthatcan received, however, isnotareliableindicatorofthe 1998).Theamountofrainfall and Grymes season(Kellisonwarm andothers1998,Muller 64 inchesandisgenerallygreaterduringthe the majoralluvialfloodplainsrangesfrom48to and Schoenholtz1998).Annualprecipitationin nearshore, andoffshoreenvironments(Stanturf age. Sedimentswerelaiddowninvariousonshore, mostly Cretaceous,Tertiary, andQuaternary Taxodium distichum Diospyros virginiana Both uplandandbottomland hardwood The qualityandcompositionofbottomland Bottomland forestsareextremelydiverse, Ulmus americana L.),swampchestnutoak( Celtis laevigata Marsh.),sweetgum( C. aquatica Q. nigra (L.)Rich.](Kellison and L.),greenash( L.),andbaldcypress A. rubrum A. rubrum (Michx.f.) Nutt.], L.),American Willd.), persimmon Liquidambar L.), Q. michauxii Fraxinus and pattern of vegetation by frequently burning laurel (Kalmia latifolia L.) thickets have become the southern landscape. They burned to manage so dense and expansive that the species diversity wildlife habitat, ease travel, expose acorns and of cove forests is threatened. Because of these chestnuts, improve visibility, encourage fruiting, problems, there is renewed interest in using prepare their fields for planting, and to facilitate prescribed fire as a management tool in upland hunting and defense (Bonnicksen 2000, Pyne hardwood forests (Yaussy 2000). and others 1996, Williams 1989). Frequent low- Villages of early European colonists were intensity burning by Native Americans created a almost always located along major streams. southern landscape of prairies, fields, savannas, A rice culture developed, first in the vicinity of woodlands, and dense forests. The southern Charleston, SC, and then elsewhere along the hardwood forest was hardly a dense, old-growth Southeastern U.S. coast. On the fringes of the landscape at the time of European discovery. rice paddies and beyond, corn, wheat, and cotton The myth of low-impact management by Native supplanted hardwood forests. Americans may have been reinforced by the fact 53 that the major European occupation of interior Following attempts to control water flow in America came after native populations had been the major alluvial floodplains, first by private devastated by diseases introduced by earlier enterprise and then by public agencies, especially European immigrants. the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the forests were increasingly cleared for agricultural crops. Some areas were burned on an annual basis

Only about half of the original bottomland forests 7. Chapter and, if burning continued over long periods, remained by the 1930s. From the 1930s to the became prairies or balds. Other areas, such as 1980s, the bottomland forest area was further north-facing coves in the Southern Appalachians reduced from 11.8 to 4.3 million acres as a result of and frequently flooded bottomland forests, burned drainage and clearing for agriculture.2 Conversion infrequently. Between these two extremes were Southern Hardwoods Southern

was especially rapid during the 1960s and 1970s forest communities that burned at varying when the price for farm crops, especially soybeans, intervals, thus creating a mosaic of forest reached unprecedented levels. conditions throughout the South. In the hardwood forests of the South, anthropogenic fires were Land Ownership Characteristics complemented by occasional lightning-ignited The majority of hardwood forest land (upland fires (Carroll and others 2002). and bottomland) is in the hands of nonindustrial Post-European Effects private forest (NIPF) ownership (MacCleery 1990), although a substantial portion of the Blue The European settlers who displaced the Ridge and Allegheny Highlands is in national Native Americans from the upland forests forests and parks. The motivation for forest continued to burn the forest frequently to activity for most nonindustrial forest landowners encourage forage production for their livestock appears to be income, although most of these (Pyne and others 1996). However with the advent owners do not rank commercial forest production of steam power for harvesting and processing as the number one reason for holding land (Egan of timber, wide-scale logging and the slash it and Jones 1993). produced created a different type of fire regime. High-intensity, stand-replacement fires ignited It is possible to combine commercial timber by sparks from locomotives followed logging and operations with forest stand improvement through burned vast acreages of upland forests from the application of appropriate silviculture in southern late 1880s though the early 1930s (Brose and hardwoods. The development of new markets for others 2001). smaller diameter and lower grade materials has enhanced the opportunity for producing revenue Fire protection efforts begun early in the 20th from heretofore noncommercial stands. century gradually became more effective and Unfortunately, however, the type of timber allowed the forests to develop—for the first time in harvesting often being practiced on NIPF lands millennia—in the absence of fire. However decades amounts to high-grading of one type or another. of fire exclusion had unintended consequences. The development of dense understories and midstories of shade-tolerant shrubs and trees is now a major contributor to the oak regeneration 2 Allen, J.A.; Kennedy, H.E., Jr. 1989. Bottomland hardwood problem. In other areas, rhododendron reforestation in the Lower Mississippi Valley. [Not paged]. On (Rhododendron maximum L.) and mountain file with: Southern Research Station, Southern Hardwoods Laboratory, P.O. Box 227, Stoneville, MS 38776. Southern Forest Science: 54 Past, Present, and Future Productivity Highlands intheearlydecadesof20 from thehardwoodforestsofAppalachian poplar (Abrams1998,Broseandothers2001). aggressive speciessuchasredmapleandyellow- position inmanyuplandforests,beingreplacedby SILVICULTURE OFUPLANDHARDWOODS but simplyfastergrowing. are even-aged,andthelargertreesnotolder, accept thefactthatmanysecond-growthforests years inthemaking.Ownersmayfinditdifficultto foresters aregoingagainstbeliefsthathavebeen difficult toconvinceownersofsuchfacts,since productivity, andvalueoftheforest.Itmaybe out overtimewhileenhancingthefuturehealth, small tracts,itispossibletospreadtheincome need tounderstandthatevenwithrelatively means andwhatisnotpossible.Owners explaining whatplannedforestmanagement with landownerstobegintheirassociationby of managingtheirforestland. affair. Thusmanyownersfailtoseethevalue believe that“timbering”isaonce-in-a-lifetime people, accustomedtothepracticesofpast, Inaddition,many worked hardtopreserve. forest landwasinfields,aconditionthatthey and havelivedduringtimeswhenmuchoftoday’s that helptoexplaintheirbehavior. Manyareolder silvicultural methods thatareappropriate to Central Hardwood Forests” todescribe the (1998) book“EcologyandManagement of poised todominate. species intheadvanceregeneration poolare disturbstheuppercanopy,harvesting other regeneration pool.Thusaswind,ice,orpartial maintain apositionofdominanceintheadvance fires,oaksdonot absence ofperiodicsurface distinct advantageovertheircompetitors.Inthe the resultingseedlingsproutsofoakshavea fireskilltheabovegroundportion oftrees, surface especially onabove-averagesites.However, when species likeyellow-poplarandredmaple, are atacompetitivedisadvantagewithaggressive root developmentattheexpenseofheight,they Brose 2001).Becauseyoungoaksinvestheavilyin fires(Broseandothers1999,Vansurface Learand thrive underaregimeofperiodicdisturbanceby has changedthecharacteroftheseforests.Oaks O Exclusion of periodic, low-intensity surface fires Exclusion ofperiodic,low-intensitysurface It isincumbentonforesterswhointeract Forest landownerssharecertainattributes This chapterusesconcepts fromHicks’ aks, asagroup,constitutethemostsignificant uplands. Oaks,however, arelosingtheir hardwood forestresourceinthesouthern th century management opportunities. forestregionprovideviable southern shade-tolerant commercial species inthe species inmultiagestands. However, noneofthe work welliftheobjectiveis togrowshade-tolerant system aged ortwo-agestands.Thesingle-treeselection two-age systems.Alloftheforegoingcreateeven- method,andrelated clearcutting, theshelterwood that aremostappropriatetohardwoods management. Amongregenerationsystems,those thinning, improvementcutting, that aremostappropriatetohardwoodscrown cuttings quality ofdesirabletrees.Intermediate processes tofavortheregeneration,growth,and is toworkinconcertwiththenaturalecosystem trees oflowervalue.Theobjectivemanagement with commercially valuabletreesareintermingled occur inmixedspeciesstandswhich management. Also,hardwoodsalmostalways plantation silvicultureforuplandhardwood regeneration usuallypreventtheapplicationof economic factors,andtheabundanceofnatural in bothareas.Topographic considerations, silviculture differsmarkedlyfrompine are aimedatregeneratingnewstands.Hardwood operations)andthosethat stands (intermediate into treatmentsthatareusedtotendexisting thatisusefultomanagers. presented inaform thathasbeenproduced mustbe information has beenconductedinNorthAmerica,the a greatdealofresearchonhardwoodmanagement relatively simpleconiferousecosystems.Although methodsthatweredevelopedforusein on German texts emphasize“traditional”approachesbased and changingsocialpressures. suchasinsectanddiseaseoutbreaks, occurrences adaptable tochangingmarketconditions,natural that managementofhardwoodstandsmustremain several silviculturalmethodssimultaneously, and toapply necessary hardwood stands,itisoften recommended. Finally wewanttostressthatin appropriate anddescriptiveofthepracticesbeing thatis foresters todevelopavocabulary such as“selectivecutting,”andtoencourage We alsohopetodiscouragetheuseoflooseterms methods andtheirapplicationtoNIPFstands. and toprovidedescriptionsofrelevantsilvicultural canutilizesilviculturallysoundconcepts, harvests demonstrate thatproperlydesignedcommercial most uplandhardwoodstands.Itisourgoalto Silvicultural methodscangenerallybegrouped Most silvicultureandforestmanagement

and variationssuchasgroupselectionwill

and crop-tree Intermediate Operations marketing of trees removed may be difficult. Many Crown thinning—The crown-thinning method is upland hardwood stands have a past history of defined by Smith (1986) as thinning that involves high-grading (Nyland 1992) which may limit the the removal of trees in the upper strata of the number of desirable trees available to leave in the canopy to favor desirable trees in the same canopy residual stand. At some point, it becomes advisable range. In crown thinning, the focus is on the better to regenerate severely impoverished stands rather trees (crop trees) that are to be provided with than apply intermediate management to them. additional growing space and resources. As with Crop-tree management—Crop-tree management all thinning methods, crown thinning is applied is a technique that focuses on “individual” trees at the stand level where residual stocking targets that have the potential to develop into high-value are an important consideration. Crown thinning crop trees. Perkey and others (1993) emphasize seems particularly applicable to fully stocked or that crop-tree value should be defined by overstocked mixed oak or mixed mesophytic the landowner’s objectives. The two phases hardwood stands on above-average sites. Although in crop-tree management are assessment and 55 species such as northern red oak (Q. rubra L.) enhancement. Generally the assessment phase are capable of responding to release at age 50 involves the selection of trees that have the and older, appropriate candidate stands of shade- potential for meeting the objectives defined by intolerant species such as yellow-poplar and the landowner. Enhancement consists of activities black cherry should be treated earlier than oaks. that foster the attainment of those objectives. For Care should be given to residual stand density, example, if timber management was the objective, 7. Chapter understory composition, and stem wounding of trees of desirable species with good stem quality residual trees. Excessive thinning can induce and capable of responding to release would be epicormic branching of residuals or release selected as crop trees. The enhancement operation undesirable midstory or understory species, or would release crop trees by removing some of the Southern Hardwoods Southern both. Sonderman and Rast (1988) recommend trees that compete with them for sunlight, water, thinnings of moderate-to-light intensity in mixed and nutrients. The recommended method for oak stands in order to minimize branch-related releasing crop trees is the “crown-touching” defects that typically result from heavier thinnings method described by Lamson and others (1988). in such stands. Residual stand density should be To apply this method, the crop-tree crown is maintained at a level above the “B” line and below divided into four quadrants (sides) and one the “A” line defined by Gingrich (1967). determines whether the tree is free-to-grow Improvement cutting—Smith (1986) defines on each of these sides. A three-sided release improvement cutting as cuttings done in stands has been recommended by Lamson and others past the sapling stage for the purpose of improving (1990) for use in younger stands. For older composition and quality by removing trees of stands or for species with a tendency toward undesirable species, form, or condition from the epicormic branching, a two-sided release is main canopy. Unlike crown thinning and crop-tree more appropriate. Cutting, girdling, or the use management, the focus of improvement cutting of herbicides (Miller 1984) can accomplish release is on the “undesirable trees.” Improvement cutting of the crop tree. The advantages of crop-tree is widely applicable to southern upland hardwood management are: stands. It is appropriate for use in mixed oak, oak- 1. It permits crop-tree designation to fit hickory, and mixed mesophytic hardwood stands. landowner objectives The silvical characteristics of the species present 2. It is simple to apply and fits well with should be a prime consideration, but improvement NIPF needs cutting can generally be applied to stands well beyond age 50. Depending on the owner’s 3. It provides for an even flow of forest products objectives, species typically targeted for removal over time can include red maple, American beech, hickories, 4. It allows for continuous forest cover until blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica Marsh.), scarlet oak crop trees are harvested (Q. coccinea Muenchh.), and black locust (Robinia 5. Management efforts are concentrated on trees pseudoacacia L.) in addition to poor-quality with the highest potential for future gain individuals of more favored species. Improvement cutting is widely applicable to current upland Crop-tree management has disadvantages: hardwood stands because of the age and current 1. It does not provide for regeneration after composition of many such stands, although removal of crop trees Southern Forest Science: 56 Past, Present, and Future Productivity clearcutting provide exceptionallygoodhabitat The earlysuccessional communitiesproduced by can delaytheregeneration process evenfurther. by white-taileddeer( prevail, butotherfactorssuch asheavybrowsing most cases,commercialwoody speciesultimately L.), rhododendron,andgrapevine ( albidum as woodyperennialssuchsassafras[ brambles,andherbaceousspecies,aswell ferns, development ofcompetingvegetationsuchas clearcuttingbytherapid can bedelayedafter stands ofthatspecies.Successfulregeneration favors yellow-poplar, resultinginpure often (oak siteindexgreaterthan70),clearcutting Appalachians On thebestsitesinSouthern clearcutting iseffectiveinregeneratingoaks. (south- andwest-facingslopesridges), poplar, sweetgum,andpines.Onpoorersites fast-growing, exploitivespeciessuchasyellow- uplands, clearcuttingpromotesregenerationof acres insize(Sander1992).Inthesouthern as aclearcut,openingsmustbeatleast1to2 stands. Inordertoprovideconditionsthatqualify hardwood historic roleinthecreationofsouthern thathavehada such asthefiresandwindstorms Clearcutting mimicslarge-scaledisturbances favors relativelyshade-intolerantspecies. even-aged, single-cohortstands,andgenerally operation. Themethodisdesignedtoregenerate iscompletelyremovedinasingle the overstory Clearcutting— root sprouts(Nyland1996). method, e.g.,seeds,seedlings,orstumpand of competingvegetation;and(4)regeneration advanced reproduction);(3)kindandamount trees(desiredinitialand condition ofunderstory treesbyspecies;(2)quantityand of overstory includes: (1)conditionandsize-classdistribution needed would beregenerated.Theinformation howthestand should bemadetodetermine Regeneration Methods Silvicultural Systemsand and potentialcompetitorsatearlyages. there arerisksinattemptingtoassesscroptrees the effectcanbenefitcroptrees.However, enhancement canbeappliedtoastand,thelonger mixed hardwoodstands.Theearlierthecrop-tree applicable methodthatisappropriatetomany management likeimprovementcuttingisawidely 2. Sometimesremovaloflow-gradeinterfering When a harvest isplanned,anassessment When aharvest However generallyspeaking,crop-tree thus mayconstituteacosttothelandowner trees maynotbeacommercialoperationand (Nutt.)Nees],dogwood( In theclearcuttingmethod, Odocoileus virginianus Cornus florida Cornus Vitis Sassafras spp.).In ) become asignificant problemwhenapplying the they maybewilling tomake.Deerbrowsing can on thepartoflandownersand managersthan process, andthisrepresents alongercommitment regeneration years tocompletetheshelterwood In theabsenceoffire,itmay take10to20 methodrequires. the timeshelterwood resprouting byoakreproductionshortens andthevigorous vegetation byburning oak reproduction.Thereductionincompeting developing advanceregenerationtofavorthe through the isrun hot growing-seasonburn cut,amoderately theinitialshelterwood after of oakregenerationongoodsites.Afewyears competitors toenhancethecompetitiveposition development strategiesofoaksandmanytheir androot basic differencesbetweengermination by Broseandothers(1999)takesadvantageof 1990,1993). shade tolerance,suchasoaks(Loftis in for regeneratingspeciesthatareintermediate recommended methodisoften The shelterwood standareofthedesiredspecies. in thecurrent cutting andisappropriatewheremostofthetrees variation ofthemethodeliminatespreparatory designed toremovetheoverstory. Thetwo-cut encourage regeneration;and(3)aremovalcutting, of theresiduals;(2)aseedcutting,designedto cutting, designedtoimprovethequalityandvigor thecutsare:(1)apreparatory shelterwood, (Smith1986).Inathree-cut of theoverstory regeneration throughaseriesofpartialremovals that involvesdevelopmentofastandingcrop method isaneven-agedmanagementsystem Shelterwood method— of theirlandbase. might representarelativelysmallpercentage larger ownership,clearcutsupto2030acres is compromisedforalongperiod.Conversely andtheaestheticvalueofproperty intervals long which incomeisproducedonlyatvery time. Thiscreatesanundesirablesituationin tocutmost orallofthetimberatone necessary attract abuyerforhisorhertimbermayfindit relatively small.Asmallownerwhowantsto case ofNIPFownership,thepropertyisoften acceptable tomostowners.Inaddition,inthe produces abarelandscapethatisnotaesthetically time (1to10years,dependingonsitequality) landowners regarditwithdisfavor. For ashort to regenerateavarietyofhardwoods,many landscape (Harlowandothers1997). maturing second-growthforestsdominatethe Appalachianswhere for wildlifeintheSouthern A shelterwood-burn techniquedeveloped A shelterwood-burn Although clearcuttingisareliableway The shelterwood , it shelterwood method, since deer often selectively tree selection, although group selection, like browse species that are desired as regeneration. single-tree selection, requires repeated entry into the stand. One of the common mistakes Two-aged system—Leave-tree (deferment) made by both foresters and landowners is to cutting is receiving increasing attention for refer to “selective cutting” (cutting some trees regeneration of southern upland and bottomland and leaving others) as a legitimate silvicultural hardwoods. Implementation of the practice activity. The similarity between the terms includes leaving 20 to 30 square feet per acre of “selective cutting” and “selection system” basal area until the end of the following rotation is unfortunate and leads to confusion. in combination with the regeneration that develops in the openings created by partial harvesting of SILVICULTURE OF BOTTOMLAND the parent stand. As opposed to the shelterwood HARDWOODS system, where the residual overstory trees are removed to allow the regeneration to develop, ottomland hardwood forests are made up leave-tree cutting maintains the overstory trees of an extremely heterogeneous mixture of 57 until the end of the rotation. At that time, the B species except in permanently flooded swamps residual trees are removed together with about and newly formed lands and old fields. Thirteen 75 percent of the basal area of the regenerated bottomland forest types are recognized by the stand. The cycle is repeated in the next rotation Society of American Foresters (Eyre 1980). The and, thus, an overstory is present during all U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service stages of stand development. recognizes only two bottomland hardwood types 7. Chapter for inventory purposes: oak-gum-cypress and An additional benefit of this system is that elm-ash-cottonwood. The following discussion of a mixture of crop trees can be retained for the silvicultural information draws heavily on Hodges next rotation. Some of the trees might be selected (1995) and the chapter by Kellison and others Southern Hardwoods Southern for their timber value, and some for wildlife and (1998) in the book “Southern Forest Wetlands: other values. This system is equivalent to the Ecology and Management” (Messina and Conner “high forests with reserves” of European forestry 1998). Other primary sources include McKelvin (Matthews 1989). A major disadvantage of two- (1992) and Kellison and Young (1997) who have age systems is the vulnerability of leave trees compiled the findings of scientists regarding to damage by windthrow, lightning strikes, and regeneration of bottomland hardwood forests. epicormic shoot development. Mixed hardwoods in the major alluvial Selection system—The single-tree selection floodplains generally have been logged one system is designed to develop a multicohort to several times since Dutch settlers (Heavrin (all-age) stand of shade-tolerant species. In 1981) built the first sawmill in the United States practice, however, it may be impractical to achieve in 1633. Loggers have usually removed only the this goal because it requires frequent stand entry best and largest trees while leaving the smallest and because the smallest diameter classes may and least valuable trees to form the new stand. not develop in the shade of trees of the larger This form of timber harvesting, commonly known diameter classes. Proper application of the as selective harvesting, is in reality high-grading, selection system involves establishing several a practice that should be condemned by foresters. criteria, which include a residual basal area target, This degenerative practice is not to be confused largest-tree-to-grow, a “q” factor, and a cutting with the silviculturally sound selection system, cycle length (Smith and Lamson 1982). Single-tree in which the desired tree species mix of all size selection is complex to apply, requires long-term classes is maintained. commitment, and requires the presence of commercial species that are shade tolerant. In Diameter-limit cutting, improperly applied, is the Southern Appalachians, it may be applicable another form of high-grading. The principle is to only in high-elevation stands that contain sugar harvest only those trees above a certain size, such maple (A. saccharum Marsh.). Because as those 14 inches in diameter at breast height, it has these limitations, professional foresters and leave the remainder to develop into the rarely apply the system. succeeding stand. The assumption is that the small trees will grow into large trees of good Modifications of this method involve cutting quality in perpetuity. The problem is that natural trees in small groups or patches. These “group stands of timber do not perpetuate themselves selection” systems may be more appropriate by like-producing-like. The openings created by in the southern upland hardwoods than single- removal of the larger trees will be occupied by the Southern Forest Science: 58 Past, Present, and Future Productivity application to majoralluvialfloodplainsare of even-agedregeneration systemshaving to thesitebywind,water, andfauna.Thetypes ortransported seed inplaceatthetimeof harvest altered hydrologywilllargely regeneratefrom 1990). Standsofanolderage classandthosewith be largelyfromstumpand root sprouts(Mader stands oftreeslessthanabout100yearsoldwill cutting). Theregenerationfromsuchharvested (clearcutting) orintwoentries(shelterwood ofthetimberinasingleentry complete harvesting major alluvialfloodplainswillregeneratefollowing Even-Aged Systems crownclass. desirable treesintheintermediate undesirable treesarecontrolledtoreleasethe of timberstandimprovement,inwhichthe occupying sitesofhighsoilquality, areworthy However, many ofthesestands,especiallythose oftheresidualcrownclasses. in theunderstory from thedevelopmentofshade-toleranttrees is usuallyofpoorspeciescomposition,resulting component oftheyoungestageclasstimber culls withnotimbervalue.Conversely, ahigh desirable, ahighcomponentofthetreesis composition oftheolderageclassesisusually Eventhoughthespecies previous harvest. age groups,witheachgroupdatingtoa containtwo,butrarelymorethanthree often with thealluvialforest. and maintenanceoftheflorafaunaassociated suited fortimberproduction,wildlifemanagement, accomplishing thesegoalsarealsothosebest 1988). Fortunately, thepracticesbestsuitedfor and cyclesofwaterflow(Kellison andothers andtomaintain naturalpatterns are harvested, undesirable treesatthesametimedesiredones major alluvialfloodplainforestsistocontrolthe low-value condition. bottomland hardwoodstandstoapoorlystocked, havereducedmany selective, incompleteharvests finally supplantsugarberry. Generationsof oak( cherrybark Inalluvialfloodplains, with eachpartialharvest. stand fortimberproductionandwildlifehabitat The succeedingtreesdecreasethevalueof treesthatarealreadyinplace. tolerant understory expanding crownsoftheedgetreesorbyshade- hornbeam ( hornbeam and boxelder( green ashwouldbereplacedbysugarberry; Ell.) wouldlikelybesucceededbygreenash; Experience hasshownthatstandsoccupying repeatedly Stands thathavebeenharvested The propermanagementprocedurefor Carpinus caroliniana A. negundo Q. falcata L.)andAmerican var. pagodifolia Walt.) would small patches createinnumerableproblems in eventually results inmanysmallpatches. The is thatitrequiresfrequent stand entry, which tolerant ones. intolerant speciesattheexpense ofshade- trees. Theedgetreeslimit the growthofshade- about thedistanceofheightdominant the influenceofwhichextendsintoopening areas areadverselyaffectedbyedgetrees, acres areusuallyconsideredoptimum.Smaller noncontiguous patchesorstrips.Areasofabout5 the majordifference.Theconfigurationimpliedis clearcutting, withthesizeoftreatedareabeing Patch clearcutting— associated floraandfauna. onsitefor dead anddownedtreesshouldbeleft purposes (approximately2peracre);and(3) standingforwildlife hollow treesshouldbeleft or scalloped edges;(2)declining,overmature, area shouldbeconfiguredtothelandscapewith Additionally, itisdesirablethat(1)theharvested while minimizingtheadverseaestheticeffects. maintains thesilviculturalbenefitsofclearcutting the sizeofclearcutsnotexceed20acres.This wildlife considerations.We recommendthat the visualimpactoftreatmentandfrom species showingfastestinitialgrowth. with seedlingreproduction,shade-intolerant reproduction andsproutsproceedsmuchasitdoes development. Speciessuccessionofadvanced sprout stand ifitoccurs3ormoreyearsafter has littlechanceofdevelopingintothesucceeding reproduction isabsent.Seedling stand inpatcheswheresproutoradvanced apartofthesucceeding reproduction willform advanced reproductionandsprouts,butseedling stands. Theregenerationwilllargelybefrom hardwoods, especiallydegradedorimpoverished thebestwaytoregenerate clearcutting isoften regeneration mustbefromseedsorplanting. a clearedbottomlandfieldwhereallinitial of windthrowandperhapstwostagesshort merchantable timberisseverelylimitedbecause inwhichstumpandrootsproutingof hurricane one stageshortofacatastrophiceventsuchas succession almosttothepioneeringsere.Itisonly from stumpandrootsproutsreducesspecies that havethepropensitytoregeneratethemselves Clearcutting— cutting, andseed-treecutting. clearcutting, patchshelterwood A significantlimitationofpatch clearcutting resultsfrom Opposition toclearcuttingoften In spiteofitslackaestheticappeal, Clearcutting ofhardwoodforests This systemisavariationof stand management and inventory, and they are Single-tree selection—This is the system often poorly suited for forest interior-dwelling birds advocated by the opponents of clearcutting or and certain other fauna (Sietz and Segers 1993). shelterwood cutting. The ecological basis of the system is sound, but the application is so difficult Shelterwood cutting—When the shelterwood that, in practice, the exercise often approximates system is applied to bottomland hardwoods, best a selective or diameter-limit cut. results are obtained when the overstory canopy is reduced to about 50 percent of its original cover. Group selection—This variant of single-tree This level of reduction allows sufficient sunlight selection involves removal of groups of trees of to reach the ground to promote seedling and similar age, size, or species on an area usually sprout reproduction. not exceeding 0.25 acres. Care must be taken to remove undesirable as well as desirable trees. Experience has shown that clearcutting and Group selection differs from patch clearcutting shelterwood cutting initially give rise to similar in that it employs small openings and frequent types of reproduction, but that the intolerant entries to promote a multiaged stand of shade- 59 species under a shelterwood will start to decline tolerant species. The necessity to enter the stand if the overstory trees are not removed within 5 to repeatedly at short intervals may make it 10 years. Shelterwood cuts can help buffer against impractical to implement the practice. rising water tables in areas where the soil water table has risen as a result of altered hydrology. Two-aged system—We have discussed this

In some situations, the shelterwood system is method previously in connection with upland 7. Chapter advocated for the regeneration of oaks, especially hardwoods. The method is similarly applicable cherrybark oak. Shelterwood cutting is not to bottomland hardwoods and has the advantage always essential for oak regeneration in alluvial on wet sites of requiring relatively few entries. floodplains because species such as water oak and

Plantation Management and Restoration Hardwoods Southern

willow oak (Q. phellos L.) can regenerate equally well with or without a partial overstory stand Procedures have been developed for (Leach and Ryan 1987). In deeper water systems, establishing hardwood plantations on alluvial such as muck swamps, shelterwood systems floodplains (Malac and Herren 1979). Industrial appear to be no more effective in developing foresters have focused on developing eastern the desired reproduction than clearcut systems cottonwood (Populus deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh.) (McKevlin and others 1998). and sycamore (Platanus occidentalis L.) plantations. Eastern cottonwood has shown more Seed-tree cutting— The prescription for seed- promise than other species in the Mississippi tree cutting is to leave four to eight seed trees River Delta, but sycamore—and to some extent per acre while removing all other overstory and sweetgum, green ash, water oak, and willow oak— understory trees. The theory is that seeds from have proven more adaptable than cottonwood the leave trees will be disseminated over the to some of the other alluvial floodplains of the area, helping to ensure success in regeneration. South. About 125,000 acres of commercial However seed trees are usually a wasted effort in hardwood plantations currently exist in southern alluvial floodplains because most heavily harvested bottomlands. Despite successes on the floodplains, hardwood stands regenerate successfully from with growth rates of 3 to 4 cords per acre per year sprouts, from seeds buried in the duff, and from at rotations of 15 to 18 years, the trend is to seeds disseminated by water, wind, and fauna. establish hardwood plantations outside of the The primary reason for leaving such trees is alluvial floodplains. The causes for this shift for wildlife, ecological, and aesthetic values. in site location include environmental concerns Uneven-Aged Systems and the difficulty of managing and harvesting the resource in areas with episodic flooding. Stands of trees of widely different ages can Few industrial forestry organizations are willing be maintained by the selection system in which to invest in plantation forestry in alluvial harvesting, regeneration, and intermediate stand floodplains when there is significant uncertainty treatments are applied at the same time. Stands about the implications of the Clean Water Act are entered at intervals of from 1 year to perhaps for such operations. every 10 years. Each cutting removes financially mature and high-risk trees, adjusts stand density Floodplain forest restoration efforts have been to create room for the best trees to grow, and limited, and most have focused on reestablishment makes space for new reproduction. A specific of forest cover for timber, stream protection, or stand structure is achieved by leaving the desired basal area levels in several diameter classes. Southern Forest Science: 60 Past, Present, and Future Productivity sweetgum, greenash,andAmerican elm. invasion oflight-seededspecies, especially seeds,eventhoughtherewaseffective germinated extensive drought-causedmortality ofnewly establishing wildlifehabitatquickly. Hereported seedlings wasmoreeffectivethandirectseedingin Wildlife Refuge,concludedthatplantingoftree 4- to8-year-oldstandsintheYazoo National soil.Allen(1990),whocompared and dry seeds aremoresusceptibletodamagebyheat [ degree, otherlarge-seededspeciessuchaspecan technique isreliableonlyforoaksand,toalesser planting seedlings(Bullardandothers1992),the Although directseedingisabouthalfthecostof andothers 1998a). bottomland species(Stanturf planting ofseedlingsorcuttingsseveral been used,includingdirectseedingofoaksand Lea 1990,HaynesandMoore1988). habitat (AllenandKennedy 1989,Clewell and may providecommercialtimberandwildlife reestablishing bottomlandhardwoodspeciesthat and restorationeffortsareprovingsuccessfulin crop yieldsandlimitedaccessibility. Reforestation 1970s andabandonedlaterbecauseofsubstandard cleared foragriculturalcropsinthe1960sand being reforestedareonpoorlydrainedlands 2005 (KingandKeeland 1999).Manyoftheareas toforestbytheyear 494,000 acresbeingreturned have beenseededorplanted,withthepotentialof Wetland Program.About193,000acres Reserve Area, andonprivatelyownedlandenrolledinthe Refuge, andtheOuachitaWildlife Management Wildlife Refuge,theTensas NationalWildlife River Valley, includingpartsoftheYazoo National today areinareasoftheLowerMississippi 2001, KingandKeeland 1999). variety ofbottomlandspecies(Allenandothers emphasis hasbeengiventoplantingawider 1992).Morerecently,Conservancy greater was typicalofpresettlementforests(TheNature ofoakregionallythan in agreateroccurrence and Keeland 1999),andthispracticecouldresult planting oaks(Haynesandothers1995,King to 15yearstherehasbeenapreferencefor (Chambers andothers1987).Inthepast10 treespeciesinthestands of certainpreferred managers havetendedtoincreasethenumbers andothers1998b).TypicallyStanturf forest wildlife habitatvalues(KingandKeeland 1999, Carya illinoensis Carya Various forest establishmenttechniqueshave Several ofthelargestreforestationefforts (Wangenh,) K.Koch]. Smaller managing hardwoods exclusivelyforpremium- hardwoods, but alimitationtothestrategy of logs areamongthemostprofitable marketsfor deciduous forest.High-quality sawlogsandveneer in theeastern the inceptionoftimberharvesting high-grading thathasbeen normalpracticesince proper silviculturewillresult incontinuationofthe on aregion-widescale.Failure toimplement embrace thepracticeofpropertimberharvesting public officials,andenvironmentaladvocatesto professional foresterstoconvincelandowners, for fiberproducts.Thechallengewillbe premium-grade timberwhileusingtheresidual Therefore thefuturewillbetomanagefor developedcountry. inevery demand forfurniture such as in theworld(Hicks1998).Thetimberfromgenera deciduousforestissecondtonone the eastern managed sustainably. hardwoods canbe regeneration, southern avoiding high-grading,andprovidingfor withperiodicgrowth, matching harvesting arefollowed,suchas As longascertainrules changes isimportantinhardwoodmanagement. regeneration andtocapturevaluefrommarket advantage ofbumpercropsadvance Maintaining anadaptivestrategytotake of uplandhardwoodshavehadlimitedsuccess. sycamore hasbeensuccessful,butplantations species likecottonwood,sweetgum,andAmerican stands. Plantationsilvicultureofbottomland regenerate andmaintainmultiagedhardwood forests, whilegroupselectioncanbeusedto intolerant ones)inbothuplandandbottomland a varietyofhardwoodspecies(generallyshade- method. burn upland sitesbyemployingashelterwood- it ispossibletofavoroakregenerationonbetter regenerating oaks.Ifprescribedfireisanoption, recommendedfor modification ofthem,areoften methods troublesome. Shelterwood partial cuttingmethods. volume regulation,sinceitismorecompatiblewith that seemsmostappropriatetohardwoodstandsis regulation management). Themethodofharvest (notably improvementcuttingandcrop-tree cuttings managed bymeansofintermediate hardwood standsintheSouthareappropriately B CONCLUSIONS The array ofpremium-gradehardwoodsin The array Clearcutting isaneffectivewaytoregenerate Selecting themethodofregenerationismore ecause oftheownershipcharacteristics,age characteristics ofthespeciespresent,many and compositionofstands,thesilvical Acer , Juglans , Prunus ,

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Radnor, PA: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Service, a chainsawcostslessthanherbicides.Res.Pap. NE–550. Lewis Publishers/CRCPress.616p. wetlands: ecologyandmanagement.BocaRaton,FL: a testofthesubsidy-stresshypothesis.Ecology. 78:370–384. floodplainforests: Aboveground productioninsoutheastern Press: 173–203. management. BocaRaton,FL:LewisPublishers/CRC Conner, W.H., forestedwetlands:ecologyand eds.Southern of plantstofloodingandwaterlogging.In:Messina,M.G.; Forest ExperimentStation.35p. Department ofAgriculture,Forest Southeastern Service, hardwoods. Gen.Tech. Rep.SE–76.Asheville,NC:U.S. Oxford UniversityPress.[Notpaged]. of AppliedForestry. Journal management. Southern 3:3–6. University. 276p.Ph.D.dissertation. Raleigh,NC:NorthCarolinaState timber harvest. byatupelo-cypresswetlandfollowing community structure of Agriculture],Forest 5p. Service. trends ofU.S.forests.Washington, DC:[U.S.Department Experiment Station:134–137. of Agriculture,Forest Forest Southeastern Service, Gen. Tech. Rep.SE–84. Asheville,NC:U.S.Department regeneration: seriousproblems,practicalrecommendations. D.L.;McGee,C.E.,eds.Proceedings:oak art. In:Loftis, 908–916. Appalachians.Forestoak intheSouthern Science.36(4): Corporation. [Numberofpagesunknown]. Note GS–87–03.Pensacola, FL:ChampionInternational in theEscambiaRiverbottomfollowinglogging.Res. Experiment Station.2p. of Agriculture,Forest Forest Northeastern Service, stands. NE–INF–80–88.Radnor, PA: U.S.Department How toreleasecroptreesinprecommercialhardwood Experiment Station.8p. Agriculture, Forest Forest Northeastern Service, Res. Pap. NE–635.Radnor, PA: U.S.Departmentof 1990. Crownreleaseincreasesgrowthofcroptrees. .; Conner, W.H.; Kroeger, S.;Sharitz,R.R.1997. .P . 1987.Naturalhardwoodregeneration Yaussy, D.2000.Fire, people,andthecentralhardwood Williams, M.1989.Americans andtheirforests:ahistorical Van Lear, D.H.; Brose, P The NatureConservancy. 1992.RestorationoftheMississippi Stanturf, J.A.;Schweitzer, C.J.;Schoenholtz,S.H.[andothers]. Stanturf, J.A.;Schweitzer, C.J.;Gardiner, E.S.1998a. Stanturf, J.A.;Schoenholtz,S.H.1998.Soilsandlandforms. D.L.;Rast,E.D.1988.Effectofthinningonmixed- Sonderman, Smith, H.C.;Lamson,N.I.1982.Numberofresidualtrees:a Smith, D.M.1995.TheforestsoftheUnitedStates.In:Barrett, Smith, D.M.1986.Thepracticeofsilviculture.NewYork: Sietz, L.C.;Segers,D.A.1993.Nestpredationinadjacent Sander, I.L.1992.RegeneratingoaksintheCentralStates. Pyne, S.J.;Andrews,P Putnam, J.A.;Furnival, G.M.;McKnight,J.S.1960. Perkey, A.W.; Wilkins, B.L.;Smith,H.C.1993.Croptree Forest ExperimentStation.129p. Department ofAgriculture,Forest Northeastern Service, landscape. Gen.Tech. Rep.NE–274.Radnor, PA: U.S. University Press.[Notpaged]. geography. Cambridge,UnitedKingdom: Cambridge The JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.[Notpaged]. ecology andmanagement In: McShea,W.J.; Healy, W.M., eds.Oakforestecosystems: LA: TheNatureConservancy. [Notpaged]. River AlluvialPlainasafunctionalecosystem.BatonRouge, Conference. 63:376–383. of theNorthAmericanWildlife andNaturalResources 1998b. Ecosystemrestoration:factorfancy?Transactions 32(3): 281–297. Mississippi RiverAlluvialValley, U.S.A.SilvaFennica. Afforestation ofmarginalagriculturallandintheLower Lewis Publishers/CRCPress:123–147. wetlands: ecologyandmanagement.BocaRaton,FL: In: Messina,M.G.;Conner, W.H., forested eds.Southern Forest ExperimentStation.7p. Department ofAgriculture,Forest Northeastern Service, oak stemquality. Res. Pap. NE–618.Radnor, PA: U.S. ForestNortheastern ExperimentStation.30p. PA: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Service, guide toselectioncutting.Gen.Tech. Rep.NE–80.Radnor, New York: JohnWiley: 1–30. J.W., ed.RegionalsilvicultureoftheUnitedStates. 3 John Wiley. 570p. 95: 297–304. deciduous, coniferousandsuccessionalhabitats.Condor. Experiment Station:174–183. of Agriculture,Forest Forest Southeastern Service, Gen. Tech. Rep.SE–84.Asheville,NC:U.S.Department regeneration: seriousproblems,practicalrecommendations. D.L.;McGee,C.E.,eds.Proceedings:oak In: Loftis, of pagesunknown]. to wildlandfire.2 Agriculture, Forest 102p. Service. Handb. 181.Washington, DC:U.S.Departmentof hardwoods. ofsouthern Management andinventory AreaStateandPrivateForestry.Northeastern 54p. PA: U.S.Department ofAgriculture,Forest Service, hardwoods.NA–TP–19–93.Radnor,management ineastern d ed.NewYork: JohnWiley. [Number .L.; Laven,R.D.1996.Introduction .H. 2001.Fire andoakmanagement. forwildlife.Baltimore,MD: rd ed. Chapter 8.

The Evolution of Pine Plantation Silviculture in the Southern United States

Thomas R. Fox, Eric J. INTRODUCTION 1 Jokela, and H. Lee Allen ine (Pinus spp.) plantation silviculture in the Southern United States is one of the major P success stories for forestry in the world. In 1952, there were only 1.8 million acres of pine Abstract—In the 1950s, vast acreages of cutover plantations in the South (fig. 8.1), containing 658 63 forest land and degraded agricultural land existed million cubic feet of timber (U.S. Department in the South. Less than 2 million acres of southern of Agriculture, Forest Service 1988). At the turn pine plantations existed at that time. By the end of the 21st century, there are 32 million acres of of the 20th century, there were 32 million acres of pine plantations in the South that contain 23.9 southern pine plantations in the Southern United billion cubic feet of timber (Wear and Greis 2002). States, and this region is now the woodbasket Perhaps more remarkable is the significant of the world. The success story that is southern increase in productivity that occurred during pine forestry was facilitated by the application of this period (fig. 8.2). Mean annual increment of research results generated through cooperative pine plantations has more than doubled, and work of the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest rotation lengths have been cut by > 50 percent. Service, southern forestry schools, State forestry The success of pine plantation silviculture has turned the South into the woodbasket of the agencies, and forest industry. This chapter reviews United States (Schultz 1997). the contributions of applied silvicultural research in land classification, tree improvement, nursery These remarkable changes in the last 60 years management, site preparation, weed control, and were the result of a variety of factors that came fertilization to plantation forestry in the South. together at the end of World War II. Economic These practices significantly increased productivity factors, including a declining agricultural economy coupled with a rapidly expanding pulp and paper of southern pine plantations. Plantations established industry based on southern pine, combined to in the 1950s and 1960s that produced < 90 cubic provide the impetus for the large increase in feet per acre per year have been replaced by southern pine plantations. The success of this plantations established in the 1990s that are effort was due in large part to the cooperative producing > 400 cubic feet per acre per year. research and technology transfer efforts of many Southern pine plantations are currently among organizations, including the U.S. Department of the most intensively managed forests in the world. Agriculture Forest Service (Forest Service), State Growth of plantations managed using modern, forestry agencies, forestry programs at southern integrated, site-specific silvicultural regimes rivals universities, and forest industry. that of plantations of fast-growing nonnative The objectives of this chapter are to describe species in the Southern Hemisphere. Additional the evolution of southern pine plantation gains in productivity are likely as clonal forestry silviculture over the last 50 years and to outline is implemented in the South. Advances in forest our view of the current state of the art of pine biotechnology will significantly increase growth plantation silviculture in the South. Rather than and quality of future plantations. It appears likely present an exhaustive review of the literature, that the South will remain one of the major wood-producing regions of the world. 1 Associate Professor of Forestry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Department of Forestry, Blacksburg, VA 24061; Professor of Forestry, University of Florida, School of Forest Resources and Conservation, Gainesville, FL 32611; and C.A. Schenck Distinguished Professor of Forestry, North Carolina State University, Department of Forestry, Raleigh, NC 27695, respectively. Southern Forest Science: 64 Past, Present, and Future Productivity was aserious problem associatedwithproduction in theState,hadbeencleared by1860.Soilerosion million acres,or47percent ofthetotallandarea of theCivilWar (Williams 1989).InVirginia >25 C FORESTRY INTHESOUTH SETTING THESTAGE FORPLANTATION has madetothissuccessstory. contributions thatappliedcoop-erativeresearch part ofthis,wehopetodemonstratethesignificant duringthistime (fig.8.3).As have beenobserved their contributiontotheproductivitygainsthat advances duringthelast50yearsandillustrate we willhighlightwhatbelievearethemajor from 1940through 2010. Southern United States plantations inthe productivity inpine management practices to contributions of intensive Figure 8.3—Estimated from 1940through 2010. Southern United States plantations inthe rotation age inpine total yieldandpulpwood Figure 8.2—Estimated Wear andGreis 2002). Agriculture 1988, Department of 1999 (data from U.S. States from 1952to in theSouthernUnited acres of pineplantations Figure 8.1—Numberof from thecolonialperioduntil thebeginning throughout theCoastalPlain andPiedmont learing offorestsforcropproduction occurred

Volume at harvest Plantation area (tons per acre) Total yield (tons per acre) (million acres) 100 150 200 250 100 150 200 250 10 15 20 25 30 35 50 50 0 5 0 0 9015 9017 9019 002010 2000 1990 1980 1970 1960 1950 1940 9015 9017 9019 002010 2000 1990 1980 1970 1960 1950 1940 9216 9017 951999 1985 1977 1970 1962 1952 Fertilization Weed control Tree improvement Clonal andbiotech Total yield Establishment period virginiana Mill.) andshiptimbersfrom liveoak( were navalstoresfromlongleaf pine( forests the firstmajorproductsfrom southern (Williams 1989).Other thantimberforlocaluse, timber andforestproducts since colonialtimes Civil War andWorld War II. throughout theSouthbetweenendof amounts ofagriculturallandtobeabandoned ( crops andpestproblemssuchasthebollweevil due toerosion,accompaniedbylowpricesforcash South (Bennett1939).Decliningsoilproductivity important agriculturalcropsthroughoutthe of cottonandtobacco,whichwerethemost Anthonomus grandis The Southhasbeenanimportantsourceof Year Pulpwood rotationage Year Natural stand Planting Site preparation Miller)(Butler 1998,Williams 1989). ), causedlarge 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Quercus P. palustris Rotation age (years) The production of lumber in the South increased Commenting on the situation in the 1950s, gradually following the Civil War and more Wahlenberg (1960) stated, “Much land suitable dramatically beginning in the 1880s and 1890s, for loblolly pine that has been made unproductive when available timber in the Lake States was through heavy cutting, wildfire, natural depleted. Between 1890 and 1920, the South was catastrophe, or abandonment of agriculture is in the major lumber-producing region in the country. need of planting.” Wakeley (1954) estimated that Production peaked at approximately 140 billion there were 13 million acres of land requiring board feet in 1909, when the South produced 46 planting in the South in 1950. percent of all timber cut in the United States Tree planting in the South, which had nearly (Williams 1989). After 1909, lumber production ceased during World War II, rapidly increased in declined gradually until the start of the Great the years immediately following the war (U.S. Depression in 1929, when production fell sharply. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service 1988). The discovery by Charles Herty that acceptable A large percentage of this planting occurred on pulp and paper could be made from southern farmland associated with the Soil Bank Program 65 pine had a dramatic impact on southern forestry of the 1950s. The successful reforestation of beginning in the 1930s (Reed 1995). A rapid abandoned and degraded agricultural land increase in the pulp production in the South illustrated the conservation value of trees and followed this discovery (Josephson and Hair 1956). their role in reducing soil erosion and improving Numerous pulp and paper mills were constructed water quality (Bennett 1939). The rapid expansion throughout the South during the 1930s, increasing of the pulp and paper industry in the South during 8. Chapter the demand for smaller diameter southern pine the 1930s increased the demand for pine pulpwood timber. Pulp and paper companies purchased large and stimulated planting on forest industry land. tracts of timberland during this period to provide By this time, the superior growth and yield of pulpwood for these new facilities (Williams 1989). pine plantations relative to naturally regenerated stands had become evident. For example, the At the start of the 20th century, almost no effort original plantations established by Great Southern was devoted to reforestation following timber Lumber Company clearly showed the potential Silviculture Pine Plantation harvest (Williams 1989). Destructive fires often value of fully stocked plantations compared to the followed logging, killing much of the natural poorly stocked naturally regenerated stands that regeneration that might otherwise have become were the norm at the time (Wakeley 1954). established on many cutover tracts. During the 1920s, the Forest Service recognized the need NURSERY PRACTICES AND for large-scale tree planting in the South and SEEDLING HANDLING began a research program to address reforestation issues. The first large-scale planting of southern rtificially regenerating the large pine occurred between 1920 and 1925 when the acreages found in the South required an Great Southern Lumber Company planted A abundant supply of high-quality seedlings. A approximately 7,000 acres near Bogalusa, LA concerted research effort of the Forest Service on (Wakeley 1954). During the 1920s, the Forest reforestation in the South began in the 1920s and Service also began its reforestation program in culminated with the publication of Agricultural the South with the planting of 10,000 acres in the Monograph 18 “Planting the Southern Pine” Sumter National Forest in South Carolina. During (Wakeley 1954). This classic publication provided the 1930s, the Civilian Conservation Corps planted foresters detailed information on seed collection > 1.5 million acres across the South. The success and processing, seedling production, and planting of these early efforts demonstrated the feasibility practices needed to successfully establish southern of establishing pine plantations. pine plantations. With its publication, the stage was set for the rapid expansion of southern THE ADVENT OF PLANTATION FORESTRY pine seedling production. In 1950, the Forest Service, the Soil Conservation Service, the t the end of World War II, the legacy of Tennessee Valley Authority, and all States in abusive agricultural practices that had the South operated forest nurseries to produce A degraded soil productivity to the point where pine seedlings for reforestation activities on crop production was no longer profitable, coupled public and private land (U.S. Department of with exploitative timber harvesting without Agriculture, Forest Service 1949). Many industrial provision for regeneration, left the South with a organizations also began to establish or expand substantial acreage of land requiring reforestation. nurseries to meet their seedling needs at this time. Southern Forest Science: 66 Past, Present, and Future Productivity high-quality seed fromdesirablesources (Squillace the 1950swas theabsenceofreliablesupplies of Tree ImprovementandGenetic Gain commonly >90percent. ratesforplantedseedlings tolevels survival transport, storage,andplanting,haveincreased proper careandhandlingofseedlingsduring practices,togetherwith improved nursery i.e., priortoDecember(South2000).Today, were planteddeeperandearlierintheseason; whenlargerseedlings and growthalsooccurred planting siteingoodcondition.Improvedsurvival atthe in makingcertainthatseedlingsarrive was probablythesinglemostimportantfactor transport, nowwidespreadthroughouttheSouth, use ofrefrigeratedvansforseedlingstorageand 1982, U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture1989).The andgrowthofseedlings(Dierauf initial survival were foundtobethecriticalfactorsensuring andtransporttotheplantingsite during lifting Cline 1991).Propercareandhandlingofseedlings better evaluateseedlingquality(Johnsonand as rootgrowthpotentialwerealsodevelopedto diameter (South2000),physiologicalcriteriasuch withroot-collar still probablybestcorrelated is and South1991).Althoughseedlingsurvival size andqualityoftheseedlingsproduced(Mexal seedling nurseries,substantiallyimprovingthe into standardoperatingproceduresatmostpine inoculation,wereincorporated and mycorrhizal increasingnitrogen(N)fertilization, root pruning, beddensity,groups, reducingnursery toppruning, as sowingseedbysizeclassandsinglefamily practices,such (Carlson 1986).Improvednursery important factorsaffectingseedlingperformance order lateralroots,weredemonstratedtobe including root:shootratioandthenumberoffirst- seedling quality. Rootcharacteristicsofseedlings, practicesand placed onimprovingnursery Cooperative in1970highlightstheimportance ForestSouthern Management Nursery oftheAuburn improved seed.Theformation relative scarcityandhighcostofgenetically received considerableattentionbecauseofthe were thoughttobedifficultcontrol,theproblem suchasweather,survival, insects,anddisease, Although manyofthefactorsaffectingseedling during the1950s,1960s,and1970s(Dierauf1982). was acontinuingproblemthroughouttheSouth However,with seedlingsurvival. seedlingsurvival and needlecharacteristicsthatwerecorrelated on seedlingheight,root-collardiameter, andstem pineseedlingsbased grading systemforsouthern A majorlimitationonseedling productionin Wakeley (1954)developedawidelyused Engelm. var. Program began establishingslashpine( Florida CooperativeForest Genetics Research 1953). Industrialmembers of theUniversity drought-hardy loblollypine ( by theTexas Forest in1952toproduce Service pineseedorchardwasestablished first southern pineseed(Zobelandothers1958).The southern methodofproducing and becamethepreferred Research Council1999). Industrial ForestUniversity in1956(Southern of Floridain1953andNorthCarolinaState cooperatives weresoonfoundedattheUniversity the South.Additional treeimprovementresearch cooperative programsatuniversitiesthroughout result oftheappliedresearchconductedthrough wasinlargepartadirect pine plantationforestry plantation forestry. Thefuturesuccessofsouthern pine cooperative wasamajoreventinsouthern appliedresearch university-Government Talbert ofthisindustry- 1984).Theformation improvement programintheSouth(Zobeland thefirsttree products companies,formed andincooperationwith14forest Service Zobel,onbehalfoftheTexasBruce Forest economically justified(Perry andWang 1958). costs associatedwithseedorchardscouldbe recognized whenitwasdemonstratedthatthe of geneticallyimprovedseedwasfinally (Lindquist 1948,Schreiner1950).Thevalue improvement inforesttreesstartedtoemerge as evidencesupportingthevalueofgenetic 1954). Thisviewbegantochangeinthe1950s pine(Wakeleygains inthegrowthofsouthern selection andbreedingwouldleadtosignificant widely acceptedthatgeneticimprovementthrough use (Perry andWang 1958),becauseitwasnot was initiallyamajorobstacletotheirwidespread cost ofestablishingandmanagingseedorchards genetically improvedseed(Bates1928).Thehigh early asthelate1920smeansofproducing phenotypes (Goddard1958). established innaturalstandscontaininggood supply ofcones,seedproductionareaswereoften 1954). Inordertoprovideamoreconsistent felled duringloggingofnaturalstands(Wakeley seed wasobtainedfromconescollectedtrees for reforestation(McCall1939).At thattime,most 100 milesoftheplantingsite,wasrecommended 1944). Therefore,useoflocalseed,collectedwithin sources outgrowingmoredistant(Wakeley pine,withlocal known toaffectgrowthofsouthern 1989). Geographicvariationinseedsourceswas The seedorchardconceptquicklygainedfavor The seedorchardconceptwasproposedas elliottii ) seedorchards in1953(Wang P. taeda L.) (Zobel P. elliottii and Perry 1957). By 1987, > 9,700 acres of seed Initially, little site preparation was done because orchards had been established in the South, and of the cost (Shoulders 1957). However, the need > 85 percent of the trees planted in the South for site preparation was highlighted by the failure originated from improved seed produced in seed of many plantations established on cutover sites, orchards (Squillace 1989). which was in stark contrast to the success of plantations established on old agricultural fields Tree improvement programs in the South and grassy savannas. The old-field effect on focused primarily on improving volume growth, improved survival and growth was attributed to tree form, disease resistance, and wood quality various factors, including low levels of competing (Dorman 1976, Zobel and Talbert 1984). Because of hardwood vegetation, improved soil physical the length of time required for tree breeding and properties, and improved soil fertility due to testing, the gains in wood production due to tree residual fertilizer and lime. Therefore, the aim improvement were not fully realized for several of site preparation was to re-create these old- decades (Todd and others 1995, Zobel and Talbert field conditions on cutover sites using various 1984). Seed from first-generation seed orchards 67 mechanical means such as anchor chaining, became available in large quantities in the 1960s chopping, burning, root raking, shearing, and and early 1970s. When these plantations matured disking. Mechanical site preparation practices in the 1980s, they produced 8 to 12 percent more often evolved more rapidly through trial and volume per acre at harvest than trees grown error by field foresters and equipment from wild seed (Squillace 1989). The increased

manufacturers than through formal research 8. Chapter financial value of plantations established with and development efforts. first-generation improved seed probably exceeded 20 percent when gains from other traits such as The most consistent thread in the stem straightness, disease resistance, and wood development of site preparation practices density were included (fig. 8.4) (Todd and others on upland cutover sites in the South was the 1995). Continued breeding and testing led to the need to control competing hardwood vegetation development of second-generation orchards in (Haines and others 1975). Roller-drum choppers

1980s. Second-generation seed orchards currently were introduced as a site preparation tool Silviculture Pine Plantation produce more than 50 percent of the seed in in the middle 1950s and quickly gained the South. It is estimated that volume growth popularity. Chopping, especially when followed in current plantations will be 14 to 23 percent by prescribed fire, reduced logging slash and greater than in plantations established using first- residual nonmerchantable stems and, thus, generation material (fig. 8.4) (Li and others 1997). improved access to the site for planting (Balmer and Little 1978). However, chopping did not MECHANICAL SITE PREPARATION effectively control competing hardwood efore the 1950s, planting was generally vegetation. Disk harrows were first employed limited to old fields and grassy savannas in the late 1950s to provide soil tillage similar to B that originated on cutover sites following that found in old fields and to control hardwood frequent wildfires. Most cutover pine sites in the sprouting. However, the level of hardwood South were regenerated after harvest by leaving control achieved following harrowing was often six to eight seed trees per acre (Duzan 1980). Unfortunately many of these stands failed to 60 regenerate pine adequately due to competition 50 from hardwoods. The inconsistent results obtained with natural regeneration led to trials 40 with clearcutting and planting. Foresters faced 30 considerable obstacles in their attempt to convert 20 these natural stands of mixed pine and hardwoods to plantations after harvest. Lack of markets for 10 low-grade hardwoods often led to poor utilization gain value volume Percent

compared to natural population compared to natural 0 that left large numbers of nonmerchantable stems NaturalFirst Second and heavy logging slash on the site. This inhibited generation generation Control planting and, coupled with the rapid regrowth of Open pollinated pollinated hardwoods, led to poor survival and growth of Figure 8.4—Growth increases in southern pine seedlings planted in the rough. plantations due to tree improvement practices in the Southern United States (adapted from Li and others 1997, Todd and others 1995). Southern Forest Science: 68 Past, Present, and Future Productivity (Terry andHughes1978). andgrowthofplantedseedlings improved survival and reduced soildisturbanceduring harvesting, removed excesswaterand, thus,improvedaccess, primary, secondary, andthird-stageditchesthat sophisticateddrainagesystemsincluding construct and early1970s.Largedraglineswereusedto Atlantic andGulfCoastal Plaininthelate1960s widespread drainageofforestedwetlandsinthe 1,300 percent(Terry andHughes1975), ledtothe of studies,rangingfrom80percenttoalmost pines followingdrainagereportedinanumber The phenomenalgrowthresponseofplanted (Maki 1960,MillerandMaki1957,Schlaudt1955). adjacent todrainagecanalswasclearlyevident improved growthofloblollyandslashpineplanted North Carolinainthelate1930s.By1950s intheHofmannForestSouth occurred ineastern inthe large-scale drainageprojectforforestry production (Wooten andJones1955).Thefirst of removingexcesswaterfromwetsitesforcrop intensive drainageclearlydemonstratedthevalue swamps intoproductiveagriculturallandsthrough planted seedlings.Thewidespreadconversionof andgrowthof tables greatlyaffectedsurvival of poorlydrainedsoilswithhighseasonalwater the controlofcompetingvegetation,presence with in thePiedmont.Inadditiontoconcerns different setofproblemsthantheircounterparts cutoversitesintooldfields. turning achieved theholygrailofsitepreparation— sprouting, suggestedthatforestershadfinally coupled withthegreatlyreducedhardwood planted ontheseintensivelypreparedsites, andearlygrowthofseedlings improved survival thedebrisdried.The after were thenburned harrow. Inmanycases,thewindrowsandpiles The areawasthenbroadcastdiskedwithalarge into thepilesandwindrowsalongwithslash. raked taken, theforestfloorandtopsoilwereoften into pilesandwindrows.Unlessgreatcarewas blade. Theslashandloggingdebriswereraked were firstshearednearthegroundlineusingaKG this three-passsystem.Residualstemsandstumps 1974).Largebulldozerswereused in Crutchfield Coastal Plain(Hainesandothers1975,Wells and throughout muchofthePiedmontandupper broadcast diskingasthestandardpractice widespread useofshearing,windrowing,and desired old-fieldconditions,culminatinginthe during the1960sand1970sinpursuitof mechanical sitepreparationcontinuedtoincrease disappointing (Duzan1980).Theintensityof Foresters inthelowerCoastalPlainfaceda MANAGED PLANTATIONS ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OFINTENSIVELY CONCERN OVER SUSTAINABILITY AND andgrowthofplantedseedlings. survival achieve theconditionsneededtoensuresuperior two passesofthebeddingplow, was requiredto competition. Insomecasesdoublebedding,using soil tillageandaeration,reducedshrub Effective beddingtreatmentsimprovedsurface (Duzan1980). that qualitybedswereformed conducted onsitesrequiringbeddingtoensure KG shearingandwindrowing,wasusually involving of thebeds,intensivelandclearing,often with beddinganddecreasesthequalityheight 1974).Becauseslashinterferes and Crutchfield Shoulders 1974,Terry andHughes1975,Wells compared toflat-plantedsites(McKee and onbedded based onthesuperiorgrowthobserved preparation practiceonpoorlydrainedsoils, and beddingsoonbecamethestandardsite bedding plowswereintroducedinthe1960s, seedlings (Bethume1963,Smith1966).Specialized modified toproducearaisedplantingsitefor The firstbeddingwasdonewithfireplows development ofbeddingintheCoastalPlain. (McKee andShoulders1970)ledtothe microtopography withimprovedsoilaeration The improvedgrowthofseedlingsonelevated andgrowth(Burton1971). seedling survival were saturatedduringthewinter, whichdecreased plantations ledtoextendedperiodswhenthesoils reduced evapotranspirationratesinyoung clearing (Cain1978).Evenondrainedsites, wascombinedwithintensivedebris harrowing seedlings onpoorlydrainedsoils,evenwhen andgrowthofplanted flooding limitedthesurvival sites. However, seasonallyhighwatertablesand practices evolvedmuchastheyhadonupland KG shearing,windrowing,androot-raking soils intheCoastalPlain.Chopping,burning, were majorobjectivesofsitepreparationonwet and controllingcompetinghardwoodvegetation radiata pine in New Zealand confirmed that radiata pineinNewZealand confirmed interest intheSouth.Subsequent workwith caused byheavywindrowing, stimulatedgreat intensively preparedsitesin Australia, apparently declines inradiatapine( by Keeves (1966) onsecond-rotationproductivity siteproductivity. aboutlong-term concern A report T As onuplandsites,reducingloggingdebris simulate old-fieldconditionssoongenerated both thePiedmontandCoastalPlainto he intensityofsitepreparationconductedin P. radiata D. Don)on windrowing on sandy soils induced severe nutrient regimes (Burger and Kluender 1982). In the deficiencies that would degrade site quality Piedmont, the desire to minimize soil disturbance (Ballard 1978). Foresters throughout the South during site preparation, concerns over nutrient observed the wavy height growth pattern in losses and long-term site productivity, and windrowed plantations where trees adjacent to the availability of newly developed herbicides the windrows were considerably taller than trees that effectively controlled hardwood sprouts between the windrows. A large windrow effect combined to shift most of the site preparation on growth of loblolly pine was documented in the from mechanical to chemical treatments. In the North Carolina Piedmont (Fox and others 1989, Coastal Plain, mechanical treatments were Glass 1976). Windrowing decreased site index by modified so that sites could still be bedded with 11 feet in this loblolly pine plantation. As in New larger amounts of slash and logging debris left Zealand and Australia, it was demonstrated that on site. V-blades were developed that pushed declines in growth observed on windrowed sites aside logging debris and cleared a path for bedding plows without removing organic matter were caused by nutrient deficiencies due to 69 displacement of the forest floor and topsoil from and nutrients from the site. Also, larger bedding the interior of the stand to the windrows (Morris plows were developed that cut through thick root and others 1983, Vitousek and Matson 1985). mats and residual slash while still creating well- These observations led to the search for formed beds that elevate seedlings above high alternative, less intensive site preparation water tables, thus reducing the need for treatments that would maintain site quality windrowing on poorly drained sites. 8. Chapter (Burger and Kluender 1982, Tippin 1978). The impacts of intensive forest management Nutrient losses associated with intensive on water quality have long been an important whole-tree harvesting also generated much issue in the South. The large amount of bare soil concern during this period. Nutrient budget exposed following harvest and site preparation calculations seemed to suggest that whole- often led to increased erosion on steeply sloping tree harvesting would deplete soil nutrient land in the Piedmont (Nutter and Douglass reserves, particularly such elements as calcium, 1978). The work of Coile and Schumaker (1964) Silviculture Pine Plantation and consequently degrade site quality (Ballard demonstrated the correlation between topsoil and Gessel 1983, Mann and others 1988). depth and site quality in the Piedmont. Given Numerous studies comparing conventional bole- the degraded site quality in most of the Piedmont only harvests with whole-tree harvests were caused by the past agricultural practices, installed in response to this concern. Long- additional losses of topsoil by erosion following term analysis of these studies eventually revealed harvest and site preparation were a concern. that whole-tree harvesting had no detrimental There were also concerns about the offsite effects on soil nutrient levels or site productivity environmental impacts of intensive harvesting and on most sites if the slash and logging debris were site preparation. Increased erosion and movement left on site (Johnson and Todd 1998). Where of sediment that increased turbidity in streams excessive soil disturbance during harvest and site became a major issue with the amendment of the preparation did have negative effects, ameliorative Federal Water Pollution Control Act in 1972, which treatments such as soil tillage and fertilization for the first time regulated forestry activities as restored productivity in nearly all cases (Fox 2000, nonpoint sources of pollution. Best Management Nambiar 1996). Practices (BMP) were developed in all the Southern States in response to this legislation Because long-term site productivity was to minimize soil erosion and offsite movement closely tied with organic matter and N availability, of sediment from forestry activities (Cubbage harvesting and site preparation treatments were and others 1990). These BMPs have proven to modified during the 1980s to leave as much organic be very effective at reducing nonpoint sources of matter on site as possible. The goal was to obtain pollution from forestry activities when properly the amount of soil tillage required to achieve implemented (Aust and others 1996). Although acceptable seedling survival while leaving most voluntary in most States, compliance with BMPs is of the logging slash and forest floor on site (Morris uniformly high today in forestry operations across and Lowery 1988). The link between improved the South (Ellefson and others 2001). harvest utilization and site preparation led to more integrated harvesting and site preparation Southern Forest Science: 70 Past, Present, and Future Productivity

Total volume (tons per acre) response ofpinesfollowingherbicideapplication. herbicide efficacyanddocumentthegrowth Numerous trialswereestablishedtoevaluate test herbicidessuitableforuseinforestry. in1980toidentifyand Cooperative wasformed The Auburn UniversitySilviculturalHerbicide that couldreplace2,4,5-T (Fitzgerald 1982). prepared sites,fosteredthesearchforherbicides about hardwoodsproutingonlessintensively intensively preparedmechanically, andconcerns productivityofsitesthatwere of thelong-term South. However, aboutsustainability concerns essentially ceasedforanumberofyearsinthe release treatmentsandchemicalsitepreparation was cancelledin1979.At thattime,bothhardwood andGjerstad1991). to theherbicide(Lowry species ofhardwoods,andpineswereresistant it wasinexpensivetoapplyandeffectiveonmany plantations fromcompetinghardwoods,because 2,4,5-T waswidelyusedtoreleaseyoungpine (Duzan 1980).Duringthe1960sand1970s, stands withscattered,poorlygrowingpines intolow-qualityhardwood plantations turned absence offollow-upreleasetreatments,many effectively controlhardwoodsprouting.Inthe sites, mechanicalsitepreparationalonedidnot Gjerstad 1991).Unfortunatelyonmostcutover and acceptable accesstothesite(Lowery required mechanicalmethodstoprovide because thepoorutilizationduringharvest was notwidelyusedduringthisperiod,generally was absent.However, chemicalsitepreparation field conditionswherehardwoodcompetition objectives ofsitepreparationwastocreateold- 1980, Clason1978,Duzan1980).Oneofthemain (CainandMann days ofplantationforestry T CONTROLLING COMPETING VEGETATION pine at age 8(adapted from Miller andothers1995). Figure 8.5—Effect of competition control ongrowth of loblolly 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 5 The registrationof2,4,5-T uses forforestry pines wererecognizedfromtheearliest competition ongrowthandyieldofsouthern he detrimentaleffectsofhardwood hc od ebTotal Herb Woody Check Competition control(herbicides) (Oust and others1991). in pineplantations throughouttheSouth (Minogue growing seasonwassoona widespread practice Control ofherbaceousweeds duringthefirst and others1989,Smethurst andNambiar1989). impactonpinegrowth(fig.8.5) (Glover long-term was clearthatherbaceousweed controlhada Nelson andothers1981).Bythelate1980s,it (Fitzgerald 1976,Holtandothers1973, observed following herbicideapplicationswerewidely seedlings, largeandconsistentgrowthresponses herbaceous weedswithoutdamagingyoungpine hexazinone inthe1970sthateffectivelycontrolled With theadventofnewerherbicidessuchas herbaceous vegetation(Terry andHughes1975). significantly followingcontrolofgrassand showed thatheightgrowthofseedlingsincreased weeding experimentsinyoungpineplantations seedlings werenotavailable.However, mechanical herbaceous vegetationwithoutdamagingpine effectively controlledgrassesandother known inthe1960s,becauseherbicidesthat vegetation inyoungpinestandswasnotwell Mann 1980,Clason1978),theeffectofherbaceous on pinegrowthwaswelldocumented(Cainand upper CoastalPlain. ofsitepreparationinthePiedmontand form thedominant Gjerstad 1991)andiscurrently and preparation onmostuplandsites(Lowery preparation hadreplacedmechanicalsite and others1992).Bythe1990s,chemicalsite compared tomechanicallypreparedsites(Knowe at alowercostonchemicallypreparedsites discovered thatsimilarorbettergrowthoccurred site preparationexpandedrapidlywhenitwas thus, increasedpinegrowth(fig.8.5).Chemical (Fitzgerald 1982,Millerandothers 1995)and, effectively controlledhardwoodsprouting newer herbicidesrevealedthatthesecompounds began toincreaseasresultsfromstudiesofthe (Minogue andothers1991). treatments withherbicidessuchas2,4,5-T was generallymoresuccessfulthanprevious in pineplantationsusingthesenewerherbicides andothers1993).Hardwoodcontrol (Neary degradation, andminimaloffsitemovement with lowmammalianandfishtoxicity, rapid compounds weremoreenvironmentallybenign, uses.Thenewer registered forforestry (Roundup herbicidessuchasglyphosate Several alternative imazapyr (Arsenal Although theeffectofhardwoodcompetition The useofherbicidesforsitepreparation ® ), andtriclopyr(Garlon ® , Accord ® ® ), sulfometuronmethyl ), hexazinone(Velpar ® ) weresoon ® ), ACCELERATING GROWTH BY FERTILIZATION 1980). Critical foliar concentrations for N and P ven though a considerable body of research on were identified for slash and loblolly pine that forest soil fertility, tree nutrition, and response were well correlated with growth response E to fertilizers existed showing that growth following fertilization (Comerford and Fisher increases following fertilization were possible 1984, Wells and others 1973). (Walker 1960), forest fertilization did not develop Field trials conducted by both the North as an operational silvicultural practice until the Carolina State Forest Fertilization Cooperative 1960s. Operational deployment was hampered by and the CRIFF Program, initiated in the 1970s an inability to accurately identify sites and stands and 1980s, revealed that growth of most of the that consistently responded to fertilization. A slash and loblolly pine plantations in the South major breakthrough occurred with the discovery were limited by the availability of both N and of spectacular growth responses in slash pine P (Allen 1987, Fisher and Garbett 1980, Gent following phosphorus (P) additions on poorly and others 1986, Jokela and Stearns-Smith drained clay soils, locally called gumbo clay, in 1993, North Carolina State Forest Nutrition 71 the flatwoods of Florida (Laird 1972, Pritchett Cooperative 1997). This work confirmed that a and others 1961). Volume gains of up to 5 tons per large and consistent growth response following acre per year over 15 to 20 years were observed midrotation fertilization with N (150 to 200 on similar soils throughout the Coastal Plain pounds per acre) and P (25 to 50 pounds per acre) (Jokela and others 1991a). The long-term growth occurred on the majority of soil types (fig. 8.6). response following P fertilization on these gumbo Growth response following N plus P fertilization 8. Chapter clays translated into 5- to 15-foot increases in site averaged 75 cubic feet per acre per year on poorly index. When foresters learned to identify these drained soils and 69 cubic feet per acre per year P-deficient sites and prescribe appropriate on well-drained soils, which represents a growth fertilizer applications, fertilization emerged as increase of approximately 25 percent (North an operational treatment (Beers and Johnstono Carolina State Forest Nutrition Cooperative 1974, Terry and Hughes 1975). Typically, optimal 1997). These responses have typically lasted for growth responses were achieved on these sites at least 6 to 10 years, depending on soil type, Silviculture Pine Plantation when approximately 50 pounds per acre of fertilizer rates, and stand conditions. Based elemental P was added at the time of planting on these results, the number of acres of southern (Jokela and others 1991a). pine plantations receiving midrotation fertilization Results from fertilizer trials on other soil with N and P increased from 15,000 acres annually types in the Coastal Plain and Piedmont were in 1988 to approximately 975,000 acres in encouraging, but they remained somewhat 2000 (North Carolina State Forest Nutrition inconsistent (Pritchett and Smith 1975). This Cooperative 2001). By the end of 2000, > 11.1 inconsistency limited further expansion of forest million acres of southern pine plantations had fertilization programs. The Cooperative Research been fertilized in the United States since 1969. in Forest Fertilization (CRIFF) Program at the University of Florida and the North Carolina State Loblolly (+ 50 pounds per acre P) Forest Fertilization Cooperative were formed Slash (+ 50 pounds per acre P) in 1967 and 1970, respectively, to address this Loblolly (no phosphorus) Slash (no phosphorus) problem. Researchers in these two programs 18 and the Forest Service worked to identify reliable 16 diagnostic techniques to identify sites and stands 14 that responded to fertilization. Diagnostic 12 techniques including soil classification, soil and 10 foliage testing, visual symptoms, and greenhouse 8 and field trials were developed to help foresters 6 (tons per acre) decide whether or not to fertilize (Comerford response Volume 4 Slash and Fisher 1984; Wells and others 1973, 1986). 2 0 The soil classification system developed by the 0 100 200 300 CRIFF Program proved to be an effective tool N rate (pounds per acre) for determining the likelihood of obtaining an economic growth response following fertilization Figure 8.6—Growth response of loblolly and slash pine and was adopted widely (Fisher and Garbett on a variety of soil types following midrotation application of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) fertilizer (adapted from North Carolina State Forest Nutrition Cooperative 1997). Southern Forest Science: 72 Past, Present, and Future Productivity properties (Fisher andGarbett 1980).Many be nutrientdeficient basedonsoilmorphological system wascreatedtoidentify soilsmostlikelyto in intensivelymanagedplantations. TheCRIFF neededtomakesilvicultural decisions information were developedtoprovidemanagers withthe andCampbell1991). type (Morris and sitepreparationwerealsoaffectedbysoil erosion, compaction,andpuddlingduringharvest Equipment limitationsandthepotentialfor andGjerstad1991). prescriptions (Lowery taken intoaccounttodevelopappropriate herbicides, suchashexazinone,andhadtobe influence theefficacyandoffsitemovementof 1983). Soilpropertieswerealsofoundtostrongly and others in thesamelandscape(Comerford was smallandinconsistentonsandySpodosols drained UltisolsinthelowerCoastalPlain,but fertilization waslargeandsustainedonpoorly (Fox 1991).For example,growthresponsetoP found tobestronglyaffectedbysoilproperties fertilization, thinning,andweedcontrolwere treatments suchasdrainage,sitepreparation, (Stone 1975).Growthresponsestosilvicultural as managementpracticesbecomemoreintensive 1960). (Coile 1960,Thornton identify andprioritizesitessuitableforplanting industrial landownersthroughouttheSouthto system oflandclassificationwaswidelyusedby 1955, CoileandSchumaker1964).The andRalston and slashpinesiteindex(Barnes withloblolly topsoil andsubsoilwerecorrelated class, depthtothesubsoil,andtextureof 1975).Soilpropertiessuchasdrainage (Carmean geology, withforestsitequality andlandform vegetationcharacteristics, properties, understory soil effort inthe1950sand1960stocorrelate and poorlystocked(Coile1960).Thisledtoalarge scheduled forplantingbecausetheywerecutover difficult toassessthequalityofmanysites intheSouth,itwasoften of plantationforestry quality sites.Unfortunatelyintheearlyyears wereinsufficientonpoor- plantation forestry fromtheinvestmentin the financialreturns fromnaturalstandstoplantationsbecause shifted important intheearly1950sasmanagement increases. Thisrelationshipbecamemore increase inanexponentialfashionassitequality S SITE CLASSIFICATION DEVELOPMENT OFFOREST Specialized soilclassification programs increases The needfordetailedsoilinformation of plantations.Merchantableyieldtendsto important factoraffectinggrowthandyield ite qualityisperhapsthesinglemost OF SOUTHERNPINE REALIZING THEGROWTH POTENTIAL previously used. improvement overthegeneralrecommendations These site-specificprescriptionsareagreat silvicultural prescriptionsonasite-by-sitebasis. foresters arenowabletomakedetailed withthesetools, their exactlocation.Armed accuratelydetermine allowed foresterstovery specific basis.UseofGlobalPositioning Systems detailed silviculturalrecommendationsonasite- on differentsoiltypesenablesforesterstomake of thegrowthresponsestosilviculturalpractices of intensivesilviculturalregimes.Spatialanalysis tooltoassistwiththeimplementation a powerful Systemsduringthe1990sprovided Information and Campbell1991). (Morris Service Natural ResourcesConservation than themultipurposesoilmapsproducedby purposes andhavegenerallyprovenmoreuseful weredevelopedspecificallyforforestry surveys 1960).Thesesoil (Campbell 1978,Thornton important forintensiveforestmanagement onsoilpropertiesconsidered information programs toprovideforesterswithsite-specific organizations initiateddetailedsoilmapping to theoperational silviculturalpracticesused in throughout the rotation.Thiswasincontrast nutrientdeficiencies were usedtocorrect the rotation,wasastandard practice.Fertilizers of weeds,especiallyduring the firstfewyearsof United States(Evans1992). Completeremoval usually moreintensivethan thoseintheSouthern Hemispherewere practices intheSouthern Hemisphere. not foundintheSouthern Snow] andthosecausedbyrootpathogens,were f. sp. [ rust UnitedStates,suchasfusiform the Southern others 1994).Inaddition,diseasesendemicto and explanations forthedifferences(Harms proposedas respiration rates,wereoften nighttime temperaturesleadingtolower example, climaticdifferences,especiallylower growth potentialbetweenthetworegions.For differencesin toexplaintheobserved forward over theyearsnumerousexplanationswereput South werepuzzledbythisphenomenon,and range (SedjoandBotkin1997).Foresters inthe W Cronartium quercuum The developmentofsophisticatedGeographic It wasalsonotedthatplantationmanagement fusiforme hen planted in the Southern Hemisphere, hen plantedintheSouthern significantly fasterthanintheirnatural slash andloblollypinewerefoundtogrow (Hedge.&N.Hunt)BurdsallG. (Berk.)MiyabeexShirai the Southern United States through the 1980s Empirical results from these studies demonstrated that focused on reducing costs per acre. Early spectacular growth responses of both slash and herbicide applications, whether for chemical loblolly pine following complete and sustained site preparation, herbaceous weed control, or weed control in combination with repeated hardwood release, usually did not completely fertilization (Borders and Bailey 2001, Colbert and control competing vegetation. Even though others 1990, Neary and others 1990, Pienaar and growth response was found to be proportional Shiver 1993). These results demonstrated that the to the amount of competing vegetation controlled growth potential of southern pines was not being (Burkhart and Sprinz 1984, Liu and Burkhart achieved in most operational plantations in the 1994), operational herbicide treatments were South, and that growth rates rivaling those in the usually based on application rates that achieved Southern Hemisphere could be achieved in the a threshold level of control at the lowest cost. South through intensive management (table 8.1). Similarly, fertilization treatments were generally limited to a single application during the rotation PREDICTING GROWTH AND YIELD IN 73 to minimize costs (Allen 1987). Perhaps more SOUTHERN PINE PLANTATIONS importantly, silvicultural treatments were hroughout the 1950s and early 1960s, generally applied as individual, isolated treatments forest managers were forced to rely on rather than as part of an integrated system. T yield predictions developed for natural stands. Notable in this respect for many organizations Miscellaneous Publication 50 (U.S. Department was the debate over the relative value of genetic of Agriculture, Forest Service 1929) was the 8. Chapter improvement and silvicultural treatments for most widely used source of southern pine volume increasing stand productivity. In the Southern predictions at that time. However, it was soon Hemisphere, it was recognized early on that to apparent that stand growth and yield in achieve high levels of productivity in southern plantations differed fundamentally from that pine plantations, genetics and silvicultural factors in natural stands. Growth-and-yield models for must be considered as equal components of an southern pine plantations began to appear in integrated management system.

the 1960s in response to the need for improved Silviculture Pine Plantation Several forward-looking research projects growth-and-yield information (Bennett 1970, established during the 1980s provided direct Bennett and others 1959, Burkhart 1971, Clutter evidence of the growth potential of intensively 1963, Coile and Schumaker 1964). Initially, managed southern pine within its native plantation growth-and-yield models were whole- range. Most notable among these were studies stand models that simply predicted current stand established by the Plantation Management yield (Bennett 1970, Bennett and others 1959). Research Cooperative at the University of However, more sophisticated models were soon Georgia and the Intensive Management Practices developed that were able to predict total yield Assessment Center at the University of Florida. as well as the diameter distribution of the stand (Bennett and Clutter 1968, Burkhart and Strub 1974, Smalley and Bailey 1974). These diameter Table 8.1—Growth rates of pines throughout distribution models, although more complicated the Worlda and data intensive, proved to be substantially more useful tools for forest managers, because Location Species Age MAI volume of specific products could be estimated which provided a more accurate estimate of years ft3/ac/yr stand value. In the 1970s, distance-dependent individual-tree growth models were developed Costa Rica Pinus caribaea 8 449 that incorporated the effects of neighboring New Zealand P. radiata 25 457 competing trees on growth (Daniels and Burkhart Brazil P. taeda 15 429 1975). Distance-dependent tree growth models South Africa P. taeda 22 412 should provide better estimates of the impact of Australia P. taeda 20 302 United States silvicultural practices such as thinning. However, Florida P. elliottii 20 207 it has generally been found that diameter Georgia P. taeda 14 374 distribution models give results very similar to those of individual-tree growth models in MAI = mean annual increment. most cases with less effort and lower cost a Data from Arnold (1995), Evans (1992), Borders and Bailey (Clutter and others 1983). (2001), Yin and others (1998). Southern Forest Science: 74 Past, Present, and Future Productivity widespread implementation ofintensive This realizationwasthedriving factorinthe fromforestmanagement. the financialreturns density managementcould significantly increase site preparation,weedcontrol, fertilization,and of plantationsresultingfrom improvedgenetics, andgrowth recognized thatincreasedsurvival improved plantationgrowth.Itwassoonwidely silviculturalregimesthat from alternative planning toolstopredictthefinancialreturns managers werealsoabletousetheseharvest present valueoffuturecashflows.Forest and quantitativemannerthatoptimizedthe technique tomanagetimberlandinanorganized first timeorganizationswereabletousethis management throughouttheSouth.For the fundamentally changedpineplantation schedulingprogram(Clutter 1968) harvest the MAX-MILLION linearprogramming-based (Clutter andothers1983).Thedevelopmentof schedulingproblemsforthe firsttime harvest techniques tosolverealisticallysizedforest made itpossibletouselinearprogramming 1964). Improvementsincomputersthe1960s in thiseffort(Chappelle1966,Curtis1962,Leak planning toolinthe1960swasamajoradvance introduction oflinearprogrammingasaforest land baseundermanagement(Davis1966).The fromtheoverall that optimizedfinancialreturns foresters strovetocreateafullyregulatedforest Rheney 1995). remarkable degreeofprecision(Pienaarand in intensivelymanagedpineplantationswitha accurately predictstand-leveltimberproduction models ordiameterdistributionmodels,can yield models,whetherindividualtreegrowth growth-and- Liu andBurkhart1994).Modern andyield(BurkhartSprinz1984, structure and theimpactofhardwoodcompetitiononstand (Amateis andothers2000,Bailey1989), others 1989,Caoand1982),fertilization Clutter andothers1984),thinning(Amateis as sitepreparation(Baileyandothers1982, predict theimpactofsilviculturalpracticessuch Models havebeendevelopedthataccurately pineplantations. of growthandyieldinsouthern accuratemodels produced sophisticatedandvery in 1979.Thesetwoprogramshave formed University GrowthandYield Cooperativethat and theVirginia Polytechnic InstituteandState attheUniversityofGeorgiain1976 that formed Plantation ManagementResearchCooperative was enhancedtremendouslybytheworkof As plantationsreplacednaturalstands, Growth-and-yield researchintheSouth Dalla-Tea andJokela1991). and others1998,Colbert others1990, productivity onmostsitesin theSouth(Albaugh area developmentand,consequently, controls of lightorwater, moststronglyaffectsleaf nutrient availability, ratherthanavailability others 1994).Recentresearch hasshownthat and Jokela1998,Vose andAllen1991,Vose and availability oflight,water, andnutrients(McCrady by thegeneticpotentialoftreesand to standleafarea(fig.8.7),whichiscontrolled pineplantations isrelated Productivity ofsouthern convert ittostemwoodbiomass(Cannell1989). forest tocaptureincomingsolarradiationand bytheabilityof productivity isdetermined but alsobyoperationalforesters,thatforest recognized, notonlybyresearchscientists controlling forestproductivity. Itisnowwidely understanding ofthephysiologicalprocesses now basedonbothempiricalresultsandan the-art silviculturalregimesisthattheyare state-of-trials. Animportantfeatureofcurrent based primarilyontheresultsofempiricalfield can beimprovedgreatlybypropermanagement. this approach,sitequalityisnolongerfixed,but andothers1990).Withand others1990,Neary nutrient availabilitythroughouttherotation(Allen are integratedtomaintainoptimalwaterand site preparation,weedcontrol,andfertilization, soil types,andsilviculturaltreatments,including which improvedgenotypesarematchedtospecific moving towardamorefullyintegratedapproachin interactions andsynergies.Today, managementis in isolationwithlittleunderstandingoftheir property, andindividualtreatmentswereapplied Heretofore, sitequalitywasviewedasastatic in concerttooptimizestandproductivity. which geneticandsiteresourcesaremanipulated treatments toamuchmoreintensivesystemin planting coupledwithisolatedindividual M SITE-SPECIFIC SILVICULTURE CURRENT STATE-OF-THE-ART: INTEGRATED, plantations intheSouth(Van Deusen1999). block sizerestrictionsnowimposedonindustrial problems presentedbytheadjacencyandharvest scheduling solve theextremelycomplexharvest improved tothepointwheretheyarenowable scheduling modelshavebeenrevisedand 1990s. Thedescendantsoftheseoriginalharvest inthe1980sand silviculture thatoccurred In thepast,mostsilviculturaldecisionswere anagement of southern pineplantations anagement ofsouthern from arelativelyextensivesystemof in theUnitedStatesisbeingtransformed In intensively managed plantations, interactions Current growth rates in intensively managed among silvicultural treatments and genetics are plantations in the South may exceed 350 cubic now recognized. There are also large differences feet per acre per year (Borders and Bailey 2001), in growth efficiency among families of both loblolly which puts them on par with fast-growing and slash pine, and these differences can now be plantations in other parts of the World (table 8.1). exploited to improve stand productivity (Li and These intensively managed plantations offer others 1991, McCrady and Jokela 1998, Samuelson landowners attractive financial returns (Yin and 2000). The combined effect on growth potential Sedjo 2001, Yin and others 1998). Although the that results from the use of improved genotypes costs associated with intensive management are and intensive silviculture appears to be at least higher, financial returns from such plantations additive (McKeand and others 1997). Recent are higher because the growth rates are much results from progeny tests demonstrated that greater and the rotation lengths shorter. General the growth of some better families increased realization of this fact is causing a paradigm shift more than the growth of poorer families as site in the philosophy of forest landowners in the 75 quality or silvicultural inputs, or both, increased South. Current management of pine plantations (fig. 8.8). Foresters are now using this information is moving away from the traditional focus on to deploy better genotypes to higher quality sites minimizing cost per acre to a new emphasis on that will be managed more intensively. decreasing cost per ton of wood produced. Because wood costs are usually the single largest cost in Foresters now modify silvicultural practices to

pulp, lumber, and engineered wood production, 8. Chapter take advantage of interactions among treatments minimizing wood cost through intensive based on a better understanding of their impacts management may be the best way for forest on site resource availability (Allen and others industry in the South to remain competitive in 1999). As an example, both chemical site global markets. preparation and disking treatments are used to control competing hardwoods. Although disking Genotype also improves soil physical properties, it is likely Nutrients that the combined growth response following Silviculture Pine Plantation disking coupled with herbicide treatment would be less than additive. Therefore, chemical treatments are now substituted for mechanical treatments on sites where hardwood competition is a severe Water problem. In contrast, the growth response following fertilization coupled with herbicide growth volume Annual control of competing hardwoods might be more Leaf area index than additive since hardwoods responding to fertilizer compete more vigorously with the pine Figure 8.7—Relationship between leaf area index crop tree for light and water (Borders and Bailey and growth rate in southern pine plantations. 2001, Swindel and others 1988). Weed control plus fertilization is the most widespread treatment used to accelerate growth in pine plantations in 50 the South (Albaugh and others 1998, Colbert and 45 A others 1990, Jokela and others 2000). Fertilization 40 regimes have been developed that enable foresters 35 B to match nutrient supply with the demand of the 30 25 stand. Depending on the soil type, various types C 20 and amounts of fertilizer may be added four or

(tons per acre) 15 more times during a 20-year rotation to augment

Family mean volume Family 10 native soil fertility and maintain high nutrient 5 availability. These fertilizer applications are 0 coordinated with site preparation treatments 0 10203040 and weed control as needed during the rotation to Site mean volume (tons per acre) ameliorate soil physical limitations and eliminate Increasing site quality competition for soil water and nutrients, thus insuring optimal growing conditions for the Figure 8.8—Performance of loblolly pine families [identifications are (A) 07–56, (B) 08–59, and designated crop trees throughout the rotation. (C) 01–64] as site quality increases (adapted from McKeand and others 1997). Southern Forest Science: 76 Past, Present, and Future Productivity are large.At ofthe21 theturn pine through geneticmanipulation ofsouthern of nutrientavailability. from thismoresophisticated management increases inthefuturearelikely tooccur soil typesacrosstheregion.Significantgrowth fertilizer regimescanbeoptimizedforspecific pinessothat are beingdevelopedforsouthern of soilnutrientsupply, treedemand,anduptake stand throughouttherotation.Mechanisticmodels manner thatmatchesnutrientdemandofthe both macronutrientsandmicronutrientsina in theSouthwillhavetobemodifiedsupply and others1991b,Will 1985).Fertilization regimes (Evans 1992,GonçalvesandBenedetti2000,Jokela South astheyhaveinotherpartsoftheWorld nutrients otherthanNandPwilldevelopinthe and nutrientdemandincrease,deficienciesof N andPsupply. Itislikelythatasgrowth rates fertilizationregimes focusonmaintaining Current not highenoughtomeettheseincreaseddemands. increase. Thenutrientsupplyinmostforestsoilsis stands increase,thedemandfornutrientswillalso somewhat different.Asgrowthratesofforest However, thefuture offertilizationmaybe in someplantations(Yin andothers1998). approaching thislevelofcompetitioncontrol management regimesare grow back.Current additional herbicideapplicationuntiltheweeds no additionalgrowthgainsarelikelyfrom will probablyleveloff. Onceasiteisweed-free, growth responsetosomesilviculturaltreatments inthefuture.However,forestry atsomepointthe rotation willremaintheparadigmofplantation water andnutrientavailabilitythroughoutthe silvicultural managementregimesthatoptimize uses(SedjoandBotkin1997). and preservation large areasofnativeforestsforconservation demand forwoodandfiberstillreserve increase inthefuturetomeetincreasing plantations fortimberproductionwillhaveto restricted. Theuseofintensivelymanaged native forestsinmanypartsoftheworldisbeing in Nations 1997).Inaddition,timberharvesting (Food andAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnited urbanization (Wear andGreis2002)ordegraded land arebeinglosttootherusessuchas B THE PROMISE OFBIOTECHNOLOGY THE FUTURE:CLONAL FORESTRY AND plantations were stillplantedwithopen-pollinated, The potentialgainsinfuture plantations Implementing integratedsite-specific ecause ofthecontinuedincreaseinworld’s increasing, whilelargeamountsofforest populations, demandforforestproductsis st century, most pine clones(fig.8.9).Basedonresultsfromclonal way toproduceadequatenumbersofsouthern will provetobethemosteconomicalandefficient androoted cuttings of somaticembryogenesis itislikelythatsomecombination In thenearterm, use ofrootedcuttingsandsomaticembryogenesis. pine isstillunderdevelopmentandincludesthe technology tomassproduceclonesofsouthern developed tooptimizepulpproduction.The clones withspecificwoodpropertieshavebeen plantations inBrazil(Evans1992).Inaddition, year havebeendocumentedinclonaleucalyptus rates exceeding600cubicfeetperacre 1995).Growth improved productivity(Arnold Hemisphereandhavedramatically the Southern eucalyptus plantationsarewidelyplantedin potential (Gleedandothers1995).Clonal individual treesthatpossessexcellentgenetic to massproduceidenticalcopiesofselected relies onvegetativepropagationprocedures Clonalforestry plantations inthenearterm. pine for increasingtheproductivityofsouthern States. pineintheUnited operational withsouthern and eucalyptus( parts oftheworldwithspeciessuchasradiatapine 2000). Thistechnologyiswidelyusedinother from controlledpollination(Foster andothers multiply thelimitednumberofseedlingsavailable this obstacle,rootedcuttingsarebeingusedto large-scale reforestationneeds.To overcome seed nowavailableisnotsufficienttomeet Consequently, thequantityofcontrol-pollinated expense andtimerequiredtoproducethisseed. drawback ofcontrolledpollinationistheadditional increase growthsignificantly(fig.8.4).One pollination ofeliteparents,becausethiscan toward theuseofseedproducedbycontrolled half-sib families.Manyorganizationsaremoving pines intheUnited States. embryogenesis into aclonalforestry program for southern Figure 8.9—Integration of rooted cuttings andsomatic Cryopreservation Clonal forestry holdsthegreatestpromise Clonal forestry Embryogenic tissue plantlets Tissue culture Eucalyptus Clones selected spp hedges Clonal cuttings Rooted . ) andwillsoonbe outplantings Clonal plantations in other parts of the world, it will managed forests in the world (Schultz 1997). likely be possible to increase productivity of Site-specific, integrated management regimes southern pine plantations by at least 50 percent that incorporate the genetic gains available from by deploying appropriate clones to specific soil tree improvement along with silvicultural practices types and then implementing integrated, intensive that optimize resource availability throughout the silvicultural regimes. Mean annual increments rotation are now the norm. Growth rates in many > 500 cubic feet per acre per year may soon be pine plantations in the South are now approaching within our reach on selected sites in the South. those in the Southern Hemisphere. Additional gains in productivity are likely as management In the longer term, prospects for new regimes are refined further. In the near term, developments in forest biotechnology are implementation of clonal forestry holds the bright. Research is revealing the genetic basis greatest promise to dramatically increase of disease resistance, wood formation, and growth productivity in southern pine plantations. in southern pine. Molecular markers are being As a result, the South is likely to remain developed that will substantially increase the 77 the woodbasket of the United States for the efficiency of conventional tree breeding programs foreseeable future. because they will no longer have to rely on phenotypic expression of desired traits in long- LITERATURE CITED term field trials (Williams and Byram 2001). The use of molecular markers is particularly valuable Albaugh, T.J.; Allen, H.L.; Dougherty, P.M. [and others]. 1998.

Leaf area and above- and belowground growth responses of 8. Chapter with complex traits that have low heritability, loblolly pine to nutrient and water additions. Forest Science. which is usually the case in southern pine. 44: 1–12. Genetic engineering accomplished by directly Allen, H.L. 1987. Fertilizers: adding nutrients for enhanced introducing foreign DNA into trees has been forest productivity. Journal of Forestry. 85: 37–46. reported in a number of species, including radiata Allen, H.L.; Dougherty, P.M.; Campbell, R.G. 1990. pine and hybrid poplar (Bauer 1997). The potential Manipulation of water and nutrients–practices and opportunities in Southern U.S. pine forests. Forest for this technology to dramatically improve wood

Ecology and Management. 30: 437–453. Silviculture Pine Plantation properties, disease resistance, and growth rates Allen, H.L.; Weir, R.J.; Goldfarb, B. 1999. Investing in wood of forest trees has been reported widely in both production in southern pine plantation. In: Opportunities the technical and popular press. Unfortunately, for increasing fiber supply for the paper industry in the although the first successful transgenic trees were Southern United States: a university perspective. Raleigh, produced in the 1980s (Fillatti and others 1987), NC: North Carolina State University: 31–38. it remains difficult to produce transgenic trees, Amateis, R.L.; Burkhart, H.E.; Walsh, T.A. 1989. Diameter especially the southern pines. Numerous hurdles increment and survival equations for loblolly pine trees remain to be overcome before the promise of growing in thinned and unthinned plantations on cutover, site prepared lands. 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Washington, DC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest of Forestry. 42:23–32. NC: DukeUniversity. 603p. regeneration, protection,growthandmanagement.Durham, and Management.41:205–219. in NandPfertilizedloblollypinestands.Forest, Ecology, area ofpinestands.EcologyBulletin.43:102–114. Factors influencingtheamountanddistributionofleaf 120–125. ofAppliedForestry. Joiurnal plantations. Southern 9: preparation decreasesoilnitrogenavailabilityinyoung Silva Fennica. 33:207–216. R8–MB39. [Placeofpublicationunknown].44p. pineseedlings.Serv.planting ofsouthern Manage.Bull. Washington, DC.512p. forthefuture.For.forest: alternatives Resour. Rep.24. of agriculture.Washington, DC.944p. Washington, DC.202p. pines.Misc.Publ.50. tables forsecondgrowthsouthern Southern ResearchStation.635p. Southern NC: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Service, resource assessment.Gen.Tech. Rep.SRS–53.Asheville, Georgia: 93–101. improvement conference.Athens, GA:Universityof the South.In:Proceedings:Fourth foresttree southern 86–95. forest soils.BatonRouge,LA:LouisianaStateUniversity: . 1954. Planting the southern pines.Agric.Monogr.. 1954.Plantingthesouthern . 1944.Geographicsourcesofloblollypine.Journal .M.; Matson,P .C. 1999. Multiple solution harvest scheduling. .C. 1999.Multiplesolutionharvest .M.; Long,J.N.[andothers].1994. .A. 1985. Intensive harvesting andsite .A. 1985.Intensiveharvesting

Burns, P Burns, .D., ed.Southern Zobel, B.J.;Talbert, J.1984.Appliedforesttree Zobel, B.J.;Barber, J.;Brown,C.L.;Perry, T.O. 1958.Seed Zobel, B.J.1953.Seedorchardsforsuperiortrees.Forest Yin, R.;Sedjo,R.2001.Isthistheageofintensive Yin, R.;Pienaar, L.V.; Aronow, M.E.1998.Theproductivityand Wooten, ofourdrainage H.H.;Jones,L.A.1955.Thehistory Williams, M.1989.Americansandtheirforests:ahistorical Williams, C.G.;Byram,T.D. 2001.Forestry’s thirdrevolution: Will, G.1985.NutrientdeficienciesandfertilizeruseinNew Wells, D.M.;Berenyi,N.M.;Davey, C.G.;Crutchfield, C.B. Wells, D.M.1974.Intensivecultureof C.G.;Crutchfield, Wells, C.G.;Craig, J.R.;Kane,M.B.;Allen,H.L.1986.Foliar improvement. NewYork: JohnWiley. 505p. Forestry. 56:815–825. of orchards–their conceptandmanagement.Journal Farmer. 13(2):10–12,20. ofForestry.Piedmont. Journal 99:10–17. management: astudyofloblollypineonGeorgia’s ofForestry. Journal profitability offiberfarming. 96:13–18. Washington, DC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture:478–491. enterprise. In:Water, theyearbookofagriculture1955. geography. Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.599p. 116–121. ofAppliedForestry. Journal programs. Southern 25: integrating biotechnologyinto Forest ResearchInstitute. 53p. NewZealand: Zealand exoticforests.FRIBull.97.Rotorua, Forest Experiment Station.15p. Department ofAgriculture,Forest Southeastern Service, of loblollypine.Res.Pap. SE–110.Asheville, NC:U.S. fertilization 1973. Soilandfoliarguidelinesforphosphorus 212–228. Atlanta: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Service: Proceedings: asymposiumonmanagementofyoungpines. young loblollypine.In:Balmer, W.E.; Williston, H.L.,eds. 50: 1330–1335. in loblollypine.SoilScienceSocietyofAmericaJournal. response and soiltestsforthepredictionofphophorus Pinus taeda L.breeding Chapter 9. Reproduction Cutting Methods for Naturally Regenerated Pine Stands in the South

James M. Guldin1 of wood and wood fiber that can be obtained. In 1995, plantations occupied 15 percent of the forest land in the South but provided 35 percent of the Abstract—It is projected that plantations will harvested volume (Wear and Greis 2002). By 2040, make up 25 percent of the South’s forest land pine plantations will occupy approximately 20 area by the year 2040. Thus the remaining million ha (50 million acres), or 25 percent of the southern forest area. This will represent roughly 83 75 percent of that area will consist of naturally half of the projected pine-dominated forest area regenerated pine, pine-hardwood, and hardwood at that time (Wear and Greis 2002). stands. Naturally regenerated pines can be managed successfully by even-aged and uneven- On the other hand, these data also imply that by aged silvicultural systems when the reproduction 2040, 75 percent of the South’s forest land will not cutting method is properly planned and executed, be in plantations, but rather in stands of naturally regenerated origin. Currently more than half of and when there is timely application of site the area in the South’s pine-dominated forest preparation, release, and intermediate treatments types is managed by methods other than intensive to ensure seedling establishment and development. plantation culture. Some of this area will not be Attention to residual basal area, seed production, managed at all in a professional sense; it will preparation of suitable seedbeds, control of simply be allowed to grow as it will and will competing vegetation, and timely density control be high-graded when an operable commercial are important to the successful management harvest becomes feasible. But other areas are, of naturally regenerated stands. and will continue to be, managed using classical silvicultural practices that establish and maintain INTRODUCTION n the last half of the 20th century, the practice Natural pine Oak-pine of silviculture in southern pine (Pinus spp.) Upland hardwood Pine plantation I stands has focused on one silvicultural Lowland hardwood system—clearcutting and planting. This focus 35 has been made possible by two great advances during that time: (1) the development of 30 genetically improved planting stock and (2) the advent of herbicide technology for control 25 of unwanted vegetation in planted stands. The silvicultural system of clearcutting, planting, and 20 associated herbicide treatments has come to define intensive forest management. Forest industry, 15 nonindustrial private forest (NIPF) landowners, and Government agencies have all employed 10 variations of this prescription, and as a result area (million ha) Forest the area in plantations in the South has gone 5 from virtually none to roughly 12.5 million ha (31 million acres) in the last 50 years (fig. 9.1). 0 This silvicultural system has become popular 1952 1962 1970 1977 1985 1996 because of the large total merchantable volume Year

Figure 9.1—Trends in forest area occupied by 1 Supervisory Ecologist and Project Leader, U.S. forest type and year, 1952–96 (Sheffield and Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Dickson 1998). Research Station, Monticello, AR 71656. Southern Forest Science: 84 Past, Present, and Future Productivity but experience showsthatsuchpractices are volume ofdesiredspeciesfound inSMZs, usedtocapturestanding selective cuttingisoften quality andaquaticsystems. High-gradingor SMZs, becauseithasadverse effectsonwater ownership. Clearcuttingis generally avoidedin among themostproductivesitesinaforested streamside managementzones(SMZs),often is high-qualitytreesofsawtimbersize. dimension lumber, thebestsourceofwhich concentrate onthemanufactureofhigh-quality willcontinueto of theSouth’sforestindustry benefits soughtbyalandowner. Finally, apart can produceaesthetic,wildlife,andother management ofstandstolargetreesize Forestry 2002a,2002b).Inmultiple-usesettings, basis (LouisianaDepartmentofAgricultureand those ofpinepulpwoodonanequivalentweight sawtimberaveragedfrom3.2to5.4times softwood during thepast10yearsinLouisiana,pricesof Forpulpwood whentreesareharvested. example, higher unitvaluethatsawtimberbringsrelativeto management oflarge-diameterpinetreesandthe clearcutting donotfit. aesthetic disadvantagesassociatedwith seek,withinwhichthe objectives theyoften especially inlightofthemultiplemanagement many NIPFlandownersfindthisacceptable, to developtreesofmerchantablesize.However, low, althoughthetradeoffisthatittakeslonger be adaptedtomakestandestablishmentcostsvery prescriptions thatrelyonnaturalregenerationcan owners ofsmallpropertiestojustify. Management difficultforNIPF large companies,theyareoften by others 2001).Whilesuchcostsareeasilyborne applications ofchemicalsandfertilizer(Dubois especially ifintensivesitepreparationincludes costs canquicklyexceed$500/ha($200peracre), in standestablishment.Plantationestablishment clearcutting requiresalargecapitalinvestment not toemployclearcuttingontheirland,because landowners. ManyNIPFlandownerschoose management oftheforestlandownedbyNIPF in thedecadestocome.Thefirstoftheseis will havefourprominentareasofapplication tree selectionmethods. methods, suchasthegroupselectionandsingle methods, anduneven-agedreproductioncutting methods, suchastheseedtreeandshelterwood these includeeven-agedreproductioncutting naturally regeneratedpinestands.Specifically, The thirdareaofapplicationiswithin The secondprominentareaofapplicationisin Management ofnaturallyregeneratedstands REGENERATED PINESTANDS THE ECOLOGICAL BASISOFNATURALLY of ownerships. wider varietyofthesemethodsona as awidervarietyofpractitionersemploy applications willgrowwiderratherthannarrower 1983).Itislikelythattherangeofpotential (Burns economic andecologicalconditions,ownership stands, dependingonforesttype,prevailing forest cutting methodscanbeusedinsouthern that botheven-agedanduneven-agedreproduction others 2004). and OuachitaMountains(Stanturf the western such asthepine-bluestemhabitatrestorationin plantandanimalcommunities, underrepresented or restoreforeststandconditionsthatbenefit of silviculturalprescriptionsdesignedtoretain landsbymeans to managementofGovernment approaches lands. Butitalsoisseeninmodern not liketheappearanceofclearcuttingonpublic trend hasitsoriginsinthefactthatpublicdoes clearcutting (GuldinandLoewenstein1999).This to lands, areincreasinglyseekingalternatives South, especiallythosewhomanagenationalforest forest coverwithintheSMZs. regenerate desiredspecieswhilemaintaining management prescriptionsthatnaturally to themanagementofSMZsisemploy silvicultural practice.Onesensibleapproach neither sustainablenorgroundedinsound trees remain, and microecologicalconditions for trees. Intheseedtreemethod, fewoverstory site andintheprovisionof shelter byresidual in thenumberofresidualtrees remainingonthe is establishedacrosstheentire stand.Theydiffer sufficiently severethatanew regenerationcohort methods approximatedisturbance events regeneration imitatethisdynamicdirectly. Reproduction cuttingmethodsthatrelyonnatural they provideseedtoreforestthedisturbedarea. some treesremainfollowingdisturbance,and that alllivingtreesareremoved.Morecommonly, few ecologicalconditionsinnaturearesosevere or theflare-upofacanopy-destroyingwildfire.But disturbances, suchasthemainpathofatornado approximates themostseverestand-replacement vegetation, with itstotalremovalofalloverstory R Research andpracticalexperiencesuggest Finally managersofpublicforestlandinthe The even-agedseedtreeandshelterwood intensity ofnaturaldisturbance.Clearcutting, natural regenerationemulateacontinuumof eproduction cuttingmethodsthatrelyon seedlings are essentially the same as if the area EVEN-AGED REPRODUCTION were clearcut. In the shelterwood method, more CUTTING METHODS overstory trees remain, and their presence slightly Clearcutting Method ameliorates the microecological condition for developing seedlings. he clearcutting method can be applied in a manner that relies on natural regeneration The uneven-aged methods approximate T rather than on planted seedlings to reforest disturbance events that open up only part of a the clearcut site (Langdon 1981, Smith 1986a). stand. Thus the new regeneration cohort will be However the circumstances under which the found only in those portions of the stand within practice will succeed are highly specialized. which the openings are found, rather than across One common approach is to configure the the entire stand. The group selection method clearcut opening so that trees from adjacent emulates disturbance events such as beetle stands can naturally seed all parts of the harvested spots or locally heavy windstorms that remove site (fig. 9.2). The more risky practice in southern small groups of overstory trees within a stand; pines, clearcutting using seed-in-place (Smith 85 regeneration then occurs in that group opening. 1986a), relies on the harvest of trees at the point The single tree selection method imitates the in the growing season when cones are mature smallest scale of disturbance, that of the mortality but not yet opened. Harvest will disperse those of one or two mature trees. This creates a small cones across the site, and the warm temperature opening marginally sufficient for development of regimes that result from clearcutting promote Chapter 9. Chapter a very small cohort of regeneration, provided that cone scale reflexion and seed dispersal (Shelton the species being managed is sufficiently tolerant and Cain 2001). This method can succeed only of shade to develop. Thus the entire gradient of if many conditions are concurrently met. Cones natural disturbance events, from severe events must be present and contain viable seed, harvest that give rise to continuous regeneration cohorts must occur within a 1-month window prior to the across the stand to localized events that give autumnal seed fall, seedbed conditions must rise to discontinuous regeneration cohorts within be adequate within the slash resulting from the the stand, are reflected in the reproduction harvest, seed must remain present and viable cutting methods used to naturally regenerate managed stands. Methods Cutting Reproduction

Figure 9.2—The strip clearcutting method demonstrated in a loblolly-shortleaf pine stand, Crossett Experimental Forest, near Crossett, AR. Photo courtesy of James M. Guldin 2003. Southern Forest Science: 86 Past, Present, and Future Productivity production translates toadequateseedfall and regularity (Cain andShelton2001).Adequate seed where abundantseedsareproduced withgreat to loblollypine,especiallyin thewestgulfregion the seedtreemethodworks bestinapplication pines, the parenttree.Offour majorsouthern the seedtreemethodis productionofseedby whichtreestoretain. determine aboutconepersistencetohelp this information shortleaf pinestands,markingcrewscanuse seedfall(BakerandLangdon1990).In after loblolly pine( seedsareshed(Lawson1990),whereas after cones tendtopersistforanumberofyears For example,inshortleafpine( insomespeciesthanothers. easier todetermine of pastseedproduction.Theseattributesare acceptable branchcharacteristics,andevidence dictates theretentionoftreeswithgoodform, Thus properapplicationoftheseedtreemethod such attributesarelikelytopassthemalong. are highlyinheritedtraits,andtreesthatdisplay cone production,straightness,andbranchiness, Many attributesofinteresttoforesters,suchas phenotypes ofmarginalsizetoreforestthesite. hadtheeffectofleavingpoorest harvest, after laws, whichmandatedretentionofafewtrees/ha seed treesundertheoldtreelaws.Those method bearslittleresemblancetoretentionof cut (Smith1986a). that removestheseedtreesiscalledremoval is calledtheseedcut,andsubsequentharvest thattakesallbuttheseedtrees acre). Theharvest area from1to3m residualbasal per acre),withacorresponding 10to25pineseedtrees/ha(4trees reserve depends ontreesize,butitisnotunusualto reasonable estimateforthenumberofseedtrees of oneormoretheresidualseedtrees.A stand iswithinanacceptabledispersaldistance such awaythattheentireareaofharvested acrossthesitein should bedistributeduniformly area.Seedtrees source ofseedfortheharvested asa harvest trees areretainedonthesiteafter Seed TreeMethod become established. source intheeventthatinitialcohortdoesnot accident orerror, sincethereisnoresidualseed The majordifficultyisthattherenoroomfor become establishedandmustdevelopproperly. occurs,andseedlingsmust until germination The biggestlimitationontheeffectiveuseof Professional applicationoftheseedtree In theseedtreemethod,asmallnumberof P. taeda 2 /ha (5to15squarefeetper L.)tendstodropitscones P. echinata Mill.), 9.3). No southern pineiseasier toregenerate 9.3). Nosouthern Gulf CoastalPlain (ZeideandSharer2000) (fig. the loblolly-shortleafpinetype intheupperwest pinesexistsin method inapplicationtosouthern logs totheloggingdeck. andskidthe felled the equipmentusedtoharvest amidst theregenerationandbypassageof the regenerationcohort,byfellingseedtrees provide adesirableprecommercialthinningin canalso the seedcut.Thatoperableharvest oftheparenttrees5to10yearsafter harvest trees shouldberetainedtoallowanoperable has anumberofadvantages.Enoughresidual or autumnimmediatelypriortoseedfall. defer sitepreparationtreatmentsinthesummer canthenbeusedtoscheduleor That information one caneasilyseewhenaconefailureisimminent. a roughpredictionofadequatetobumpercrops, the previousyear. Whilethisapproachoffersonly inspecting treecrownsforconeletsinthespringof cone productionexpectedforgivenautumnby to develop,onecangetanearlyestimateof establishment. Sincepineconestake2years toensureacceptableseedling necessary to helpscheduletheamountofsitepreparation detection ofimpendingseedcropsisimportant if seedcropsareafailure.Asresult,early amount ofsupplementalscarificationwillhelp scarification mayberequired.However, no If seedcropsaremarginal,supplemental bumper seedcrops(Bakerandothers1996). acceptable establishmentofseedlingsduring providessufficientscarification for harvest logging activityassociatedwithaseedtree forest floortoexposemineralsoil.Typically, the pines, generallymeansthescarificationof creation ofasuitableseedbed.This,forsouthern One mainelementofsitepreparationisthe the needforeffectivesitepreparationincreases. Loewenstein 1999). longleaf inperiodicityofseedfall(Guldinand shortleaf pine,whichfallsbetweenloblollyand seed treemethodcanalsobemadetoworkin cohort. Empiricalevidencesuggeststhatthe intothe regeneration continued recruitment trees foralongperiodoftime,inthehope coneproductionistoplanretainseed erratic with thisspecies.Onewaytocompensatefor of theseedtreemethodisrarelysuccessful ( Unfortunately, seedproductioninlongleafpine the likelihoodofeffectivecatchseedbysite. P. palustris An outstandingexampleof the seedtree When properlyapplied,theseedtreemethod As seedfallfromtreesbecomesmarginal, Mill.)ishighlyperiodic,anduse acre). The next thinning, at age 25, included some small saw logs, and subsequent thinnings on a 5- year cycle averaged 11.7 m3/ha (2,000 board feet per acre) in each thinning. The final seed cut produced between 29.2 and 40.8 m3/ha (5,000 to 7,000 board feet per acre). Thus growth for the rotation averaged > 1.75 m3/ha (300 board feet per acre) annually. Late-rotation thinning also released the crowns of the seed trees, which increased cone and seed production. Regularly scheduled prescribed fires on a 3- to 5-year cycle, coupled with hardwood control on a 5- to 10-year cycle, promoted visibility within the stand that enhanced subsequent thinning treatments, and if 87 carried through the end of the rotation, reduced the need for intensive site preparation in the subsequent rotation.

Shelterwood Method

The shelterwood method is similar to the seed 9. Chapter tree method in that residual trees are retained to reforest the site after harvesting occurs, but more trees are retained. In his description of the shelterwood method, Smith (1986a) includes three specific elements: (1) the preparatory cut, (2) the seed cut, and (3) the removal cut. The preparatory cut removes competitors of future seed trees, which then expand their crowns Figure 9.3—The seed tree reproduction cutting method and root systems, thereby enhancing the potential Methods Cutting Reproduction applied operationally in a loblolly-shortleaf pine stand managed by forest industry, Ashley County, AR. Photo for cone development. In southern pines, the late- courtesy of James M. Guldin 1984. rotation thinning commonly conducted in pine sawtimber stands generally fulfills the intent of naturally than loblolly pine, which dominates this the preparatory cut. During the seed cut, 35 to 75 forest type; seed crops that are adequate or better pines/ha (15 to 30 trees per acre), having 4.5 to 9.0 2 occur 15 years in 20 in mature loblolly-shortleaf m /ha (20 to 40 square feet per acre) of basal area, pine stands (Cain and Shelton 2001). For a number are selected for retention. Favorable traits for of decades, the silvicultural guidelines for a major residual pines include stem form, windfirmness, industrial forestry landowner in the region called and evidence of past seed production. The removal for use of the seed tree method, leaving 2.3 to 4.5 cut harvests the seed trees after the new stand has m2/ha (10 to 20 square feet per acre) of basal area developed past the point of risk from seedling- of trees with good form and with diameter at related mortality. breast height of 40 to 50 cm (16 to 20 inches).2 The One operational advantage of the shelterwood seed trees were usually taken in a removal cut 3 to over the seed tree method in southern pines is that 5 years later, which produced an operable harvest the volume of the residual trees in the shelterwood of from 2.9 to 8.8 m3/ha (500 to 1,500 board feet per is greater than that of the seed tree method and is, acre) of saw logs. Removal of the seed trees also thus, more likely to attract interest from loggers thinned the excessive pine regeneration that was during the removal cut. Conversely, if carelessly common in this forest type. The first commercial done, logging during the removal cut can adversely thinning occurred between the ages of 17 and 20 affect stem density of the regeneration, especially years, leaving about 16 m2/ha (70 square feet per at higher residual basal areas. Depending on management objectives, the final harvest may be deferred for half or more of the rotation length, 2 Lovett, Ernest. 2003. Letter dated September 29 to resulting in a two-aged stand; this method is James M. Guldin. On file with: Arkansas Forestry Sciences referred to as an irregular shelterwood (Helms Laboratory, 114 Chamberlin Forestry Building, University 1998, Smith 1986a). of Arkansas at Monticello, Monticello, AR 71656. Southern Forest Science: 88 Past, Present, and Future Productivity shelterwood method(Boyer1979,Crokerand shelterwood naturally regeneratethespeciesusing research hasidentifiedthepracticesneededto pinestoregeneratenaturally,southern butclever reputation ofbeingthemostdifficult Alabama (fig.9.4).Longleafpinehasthedeserved the experiencewithlongleafpineinsouthern pinesis methodinsouthern the shelterwood than-adequate stocking. difference betweenadequatestockingandless- makethe often that remainintheshelterwood unreliable; theaddednumbersofseedtrees or species inwhichseedproductioniserratic matter, methodispopularfor theshelterwood clearcut oraseedtreeprescription.Aspractical undera might betooharshforseedlingstosurvive methodistomoderateconditionsthat shelterwood Messina 1993.Thusonereasontoapplythe in fullyopenconditions;e.g.,seeValigura and conditions areamelioratedrelativetothosefound method,microclimaticecological shelterwood Guldin 1982. Forest, near Brewton, AL.Photo courtesy of James M. applied inaresearch study ontheEscambia Experimental Figure 9.4—Theshelterwood reproduction cutting method Among themostprominentexamplesof Under traditionalapplicationofthe CUTTING METHODS UNEVEN-AGED REPRODUCTION method. shelterwood longleaf pinecouldbeachievedusingthe of in aseedlingbankbeneaththeoverstory canopy, andtheabilitytostoreseedlings fire, theoptimaldevelopmentofconesin growing space,theneedforfrequentprescribed scientists toconcludethattheneedforavailable intense tokillthem.Allofthesefactorshaveled pine strawpromotesprescribedfiressufficiently crowns ofresidualtrees,becausethebuildup Third, seedlingmortalityishighestbeneaththe seedlings fromthegrassstage(Boyer1979). ella dearnessii to controlbrown-spotneedleblight( production. Second,prescribedfiresareessential per unitarea,andmoretreesdonotenhancecone (Maple 1977).Fewer treesresultinfewercones ha (30to40squarefeetperacre)ofbasalarea is optimalwhentheseedcutretains6.9to9.2m Boyer 1975).First, seedproductioninlongleaf University (Farrar andothers1989) andthe33- the Farm Forestry Forties atMississippiState from summary examples arethequarter-century 1986, Reynoldsandothers 1984). Otherlong-term four decades(Baker that weresummarizedafter Poor Farm Forestry Forties haveyieldeddata west GulfCoastalPlainin1937, theGoodand in mixedloblolly-shortleafpinestandsonthe Forest Arkansas.Established (CEF)insouthern Forestry Forties oftheCrossettExperimental dataset comesfromtheGoodandPoor Farm (Becker andCorse1997). application ofthatmethodintheAmericanWest thus layingthegroundworkforcontemporary the Fort Valley ExperimentalForest inArizona, ponderosa pine( Pearson (1950)appliedaselectionmethod to uneven-agedmethods(Guldin1996). to current (Troup 1952);someofitsattributesstillapply pine ( silviculture, wasimposedinplantationsofScots among thefirstapplicationsofuneven-aged subject tocertainconsiderations.TheDauerwald, suggests thatthemethodcanworkwithpines, criticized.Buthistoricalexperience pines isoften shade-intolerant speciessuchasthesouthern the useofuneven-agedsilviculturetomanage shade-tolerant species(Smith1986a).Asaresult, P In the South, the best long-term uneven-aged In theSouth,bestlong-term single treeselectionmethod,arebestfor reproduction cuttingmethods,especiallythe revailing wisdomsuggeststhatuneven-aged P. sylvestris Barr.) and,thereby, torelease P. ponderosa L.)onpoorsitesinGermany Laws.)standson Mycosphaer- 2 / year record from the University of Arkansas’s The general experience with uneven-aged Hope Farm Woodland at Hope, AR (Farrar and silviculture in intolerant pines would lead one others 1984). Empirical evidence suggests that to suspect that group selection, with its larger the selection method can be made to work with openings (fig. 9.5), would be more effective than longleaf pine in the lower Coastal Plain of Florida single tree selection, with its minimal canopy and Alabama (Farrar 1996), and with shortleaf opening. Certainly some evidence suggests pine in the Interior Highlands of Arkansas and that in longleaf pine, group selection may be an Oklahoma (Guldin and Loewenstein 1999, Lawson effective reproduction cutting method (Brockway 1986). In short, the selection method can be and Outcalt 1998, Farrar 1996, Farrar and Boyer adapted to southern pines if attention is paid 1991). On the other hand, Russ Reynolds, the to marking, regeneration, and stand structure scientist who pioneered the research at CEF, did (Guldin and Baker 1998). not distinguish specifically between single tree selection and group selection; he spoke instead of using whatever size of openings was indicated by 89 local stand conditions (fig. 9.6). Whether group selection or single tree selection is preferred, a number of considerations should receive special attention when selection methods are applied to southern pines: initial stand conditions,

regeneration, developmental dynamics, application 9. Chapter of marking rules, and residual stand structure.

Initial Stand Conditions Circumstantial evidence suggests that early 20th century southern pine stands were largely even-aged before they were high-graded. Loblolly pine was known as old-field pine, Figure 9.5—The group selection method in application to and early photographs show that virgin upland longleaf pine in a Farm Forestry Forty demonstration on the pine-hardwood stands in the west gulf region Methods Cutting Reproduction Escambia Experimental Forest, near Brewton, AL. Photo courtesy of James M. Guldin 1982. had an open understory (Reynolds 1980).

Figure 9.6—Stand structure in a stand under management using the selection method, Good Farm Forestry Forty demonstration, Crossett Experimental Forest, near Crossett, AR. Photo courtesy of James M. Guldin 1984. Southern Forest Science: 90 Past, Present, and Future Productivity distillation andperiodicallywassubjecttoarson ofsmallhardwoodsforchemical occasional harvest management wasundertaken.Theareasupported limit cut.Between1915and1934,nodeliberate roughly equivalenttoa30-cm(12-inch)diameter 38-cm (15-inch)stumplimitcut,whichwas become theCEF, theareausinga harvested owned thevirginforestlandthatwouldlater In 1915,theCrossettLumber Company, which the firstcuttingofvirginforestinearly1900s. stands inthewestgulfregionoriginatedafter (Smith 1986b). treesandlittleundergrowth spaced overstory Mountains grewinopenforestconsistingofwidely Similarly, virginshortleafpinesintheOuachita and 1971;(B)Poor Forty in1937,1951, and1971. years of thedemonstration—(A) GoodForty in1937,1951, Poor Forty ontheCrossett Experimental Forest inthefirst 35 Figure 9.7—Diameter distributions of theGoodForty andthe Pine density (trees/ha) Pine density (trees/ha) Naturally occurring loblolly-shortleafpine Naturally occurring 20 40 60 80 20 40 60 80 0 0 02 04 06 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 02 04 06 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 (B) (A) D.b.h. class(cm) D.b.h. class(cm)

1937 1971 1937 1951 1951 1971 rather thanthefullystocked even-agedstands. would betoconverttheunderstocked stands another areunderstocked, the bestapproach aged standsandthat foronereasonor If theownershipsupportsboth fullystockedeven- forested ownershipinthepublicorprivatesector. pinesacrossa uneven-aged silvicultureinsouthern demonstrations. long-term thought, andlowerthanthresholdlevelsinthe These thresholdlevelsarelowerthanpreviously vegetation iscontrolledwithherbicideapplication. area within15years,providedthatcompeting could developacceptablestockingandbasal that standswith20-to30-percentstocking Baker andShelton(1998a,1998c)reported canoccur.understocking fromwhichrecovery speed oftherecovery, butalsothedegreeof Bishop 1986;Farrar andothers1984,1989). to fullstockingwithinashorttime(Bakerand bringing understockedorcutoverstands toolfor uneven-aged silvicultureisapowerful conditions undertheselectionmethodshowsthat tofullystocked to them,theirrapidrecovery when theselectionmethodwasinitiallyapplied demonstrations wererelativelyunderstocked and initialcondition.Becausethestandsinthese Woodland demonstrationshadasimilarhistory in theFarm Forestry Forties andHopeFarm CEF wastypicalofthatintheregion;stands cutting anditseffectsonstandconditionsat (fig.9.7).Thisdescriptionofselective structure typicalofuneven-aged reverse J-shapedcurve CEF GoodandPoor Forties in1937showedthe diameter distributionofthepinecomponentin 40 percentstockedbythen(Reynolds1969).The until 1937.Onaverage,thestandswereabout thecutandgrew and polesthatseededinafter in 1915,andthesecond-growthseedlings,saplings, the30-cm(12-inch)diameterlimitcutting survived treesthathad with scatteredresidualoverstory cutting. In1937,theCEFForties werestocked pinesoriginatedasaresultofselective southern or controltheresultingfires(Reynolds1980). researchstaffcouldhelpprevent arson Service growth forests,theyalsothoughtthatForest onmanagementofsecond- research information of theCEF. Whilethecompanywasinterestedin (ForestService in1934forestablishment Service) tract totheU.S.DepartmentofAgricultureForest fires. Thecompanyleasedthe680-ha(1,680-acre) This suggestsastrategyforimplementing Additional researchillustratesnotonlythe Thus theuseofuneven-agedsilviculturein Regeneration The residual basal area target immediately The importance of regeneration in these after harvest must be established in conjunction demonstrations is poorly documented for two with the expected length of the cutting cycle, reasons. First, there is no record of regeneration the expected growth of the residual stand, and development in the 20- to 40-year period between the upper basal area limit for the species. For the initial high-grading and demonstration example, basal area growth of uneven-aged establishment. Second, because regeneration loblolly-shortleaf pine stands at CEF is 0.5 to 0.7 2 was so abundant, the scientists who established m /ha (2 to 3 square feet per acre) annually. If a 5- the demonstrations paid little attention to it. year cutting cycle is planned, the target residual basal area immediately after the cutting cycle Reynolds (1959, 1969) reported that pine harvest must, therefore, be 14 to 15 m2/ha (60 to regeneration was established as a result of 65 square feet per acre), so that stand basal area removal of poorer hardwoods of large and medium does not exceed 17 m2/ha (75 square feet per acre) size, continuing fire protection, and control of at the end of the cutting cycle. Longer cutting 91 small hardwood stems. He also noted that pine cycles require lower residual basal area levels. seedlings, saplings, and poles typically are found in small openings and often directly under high- Thus managing for the proper residual basal crowned larger stems. This is apparent in the area is an important element of uneven-aged diameter distributions of the Good and Poor silviculture. This is one reason why structural Forties during the first 20 years of management regulation using the basal area, maximum Chapter 9. Chapter (fig. 9.7). The continued ingrowth into the 10-cm diameter, and q-ratio or the BDq method (Baker (4-inch) class during this period resulted from and others 1996, Farrar 1996, Marquis 1978) recruitment of saplings from the smaller has become popular. The CEF experience and diameter classes. other work suggest that BDq is more than an alphabetical ranking; this order reflects the Thus obtaining regeneration and promoting priority for implementation (Baker and others its development through the seedling and sapling 1996, Farrar 1996). The importance of classes are critical for successful uneven-aged maintenance of stand structure is based on management (Shelton and Cain 2000). The initial obtaining the appropriate basal area; retaining cohort of reproduction should be established or a specified maximum diameter class or a given Methods Cutting Reproduction released at the first cutting-cycle harvest in order q is much less important (Guldin and Baker 1998). to meet two goals: (1) the need for reproduction cutting to result in regeneration, and (2) the Developmental Dynamics need to establish three or more distinct age classes By definition, uneven-aged stands have in the uneven-aged stand (Helms 1998). If the three or more distinct regeneration cohorts; establishment of the initial regeneration cohort so, if one begins with an even-aged stand or an is delayed, the conversion period will be understocked stand, conversion to an uneven-aged correspondingly lengthened. structure is a long-term proposition. A minimum of two cutting-cycle harvests will be needed to Residual Basal Area recruit two additional cohorts of regeneration, In southern pines, regeneration establishment and a third cutting-cycle harvest will be needed and development are strongly related to the basal to avoid suppressing this new regeneration, area of the merchantable component of the stand. especially with shade-intolerant southern pines. Data from the CEF and elsewhere suggest that For the 5- to 7-year cutting cycles used for loblolly- uneven-aged stands can be managed successfully shortleaf pine stands at CEF and elsewhere, within a range of residual basal area from 10 to it will be 20 to 30 years before even-aged or 2 17 m /ha (45 to 75 square feet per acre) (Baker understocked stands are minimally reconfigured and others 1996; Farrar 1996; Farrar and others to uneven-aged structure. For species such as 2 1984, 1989). At residual basal area levels < 10 m / shortleaf pine in the Interior Highlands, where ha (45 square feet per acre), the overstory is 7- to 10-year cutting cycles are common, the understocked and growth will not be optimal conversion period will be 30 to 40 years. These (although such stands can be rehabilitated to estimates are confirmed in data from the CEF optimal production easily, as discussed earlier). Good and Poor Forties, where the time from 2 At residual basal areas > 17 m /ha (75 square high-grading harvests in 1915 to initial feet per acre) at the end of the cutting cycle, development of full stocking was 36 years. regeneration development is adversely affected. Southern Forest Science: 92 Past, Present, and Future Productivity stands violates the rule of cuttingtheworst stands violates therule approach tomanagementof uneven-aged lower crownclassesineven-aged stands. pinespeciesandfortreesfrom for othersouthern similar. Differentstandardswouldprobablyapply to 40years;anecdotalevidenceforlongleafpineis classes offullystocked,uneven-agedstandsforup release, evenifitdevelopedinthelowercrown dominance, itshouldsatisfactorilyrespondto had a20-percentlivecrownratioandgoodapical thatifaloblollypine and Shelton(1998b)observed respond torelease,evenatadvancedage.Baker that loblollypineinthewestgulfregioncould to remaininthestand.Reynolds(1959)noted size classcanrespondtoreleaseifitisallowed treeinthepulpwood whether anintermediate isimmaterial. balancedstandstructure perfectly and newlyestablishedregenerationcohorts,a that allowsdevelopmentofsubordinatestems maximum diameterandareretainedinamanner the besttreesarebeingretainedbelow If classes simplytoachieveatargetstructure. size classesattheexpenseofbettertreesinlarger preferable toretainingpoorertreesinsmaller most ofthesmallertreesareremoved.Thisis in aneffectsimilartothinningfrombelow, where cutting theworstandleavingbestmayresult of trees inthestand.Strictadherencetorule diameter distributionmayinfactbetheworst bell-shaped tailofanormal trees intheleft-hand same ageasthelargertrees.Thismeansthatmost with age,becausethesmallertreesmaybeof sizeisnotcorrelated to uneven-agedstructure, high quality. over time,itproduceslargesawtimberthathas one attributeoftheselectionmethodisthat highest qualityattainthelargestsize.Asaresult, each class,andovertimeonlythebesttreesof class improvestheaveragetreequalitywithin percentage ofthepooresttreesineachdiameter distribution (Bakerandothers1996).Markinga withageacrossthediameter becomes correlated throughtime,treesizegenerally structure When standshavedevelopedanuneven-aged 1984, 1989;Guldin1996;Reynolds1959,1969). and others1996;Farrar 1996;Farrar andothers cuttheworsttreesandleavebest(Baker rule: given tofieldcrewscanbesummarizedbyasimple pinestand,theguidance uneven-aged southern Marking Rules To acertain extent,thegroupselection Marking crewsneedguidanceinjudging In standsbeingconvertedfromeven-aged inan When conductingacutting-cycleharvest OTHER ELEMENTS affect regenerationestablishmentordevelopment. the grouparebesttreesanddonotadversely treeswithin best” axiom,providedthatreserved conflicts withthe“cutworstandleave prescribed,methodtominimize though leastoften (Helms1998)isprobablythebest, with reserves must becutwillreduced.Groupselection of groupopening,thenumberbesttreesthat stand, withoutregardforsize,shape,orpattern are establishedinunderstockedportionsofthe is seriouslycompromised.Conversely, ifgroups opportunity tocuttheworstandleavebest the pattern, according toapredetermined installing groupsofsimilarsizeandshape or stocking,forexample,bysystematically If groupsareidentifiedindependentlyofdensity of conflictdependsonhowthegroupsarelocated. worst, iftheyarewithinthegroup.Thedegree usually prescribescuttingofalltrees,bestand trees andleavingthebest.Groupselection for naturalregeneration. integral partofeffectivesilvicultural prescriptions an preparation orreleasetreatments areoften of grassesmayalsobenecessary. Therefore site to impedepineseedlingdevelopment, andcontrol herbaceous plantsmaybecome sufficientlydense under certaincircumstancesgrassesandother quickly outgrowseed-originpines.Similarly, subsequent sitepreparationwillsproutand However, or hardwoodscutduringharvest become established,andbefreetodevelop. onexposedmineralsoil, pine seedtogerminate theintentistoallow cut orcutting-cycleharvest, ifnecessary.rates andintervene After aseed foresters mustpayattentiontorelativegrowth dictate that aharvest and hardwoodsafter also beusedtoprepareseedbeds. can recommended.Prescribedburning often pine, supplementalmineralsoilscarificationis regeneration. For otherspecies,suchaslongleaf of mineralsoiltopromoteestablishment associated withloggingprovidesenoughexposure type inthewestgulfregion,scarification seed crops,suchastheloblolly-shortleafpine pinetypesthatproduceprolific soil. Insouthern bestonexposedmineral pine seedsgerminate aged methods. A The relativecompetitiveabilitiesofpines Seedbed preparationiscritical.Southern dditional silviculturalconsiderationsare regenerated standsbyeven-agedoruneven- important inthemanagementofnaturally For example, competing hardwoods, as well the stand area in managing naturally regenerated as nonnatives such as privet (Ligustrum vulgare stands (see footnote 2). Invariably, one of the L.) and honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica Thunb.), challenges in managing naturally regenerated commonly inhibit the development of pine stands is the likelihood of damage to regeneration regeneration (Shelton and Cain 2000). Given when conducting removal cuts or subsequent the slow rates of height growth of pine seedlings cutting-cycle harvests. In situations where and the competition provided by hardwood sprouts regeneration is far in excess of desired density, and invasive nonnative plant species, herbicides such logging-related precommercial thinning are critically important in managing stands of may actually be desirable. However, the situation naturally regenerated pines, and may be more is more critical when regeneration density is important to the establishment and development marginal prior to the removal cut or to subsequent of naturally regenerated pine seedlings than cutting-cycle harvests. Careful supervision of to the survival and development of planted pine logging operations is needed in such situations. seedlings. The use of herbicides has in fact 93 been an element of every successful long-term SUMMARY demonstration of uneven-aged silviculture in uccessful use of natural regeneration in southern pines, including the successful practical managing southern pines depends on a experience of which the author is aware. Periodic S number of factors. The establishment and control of hardwoods by applying herbicides at development of pine regeneration is critical. roughly 10-year intervals was an element of Prescriptions must leave a sufficient number 9. Chapter uneven-aged silvicultural prescriptions at CEF of seed trees to adequately regenerate the site (Baker 1986). Farrar and others (1984) noted that during an average or better seed year. Sites deficits in the smaller diameter classes in uneven- must be properly prepared to be receptive to pine aged stands were due in part to the failure of seed, and timing of harvests and site preparation recruitment from regeneration to pulpwood-size must optimize the establishment and development classes, which was attributable to hardwood of regeneration. competition and the presence of privet. Farrar and others (1989) reported that control of In even-aged stands, late-rotation thinnings or preparatory cutting is recommended to expand hardwoods by cutting, girdling, or herbicide Methods Cutting Reproduction treatments occurred in the past on the uneven- crowns of future seed trees and to promote aged Mississippi State Farm Forestry Forties, and cone production. The seed cut must create an was recommended in the future for all hardwood appropriate balance of residual trees and seed stems > 1.0 cm (0.4 inch) in diameter. Prescribed production capacity per tree to ensure adequate fire and herbicides were used in much the same seed fall, and site preparation must be timed way in stands regenerated using the shelterwood to that seed crop. In uneven-aged stands, the method on the Escambia Experimental Forest first cutting-cycle harvest must be heavy enough (Croker and Boyer 1975). Their use has been not only to create conditions suitable for the recommended in industrial seed tree silvicultural establishment of regeneration, but also to prevent guidelines for south Arkansas and north Louisiana suppression of regeneration before the second (see footnote 2 and Zeide and Sharer 2000). cutting-cycle harvest occurs. Subsequent cutting- Prescribed fire, which does not kill larger cycle harvests must continue this developmental hardwoods, probably cannot completely eliminate pattern. Regardless of system, herbicides will the need for herbicides in naturally regenerated almost certainly be needed to control competing stands, especially in uneven-aged stands. vegetation and enable young pine cohorts to develop successfully. Finally control of regeneration density is fundamental to the successful application of Experience and research suggests that all natural regeneration in managed stands. four major southern pines can be managed using Regeneration development in loblolly pine is one or more of the even-aged or uneven-aged improved by early precommercial thinnings to reproduction cutting methods that rely on natural control stem density (Cain 1995). Nevertheless regeneration. Certainly some forest types, such as regeneration density will always be less uniformly the mixed loblolly-shortleaf pine type in the west distributed in naturally regenerated stands than in gulf region, are amenable to any of the even-aged successfully established planted stands. Industry and uneven-aged prescriptions, whereas in other foresters in the west gulf region observed a long- forest types, such as longleaf pine, the range of term average rate of understocking of 7 percent of available options is perhaps narrower and requires Southern Forest Science: 94 Past, Present, and Future Productivity LITERATURE CITED in theSouth. foresters,andNIPFlandowners industry and plantingforpubliclandmanagers,forest toclearcutting economically viablealternatives Overall, thesemethodspresentfeasibleand with thedesiredspeciesinspecificsituations. application ofavailableresearchandexperience use inaparticularforesttypedependsonproper species inquestion.Choosingwhichmethodto into accountthesilvicalcharacteristicsof must beimplementedinamannerthattakes greater careinapplication.Eachofthesystems Cain, MichaelD.1995.Growthexpectations fromalternative RussellBurns, M.,tech.comp.1983.Silviculturalsystemsfor Brockway, DaleW.; Outcalt,Kenneth W. 1998.Gap-phase Boyer, William D.1979.Regeneratingthenaturallongleaf Becker, RolanR.;Corse,ThomasS.1997.Resettingtheclock Baker, JamesB.;Shelton,MichaelG.1998c.Rehabilitation Baker, JamesB.;Shelton,MichaelG.1998b.Rehabilitation Baker, JamesB.;Shelton,MichaelG.1998a.Rehabilitationof Baker, JamesB.;Langdon,O. Gordon.1990.Loblollypine, Baker, JamesB.;Cain,MichaelD.;Guldin,M.[and Baker, M.1986.Crossett JamesB.;Bishop,Larry Baker, JamesB.1986.TheCrossettFarm fortiesafter forestry Forest EcologyandManagement.11: 227–241. regenerated loblolly-shortleaf pinestandsthrough age20. in naturally thinning regimesandprescribedburning Forest 191p. Service. 445. Washington, DC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture, the majorforesttypesofUnited States.Agric.Handb. Forest EcologyandManagement.106:125–139. regeneration inlongleafpinewiregrassecosystems. ofForestry.pine forest.Journal 77(9):572–575. 29–32. ofForestry.with uneven-agedmanagement.Journal 95(11): ofAppliedForestry. Journal Southern 22(1):47–52. Natural standscutover15yearspreviouslybutunmanaged. of understockedloblolly-shortleafpinestands—III. of AppliedForestry. 22(1):41–46. Journal following releaseinnaturalstands.Southern andsuppressed trees Development ofintermediate of understockedloblolly-shortleafpinestands—II. Forestry. 22(1):35–40. ofApplied Journal cutover naturalstands.Southern understocked loblolly-shortleafpinestands—I.Recently Agriculture, Forest 497–512.Vol. Service: 1. Handb. 654.Washington, DC:U.S.Departmentof H., tech.comps.SilvicsofNorthAmerica:conifers.Agric. Pinus taeda ResearchStation.65p. Southern Service, Asheville, NC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest shortleaf pineforestcovertypes.Gen.Tech. Rep.SO–118. others]. 1996.Uneven-agedsilviculturefortheloblollyand Region.55p. Southern Orleans: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Service, Demonstration Forest guide.Gen.Rep.R8–GR6.New Applied Forestry. 10(4):233–237. of Journal 41 yearsofselectionmanagement.Southern L. In: Burns, Russell L.In:Burns, M.;Honkala,Barbara Louisiana DepartmentofAgriculture andForestry. 2002a. Lawson, EdwinR.1990.Shortleafpine, Lawson, EdwinR.1986.Naturalregenerationofshortleaf Langdon, O. Gordon.1981.Naturalregeneration ofloblolly offorestry.Helms, JohnA.,ed.1998.Thedictionary Guldin, JamesM.;Loewenstein,EdwardF. 1999.Silvicultural Guldin, JamesM.;Baker, JamesB.1998.Uneven-aged Guldin, JamesM.1996.Theroleofuneven-agedsilviculture Farrar, RobertM.,Jr.; Straka,ThomasJ.;Burkhardt,Charles Farrar, RobertM.,Jr.; Murphy, Paul A.;Colvin, Robert.1984. Farrar, RobertM.,Jr.; Boyer, William D.1991.Managing Farrar, RobertM.,Jr. 1996.Fundamentals ofuneven-aged C.B.;Straka,T.J.Dubois, MarkR.;Erwin, 2001.Costsand Croker, ThomasC.,Jr.; Boyer, William D.1975.Regenerating Cain, MichaelD.;Shelton,G.2001.Twenty yearsof May 10,2003]. [Dateaccessed: reports/quarterreport/swpulpwood.asp averages. http://www.ldaf.state.la.us/divisions/forestry/ pulpwoodstumpageprices-statewide products, softwood State averages,Louisianaquarterly reportofforest 316–326.Vol.Service: 1. Washington, DC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Silvics ofNorthAmerica:conifers.Agric.Handb.654. RussellIn: Burns, M.;Honkala,BarbaraH.,tech.comps. 53–63. Arkansas, ArkansasCooperativeExtensionService: the shortleafpineecosystem.LittleRock,AR:Universityof pine. In:Murphy, P ofAppliedForestry. Journal Southern 5(4):170–176. pine: asoundstrategyformanyforestlandowners. Bethesda, MD:SocietyofAmericanForesters. 210p. 73–102. Chapter4. Agriculture, Forest ResearchStation: Southern Service, Tech. Rep.SRS–35.Asheville,NC:U.S.Departmentof vegetationandwildlife.Rep.5of5.Gen. terrestrial practices. In:Ozark-OuachitaHighlandsassessment: ofForestry. style.Journal silviculture, southern 96(7):22–26. of AppliedForestry. 11(1):4–12. in thecontextofecosystemmanagement.Western Journal Station. 24p. Mississippi AgriculturalandForestry Experiment Mississippi State,MS:StateUniversity, Mississippi StateFarm forties.Tech. forestry Bull.164. ofselectionmanagementon E. 1989.Aquarter-century 476–479. ofForestry.loblolly-shortleaf pinestand.Journal 82(8): Hope Farm woodland:33-year productioninanuneven-aged Forest Southeastern Service, ExperimentStation:357–368. Asheville, NC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest silvicultural researchconference.Gen.Tech. Rep.SE–70. problems. In:Proceedingsofthe6 longleaf pineundertheselectionsystem—promisesand FL: Tall TimbersResearchStation.63p. pine.Misc.Publ.9.Tallahassee,management insouthern Landowner. 60(2):3–8. practicesintheSouth.Forestcost trendsforforestry Forest Experiment Station.26p. U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Southern Service, longleaf pinenaturally. Res.Pap. SO–105.NewOrleans: ofAppliedForestry. Journal Southern 25(1):40–45. Crossett ExperimentalForest Arkansas. insoutheastern natural loblollyandshortleafpineseedproductiononthe .A., ed.Proceedingsofasymposiumon th biennialsouthern Pinus echinata Mill. Louisiana Department of Agriculture and Forestry. Shelton, Michael G.; Cain, Michael D. 2000. Regenerating 2002b. State averages, Louisiana quarterly report uneven-aged stands of loblolly and shortleaf pines: the of forest products, softwood sawtimber stumpage prices- current state of knowledge. Forest Ecology and statewide averages. [Date accessed: May 10, 2003]. Management. 129: 177–193. http://www.ldaf.state.la.us/divisions/forestry/reports/ quarterreport/swsawtimber.asp Shelton, Michael G.; Cain, Michael D. 2001. Dispersal and viability of seeds from cones in tops of harvested loblolly Maple, W.R. 1977. Planning longleaf pine regeneration cuttings pines. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 31: 357–362. for best seedling survival and growth. Journal of Forestry. th 75(1): 25–27. Smith, David M. 1986a. The practice of silviculture. 8 ed. New York: John Wiley. 527 p. Marquis, David A. 1978. Application of uneven-aged silviculture and management on public and private lands. Smith, Kenneth L. 1986b. Sawmill: the story of cutting the last In: Proceedings: Uneven-aged silviculture and management great virgin forest east of the Rockies. Fayetteville, AR: in the United States. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO–24. Washington, The University of Arkansas Press. 246 p. DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 25–61. Stanturf, J.A.; Gardiner, E.S.; Outcalt, K. [and others]. Pearson, George A. 1950. Management of ponderosa pine 2004. Restoration of southern forested ecosystems. in the Southwest. Agric. Monogr. 6. Washington, DC: In: Rauscher, H. Michael; Johnsen, Kurt, eds. Southern 95 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 218 p. forest science: past, present, and future. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–75. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Reynolds, Russell R. 1959. Eighteen years of selection timber Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 123–131. management on the Crossett Experimental Forest. Tech. d Bull. 1206. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Troup, R.S. 1952. Silvicultural systems. 2 ed. London: Forest Service. 68 p. Oxford University Press. 216 p. Valigura, Richard; Messina, Michael G. 1993. Evaluation Reynolds, Russell R. 1969. Twenty-nine years of selection 9. Chapter timber management on the Crossett Experimental Forest. of potential evaporation as a means to infer loblolly pine Res. Pap. SO–40. New Orleans: U.S. Department of seedling physiological response to a given microclimate. Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Forest Ecology and Management. 67: 241–255. Station. 19 p. Wear, David N.; Greis, John G., eds. 2002. The southern forest Reynolds, Russell R. 1980. The Crossett story: the beginning resource assessment: summary report. Gen. Tech. Rep. of forestry in southern Arkansas and northern Louisiana. SRS-54. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Gen. Tech. Rep. SO–32. New Orleans: U.S. Department of Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 103 p. Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment http://www.srs.fs.fed.us/sustain/report/summry/ Station. 40 p. summary.pdf. [Date accessed: May 10, 2003]. Zeide, Boris; Sharer, David. 2000. Good forestry at a glance: a

Reynolds, Russell R.; Baker, James B.; Ku, Timothy T. 1984. Methods Cutting Reproduction Four decades of selection management on the Crossett Farm guide for managing even-aged loblolly pine stands. Arkansas forestry forties. Bull. 872. Fayetteville, AR: University of For. Resour. Cent. Ser. 003. Fayetteville AR: University of Arkansas, Division of Agriculture, Arkansas Agricultural Arkansas, Division of Agriculture, Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station. 43 p. Experiment Station. 19 p. Sheffield, Raymond M.; Dickson, James G. 1998. The South’s forestland–on the hot seat to provide more. Transactions, 63rd North American wildlife and natural resources conference. Washington, DC: Wildlife Management Institute: 316–331.

Chapter 10.

The Role of Genetics and Tree Improvement in Southern Forest Productivity

R.C. Schmidtling, T.L. Robison, INTRODUCTION S.E. McKeand, R.J. Rousseau, onsumption of forest products is expected 1 H.L. Allen, and B. Goldfarb to continue its rapid increase during the C21st century. In contrast, the land base used for wood production is expected to decline because of population pressures, environmental concerns, lack of adequate management by many 97 Abstract—Because of space limitations, a landowners, and the divesture of lands deemed thorough discussion of the rich history of tree nonstrategic. Even today, removals equal or improvement in the Southeastern United States exceed growth rates in some areas (Wear and cannot be totally accomplished in this forum. Greis 2002). However, models indicate that the However, a synopsis of key program highlights potential productivity of forests in many regions and the people who forged and directed these can be much higher than is currently realized programs is presented, together with a discussion (Allen 2000, Bergh and others 1998, Sampson of current and future work. This discussion covers and Allen 1999). With investments in appropriate improvement programs for both southern pines management systems, growth rates > 25 m3/ha/ and hardwoods. Comparisons of and contrasts year for pines are biologically possible and between these two types of programs are can be financially attractive for a broad range discussed and punctuated by the reasons for of site types in temperate, subtropical, and tropical regions. successes and failures. Today, southern pine tree improvement programs are on the cutting edge In the early days of southern forestry, of genetic technology, moving from open- vast areas were clearcut with little or no regard pollinated seed to clonal programs encompassing for regeneration. Natural regeneration was molecular genetic features. Programs for southern satisfactory in some areas but totally lacking in hardwoods generally are much less advanced, others. Very little planting occurred before the Civilian Conservation Corps began wide-scale because there are several limiting factors unique planting during the Great Depression. Wakeley to hardwoods and because hardwood fiber is (1944) estimated that < 500 acres of southern available at low cost. pines had been artificially regenerated successfully before 1920. Historically, the practice of silviculture focused on controlling the composition, quantity, and structure of forest vegetation and the maintenance of site quality. As forest plantations have become important sources of fiber, fuel, and structural material, this custodial role has given way to active intervention to improve both plant and soil resources. Forest managers are recognizing that intensive plantation silviculture requires active management of both biotic and abiotic resources to optimize production. 1 Chief Geneticist (now Emeritus), U.S. Department of Silvicultural treatments including soil tillage, Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, vegetation control, fertilization, fire, and thinning Saucier, MS 39574; Research Scientist, MeadWestvaco, Wickliffe, KY 42087; Professor of Forestry, North Carolina can dramatically affect soil resources. The key State University, Raleigh, NC 27695; Central Forest Research Leader, MeadWestvaco, Wickliffe, KY 42087; and Geneticists, North Carolina State University Forest Tree Improvement Cooperative, Raleigh, NC 27695, respectively. Southern Forest Science: 98 Past, Present, and Future Productivity well before the turn ofthe20 well beforetheturn B Early Work SOUTHERN PINETREEIMPROVEMENT potential toberealized. sufficient resourcestoallowthefullgenetic best geneticmaterialavailableandtoprovide to optimizingfiberproductionisdeploythe U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture Forest Service AppalachianStation[now partofthe Service, of theU.S.DepartmentAgriculture Forest in 1934byA.L.McKinneyand L.E.Chaiken pollinated progenytestofloblolly pineinstalled 1951). pines (Dorman between longleafandslash( pinehybridin1929,across first artificialsouthern 1944). Wakeley isalsocredited withcreatingthe among geographicracesofloblollypine(Wakeley growth anddiseaseresistancevariedwidely Wakeley publishedage-15 dataindicatingthat pineswasunknownbefore effect insouthern pine.Themagnitudeoftheseed-source southern clearly demonstrategeneticdifferencesina Bogalusa, LA.Thistestwasoneofthefirstto an importantloblollypineprovenancetestnear aware ofseedsourceeffectsandin1926installed Although hehadlittletrainingingenetics,was Pines”(WakeleySouthern 1954)isstillinuse. silviculture, andhismanual“Plantingthe a monumentalamountofresearchinbasic in 1924.Hisundaunteddriveledhimtocomplete with PhilWakeley, whocameintotheregion treeimprovementbegan ofsouthern the history ( pinehybrid[longleaf first naturalsouthern CA, in1925. Genetics) atPlacerville, (which laterbecametheInstituteofForest G. EddystartedtheTree BreedingStation work withwalnut( in 1916.InspiredbysomeofLuther Burbank’s IdahoandColoradobegan sources innorthern ponderosa pine( initiated in1912(Kaufman1961),andtestingof [ collections foranextensivestudyofDouglas-fir for Europeanspecies.Inthiscountry, nativeseed importance ofgeographicseedsourcewasknown P. palustris Pseudotsuga menziesii Other earlyworkincludedalargeopen- Although Chapman(1922)identifiedthe efore 1920,littlewasknownabouthow productivity intheUnitedStates.Since seed sourcemightaffectforestplantation Mill.)xloblollypine( Pinus ponderosa Juglans (Mirb.)Franco] were spp.)hybrids,James P. elliottii th century, the P. taeda Laws.)seed Engelm.) L.)], attended. Sincethen,theconferences havebeen organizers weresurprisedwhen >80people held inAtlanta, of1951.The GA,inJanuary ForestSouthern Tree Improvement Conference research program.Theresultwasthefirst possibility ofestablishingaregionalseed-source ForestSouthern ExperimentStationonthe Authority (TVA) andthe Forest Service’s Relations DivisionoftheTennessee Valley beginning inthefallof1949betweenForestry second eventwasanexchangeofcorrespondence Foresters wasdevotedtotreeimprovement.The Appalachian SectionoftheSocietyAmerican tree breedersinEurope.The1950meetingofthe aware ofthetremendousprogressbeingmadeby Congress inHelsinki1949,wheretheybecame foresters whoattendedtheWorld Forestry first wastheinfluenceofseveralprominent genetics andtreeimprovementinthe1950s.The provided theimpetusforrapidexpansionof day. According toKaufman (1961),twoevents research andtechnologytransfertothepresent force inforestgeneticsandtreeimprovement tree improvement.Ithascontinuedtobeaguiding research anddevelopmentinforestgenetics tofoster Improvement Committeewasformed toasorchards. referred seed productionareasinloblollypine,whichhe methods. Thispromptedhimtoestablishthefirst collecting trees becauseofthestudent’spreferred dysgenic selectionwouldresultinpoor-quality work,Easlyconcludedthat the of Dorman‘s rather thanthesawtimberhewascutting.Aware treeswithlotsofconesonthem, short, scrubby The studentslatertoldhimthattheypreferred log operationsandsellthemtotheStatenursery. tocollectconesfromoneofhissaw- permission with Westvaco, gavesomehighschoolstudents genetic variation. demonstrating theexistenceofindividualtree pines establish thefirstprogenytestsinsouthern seedlings fromtheseselectionswereusedto high gumyield.Open-andcontrolled-pollinated FL, startedselectingslashandlongleafpinefor working attheresearchstationinLakeCity, Power Project(Kaufman1961). the plantingwasfloodedbySantee-Cooper Substantial inherentdifferenceswerenotedbefore (Forest ResearchStation]. Southern Service), In 1951, the Southern ForestIn 1951,theSouthern Tree Around 1949,L.T. Easly(1953), aforester andSchopmeyer,In 1941,Mitchell,Dorman, held every other year. The proceedings of the Carolina seed sources have been planted conferences are major sources of information extensively in Arkansas, where they outgrow in genetics and tree improvement, as is evident the local sources. in the literature cited for the present chapter.2 It was assumed, based on the loblolly results, One product of the first conference was the that east-west differences would be important establishment of a subcommittee, headed by Phil in longleaf and shortleaf pines, because they Wakeley, to install the Southwide Southern Pine also occur on both sides of the Mississippi River. Seed Source Study (SSPSSS), one of the most Recent analysis has shown that this is not so, and comprehensive provenance tests ever established. the latest seed-movement guidelines (Schmidtling The results from Wakeley’s (1944) first test 2001) stress the importance of minimum were dramatic, but the study was planted only temperatures in seed transfer considerations at Bogalusa, LA. The local seed source from for these two species. Livingston Parish, LA, was clearly the best not Wise use of information about geographic only for growth but also for disease resistance. 99 variation has resulted in large increases in The SSPSSS, on the other hand, was much southern pine productivity. Further increases more comprehensive. It was a very large have been realized through breeding. Forest tree undertaking, involving many cooperators across breeding in the South started in earnest with the the Southeastern United States who collected formation of the tree improvement cooperatives seed and provided planting sites. All four major in the 1950s, with the main emphasis on pines. southern pine species were included—loblolly, The first cooperatives evolved in the early 1950s 10. Chapter slash, longleaf, and shortleaf (P. echinata Mill.) out of research programs at the University of pines. A total of 128 plantations were established, Florida (headed by T.O. Perry) and at the Texas including seed from and plantations in 16 States, Forest Service (headed by Bruce Zobel). Zobel ranging from New Jersey and Pennsylvania south moved to North Carolina State University in to Florida and west to Texas, Oklahoma, and 1956 to form the third and the largest of the tree Missouri (Wakeley 1961). improvement cooperatives that exist today. The results of the SSPSSS and some other

Current Status Improvement and Tree Genetics more limited provenance tests showed that the Productivity improvements from genetics have local seed source was not always the best source. helped to make investments in intensive forestry Seed sources from warmer climates tended to very profitable throughout the world. In regions grow faster than local sources, if the warmer such as the Southeastern United States, managers climate sources were not moved to areas with of facilities for wood-based manufacturing facilities climates greatly unlike those where they have realized that their future depends upon a originated. Unlike the other southern pines, reliable, ecologically sustainable, and economically loblolly has important east-west differences. affordable supply of wood. Plantations of Seed sources from west of the Mississippi River genetically improved forest trees are critical to are slower growing but more resistant to disease maintaining this supply. In the South, > 1 billion and tolerant of drought than sources from east of loblolly pine seedlings are planted each year, the Mississippi. Sources from just east of the river, and nearly every seedling is a product of a tree centered at Livingston Parish, LA, combine the improvement program. Because of the economies rust resistance of the western sources with the of scale, even modest genetic gains are worth faster growth of the eastern sources. Results of millions of dollars to industrial landowners, and this study led to large-scale transfers of seed to the small landowner benefits as well. Even increase productivity. Disease-resistant Livingston through only one generation of improvement, Parish, LA, seed was widely planted in locations gains have been substantial. For first-generation to the east. For example, much of this seed was loblolly pine and slash pine, volume, stem quality, planted in Georgia, where disease had caused and disease resistance have been improved, and losses in productivity. Fast-growing coastal the gain in harvest value is estimated to be 15 to 20 percent over unimproved trees (Hodge and others 2 Copies of proceedings of the Southern Forest Tree 1989, Talbert and others 1985). Estimates from Improvement Conferences are available from the National the second generation of improvement in loblolly Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Rd., pine are even more encouraging. Additional Springfield, VA 22161, 800-553-6847 or 703-605-6000, fax 703-605-6900, [email protected]. Southern Forest Science: 100 Past, Present, and Future Productivity in the short term by breeding only the very best bybreedingonly the very in theshortterm populations, financial benefitscanberealized 1993, Whiteandothers1993). Intheelite 1989, McKeand andBridgwater 1998,White selected elitebreedingpopulations (Cotterill populations withintensively managedand to supplementtraditionalmainline breeding improved genotypes.Ageneraltrendhasbeen sufficient sizeanddiversitytoprovidenew through time,thebreedingprogrammustbeof deployment program,andtosustaingeneticgains others 1996). world (Balocchi1997,Carson1996,Walker and in otherpineregenerationprogramsaroundthe and others1997)havebeenusedsuccessfully developed intheSouth(Bramlett1997,Goldfarb for mass-producingfull-sibseedlingsarebeing vegetative propagation.Pollination methods seed andthebulkingofthesefamilieswith sib familiesarethecost-efficientproductionof profitability. Limitationstoutilizingthebestfull- have moreoptionsforincreasingproductivityand regeneration (Liandothers1999),foresterswill realized ifthebestfull-sibfamiliesareusedfor is necessary. Becausemoregeneticgaincanbe suchascoldtolerance environmental concerns areas whereadditionalselectionintensityfor impact onforestproductivity, especiallyin sib families(Bramlett1997)willhavesignificant being pursued.Massproductionofselectedfull- the geneticqualityofplantingstockarealso sites (Liandothers1999). generation familiesaredeployedtothebest greater gainsareexpectedwhenthebestsecond- practices (McKeand andothers1997).Even best sitepreparationandnutritionmanagement first-generation programsinconjunctionwiththe by utilizingthemostresponsivefamiliesfrom 30 percentmorewoodcanbeproducedperhectare increase productivity. Itisestimatedthat20to advanced geneticmaterialwilldramatically silvicultural techniqueswithuseofthemost knowledge ofsoilproductivityandoptimal have increasedgreatly. Combiningathorough and others1997),theoptionsavailabletoforesters silvicultural manipulation(Allen2000,McKeand in forestproductivityfrombothgeneticsand in thefirstgeneration(Liandothers1999). quality shoulddramaticallyexceedwhatwasseen percent forroguedorchards,andimprovementin average 7percentforunroguedorchardsto18 productivity gainsoverthefirstgeneration A breedingprogramisthebackboneofany Deployment optionsforfurtherincreasing Because ofthesubstantialimprovements Early Work TREE IMPROVEMENT SOUTHERN HARDWOOD productivity throughgenetics. foundation ofthesuccessfuleffortstoimprove and others1992),thisvariationisthe compared tootherplantsandanimals(Hamrick highlevelsofgeneticvariation generally havevery domesticated inthepastfewyears.Forest trees species thatarebeingbredhaveonlybeen undomesticated populations,andthosefew Most foresttreespeciesremainaswild compared tootherplantandanimalbreeders. have auniqueresponsibilityandopportunity objective.Treeresources isaprimary breeders managementofgenetic where thelong-term replacements for, largerbreedingpopulations populations arecomplementsto,andnot is dramaticallyincreased. generations cyclefaster, andthegainperyear genotypes. Fewer treesarebred,sobreeding ( the breedingofwalnuts( involved inthiswork.Thisprogramincluded divisionoftheTVAwhen theforestry became studies intheSouthdatefromspringof1936, widely distributednaturalstands.Theearliest provenance trialsandsamplecollectionsfrom E 1973), andsycamore ( oak ( oak ( red other hardwoodspecies,including northern and Windham 1999). Studiessoonfollowedfor United Statesexpectedinthe mid-1980s(Tibbs mitigate ashortageintimber resourcesinthe initiated atreeimprovementprogramtohelp were established.At thistime,theForest Service (Farmer andWilcox 1966,Maisenhelder 1961) ( cottonwood ( styraciflua 1961),sweetgum( Thorbjornsen (Farmer andothers1967,Kellison 1965,Lotti1955, trials ofyellow-poplar( 1938, Wakeley 1975).Inthe 1950s andearly1960s, withdesirabletimber quality(Schreiner fruits orother productivity andqualityofnuts,acorns, virginiana pseudoacacia triacanthos Carya Quercus These elite,intensivelymanagedbreeding arly studiesintheSouthconcentratedon in growthandwoodpropertiesbymeansof establishing geographicvariationpatterns Q. falcata Q. rubra spp.),chestnuts( spp.),honeylocust( L.)asameansofcombininghigh L.)(Webb 1964),andeastern L.),blacklocust( Populus deltoides L.)(GallandTaft 1973),cherrybark L.),andpersimmon( var. pagodifolia Platanus occidentalis Liriodendron tulipifera Castanea Juglans Robinia Gleditsia Bartr. exMarsh.) Ell.)(Randall Liquidambar spp.),hickories spp.),oaks Diospyros L.) L.) (Land 1981, Webb and others 1973). By 1983 at leaf rust resistance than local clones. Many least 27 hardwood species had been considered for of the cottonwood clones developed at Stoneville tree improvement, and collections had been made remain the backbone of plantation and breeding for most of these (Purnell and Kellison 1983). programs today. Unlike southern pines, no one species or small Hardwood cooperatives were organized group of species is suited to the various site types somewhat later than the pine cooperatives. The throughout the South, because hardwoods are very HRC began in 1963 with a combined program site specific. Understanding site specificity is of intensive tree improvement and less intensive essential to understanding and realizing genetic management of natural stands (Young 1996). gain in hardwoods. However, the absence of Sweetgum, sycamore, yellow-poplar, green ash economy of scale greatly limits the ability to (Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.), and water oak/ develop a viable genetic program for most willow oak (Q. nigra L./Q. phellos L.) received hardwood species. most of the attention during the early years Three early programs stood out for their because of their commercial importance across a 101 longevity and contributions to hardwood genetics. majority of the Southern United States. Initially, a These programs were established by the Forest selection index was used to identify phenotypically Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station; superior trees, which were then grafted into clone the North Carolina State University Hardwood banks and seed orchards with the oaks established Research Cooperative (HRC); and the Texas in seedling seed orchards. In 1972, region-wide

Forest Service. The Southern Forest Experiment progeny testing was initiated by the HRC (Anon. 10. Chapter Station’s program of hardwood tree improvement 1999). Open-pollinated seed from phenotypically began in the early 1960s at the Southern average or better than average sweetgum, Hardwoods Laboratory located in Stoneville, sycamore, water oak, willow oak, and black walnut MS. Sweetgum, cherrybark oak, sycamore, and (J. nigra L.) were collected from natural stands eastern cottonwood were studied initially, and throughout the South. The modified selection other species added in the late 1970s and early scheme was used because the index system proved 1980s just prior to the closing of the hardwood inadequate for identifying genotypically superior project in 1982 (Ferguson and others 1977, Mohn southern hardwoods in natural stands (Purnell Genetics and Tree Improvement and Tree Genetics and others 1970). Eastern cottonwood, probably and Kellison 1983). the most intensively studied hardwood species in In 1971, the Texas Forest Service’s the South, was the subject of testing from 1965 Western Gulf Forest Tree Improvement through 1980. Early tests indicated that local Program formally added the Hardwood sources were superior to earlier introductions of Cooperative Tree Improvement Program to European hybrids (Maisenhelder 1970). Testing their existing pine program (Byram and Lowe eventually resulted in the release of the first and 1995). To date, 17 species-site trials and 188 open- only certified genetically superior cottonwood pollinated progeny tests have been established clones in the country (Land 1974). Subsequently, with nearly 1,500 families (Byram and others collections were made from natural stands 2000). After 20 years, sycamore, sweetgum, and throughout the lower Mississippi River Valley, green ash tests indicated that family differences from coastal areas from North Carolina to were significant, but there were neither consistent Texas, and from other programs as far north as provenance effects nor any meaningful genotype x Minnesota. Large clonal tests were established environment interactions for hardwood species in with industry and university cooperators in the southern Coastal Plain (Byram and others Arkansas, Illinois, Kentucky, Louisiana, and 1998). A slight indication was found that sources Mississippi. Clones suitable for use in various from the western edge of the species range are portions of the Mississippi River Valley were slower growing. Families that performed well identified, and data collected on vegetative across the region could be identified as early propagation, controlled pollination, disease as age 5 or 10. resistance, crown architecture, and selection strategies provided excellent information Current Status for industry and university programs to build A survey of State tree improvement personnel upon (Cooper and Ferguson 1979; Cooper and indicated that most Southern States currently Filer 1976, 1977; McKnight 1970). In general, have hardwood tree improvement programs, and clones originating up to 200 miles south of the almost half are active members of one of the two plantation sites grew faster and had greater hardwood cooperatives. Arkansas, Louisiana, Southern Forest Science: 102 Past, Present, and Future Productivity butternut ( butternut chestnut [ threatened byintroducedpestssuchasAmerican species thataredifficulttomaintainor will relyonseedlingseedorchards.Hardwood have artificialregenerationprograms,andthese redoakandwhite( northern policy,Windham 1999).Undercurrent only longer justifiedforFederal lands(Tibbsand intensive, pineimprovementprogramsareno and managementprogramshavebecomeless planted annually. Asrotationshavelengthened have subsequentlyreducedthenumberofacres and have reducedthenumberofacresharvested the last15years.Thisismainlybecausenewlaws dramaticallyover in theSouthhaveshifted increase. correspondingly and demandforimprovedseedlingswould hardwood plantingcouldincreasesubstantially, the extensionofeligibilitytoadditionallands, and iftheseprogramsareexpandedthrough cost-share programs(Byramandothers2000), is highnowforhardwoodseedtosupportFederal nonindustrial privatelandalmostentirely. Demand bottomlandhardwoodson planting ofsouthern Program,drive Reserve e.g., theConservation production. Federal cost-sharingprograms, to wildlifethanfromitsimportancefiber sometimes resultsmorefromitsimportance Justification forresearchonaparticularspecies programs, butotherspecieshavebeenadded. importanceinboth sweetgum areofprimary membersoftheHRC.Sycamoreand currently Program. NorthCarolinaandSouthare with theWestern GulfForest Tree Improvement Mississippi, andTexas benefitfromtheiraffiliation Westvaco (nowMeadWestvaco) probably hashad in thePacific Northwestand aroundtheworld. including theinterspecifichybridization programs programs, thebasisforseveralcurrent form Experiment Stationandthe Texas Forest Service ForestClones developedbytheSouthern programs tomakesignificant advancements. techniques forcontrolledpollinationhaveenabled abundant seedproduction,andestablished in theSouth.Easeofvegetativepropagation, probably moreadvancedthanthatofanyspecies intheseprojects. Service Forestry CommissionarepartnerswiththeForest The UniversityofTennessee and theGeorgia major focusofmoreprograms(McCutchan1999). becomesa Windham 1999)asgeneconservation florida Tree improvementeffortsonFederal land Genetic improvement of eastern cottonwoodis Genetic improvementofeastern L.)receivespecialattention(Tibbsand Castanea dentata J. cinerea L.), anddogwood( (Marsh.)Borkh.], Q. alba L.)will Cornus populations, something thathasbeenavoided in necessitated therebuilding oftestingandbreeding wavering haslimitedgains, mainlybecauseithas replaced byproblemsofgreater importance.This or whentheperceptionofa hardwoodshortageis dollars tighten,whenrawmaterial costsdecrease, be closedwhendemandlessens,research programs havebeenintensiveattimesonlyto but throughouttheUnitedStates.Numerous improvement effortsinnotonlytheSoutheast still accuratewhensummarizinghardwoodtree for meaninganddirection.”Thesewordsare improvement asa“haphazardthing,searching in 1975whenhecharacterizedhardwoodtree single-species focus.McKnightrecognizedthis a unifiedapproachorthebenefitsofhaving hardwood treeimprovementhasgenerallylacked hemicellulose andauxin. projects aimedatincreasingproductionof (Anon. 2002).Thiseffortisalreadydeveloping Populus genomic sequencingworkthatisbeingdonewith Populus University ofWashington, especiallyinthegenus Poplar MolecularGeneticsCooperative atthe Cooperative atOregonStateUniversityandthe at theTree GeneticEngineeringResearch will alsobenefitfromworkbeingaccomplished products inanumberofspecies.TheSoutheast possibilities forcommercializingtransformation Paper).Carolina (International of Florida),Alabama(BoiseCascade),andNorth Missouri (MeadWestvaco), Florida(University States andclonetestshavebeenestablishedin United made fromthroughoutSoutheastern State University. Newseedcollectionshavebeen and testingprogramsareactiveatMississippi Fuels Program(Landandothers2000).Breeding clones fortheSoutheastaspartoftheirBiomass sponsoringresearchtodevelop currently are targetingthesesitesfortheirspecificneeds. mills.Improvementprograms various southern investigated asasourceofhardwoodfiberfor and fertilizedplantationsystems)arebeing breeding population.Today, (irrigated fiberfarms aviable deployment population,andconstructing realized gains,establishingageneticallydiverse the 1980s.Thesewereaimedatincreasing progeny testswereestablishedthroughout closure oftheStonevilleproject.Bothcloneand the mostconsistentcottonwoodprogramsince Unlike southern pinetreeimprovement, Unlike southern Venture companiesareexploringthe The U.S.DepartmentofEnergy(DOE)is , whichisbeingfundedthroughtheDOE . Themostexcitingefforttodateisthe Populus the continuous pine tree improvement programs obstacle to success is maturation. As seedlings of of the South. Several major factors contribute to these species that are difficult to root mature, they the unique aspects of hardwood tree improvement; undergo many morphological and physiological these include the number of species, their site changes. One important trait that changes is the sensitivity, and their infrequent occurrence in ability of severed stems to form adventitious roots. even-aged monospecific stands (Land 1975). For these species, rooting of cuttings collected from very juvenile seedlings will often be high As with past programs, current hardwood (> 80 percent), but rooting success of cuttings programs face a lack of long-term funding because from open-grown trees typically drops to almost hardwood furnish is perceived to be low in cost and zero over a period of 2 to 10 years. accessible even though numerous southern mills are reaching further for their hardwood fiber In many species, juvenility (the ability to form supply. Even though large amounts of hardwood adventitious roots and rapid growth of rooted fiber are needed to sustain these mills, little has cuttings) can be maintained for several years been invested in research to develop low-cost through severe pruning (hedging) of stock plants 103 hardwood fiber sources that would provide to produce cuttings for rooting (Goldfarb and substantially higher yields than natural stands others 1997, Rowe and others 2002). Cuttings can do, and in less time. Industry funding has become be rooted at high frequencies even when taken even more restricted with the recent downturn from hedged loblolly pine that is several years in the paper industry. The funding crunch is also old (Cooney and Goldfarb 1999). Rooted cuttings affecting long-term cooperatives through mergers of this type grow as rapidly as seedlings from the 10. Chapter and the capitalization of the supporting land base same families (Frampton and others 2000, Stelzer that is thought to be nonstrategic to a specific and others 1998). mill. Today’s industrial programs are faced with Other strategies exist for maintaining juvenility a need to develop plantation schemes that will until clones can be selected and multiplied. One meet return-on-investment demands and build strategy employs establishing clone trials from programs focused on one or two species that stock plants while maintaining juvenility of the are adapted over a range of sites throughout stock plants through selection age. A possible the South. Genetics and Tree Improvement and Tree Genetics

modification could include establishment of clones as axillary shoot cultures and maintaining the THE FUTURE OF TREE IMPROVEMENT cultures at temperatures that are low but above IN THE SOUTH freezing to delay maturation. any new tools are available to aid in efficiently manipulating the genes of A second strategy being pursued consists of M forest trees. While traditional methods initiating somatic embryogenic cultures from of quantitative genetics have been very candidate seeds. The cultures would be divided effective, they can be enhanced with emerging to generate somatic seedlings for clonal field tests technologies. There are exciting new possibilities while the remaining portions of the culture would for improvement through advances in be placed in liquid nitrogen for cryopreservation. biotechnology that allow incorporation of genes When superior clones have been selected, for traits such as herbicide resistance, insect preserved cultures could be recovered, multiplied, resistance, increased cold tolerance, modified and used to generate somatic seedlings for lignin, and growth. A requisite first step to reforestation. For the southern pines, all of these applying biotechnology to plantations is the ability steps have been achieved, but there are limitations to vegetatively propagate selected clones. Rooted in the efficiencies of each step in the process. cuttings of many hardwood species and fewer Also at this time, only a relatively low percentage conifers have been used in intensive forestry of genotypes (families and clones) can be practices for decades and in a few situations successfully propagated through all the steps. for centuries. Classic examples include willows Ultimately, the strategy most likely to be (Salix spp.), poplars, and sugi (Cryptomeria employed widely will be the one with the lowest japonica D. Don), which has been clonally cost per genetic gain delivered. Both technologies, propagated for > 1,000 years and used in though possible on a research scale, still require plantation forestry in Japan since around A.D. further development on an operational scale, so it 1400 (Toda 1974). Unfortunately, most conifers is difficult to precisely predict gains and costs. and certain recalcitrant hardwoods have not been Perhaps the ideal system would comprise elements clonally propagated successfully. The primary of both technologies. That is, clones would be Southern Forest Science: 104 Past, Present, and Future Productivity (Hill exMaiden) inBrazilproduce70m beendramatic. Thebestclonesof often recalcitrant hardwoodswill likelybecomeareality. pinesand forsouthern clonalforestry arrested, lost. Ifmaturationcanbereversed oratleast opportunity forspecificgenecombinationstobe occurs whenclonesarepropagated,thereisno be utilized.Becausenosexualrecombination the fullgeneticpotentialofpopulationcan specific clonesofanyagetreecanbepropagated, not possiblethroughconventionalbreeding.When Stettler andothers1988),providesadditionalgains in temperateregions(e.g.,LiandWyckoff 1993, (Zobel andothers1987),with Eucalyptus Eucalyptus more easilypropagated sitesthan widely adaptableforuseonsouthern Gocke andothers2001).Sweetgumwouldbemore poor shootgrowthfollowingrooting(Anon.2001, of sweetgum,however, hasbeentemperedby Recent successinbothrootingandsurvival 1995;Robisonandothers1999). Rieckermann transplanting times(Anon.1998,1999,2000; storage methods,basalauxintreatments,and focused onoptimizingthecollectionofcuttings, University sincethemid-1990s.Effortshave has beenongoingatNorthCarolinaState of asexualpropagationtechniquesforsweetgum the mid-1970s.Thedevelopmentandrefinement ongoing projectattheUniversityofGeorgiasince others 1997).Sweetgumpropagationhasbeenan via staminateinflorescencetissues(Merkleand 1985) hasledtothepropagationofmaturetrees (Sommer andBrown1980,Sommerothers Pioneering workattheUniversityofGeorgia sources frommaturetreestoinitiatecultures. explant to certainspecies,utilizesalternative in thenearfuture. pines of someclonalsystemforthesouthern landowners, willresultinthedevelopment the widespreadinterestofmanyindustrial with thepotentialgeneticgainsavailableand that researchadvancesinrecentyears,together and strategicuncertainties,itappearslikely for reforestationstock.Despitetechnological large-scale, low-costproductionofrootedcuttings intostockplantsfor seedlings couldbeturned Once selected,amoderatenumberofsomatic and clonallytestedwithsomaticseedlings. cultures,cryopreserved, started asembryogenic Productivity increases from clonal forestry have Productivity increasesfrom clonalforestry True asispracticedwith clonalforestry A thirdstrategy, whichmayonlybeapplicable speciesinmanytropicalcountries species. Populus , Salix, Populus 3 or E. grandis /ha/year, species common (Strauss andothers1992).Inthe future, 1994), anditisunlikelythat thissituationis member ofthepopulation(O’Malley andMcKeand marker-trait associationbe thesameineach disequilibrium iscommonin apopulationwill associations inotherparents. Onlyiflinkage desirable traitsinoneparentwillhavedifferent likelythatmarkersassociatedwith It isvery association withfieldtrialsisevenmoreexpensive. themarker-trait are expensive,anddetermining breeding programs.However, molecularmarkers traditional selectionmethodsinsomeelite Marker-assisted selectionwilllikelysupplement Williams andByram2001,Wu andothers2000). and others2000,O’MalleyMcKeand 1994, (Bradshaw1996,Johnson is notstraightforward economic trait. associated withthelocusorlocicontrolling been identifiedusingDNAmarkersthatare volume production(Kayaandothers1996)have gravity ofwood(Grooverandothers1994), resistance (Wilcox andothers1996),specific loblolly pine,forexample,majorgenesdisease in controllingeconomicallyimportanttraits.In collaborated toidentifygenesthatareimportant Already moleculargeneticistsandbreedershave to increasewiththehelpofmoleculargenetics. will bedeployedhasincreasedandcontinue of methodstoaffectthetypepropagulethat directly impactforestproductivity. Thenumber stock istheonlyopportunitybreedershaveto pines. pursuing asimilarstrategyforthesouthern UnitedStatesareactively the Southeastern and Chile(Balocchi1997).Severalcompaniesin plantation programsinNewZealand,Australia, Don andhashadmajoreconomicimpacton has becomeoperationalwith that havedemonstratedprovenperformance (Tuskan 1997). heterosis byproducingindividualelitegenotypes improvement approachtoonethatwillcapture species, breedingwilladaptfromapopulation becomespracticalinmore As clonalforestry by averageseedlings(Stettlerandothers1988). are >100percentbetterthanthoseproduced P. trichocarpa realized. Thebestclonesfromhybridcrossesof Northwest oftheUnitedStateshavealsobeen Similar benefitsforhybridpoplarsinthePacific half thismuchvolume(Zobelandothers1987). whereas unimprovedseedlingsproduceonly Using marker-traitassociationseffectively Deployment ofgeneticallyimprovedplanting Multiplication ofspecificfull-sibfamilies x P. deltoides produceyieldsthat Pinus radiata D. if the investment is made to map genotypes “Nature Biotechnology” (volume 20, number 6) of all parents in an elite breeding program, the was devoted to various aspects of the use of incremental cost of using the markers for selection GM crops. in both breeding and deployment populations could be reduced. Again this promising technology CONCLUSIONS awaits improvement in cost efficiency (Johnson enetic tree improvement and plantation and others 2000). management has had and will continue to Molecular geneticists’ greatest contribution to G have a positive impact on forestry and forest tree improvement may be a better understanding management worldwide. The demand for forest of the processes of wood formation and growth. products will continue to increase, and intensive With knowledge about processes such as lignin management will be needed to meet this demand. biosynthesis (e.g., MacKay and others 1997), Plantation management of fiber farms can also molecular geneticists hope to manipulate the alleviate pressure on ecologically sensitive forests process to make pulping more efficient (e.g., and provide year-round accessibility to wood. Tree 105 Dimmel and others 2001). Genetic engineering, or improvement can best promote the conservation the insertion of foreign genes into the genome of a of forest ecosystems by providing high-yielding, desirable clone, has been realized in forestry. In adaptable planting stock for these fiber farms. species in which tissue culture via organogenesis Tree breeders must be cautious in the use of or embryogenesis is feasible, insertion of genes the genetic resources in breeding populations. The has great potential. One of the major factors that rich genetic variation in most tree improvement 10. Chapter will hamper hardwood molecular biology programs programs is an endowment that must be skillfully is the lack of highly sophisticated conventional managed. Fortunately, breeders have learned to breeding programs for most species. manage populations both for short-term financial Advances in mapping and transformation benefit and long-term conservation of genetic have been more rapid in hardwoods than in the variation. The future of tree improvement for pines because of their relative ease of culture both pines and hardwoods is bright, with more and manipulation. Indeed, various Populus species challenges, more available tools, and more

opportunities for gain than ever before. Improvement and Tree Genetics and sweetgum have become model species for industrial and cooperative biotechnology programs. This is even more evident with the LITERATURE CITED recent announcement of a project to sequence a Anon. 1998. Thirty-fifth annual report of the hardwood Populus clone (Anon. 2002). Development of research cooperative. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University, College of Forest Resources. 38 p. molecular resistance to more environmentally friendly herbicides would reduce establishment Anon. 1999. Thirty-sixth annual report of the hardwood research cooperative. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina and early rotation maintenance costs that have State University, College of Forest Resources. 41 p. plagued hardwood plantations. This possibility Anon. 2000. Thirty-seventh annual report of the hardwood has tremendous potential, and transgenic tests research cooperative. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State throughout the United States are providing University, College of Forest Resources. 15 p. insights into it. While this trait alone would allow Anon. 2001. Thirty-eighth annual report of the hardwood for a tremendous increase in hardwood plantation research cooperative. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State acreage in the South, the addition of other University, College of Forest Resources. 62 p. characteristics, such as reduced lignin content, Anon. 2002. Researchers develop poplar “parts list”: would provide even more impetus. Department of Energy effort will help scientists use trees more efficiently. The Forestry Source. 7(4): 13. It is unlikely that transformed [genetically modified (GM)] trees will be widely deployed Allen, H.L. 2000. Silvicultural treatments to enhance productivity. In: Evans, J., ed. The forests handbook. Oxford, until the negative public perception of their use UK: Blackwell Science Ltd. [Not paged]. Chapter 6. Vol. 2. can be changed. This issue is likely to be a serious impediment to tree improvement in general. Balocchi, C.E. 1997. Radiata pine as an exotic species. In: Proceedings of the 24th southern forest tree improvement Recent attacks by bioterrorists have resulted conference. [Place of publication unknown]: [Publisher in the destruction of transformed trees, vehicles, unknown]: 11–17. laboratory buildings, and ordinary selected trees Bergh, J.; McMurtrie, R.E.; Linder, S. 1998. Climatic factors in a tree improvement program (Kaiser 2001, controlling the productivity of Norway spruce: a model- Service 2001). Most of the June 2002 issue of based analysis. Forest Ecology and Management. 110: 127–139. Southern Forest Science: 106 Past, Present, and Future Productivity Cooper, D.T.; Ferguson, R.B.1979.Avoid earlyselectionfor Bradshaw, H.D.,Jr. 1996.Moleculargeneticsof Easley, L.T. 1953.Seedorchardsandseedproduction at K.W.Dorman, 1951.Hybridizationinimprovingsouthern Dimmel, D.R.;MacKay, J.J.;Courchene,C.[andothers]. Cotterill, P Cooper, D.T.; Filer, T.H., Jr. 1977.Geographicvariationin Cooper, D.T.; Filer, T.H., Jr. 1976.ResistancetoSeptoria Chapman, H.H.1922.Anewhybridpine( Carson, S.D.1996.Greaterspecializationofimprovedseedlots Byram, T.D.; Lowe,W.J. 1995.Forty-third progressreport Byram, T.D.; Bridgwater, F.E.; Gooding,G.D.[andothers]. Byram, T.D.; Bridgwater, F.E.; Gooding,G.D.;Lowe,W.J. 1998. Bramlett, D.L.1997.Geneticgainfrommasscontrolled Cooney, B.;Goldfarb,B.1999.Effectsofshearingheight, Proceedings ofthe20 growth rateincottonwood.In:Proceedingsofthe15 unknown]: 52–53. conference. [Placeofpublicationunknown]:[Publisher In: Stettler, R.F.; Bradshaw, H.D.,Jr.; Heilman,P [Publisher unknown].[Notpaged]. improvement conference.[Placeof publicationunknown]: Westvaco. In:Proceedings ofthe2 [Publisher unknown].[Notpaged]. improvement conference.[Placeof publicationunknown]: foresttree pine. In:Proceedingsofthefirstsouthern [Publisher unknown]:33–36. and pulpingchemistry. [Placeofpublicationunknown]: In: Proceedingsofthe11 2001. Pulpingandbleachingofpartiallycad-deficientwood. unknown]: 36–42. conference. [Placeofpublicationunknown]:[Publisher publication unknown]:[Publisher146–151. States foresttreeimprovementconference.[Placeof Lower MississippiValley. In:Proceedingsofthe10 cottonwoodinthe resistanceineastern Melampsora rust 60: 812–814. cottonwood.PlantDiseaseReporter.leaf spotineastern publication unknown]:[Publisher52–58. foresttreeimprovementconference.[Placeof southern Forestry. 41:12–17. NewZealand parents andevaluationofperformance. in NewZealand:newdevelopmentsforefficientselectionof 24p. Service. College Station,TX:Texas A&MUniversity;Texas Forest of thecooperativetreeimprovementprogram.Circ.295. Texas A&MUniversity;Texas Forest 29p. Service. tree improvementprogram.Circ.401.CollegeStation,TX: 2000. Forty-eighth progressreportofthecooperativeforest Texas A&MUniversity;Texas Forest 23p. Service. improvement program.Circ.301.CollegeStation,TX: Forty-sixth progress reportofthecooperativeforesttree ofForestry.pollination andtopworking.Journal 95:15–19. Research Press:183–199.Chapter8,pt.1. Ottawa,ON:NRC for managementandconservation. Hinkley, T.M., eds.Biologyof In: Proceedingsofthe25 and theireffectsonrootingofloblollypinestemcuttings. intensityandcuttingoriginonshootmorphology pruning Pinus taeda .P . 1989.Thenucleusbreedingsystem.In: ). Journal ofForestry.). Journal 20:729–734. th southern foresttreeimprovement southern th th southern foresttreeimprovement southern international symposiumofwood international Populus d southern foresttree southern anditsimplications Pinus palustris Populus. .E.; th Central th x Kellison, R.C.1965.Ageographicvariationstudyofyellow- Kaya, K.;Sewell,M.M.;Huber, D.A.[andothers].1996. Kaufman, C.M.1961.Adecadeofprogressintree Kaiser, J.2001.Words (andaxes)flyover transgenic Johnson, G.R.;Wheeler, N.C.;Straus,S.H.2000.Financial Hodge, G.R.;White,T.L.; Powell, G.L.;deSouza,S.M.1989. Hamrick, J.L.;Godt,M.J.W.; S.L.1992. Sherman-Broyles, Groover, A.;Devey, M.;Fiddler, T. [and others].1994. Goldfarb, B.;Weir, R.J.;Li,B.[andothers].1997.Progress Gocke, M.H.;Goldfarb,B.;Robison,D.J.;Frampton, J. Gall, W.R.; Taft, K.A.,Jr. 1973.Variation inheightgrowth Frampton, L.J.;Li, B.;Goldfarb,B.2000.Earlyfieldgrowth Ferguson, R.B.;Land, S.B.,Jr.; Cooper, D.T. 1977.Inheritance Farmer, R.E.,Jr.; Wilcox, J.R.1966.Variation injuvenile Farmer, R.E.,Jr.; Russell, T.E.; Krinard,R.M.1967. Forestry. 70p.M.S.thesis. Raleigh, NC:North CarolinaStateUniversity, Schoolof poplar unknown]. [Notpaged]. conference. [Placeofpublicationunknown]: [Publisher forestgeneralassociation Proceedings ofthewestern and diameterincrementsinloblolly pine[Abstract].In: Identification ofQTLsinfluencingtheannualheight unknown]: [Publisher1–9. forest treeimprovementconference.[Placeofpublication improvement. In:Proceedingsofthesixthsouthern trees. Science.292:34–36. ofForestCanadian Journal Research.30:1942–1952. feasibility ofmarker-aidedselectioninDouglas-fir. 13: 51–56. of AppliedForestry. Journal tree improvement.Southern Predicted geneticgainsfromonegenerationofslashpine plant species.NewForests. 6:95–124. Factors influencinglevelsofgeneticdiversityinwoody Genetics. 138:1293–1300. specific gravityinanoutbredpedigreeofloblollypine. Identification ofquantitativetraitlociinfluencingwood unknown]: [Publisher361–362. forest treeimprovementconference.[Placeofpublication rooted cuttings.In:Proceedingsofthe24 toward operationaldeploymentofloblollyandslashpine unknown]: 29–32. conference. [Placeofpublicationunknown]:[Publisher Proceedings ofthe26 growth ofloblollypineandsweetgumrootedcuttings.In: and 2001. Effectsofthreepropagationsystemsonsurvival unknown]: 190–199. conference. [Placeofpublicationunknown]:[Publisher Proceedings ofthe12 redoak( and flushingofnorthern ofAppliedForestry.Journal 24:98–105. of loblollypinerootedcuttingsandseedlings.Southern Silvae Genetica.26:145–228. of growthandcrowncharactersinAmericansycamore. Experiment Station:1–4. Agriculture, Forest NorthCentralForest Service, Res. Pap. St.Paul, NC-6. MN:U.S.Departmentof growth andwoodpropertiesinhalf-sib cottonwoodfamilies. [Publisher unknown]:65–68. improvement conference.[Placeofpublicationunknown]: foresttree In: Proceedingsoftheninthsouthern Sixth-year resultsfromayellow-poplarprovenancetest. (Liriodendron tulipifera th th southern foresttreeimprovement southern southern foresttreeimprovement southern L.)withinNorthCarolina. Quercus rubra th southern L.).In: Land, S.B., Jr. 1974. Forest tree improvement: Mississippi Mohn, C.A.; Randall, W.K.; McKnight, J.S. 1970. Fourteen certifies Nation’s first “blue tag.” Journal of Forestry. cottonwood clones selected for Midsouth timber production. 72: 353. Res. Pap. SO–62. New Orleans: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Land, S.B., Jr. 1975. Research challenges in hardwood tree Station. 17 p. improvement. In: Proceedings of the 24th Louisiana State University annual forestry symposium. [Place of publication O’Malley, D.M.; McKeand, S.E. 1994. Marker assisted selection unknown]: [Publisher unknown]: 161–177. for breeding value in forest trees. Forest Genetics. 1: 231–242. Land, S.B., Jr. 1981. Genetic variation, heritabilities, and selection strategies for early growth of sycamore in the Purnell, R.C.; Kellison, R.C. 1983. A tree improvement Gulf South. In: Proceedings of the 16th southern forest tree program for southern hardwoods. In: Proceedings of the improvement conference. [Place of publication unknown]: 17th southern forest tree improvement conference. [Place [Publisher unknown]: 123–135. of publication unknown]: [Publisher unknown]: 90–98. Land, S.B., Jr.; Rockwood, D.L.; Stine, M. 2000. Populus crop Randall, W.K. 1973. Early results from a cherrybark oak development for the Southeastern United States (phases improvement project. In: Proceedings of the 12th southern V & VI). Quart. Prog. Rep. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge forest tree improvement conference. [Place of publication National Laboratory, Bioenergy Feedstock Development unknown]: [Publisher unknown]: 181–184. 107 Program. 7 p. Rieckermann, H. 1995. Propagation of sweetgum by stem Li, B.; McKeand, S.E.; Weir, R.J. 1999. Tree improvement and cuttings: impacts of nitrogen, photoperiod, media, leaf area, sustainable forestry—impact of two cycles of loblolly pine and cold storage on root and shoot growth. Raleigh, NC: breeding in the U.S.A. Forest Genetics. 6(4): 229–234. North Carolina State University. 85 p. M.S. thesis. Li, B.; Wyckoff, G.W. 1993. Hybrid aspen performance and Robison, D.; Hascoat, N.; Birks, P. [and others]. 1999. genetic gains. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 10: Optimizing sweetgum rooted cutting technology. In: Chapter 10. Chapter 117–122. Proceedings of the 25th southern forest tree improvement conference. [Place of publication unknown]: [Publisher Lotti, T. 1955. Yellow-poplar height growth affected by seed unknown]: 223. source. Tree Planters Notes. 22: 3. Rowe, D.B.; Blazich, F.A.; Goldfarb, B.; Wise, F.C. 2002. MacKay, J.J.; O’Malley, D.M.; Presnell, T. [and others]. 1997. Nitrogen nutrition of hedged stock plants of loblolly Inheritance, gene expression and lignin characterization in pine. II. Influence of carbohydrate and nitrogen status a mutant pine deficient in cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase. on adventitious rooting of stem cuttings. New Forests. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the 24(1): 53–65. United States of America. 94: 8255–8260. Sampson, D.A.; Allen, H.L. 1999. Regional influences of soil

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available water, climate, and leaf area index on simulated southern bottomlands. In: Proceedings of the sixth southern loblolly pine productivity. Forest Ecology and Management. forest tree improvement conference. [Place of publication 124: 1–12. unknown]: [Publisher unknown]: 110–115. Schmidtling, R.C. 2001. Southern pine seed sources. Gen. Maisenhelder, L.C. 1970. Eastern cottonwood selections Tech. Rep. SRS–44. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of outgrow hybrids on southern sites. Journal of Forestry. Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 68: 300–301. 25 p. McCutchan, B.G. 1999. Gene conservation: an industrial view. Schreiner, E.J. 1938. Improvement of forest trees. In: U.S. In: Proceedings of the 25th southern forest tree improvement Department of Agriculture 1937 yearbook. Washington, conference. [Place of publication unknown]: [Publisher DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture: 1242–1279. unknown]: 6–22. Service, R.F. 2001. Arson strikes research labs and tree farm McKeand, S.E.; Bridgwater, F.E. 1998. A strategy for the third in Pacific Northwest. Science. 292: 1622–1623. breeding cycle of loblolly pine in the Southeastern U.S. Silvae Genetica. 47: 223–234. Sommer, H.E.; Brown, C.L. 1980. Embryogenesis in tissue culture of sweetgum. Forest Science. 26(2): 257–260. McKeand, S.E.; Crook, R.P.; Allen H.L. 1997. Genotypic stability effects on predicted family responses to silvicultural Sommer, H.E.; Wetzstein, H.Y.; Lee, N. 1985. Tissue culture of treatments in loblolly pine. Southern Journal of Applied sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.). In: Proceedings of Forestry. 21: 84–89. the 18th southern forest tree improvement conference. [Place of publication unknown]: [Publisher unknown]: 42–50. McKnight, J.S. 1970. Planting cottonwood cuttings for timber production in the South. Res. Pap. SO–60. New Orleans: Stelzer, H.E.; Foster, G.S.; Shaw, V.; McRae, J.B. 1998. Ten-year U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern growth comparison between rooted cuttings and seedlings Forest Experiment Station. 17 p. of loblolly pine. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 28: 69–73. McKnight, J.S. 1975. Hardwood tree improvement to date and tomorrow. In: Proceedings of the 13th southern forest tree Stettler, R.F.; Fenn, R.C.; Heilman, P.E.; Stanton, B.J. improvement conference. [Place of publication unknown]: 1988. Populus trichocarpa x Populus deltoides hybrids [Publisher unknown]: 9–16. for short rotation culture: variation patterns and 4-year field performance. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. Merkle, S.A.; Bailey, R.L.; Pauley, B.A. [and others]. 1997. 18: 745–753. Somatic embryogenesis from tissues of mature sweetgum trees. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 27: 959–964. Southern Forest Science: 108 Past, Present, and Future Productivity Wakeley, P Tibbs, T.; Windham, J.1999.Strategicchangesindirection: Walker, S.;Haines,R.;Dieters,M.1996.Beyond2000:clonal Wakeley, PhilipC.1961.Resultsofthesouthwidepineseed Wakeley, pines.Agric. PhilipC.1954.Plantingthesouthern Wakeley, PhilipC.1944.Geographicseedsourceofloblolly Tuskan, G.A.1997.Clonalforestry, heterosisandadvanced- Toda, R.1974.Vegetative propagationinrelationtoJapanese E.1961.VariationThorbjornsen, indensityandfiberlength Talbert, J.T.; Weir, R.D.1985.Costsandbenefits R.J.;Arnold, Strauss, S.H.;Lande,R.;Namkoong,G.1992.Limitations Proceedings oftheLouisianaStateUniversity24 unknown]: [Publisher390–392. forest treeimprovementconference.[Placeofpublication management program.In:Proceedingsofthe25 USDA-Forest Region8genetic resource Service’s 44(3): 192–195. [Publisher unknown]:351–354. IUFRO conference.[Placeofpublicationunknown]: sustainable tropicalforestry. ProceedingsoftheQFRI- Nikles, D.G.[andothers],eds.Tree improvement for inQueensland.In:Dieters,M.J.;Matheson,A.C.; forestry publication unknown]:[Publisher10–24. foresttreeimprovementconference.[Placeof southern source studythrough1960-61.In:Proceedingsofthesixth Agriculture, Forest 233p. Service. Monogr. 18.Washington, DC:U.S. Departmentof ofForestry.pine seed.Journal 42:23–33. [Publisher unknown]:3–12. symposium.[Placeofpublicationunknown]: forestry generation breeding.In:Proceedingsofthe24 Science. 4:410–417. ofForestforest treeimprovement.NewZealandJournal unknown]: [Publisher168–171. forest treeimprovementconference.[Placeofpublication in woodofyellow-poplar( ofForestry.program. Journal 83:162–165. of amaturefirst-generationloblollypinetreeimprovement ofForestCanadian Journal Research.22:1050–1061. of molecular-marker-aidedselectioninforesttrees. .C. 1975. Southern forestgeneticsbefore1951.In: .C. 1975.Southern Liriodendron tulipifera th southern th th southern ). Tappi. annual Webb, C.D.;Belanger, R.P Webb, C.D.1964.Naturalvariationinspecificgravity, fiber Wear, forestresource D.N.;Greis,J.G.2002.Thesouthern Zobel, B.J.;vanWyk, G.;Stahl,P Young, M.J.1996.From thedirector. In:Thirty-thirdannual Wu, R.;Zeng,Z-B.;McKeand, S.E.;O’Malley, D.M.2000. Williams, C.G.;Byram,T.D. 2001.Forestry’s thirdrevolution: Wilcox, P White, T.L.; Hodge,G.R.;Powell, G.L.1993.Anadvanced- White, T. 1993.Advanced-generation breedingpopulations: American sycamore.In:Proceedingsofthe12 differences inearlygrowthandwoodspecificgravityof North CarolinaStateUniversity. 94p.Ph.D.dissertation. styraciflua length, andinterlockedgrainofsweetgum( ResearchStation.103p. Southern Service, Asheville, NC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest report.Gen.Tech.assessment: summary Rep.SRS-54. forests. NewYork: JohnWiley. 508p. Resources: 3. NC: NorthCarolinaStateUniversity, CollegeofForest report ofthehardwoodresearchcooperative.Raleigh, Plant BreedingReviews.19:41–68. The caseformolecularmappinginforesttreebreeding. 116–121. ofAppliedForestry. Journal programs. Southern 25: integraing biotechnologyinto of America.93:3859–3864. of theNationalAcademy ofSciencestheUnitedStates disease inloblollypinebygenomicmapping.Proceedings rust Detection ofamajorgeneforresistancetofusiform UnitedStates.SilvaeGenetica.42:359–371. Southeastern generation treeimprovementplanforslashpineinthe of publicationunknown]:[Publisher208–222. anddomesticationofnewspecies.[Place gene conservation throughtreeimprovement, tropical forestresourceconcerns conference. S2.02–08.Breedingtropicaltrees.Solving In:ProceedingsoftheIUFRO size andstructure. unknown]: [Publisher213–227. forest treeimprovementconference.[Placeofpublication .L.; Amerson,H.V.; Kuhlman, E.G.[andothers].1996. L.)intheSouthAtlantic States.Raleigh,NC: .; McAlpine,R.G.1973.Family Pinus taeda . 1987.Growingexotic L.breeding Liquidambar th southern Chapter 11. Forest Mensuration with Remote Sensing: A Retrospective and a Vision for the Future

Randolph H. Wynne1 Organization of the United Nations 1997). Much of this loss resulted from the conversion of forest land to nonforest uses such as agriculture, pasture, or development. Environmental regulations Abstract—Remote sensing, while occasionally and the desire to preserve native forests to oversold, has clear potential to reduce the overall maintain biodiversity further restrict harvesting cost of traditional forest inventories. Perhaps most of forest products. For example, harvest of timber 109 important, some of the information needed for from the national forests in the United States more intensive, rather than extensive, forest decreased from 12.0 billion board feet in 1989 to management is available from remote sensing. 3.5 billion board feet in 1997 as the focus of the These new information needs may justify increased U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service use—and the increased cost—of remote sensing. shifted from timber production toward wilderness preservation, protection of habitat for threatened and endangered species, watershed protection and restoration, and recreation (U.S. Department of INTRODUCTION Agriculture, Forest Service 1998). Forestry Information Needs of the 21st Century: Industry Trends Affecting Remote Sensing Increasing Demand and a Changing Landscape Many forest industry trends will affect the emand for forest products is expected to future of remote sensing in forestry. Some of increase rapidly during the 21st century. the most important are as follows: DPopulation growth and economic development that increase the per capita consumption of forest • Smith and others (2003) note that industrial products drive this trend. Global population, now forest landowners have moved from an approximately 6 billion, is estimated to increase exclusive emphasis on supplying fiber toward by 900 million each decade for the next 50 years a view of forest land as a biological asset that (Food and Agriculture Organization of the must be managed financially. If this is true, United Nations 1997). Most of this increase will additional information inputs, such as remote occur in developing nations. Level of economic sensing, that increase financial returns might development strongly affects the demand for well be justified. forest products. Worldwide income measured as • As noted earlier, industrial forest management gross domestic product increased by 109 percent is increasing in its intensity, partly because between 1970 and 1994 (Food and Agriculture there has been an effective decrease in the Organization of the United Nations 1997). Gross amount of public land available for active domestic product is estimated to rise from $20 management. It can make economic sense trillion in 1990 to $69 trillion in 2030, with the most to spend more for information about the dramatic increases occurring in the developing forest resource if the additional expenditure nations (World Bank 1992). decreases the overall cost of inputs, particularly Although the demand for forest products in the establishment and early growth phases. is increasing, global forest area is decreasing. • Information available from digital remote Between 1985 and 1995, the area of the world’s sensing can now be combined with other forests decreased by 180 million ha, an annual digital geospatial information to provide loss of 18 million ha (Food and Agriculture a complete scheduling picture from site preparation to harvest scheduling within an organization.

1 Associate Professor, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Department of Forestry, College of Natural Resources, Blacksburg, VA 24061. Southern Forest Science: 110 Past, Present, and Future Productivity .Theprecisionofphotographicallyderived 1. can besummarizedasfollows: decline ofphotographicmensuration. These quite commonelsewhere(e.g.,Canada). less commonintheUnitedStates,although (e.g., Avery 1978) arebecomingsignificantly successful, butapplicationsofaerialcruising possible cost.Thisefforthasbeenreasonably by speciesaccurately, precisely, andatthelowest volume photographs asameansofdetermining Substantial efforthasgoneintowaysofusing the dimensionsoftheirproducts”(Helms1998). age oftrees,individuallyorcollectively, andof weight,growth,volume,and dimensions, form, of classically definedas“thedetermination hasbeenforestmensuration, photogrammetry by forests.However, driverforforest aprimary aspects oftheprivateandpublicgoodsprovided photography havebeendiverse,coveringmost others 1997).Forestry applicationsofaerial United Statessincethe1940s(e.g.,Lund and have beencommonlyusedbyforestersinthe MENSURATION WHERE WEHAVE BEEN:PHOTO directly usefultoforesters. intoinformation sensing dataaretransformed thatmustbeovercomebeforeremote barriers The chaptercloseswithabriefdiscussionof justify increasedexpenditureforinformation. sensing couldincreaseproductivityand,thus, obtainedbyremote shows howinformation remote sensingisfollowedbyanexamplethat andmonitoring.Thediscussionoflidar inventory new technologiesforcollectingdataforest remote sensing,oneofthemorepromising this isfollowedbyabriefdiscussionoflidar retrospective viewofphotomensuration,and productivity. Thischapterstartswitha toincreaseforest necessary the information purposesandtoprovide traditional inventory for increaseduseofremotesensingboth now arestilleffective,butthereismuchpotential for morethanhalfacentury. Themethodsused andmanagementsystems into forestinventory Chapter Overview V There areseveralpossiblereasonsforthe Remote sensinghasbeenactivelyintegrated ertical aerialphotographs,whileusedin Quebec and Ontario, Canada) (Spurr 1960), Quebec andOntario,Canada)(Spurr sincethelate1920s(particularlyin forestry field-derived volumeestimates. volume estimatesisnotashigh asthatof important suppliesofpublic goods(viablefish decreasing landbasewhile maintaining the production ofwoodandfiber onanever- increase. Foresters arebeingasked toincrease forests inthefaceofthisdemand mustalso requiredtosustainablymanage the information However, demandsonforestsareincreasing,and photography.without widespreaduseofordinary needed scientists areobtainingtheinformation since wecanassumethatforestmanagersand Theactual orperceivedbenefitsofusing 6. Wide useofmedium-resolutionspaceborne 5. remotesensingnow Researchinforestry 4. InmuchoftheUnitedStates,forestland 3. Photographicinterpretationand 2. The lastofthesepointsisthemostimportant, costs incurred. maybelessthanthe photos forinventory (Olson 1960). association, shadows,resolution,andsite texture, the othersbeingshape,size,pattern, identified elementsofimageinterpretation, hue. Hueisjustoneoftheninecommonly even thoughthisapproachmakesuseonlyof the brightnessvaluevectorfromeachpixel, the useofdiscriminantfunctionstocategorize operational usearebasedalmostentirelyon extraction.Mostalgorithms in information of evermoreautomatedapproachesto inherently digitalhasledtoanexpectation Scanner andThematicMapperthatare sensors suchastheLandsatMultispectral optical sensors. as radar, lidar, andhigh-resolutiondigital sensors,such andspaceborne newer airborne focuses onactualandpotentialapplicationsof feasibility of)photomensuration. the economicjustificationfor(oreven accessibility increasing,thusdecreasing parcel sizeissteadilydecreasingand and Lassoie1998). (68 percent)thanGIS(43(Brown positions requireknowledgeofaerialphotos forestry which showthatmoreentry-level competencyandskillrequirements entry-level ofdesired results fromthemostrecentsurvey Vermillion despite 2000).Thisisoccurring programs(Saderand accredited forestry Systems(GIS),in Geographic Information other ones,suchasskillsintheuseof that areincreasinglybeingsupplantedby requirespecializedskills photogrammetry and wildlife populations, clean water, and 1:12,000 photos (Paine 1981), which is why recreational opportunities) that well-managed most volume tables are based on 3- to 5-foot forests have always provided. To meet this diameter classes. challenge, forest managers will require new Percent (overstory) crown cover is the most types of information, and remote sensing will subjective of the three direct forest measurements help to supply these. If remote sensing fills our made from aerial photographs. It can simply be requirements, we will need to evaluate previous ocularly estimated or (more commonly) ocularly successes and failures and work to improve the estimated with the aid of crown density scales. It match between information that can be objectively usually is an overestimate of actual crown cover, and accurately derived from remotely sensed because small canopy gaps are often not visible data and the information needed for forest and shadows are often treated as trees. When management (Wynne and others 2000). typical forestry photo scales are used, standard Aerial Cruising errors do not exceed 10 percent, but the bias of an individual interpreter commonly ranges from 5 to 111 Aerial (photo) volume tables have been 10 percent (Spurr 1960). constructed for both individual trees and stands (Avery 1978). All are based on total tree height However, volume estimates derived by using and visible crown diameter for individual trees. stand photo volume tables are too imprecise for For stands, volume tables use stand height and many uses, as standard errors of the estimate are percent crown closure at a minimum; many also likely to exceed 25 percent (Spurr 1960). While Chapter 11. Chapter include visible crown diameter classes. These standard error can be reduced by increasing the tables use visible crown diameter as a surrogate number of samples, stand photo volume tables for stem diameter and percent crown closure as are also biased, requiring double sampling with a surrogate for basal area or stem density. regression using matched field- and photo- measured plots (e.g., Paine 1981). This casts Tree heights are typically measured by doubt on the economic feasibility of photo stereoscopic parallax methods that employ mensuration for the smaller tracts that are a parallax bar or wedge and large-scale increasingly common. photographs. Shadow lengths can be used where terrain is level and stands are relatively open. To summarize, timber volume can be estimated While the accuracy of these measurements varies, from aerial photographs. Bias exists because on 1 inch = 20 chains photography, the average (1) a vertical aerial photographs image-only

difference between ground- and photo-measured portions of the crowns of dominant overstory Sensing Remote with Mensuration Forest tree heights (with well-trained interpreters) trees; and (2) subjectivity, particularly in crown is typically about 1 foot (Spurr 1960). closure estimation, leads to interpreter-specific bias. The latter bias also leads to unacceptably Visible crown diameter is measured with either high standard errors of the estimate. Substantial a micrometer wedge or a dot-type scale. It can be training that is increasingly hard to obtain is argued that crown diameter is more accurately required to make accurate direct tree and stand measured on large-scale photographs than on the measurements based on aerial photographs. All ground, but measurements made on photographs these factors combined make the use of aerial are not directly comparable to those made on inventory cost-effective primarily for large, the ground because in photographs (1) only the relatively inaccessible areas. dominant overstory trees are visible, and (2) the edges of any particular crown are obscured by Stratification the crowns of adjacent trees. For these reasons, At this point one might reasonably ask why photo-derived visible crown diameters are always acquisition of photography is still so routine in underestimates of actual crown diameter. Even many organizations charged with managing forest given these limitations, however, photo-measured lands. The answer is, in part, that photos are used visible crown diameter is often better correlated for more than just aerial timber cruising. Other with actual tree and stand volume than field- uses include forest mapping for management measured crown diameter, because it is a measure planning, stress detection, forest area estimation, of the tree’s functional growing space (Spurr and land navigation, particularly in remote and 1960). Measurement consistency varies widely infrequently mapped areas. These uses, however, with conditions, but can be expected to be on are often secondary in comparison to the routine the order of 3 to 4 feet two times out of three on Southern Forest Science: 112 Past, Present, and Future Productivity one point.Itshouldbenoted thatcanopyheight rather thantheheightatany the canopysurface, height modelisacontinuous representationof tree heightinoneimportant way—thecanopy model differsfromphotogrammetrically derived height atanypointimaged.Thecanopy areas, thecanopyheightmodelprovides part ofthecanopyabovethatpoint.Overforested pointontheforestfloortotopmost arbitrary representation oftheverticaldistancefromany interpolated toproduceacanopyheightmodel, canbe DEM hasbeencreated,thefirstreturns with suitableinterpolationtechniques.Oncea create abare-earthdigitalelevationmodel(DEM) thus makingitpossibleto nonground returns, approaches canusuallyidentifythebulkof processing algorithmsutilizingneighborhood the ground,orsomeculturalfeature.Sophisticated tovegetation, is recorded,anditmaycorrespond ground. Manytimes,however, onlyonereturn tothetopofcanopyand correspond whichoften intensity) ofatleasttworeturns, altimeters canrecordthetime(andsometimes small-footprint(<1m)laser Most ofthecurrent altitude, andrangeofatarget(Helms1998). radar beam,toobtainmeasurementsofthespeed, EXAMPLE OFLIDAR WHERE WEAREGOING:THE systems. information between fieldpersonnelandtheorganization’s with theresultthatthereisatwo-wayflow withinanorganization, the flowofinformation precision andreducescost,butalsochanges alone. Thisstratifiedsamplingnotonlyimproves acquisition canbejustifiedbystratifiedsampling plan fieldwork.For manyorganizations,photo area, allocatefieldsamplesbyvolumeclasses,and commonly usedinstratifiedsamplingtomeasure Avery andBurkhartnote(2002),photographsare costs (Avery 1978,Avery andBurkhart2002).As estimates foreachsubpopulation,and(3)reduced strata),(2)separate (given properlyconstructed precise estimationofthepopulationmean advantages ofstratificationinclude(1)more population asawhole”(Helms1998).The for thevariablebeingmeasuredthan sampling, eachofwhichismorehomogeneous population intostrata(subpopulations)before Stratification refersto“thesubdivisionofa use ofphotostostratifytimbercruises. L a light(laser)beam,ratherthanmicrowave are theopticalequivalentofradar. Theyuse idar, orlightdetectingand ranging, sensors prediction (R on treeheight,makingpossiblethesuccessful model tosetthesizeofavariablewindowbased used theheightofeachcellincanopy improper windowsize.Popescu andothers(2002) ofomissionorcommissioncanoccurwith errors top ofatree.Althoughthistechniqueiseffective, tothe point inalocalneighborhoodcorresponds maximum approachthatpresumesthehighest stems,usuallythroughalocal individual overstory tree heightsusinglidardatarequiresidentifying ofindividual similar measurements.Determination diameter. Lidar-basedestimatesofvolumerequire height, percentcrowncover, andsometimescrown others 2000,Naesset2002). stand-level predictionsareunbiased(Means or derivedparameters,e.g.,volumebasalarea, estimate eitherfield-measured,e.g.,totalheight, measurements areusedinempiricalmodelsto and thusprecision.Secondly, whendirect (at leastforconifers),whichincreasesobjectivity amenable toprocessingbyautomatedtechniques benefits. Firstly, thedataseemtobevery realized. However, therearetwosubstantial expensiveunlesssomeeconomyofscaleis very biased (e.g.,Nilsson1996);and(3)lidardataare (2) directmeasurementsfromlidartendtobe vegetation; only tothecrownsofoverstory follows: (1)lidarsensorsmeasurethedistance photographs alsopertaintolidar. Theseareas associated withdirectmeasurementsfrom and orstemcounts.Someofthesameproblems crown diameter, andpercentcrownclosure from photographs,namelytotalheight,visible tothosemade direct measurementscorresponding using typically stand,volumecanbedetermined 2003, Popescu and others2004)tree,ormore (Gougeon in conjunctionwithcoregisteredopticaldata function comparativelypoorlyovertreecanopies. algorithms many automatedimage-correlation models canbederivedphotogrammetrically, but without identifyingindividual trees—toexplain others (2000)usedlidar-derived variables— explained increases.For example,Meansand trees decreases,andthepercentage ofvariance plot sizeincreases,theneed tomeasureindividual coniferspecies.As plots ofcommonsoutheastern small0.017-ha(0.04-acre) > 5inches)evenonvery of dominantstems(diameteratbreastheight respectively) ofmaximumheightandmean Again, standvolumetablesrequiremeasuresof From thiscanopyheightmodel,andsometimes

and others2001,McCombs 2 =90percentand85percent,

and others

and 93 percent of the variance in height on 0.25-ha using the 80th and 0th percentile of height (the (0.6-acre) stands of Douglas-fir [Pseudotsuga height greater than the given percentage of lidar menziesii (Mirb.) Franco]. first returns) and the 20th percentile of crown cover (proportion of first returns below the given Percent crown cover is particularly easy to percentage of total height). Many other studies calculate using lidar data; it is simply the number have been similarly successful in estimating of vegetation (nonground) returns above a certain volume for coniferous plots or stands on the basis height divided by the total number of returns. of lidar data. Crown diameter, however, has been a little more difficult to determine, as it requires accurate stem Lidar-based forest measurements, while based identification as well as a way of distinguishing one on many of the same principles as photo-based crown from the adjacent one. There is substantial measurements, such as using crown diameter ongoing work in this area, but Popescu (2002) as a surrogate for stem diameter, are typically determined crown diameter for each identified more accurate and less biased than photo-based tree by (1) fitting a 4-degree polynomial with least measurements. As with aerial photographs, bias 113 squares using singular value decomposition in exists because laser altimeters see only portions both the horizontal and vertical dimensions of of the crowns of dominant overstory trees. the canopy height model, (2) identifying critical However, increased levels of automation have points for each of the two fitted functions based led to substantial reductions in both interpreter- on the first and second derivatives of a three- specific bias and the need for specialized training. point Lagrangian interpolation, and (3) averaging Furthermore, lidar canopy height models afford 11. Chapter the distance between critical points on the two the characterization of the whole population, perpendicular profiles. For southern pines, this rather than just a sample, of the dominant technique explained 62 to 63 percent of the overstory trees in a specific area of interest. variance in crown diameter for the dominant However, lidar data are still quite expensive for trees on 0.017-ha plots (Popescu and others 2002). small areas on a per-unit basis, so lidar-based inventory, like photo analog inventory, is cost- Like photos, then, lidar canopy height models effective primarily for large and/or relatively can serve as the base data from which important inaccessible areas. This description hardly variables can be measured; namely, visible crown characterizes the typical southern forest diameter, percent crown closure or stem count, landscape, which is dominated by the holdings and total height. In addition, variables unique to of nonindustrial private forest landowners. canopy height models, particularly those relating to the distribution of heights within any one grid Sensing Remote with Mensuration Forest THE LIKELY FUTURE NEED FOR ADDITIONAL cell or plot perimeter, have been successfully used REMOTELY SENSED DATA as independent variables in models employed to estimate plot- or stand-level parameters (e.g., he most commonly used standard for all Means and others 2000, Popescu and others 2002). remotely estimated forest measurements Examples of this type of variable include the T is field inventory, which typically employs percent crown cover or height at a specific remotely sensed data only for stratification. Thus height percentile. in order to be widely accepted and used, remotely derived estimates of important forest biophysical Volume has been successfully calculated for parameters must have the same level of precision conifers by use of lidar-derived measures of and accuracy as field-derived measurements, height, crown closure, stem density, and/or and be less expensive than they are. The lack of crown diameter, or of variables relating to the widespread adoption of these new technologies distribution of heights within a particular grid cell. is de facto proof that this standard has not yet Popescu and others (2004) was able to explain > 80 been met. As with all technological innovation, percent of the variance in volume on small (0.017- however, the cost per unit of information derived ha, 0.04-acre), heterogeneous southern pine plots from remotely sensed data will continue to in Virginia’s Appomattox-Buckingham State decrease, thus increasing their potential use for Forest using average (per plot) crown diameter traditional inventory needs as a tradeoff with obtained by applying a lidar-derived canopy height field costs. Another factor to be considered is that model as the only independent variable. Means increasing forest productivity will require more and others (2000) were able to explain 97 percent remotely sensed data. Organizations will be willing of the variance in 0.25-ha (0.6-acre) Douglas-fir to spend more for information if this expenditure plots in the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest results in increased productivity. Southern Forest Science: 114 Past, Present, and Future Productivity M FOREST MANAGEMENT OF INTENSIVE(AND/ORSITE-SPECIFIC) REMOTELY SENSEDDATA: THEEXAMPLE JUSTIFYING INCREASED USEOF (forest stands areanalogoustoagricultural fields) agriculture inthattraditional managementunits definition ofprecisionagricultureisasfollows: is suitedforprecisionagriculture.Mulla’s(1997) management asintensivefarm precision forestry intensive forestmanagementisassuitedfor as managementintensifies;itcanbearguedthat agricultural modelcanbepushedevenfarther competition, andimprovedgeneticstocks.The preparation, nutrientmanagement,releasefrom tools thathaveagriculturalanalogs,suchassite This challengeisbeingmetwithsilvicultural wood orfiberfromlesslandwithshorterrotations. increasingly beingcalledupontoproducemore private forestlandowners,managersare the motivationsandattitudesofnonindustrial management priorities,and(3)changesin land useconversion,(2)changesinpublic in thelandbaseresultingfrom(1)permanent partially asaconsequenceofeffectivereductions remotesensing. land baseonthefutureofforestry intensive managementofportionstheprivate discussion addressesthepotentialeffectofmore drive publicforestmanagement.Thefollowing and thedemandsformultipleusescontinueto production intensifiesonsomeprivatetracts become urgentasmanagementforincreased needs—needsthatarelikelyto information is onlypartofalargerpictureforestry However, traditionalassessmentandinventory Thus theyarenotwidelyusedinmostinstances. forestlandscape. to dominatethesouthern forthesmalltractsthatarecoming inventory more expensiveandlessaccuratethanfield technologies suffer, onthewhole,frombeing inventories usingexistingremotesensing likely todiminishinthenearfuture.However, Precision forestry isanalogoustoprecision Precision forestry Partially asaresultofincreaseddemand,and management zone. the uniquemeancharacteristics ofthe tillage arecustom-managedaccordingto drainage,or herbicide, seed,irrigation, management zoneswherefertilizer, subdividing fieldsintosmallhomogeneous Precision agricultureisanapproachfor ost oftheprecedingdiscussionhasfocused an ongoingneedwhoseimportanceisnot on traditionalassessmentandinventory, researchers must findthebestcombination of applications, well suitedforprecisionforestry the widevarietyofremotely senseddatathatare of appropriatetechnologies. Furthermore within must driveboththeresearch inandtheadoption remotely sensedandprecisely located analysis offoliarsamples. not beencost-effectivewhencomparedwithlab Wynne 2003),thoughsuchapproacheshavesofar (e.g.,Bortolotand tailored handheldinstruments hyperspectral,or,using airborne potentially, competition. Foliar nutrientscanalsobeassessed for timingand/orlocatingneedreleasefrom or speciesgroup.Thelastisespeciallyhelpful stem density, crowndiameter, height,andspecies remote estimationincludeleafareaindex,current site preparation.Requiredparameterssuitedto on standtype,age,initialstockingdensity, and scheduling models. growth-and-yield modelsandrelatedharvest for of forestbiophysicalparametersnecessary and (2)providethewithin-standmeasurements treatment unitforeachsilviculturalprescription to(1)definethe necessary information inventory technologiesprovidethe geospatial information pathway.information Remotesensingandrelated scheduling, creatingacomplete precision harvest inventory, precisiongrowthandyield, subsumes precisionsilviculture, monitoring stage.Furthermore, precisionforestry should notneedtoevolvethroughtheyield- applications ofremotesensing,precisionforestry importance anddegreeofdevelopmentforestry of remotesensingtechnologies.Giventherelative solution,tobereplacedbytheuse is atemporary spatialvariability ofpreharvest determination Pierce andNowak1999)agreethatyield-based for precisionforestry, asmanyexperts(e.g., last differencecannotbeseenasproblematic This yield monitoringatthetimeofharvest. and(5)generallackofeffective use ofirrigation; helicopters forspraying;(4)species;(5)minimal longer rotationsrequired;(3)widespreaduseof storage, andrecreationalopportunities;(2)much such ascleanwater, wildlifehabitat,carbon ofpublicgoodsprovided, (1) importantarray forestry. Forest standsaretypifiedbythe between precisionagricultureand fertilization, andreleasefromcompetition. silvicultural treatments;e.g.,sitepreparation, must besubdividedforspecificprescriptionof The relativeneedforandcost:benefitratioof Landowner recordsusuallyprovideinformation However, therearesomeimportantdifferences in situ data spectral resolution, spatial resolution, and canopy While these identified gaps apply across the height information for estimating each required spectrum of end users, they are particularly parameter. Data types include but are not limited relevant for forestry. The report goes on to make to (1) canopy height models derived from lidar or the following recommendations, which are also digital photogrammetry, (2) high spatial-resolution quite pertinent to forestry: optical data, (3) moderate-resolution multispectral 1. Publicly available studies identifying the full data, and (4) hyperspectral data at a variety of range of short-term and long-term costs and spatial resolutions. Research being carried out benefits of remote sensing applications should by Government, industry, nongovernmental be carried out by a full range of public and organizations, and universities is providing the private stakeholders. base for improved integration of remote sensing in forest management. However, the gap between 2. Cognate Federal Agencies should help fund remote sensing research and accessible, useful and foster a wide variety of remote sensing training materials and courses. information is still too large. 115 3. Staff exchanges should occur between FROM DATA TO APPLICATIONS remote sensing users and producers. t has been said that production forestry . organizations make or lose money near the 4. Graduate fellowships and research I bottom rungs of the organizational ladder, assistantships should be sponsored by land not at the top (Smith and others 2003). Most field grant, sea grant, and agricultural extension Chapter 11 Chapter foresters have substantial experience with aerial programs to encourage work at agencies that photographs but have neither the time for nor use remote sensing data. the interest in processing images from digital 5. Federal agencies need to expand their support remotely sensed data. In many cases, given the for applied remote sensing research. widespread use of and familiarity with aerial photographs in forestry, digital images can be 6. Formal mechanisms should be established to subjectively analyzed for the wide variety of enable applications users to advise private and applications mentioned in this chapter. However, public sector providers on their requirements. it can be argued that this model limits the potential 7. Data preservation is important and should be utility of remote sensing to forestry, as it may not routinely addressed by all data providers. provide any net increase in information. The kinds of sensors that will help facilitate a net increase in 8. Internationally recognized formats, standards, forestry information derived from remotely sensed and protocols should be used whenever Sensing Remote with Mensuration Forest data include laser altimeters and hyperspectral possible to facilitate data exchange and ease scanners. The data these sensors yield will only be of use. suited, in their raw form, for use by image analysts It is evident from the foregoing that forestry or other experts in the same field. Field foresters is not the only application area where there is a generally do not have the experience to qualify large gap between obtaining remote sensing data as experts in image analysis. They “require and translating the data into useful information. information, not images . . . .” (Oderwald and It is evident that concrete recommendations for Wynne 2000). bridging this gap have been made. As a community The National Research Council, in their of forest scientists and managers, it is our recent study on “Transforming Remotely Sensed responsibility to identify information needs of the Data into Information and Applications” (2001), future, and to make sure that adequate methods identified three gaps that must be bridged of meeting these needs can be made available. to develop effective civilian applications of remote sensing: LITERATURE CITED Avery, T.E. 1978. Forester’s guide to aerial photo 1. The gap between raw data and the interpretation. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of information needed by end users Agriculture, Forest Service. 41 p. 2. The gap in communication and understanding Avery, T.E.; Burkhart, H.E. 2002. Forest measurements. Boston: McGraw-Hill. 456 p. between end users and those with remote sensing technical experience and training Bortolot, Z.J.; Wynne, R.H. 2003. A means of spectroscopically determining the nitrogen content of green tree leaves 3. The financial gap between data acquisition measured at the canopy level that requires no in situ and usable applications nitrogen data. International Journal of Remote Sensing. 24(3): 619–624. Southern Forest Science: 116 Past, Present, and Future Productivity Oderwald, R.G.;Wynne,Oderwald, R.H.2000.Field applicationsfor Nilsson, M.1996.Estimationoftreeheightsandstandvolume National ResearchCouncil.2001.Transforming remotesensing Naesset, E.2002.Predictingforeststandcharacteristics Mulla, D.J.1997.Geostatistics,remotesensing,andprecision Means, J.E.;Acker, S.A.;Fitt, B.J.2000.Predictingforest McCombs, J.W.; Roberts,S.D.;Evans,D.L.2003.Influenceof Lund, H.G.;Befort,W.A.; Brickell,J.E.[andothers].1997. offorestry.Helms, J.A.,ed.1998.Thedictionary Bethesda, Gougeon, F.A.;. St-Onge,B.A;Wulder, M.;Leckie,D.G.2001. Food andAgriculture OrganizationoftheUnitedNations. Brown, T.L.; Lassoie,J.P 58–60. ofForestry.statistical dataandtechniques.Journal 98(6): Environment. 56:1–7. lidarsystem.RemoteSensingofthe using anairborne National Academy Press.75p. andapplications.Washington,data intoinformation DC: 80: 88–99. procedure andfielddata.RemoteSensingofEnvironment. scanninglaserusingapracticaltwo-stage with airborne John Wiley. [Numberofpagesunknown]. environmental quality. [Locationofpublisherunknown]: Precision agriculture:spatialandtemporalvariabilityin In:Lake,J.V.;farming. Bock,G.R.;Goode,J.A.,eds. 66(11): 1367–1371. Photogrammetric Engineering&RemoteSensing. scanninglidar.stand characteristicswithairborne managed loblollyplantation.Forest Science.49(3):457–466. estimates ofstanddensityandmeantreeheightina onremotelysensed fusing lidarandmultispectralimagery Sensing: 399–440. andRemote MD: AmericanSocietyforPhotogrammetry Forestry. Manualofphotographicinterpretation.Bethesda, MD: SocietyofAmericanForesters. 210p. unknown]. 7p. on remotesensing.Sainte-Foy, Quebec,Canada:[Publisher for individualtreecrowndelineation.Canadiansymposium anddigitalvideography laseraltimetry Synergy ofairborne of pagesunknown]. 1997. Stateoftheworld’sforests—1997.Rome.[Number ofForestry.Journal 96(2):8–14. skill requirementsofforesters:whatdoemployerswant? . 1998. Entry-level competencyand . 1998.Entry-level Wynne, R.G.;Reams,G.A.;Scriviani, R.H.;Oderwald, World Bank.1992.World developmentreport1992: U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest 1998. Service. Spurr, andphoto-interpretation S.H.1960.Photogrammetry Smith, J.L.;Clutter, M.;Keefer, B.;Ma,Z.2003.Special Sader, S.A;Vermillion, S.2000.Remotesensingeducation: Popescu, S.C.;Wynne, R.H.;Scriviani,J.A.2004.Fusion of Popescu, S.C.;Wynne, R.H.;Nelson,R.F. 2003.Measuring Popescu, S.C.;Wynne, R.H.;Nelson,R.F. 2002.Estimating Popescu, S.C.2002.Estimatingplot-levelforestbiophysical Pierce, F.J.; Nowak,P Paine, D.P Olson, C.E.,Jr. 1960.Elementsofphotographicinterpretation estimation. Journal ofForestry.estimation. Journal 8–14. J.A. 2000.Opticalremotesensingforforestarea University Press.[Numberofpagesunknown]. development andtheenvironment.Oxford:Oxford program. Washington, DC.[Numberofpagesunknown]. Changing economicsofthenationalforesttimbersale Ronald Press.472p. with asectiononapplicationstoforestry. NewYork: 455–456. organizations.Forestproduction forestry Science.49(3): thefutureofdigitalremotesensingfor commentary: an updatedsurvey. ofForestry. Journal 98(4):31–37. Virginia, U.S.A.Forest Science.50(4):551–565. level volumeandbiomassindeciduouspineforests small footprintlidarandmultispectraldatatoestimateplot- ofRemoteSensing.29(5):564–577. Journal influence onestimatingforestvolumeandbiomass.Canadian individual treecrowndiameterwithlidarandassessingits and ElectronicsinAgriculture.37:71–95. canopy-height basedvariablewindowsize.Computers plot-level treeheightswithlidar:localfilteringa Resources. 155p. Institute andStateUniversity, CollegeofNatural measurements. Blacksburg,VA: Virginia Polytechnic lidar parameters usingsmall-footprintairborne Advances inAgronomy. 67:1–85. for resourcemanagement.NewYork: JohnWiley. 571p. 26(4): 651–656. common toseveralsensors.PhotogrammetricEngineering. . 1981.Aerial photographyandimageinterpretation . 1999.Aspectsofprecisionagriculture. Forest Health Southern Forest Science: 118 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health Chapter 17. Major SouthernForest Diseases Chapter 16. Southern PineBarkBeetles Advances intheControl andManagement of the Chapter 15. Nonnative Forest Pests intheSouth Chapter 14. Restoration Chapter 13. Challenges for the21 Healthy Forests intheSouth: Chapter 12. Sustainability of theSouthernForest

Understanding andControlling Monitoring the The Impact andControl of fSuhr csses ...... 123 ...... of SouthernEcosystems. st Cnuy ...... 119 Century...... 155 ...... 161 ...... 133 ...... 179 ...... Chapter 12. Healthy Forests in the South: Challenges for the 21st Century

(N.B. Nair, Kostichka & Kuntz)], white pine blister Theodor D. Leininger rust [Cronartium ribicola (J.C. Fisch)], gypsy and Gregory A. Reams1 moth (Lymantria dispar L.), balsam woolly adelgid [Adelges piceae (Ratzeburg)], Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica Thunb.), and cogon grass [Imperata cylindrica (L.) he health of forests in the Southeastern Beauv.]—that have altered southeastern forests 119 United States, as elsewhere in the country, considerably and which continue to affect the T is tied closely to the history of human biology of these forests. Those interested in presence on the land and the use and abuse of learning more about these and other introduced its abundant natural resources. In his discussion pathogens, insects, and plants may start with of the relationship between forest condition and volumes by Tainter and Baker (1996), Anon. the Native American presence in the Southeast, (1985), and Miller (2003). Rauscher (this book) makes two points. Firstly, the forests of 500 years ago are believed to have Much of the research and management effort been very different from the forests of today. of foresters, plant pathologists, entomologists, th Forests were more open, and their condition and weed scientists during the 20 century was maintained by Native American fires. was directed to learning the bionomics of Secondly, once Native American populations nonnative species, trying to contain their spread, were significantly reduced by disease, the forests and restoring ecosystems altered by their began to change, becoming more dense and presence. Unfortunately, there have been few stratified. It is clear that few, if any, plants, successes in controlling the advance of, and animals, or microbes from other continents were the damage caused by, most introduced species; present in North America before it was settled and so the next generation of scientists and forest by Europeans. Whereas large segments of Native land managers will face growing challenges. American populations were wiped out by foreign In addition, forest health concerns in the South diseases within 100 years of European settlement have expanded over the last several decades on the continent, the effect of this settlement on to include native and nonnative invasive insects, Native American vegetation was less immediate, pathogens, and plants; disease complexes; beginning in earnest in the middle to late 1800s, urbanization; forest fragmentation; air pollutant and continuing today. effects; and increased risk of wildfire. Recently discovered nonnative insects, such as the Asian The condition of precolonial southeastern longhorned beetle [Anoplophora glabripennis forests and the changes to plant community (Motschulsky)] and the emerald ash borer structure that resulted from harvesting and [Agrilus planipennis (Fairmaire)], as well as the introduction of nonnative plants, animals, the recently discovered nonnative disease sudden and microbes have been well summarized oak death (Phytophthora ramorum Werres), while (Owen 2002). Owen (2002) lists several nonnative not currently known to be in southeastern forests, diseases, insects, and plants—including chestnut present a threat to our forests because they are blight {Cryphonectria parasitica (Murrill) Barr known to damage tree species endemic to the [formerly Endothia parasitica (Murrill) Anderson Southeast. Continued novel research and the & Anderson]}, Dutch elm disease [Ophiostoma development of new monitoring techniques offer ulmi (Buisman) Nannf.], butternut canker the best hope for restoring and maintaining the [Sirococcus clavigignenti-juglandacearum health of southeastern forests. In the opening years of the 21st century, as in th 1 Research Plant Pathologist and Project Leader, and those of the 20 century, concern about the health Mathematical Statistician and Project Leader, U.S. of the Nation’s forests has influenced policy at the Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern highest levels of the Federal Government. The Research Station, Stoneville, MS 38776 and Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, respectively. Healthy Forest Initiative, announced in August Southern Forest Science: 120 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health Nebeker inthis book,andArkansasiscited as asubjectaddressed byT.Zimmermann), Evan pine beetle( southern in connectionwithepidemic outbreaksofthe ResearchStationarementioned Southern and specificallymentionstheneedto hardwood forests”(Anon.2003b). at anearlystage,particularlywithrespectto capacity todetectinsectanddiseaseinfestations forest andrangelandhealth”“toimprovethe to addresstheimpactofinsectinfestationson gathering to “promotesystematicinformation from catastrophicwildfires,”theactalsoseeks water supplies,andsomeat-riskFederal lands tocommunities,municipal reduction of“risks requirements. Inadditiontoaddressingthe outtheact’s to developthemeansofcarrying of AgricultureForest (Forest Service Service), managers, especiallywithintheU.S.Department time itfellprimarilytoFederal scientistsand was signedintolawonDecember3,2003atwhich The HealthyForests RestorationAct of2003 intelligentandrationaldiscussion. to inform midst ofcontroversyandgiventheopportunity intothe forest healthprofessionalswerethrust clearcutting ofthenationalforests. wouldleadtoindiscriminate revised rules that wereconcerned forest preservationists by providingformorerapiddecisionmaking, through areductionincomplexproceduresand emergency situations,especiallywildfires, to allowgreaterflexibilityindealingwith 2003. WhiletheAdministration’s intentwas 1904, theHealthyForests RestorationAct of of RepresentativesrespondedbypassingH.R. and rangelands(Anon.2003a).TheU.S.House threat ofcatastrophicwildfiretoAmerica’sforests legislative measuresthatwillhelpreducethe Federal agenciestodevelopadministrativeand 2002 byPresidentGeorgeW. Bush,directed Ten bythe ofthethirteen Statesserved Title IVoftheactaddressesinsectinfestations As wasthecase100yearsago,forestersand treatments, andstrategies. gathering, results ofsuchinformation private lands;andtodisseminatethe borers onFederal landsand Stateand ash borers,redoakandwhite beetles, hemlockwoollyadelgids,emerald pine of barkbeetles,includingSouthern of forestecosystemstosevereinfestations forest healthandreducethesusceptibility of treatmentsandstrategiestoimprove assist landmanagersinthedevelopment Dendroctonus frontalis is thepotential formanagementintervention?” productivity of disturbedecosystems?”and “What “How canwerestoreandmaintain thehealthand productivity andcarbondynamics ofecosystems?” “How dofire,insects,anddisease affectlong-term interactions impactandshape ecosystems?” human disturbanceprocesses andtheir Examples oftheseare,“Howdonaturaland themanagement ofecosystems. concern dynamics andflammability?”Somequestions “How doinsectsandpathogensaffectfuel hybrids torestoreforestvalues?”and ‘native’ dentata e.g.,Americanchestnut[ irreversible, specific, suchas,wherechangeshavebeennearly organisms affecttheenvironment?”toquite disease dynamics?”and“Howdomicrobial trophicinteractions,and community structure, as, “Howdononnativespeciesinvasionsaffect questions thatrangefromthemoregeneral,such Tropical Forestry (Anon.2003c).Theyalsoasked Forest ProductsLaboratory, andInstituteof sixresearchstations, of scientistsintheAgency’s successes andongoingresearchdevelopment staff inWashington, DC,enumeratedthe of theForest ResearchandDevelopment Service Healthy Forests Initiative.Inthereport,members Four GreatIssues,”whichwasaresponsetothe of Forest ResearchAddressing the Service report “GreatIssues,NewSolutions:ASummary and Developmentaskedtherightquestionsin Forestmanagement concerns. Research Service on themostimportantandimmediateresource based questions, sothatneedscanbedetermined management responsesbeginsbyaskingtheright in the21 and opportunitiestoforesthealthprofessionals all ofwhichpresenttremendouschallenges nonnative insects,diseases,andinvasiveweeds; suppression, andoutbreaksofnative health issuesofstandmanagement,wildfire United Statesarekeenlyinterestedinforest 2003b). Clearly, socialandpoliticalforcesinthe and economicallydevastatingtoforests”(Anon. twentieth century, thatcouldbeenvironmentally American chestnutblightinthefirsthalfof of control;andto“preventepidemics,suchasthe can beisolatedandtreatedbeforetheygetout increasing thelikelihoodthatsuchthreats environmental threatstoforests,thereby ofcatastrophic forest managersearlywarning urging thedevelopmentofasystemthatwillgive Most interestinginthelegislationislanguage oak borer[ having anunprecedentedoutbreakofthered The developmentofappropriateresearchand (Marsh.)Borkh.],“Howcanwereestablish st century. Enaphalodes rufulus (Haldeman)]. Castanea Other questions relate to monitoring capabilities. the biological basis for the invasiveness of Examples of these are, “Can we develop a quick nonnative pests and what can be done about these response capability that provides essential pests. Included at the end of the discussion is a scientific knowledge to help managers isolate new listing of Internet Web sites that are examples of a invasive species before they become established?” form of late 20th-century technology transfer that and “What methods can be developed to monitor will undoubtedly endure, and be improved upon, in and assess noxious weed impacts?” These, and a the current century. host of other related questions, will drive much of The fourth chapter “Advances in the Control the work of forestry researchers and managers and Management of the Southern Pine Bark at the beginning of the 21st century. Beetles” by T. Evan Nebeker addresses recent Chapters in this section of our book address advances in the control and management some of the more pressing issues of forest and of native southern pine bark beetles and the ecosystem restoration, nonnative invasive pests, outlook for future management. Nebeker also and native insects and diseases in ever-changing refers to several Web sites as examples of ways 121 climatological, social, and political environments. entomologists are distributing critically needed The second chapter “Restoration of Southern information about bark beetles and methods for Ecosystems” by John Stanturf, Emile Gardiner, controlling them. One of the changes Nebeker Kenneth Outcalt, William Conner, and James forecasts is that forest resource protection of the Guldin presents an overview of restoration efforts future will be aimed more at prevention of damage in four ecologically varied and socially valued through the development and use of hazard- and 12. Chapter southern forest types. The authors observe that risk-rating expert systems. methods for restoration are more advanced for The fifth chapter “The Impact and Control bottomland hardwoods and longleaf pine (Pinus of Major Southern Forest Diseases” by A. Dan palustris Mill.) forests than for deepwater swamp Wilson, Theodor D. Leininger, William J. Otrosina, and shortleaf pine (P. echinata Mill.) forests. L. David Dwinell, and Nathan M. Schiff discusses Bottomland hardwood restoration occurs mostly the ongoing work to discover novel control on private land; restoration of deepwater swamps methods for several hardwood and coniferous in the South Forests Healthy and shortleaf pine forests occurs mostly on public diseases that continue to beset forests of the land; and both private and public landowners are Southeast. Tree diseases continue to present working to restore longleaf pine. Ownership has challenges for pathologists and forest managers implications for the economics of forest land even as we enter the second century after restoration. For example, current Federal the father of forest pathology, Robert Hartig, programs that provide large easement payments, wrote the first forest pathology textbook in 1874 such as the Wetlands Reserve Program, are (Tainter and Baker 1996). One of the findings of expensive and probably justified on poor sites. On the Southern Forest Resource Assessment (Wear better sites, restoration might pay for itself, with and Greis 2002) was that more forest land in the only cost sharing needed to establish the forest. eastern part of the southeastern region will be Stanturf, Gardiner, Outcalt, Conner, and Guldin converted to pine plantations, while new hardwood emphasize that forests are resilient and that forest forests will be created on former agricultural land habitats will develop whether or not we intervene. in the western portion of the region. Management The best we can do is to establish initial conditions of these forests that lack diversity of tree species, that foster development of a forest appropriate to as well as third- and fourth-growth natural the site and present conditions. Attempts at re- stands, will present many challenges to forest creating ancient forests are likely to fail, because health researchers and forest managers. These the conditions under which such forests developed challenges will need to be overcome in the midst cannot be replicated. of changing climatological and sociopolitical environments that will mean understanding and The third chapter of this section “Under- addressing dynamic ecological variables with standing and Controlling Nonnative Forest Pests smaller budgets and fewer people. in the South” by Kerry O. Britton, Donald A. Duerr, II, and James H. Miller discusses nonnative The sixth chapter “Monitoring the diseases, insects, and plants that have caused Sustainability of the Southern Forest” by Gregory drastic changes in southeastern forest ecosystems A. Reams, Neil Clark, and James Chamberlain and have cost a lot of money for management, discusses how monitoring efforts have been containment, and research. The authors discuss modified and implemented to specifically address Southern Forest Science: 122 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health early detection program. become universal elementsofanylarge-scale based andadaptivesampling techniqueswill death andemeraldashborer. Eventually, risk- is beingusedforearlydetection ofsuddenoak part oftheFHMProgram. Risk-basedsampling of novelandadaptivesampling techniquesisalso causes ofundesirablechanges.Thedevelopment theextent,severity, todetermine warranted and implementation ofevaluationmonitoringis systemtodecidewhether an earlywarning and soilcondition. woody debris,vegetationdiversityandstructure, condition, ozoneinjury, lichen communities,down plots. Theforesthealthindicatorsincludecrown of foresthealthonanannualsubsetFIAground water resourcesbysamplingadditionalindicators ecosystem health,andmaintenanceofsoil ofbiodiversity,conservation maintenanceofforest Montreal Process.Specifically, FHMaddresses sustainable forestmanagementasidentifiedinthe capabilities toincludecriteriaandindicatorsof the programhasexpandedanalysisandreporting impacts onforests.However, sincetheearly1990s ofFHM. the formation forest healthmonitoringunderNAPAP ledto impacts onforests.TheuseofFIAplotstodo ofacidrainandozone field plotsintheirsurveys (NVS). BothNAPAP andNVSemployed FIA (NAPAP) andtheNationalVegetation Survey National Acid PrecipitationAssessmentProgram and FHMProgramsareanoutgrowthofthe modificationstotheFIA inception. Thecurrent State ona6-to10-yearcyclesincetheprogram’s forest type,growth,mortality, by andharvest 1930s andhasreportedchangesinforestedacres, implemented byFIA. being designcurrently forest inventory integrated withthenewcontinuous(annual) this function,FHMdetectionmonitoringisnow status andchangeinforestconditions.To provide provide forearlydetectionmonitoringtoevaluate Program. Theseneedsincludetherequirementto needs oftheForest HealthMonitoring(FHM) have beenmadetoaccommodatemonitoring andAnalysis(FIA)samplingdesign Inventory adaptations totheForest Forest Service’s pollutant effects,andwildfirerisk.Significant complexes, urbanization,fragmentation,air invasive insects,pathogens,plants,plant-disease South, whichnowincludenativeandnonnative inthe the evolvingforesthealthconcerns Detection monitoringdataareusedas Initial FHMobjectivesfocusedonairpollution The FIAProgramhasbeeninplacesincethe Wear, forest DavidN.;Greis,JohnG., eds. 2002.Southern Tainter, Frank. H.;Baker, Fred A.1996.Principlesofforest Owen, Wayne. ofnativeplantcommunitiesin 2002.Thehistory Miller, JamesH.2003.Nonnativeinvasiveplantsofsouthern Anon. 2003c.HealthyForests RestorationAct of2003.http:// ofForestAnon. 2003b.Greatissues,newsolutions:asummary Anon.. 2003a.Cabinetofficialsreportprogresson forests.Misc.Publ.1426. Anon. 1985.Insectsofeastern LITERATURE CITED Southern ResearchStation.635p. Southern NC: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Service, resource assessment.Gen.Tech. Rep.SRS–53.Asheville, pathology. NewYork: JohnWiley. 805p. ResearchStation:47–61.Chapter2. Southern Service, Asheville, NC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest forest resourceassessment.Gen.Tech. Rep.SRS–53. the South.In:Wear, DavidN.;Greis,JohnG.,eds.Southern 93 p. Agriculture, Forest ResearchStation. Southern Service, Tech. Rep.SRS–62.Asheville, NC:U.S.Departmentof forests: afieldguideforidentificationandcontrol. thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query. [Dateaccessed:June19]. Washington, DC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture.40p. researchaddressingthefourgreatissues.Draft. Service Commerce. 3p. U.S. DepartmentoftheInterior, andU.S.Departmentof 2003. Washington, DC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture, Bush’s healthyforestsinitiative.Release0177.03,May20, 608p. Service. Washington, DC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest

President

Gen. Chapter 13. Restoration of Southern Ecosystems

John A. Stanturf, Emile S. INTRODUCTION Gardiner, Kenneth Outcalt, orest cover has declined globally, from an William H. Conner, and estimated 6 billion ha of “original” forest James M. Guldin1 F extent (that prevailing during most of the past 10,000 years) to the present 3.87 billion ha (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United 123 Nations 2001, Krishnaswamy and Hanson 1999). Abstract—Restoration of the myriad communities Global assessments have identified changing land use, increasing demand for fiber, and exogenous of bottomland hardwood and wetland forests stresses such as global climate change and air and of the diverse communities of fire-dominated pollution as the factors causing loss of forest pine forests is the subject of intense interest in cover or degradation of forest condition. Many the Southern United States. Restoration practice forests in the South are being subjected to similar is relatively advanced for bottomland hardwoods disturbances and stresses. Restoration of the and longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.), and less so myriad communities of bottomland hardwood for swamps and shortleaf pine (P. echinata Mill.). and wetland forests and the diverse communities Most bottomland hardwood restoration is taking of fire-dominated pine forests is the subject of place on private land, while restoration of swamps intense interest in the Southern United States, and shortleaf pine occurs mostly on public land. as well as in other parts of the world (Parrotta Both public and private landowners are involved 1992, Stanturf and Madsen 2002). in the restoration of longleaf pine. Proper matching Our objective is to present an overview of species to site is critical to successful restoration of the restoration of four ecologically varied and of bottomland hardwoods. Techniques for longleaf socially valuable U.S. forest types: bottomland pine restoration include the reintroduction of hardwoods, swamps, Coastal Plain longleaf pine growing-season fire and the planting of longleaf (Pinus palustris Mill.), and Interior Highland pine seedlings and understory species. Safely shortleaf pine forests (P. echinata Mill.). Restoration practice is relatively advanced for reintroducing growing-season fire, however, may bottomland hardwoods and longleaf pine, and require initial manipulation of other vegetation less so for swamps and shortleaf pine. Bottomland by mechanical or chemical means to reduce hardwood restoration is taking place mostly on built-up fuels. private land. Restoration of swamps and shortleaf pine is occurring mostly on public land, while both public and private landowners are attempting to restore longleaf pine.

RESTORATION PRACTICES Bottomland Hardwood Forests estoration of bottomland hardwoods occurs mostly in the Lower Mississippi Alluvial 1 Forest Soil Scientist and Project Leader, U.S. Department RValley (LMAV), predominantly in three of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, States: Louisiana, Mississippi, and Arkansas Athens, GA 30602; Research Forester, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, (Stanturf and others 2000). The loss of bottomland Stoneville, MS 38776; Research Ecologist, U.S. Department hardwood forests has been more widespread in of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, the LMAV than elsewhere in the United States. Athens, GA 30602; Professor, Baruch Forest Science Institute, Clemson University, Georgetown, SC 29442; Clearing for agriculture reduced forest cover, and and Research Forest Ecologist and Project Leader, U.S. flood control projects drastically changed regional Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern and local hydrologic cycles. Deforestation and Research Station, Hot Springs, AR 71901, respectively. Southern Forest Science: 124 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health crews ofboth hand andmachineplanters, but Russell andothers1998).Contractorsuse and Blackmon1978,Ezell Catchot1998, early growthofhardwoodplanting stock(Baker andimprove Site preparationcanincrease survival (Baker andBlackmon1978; Kennedy 1981,1993). and improveaccessforthe planting operation herbivore habitat;improvenutrientavailability; vegetation, suchasnonnativepests;reduce seedling bed;decreasecompetingorundesirable and others1994). hardwood speciesarewelldocumented(Bonner for collectingandstoringseedofbottomland (Allen andothers2001).Suitabletechniques direct seedingtechniquesarereadilyavailable area (KingandKeeland 1999).Descriptionsof seeding appliedon29percentoftheafforestation percent ofafforestationareato1997,withdirect success, productivity, andforesthealth. seed, couldpotentiallyreduceestablishment This lackofqualitycontrol,oruseuncertified source constraintsinpurchasingagreements. 1983). Few forestersintheLMAV specifyseed and others1991,JokelaMohn1976,Land common species(DickeandToliver 1987,Greene andgrowthof account fordifferencesinsurvival Provenance andfamilywithinprovenancemay influence ontheassignmentofspeciestosites. planting stock,however, probablyhas thegreatest 1985, Stineandothers1995).Availability of Groninger andothers2000,KrinardJohnson 1979, Broadfoot1976,DickeandToliver 1987, restoration (Baker1977,BakerandBroadfoot matching ofspeciestositeiscriticalsuccessful can gowrongatanyofseveralsteps andothers2001). (Stanturf difficulty ofapplyingthisknowledgebroadly PrograminMississippiillustratesthe Reserve 1998), recentexperiencewiththeWetlands andothers how toafforestmanysites(Stanturf active agricultureistypical.Althoughweknow (usually nomorethan100ha)withinamatrixof 1999, Newling1990).Afforestation ofsmallareas water (Haynesandothers1995,KingKeeland and improveorprotectthequalityofsurface in theLMAV hasbeentocreatewildlifehabitat Department oftheInterior1988). (MacDonald andothers1979,Sharitz1992,U.S. fish habitatandreducedfloodwaterretention drainage resultedinalossofcriticalwildlifeand Site preparationisusedtoconditiontheseedor Bare-root seedlingswereusedtostock64 Afforestation isaprocessinwhichsomething The dominantgoalofallrestorationprograms . Proper 1988, Conner and others1986,Hamilton 1984, regeneration isunreliablein suchareas(Conner restore deepwaterswamps becausenatural mature trees(Hesseandothers 1996). and others1995),nutria mayalsodamage (Brantley andPlatt1992,Conner1988,Myers planted seedlingsremainsaseriousproblem and Langlinais1960).Nutriadamagetonewly ( cypress untilsomemeansofcontrollingnutria and theyrecommendedsuspensionofplanting however,Service, experiencedsevereherbivory, 1951).TheSoilConservation (Rathborne survival cutover landinLouisianawith80to95percent planted nearly1millionbaldcypressseedlingson LumberHolcombe 1951).Rathborne Company began inthe1950swithgoodsuccess(Peters and others 1993)andbaldcypress.Plantingofcypress cedar (McCoyandothers1999,Phillips results havebeenobtainedwithAtlantic white- planting tupelo(DeBellandothers1982),better and Gosselink1993). the restorationofbottomlandhardwoods(Mitsch in therestorationofdeepwaterswampsthan timber (Kennedy 1982).Thereislessexperience ha ofthisforesttype,mostlyinsecond-growth in area(Dahl2000),thereremainabout2million Althoughdeclining amount oftimberharvested. penetrate deeperintoswampsandincreasedthe overhead-cableway skidder, enabledloggersto The introductionofthepullboat,andlater late 1800s(Davis1975,Frost 1987,Little1950). logging ofswampforestsdidnotbeginuntilthe and DismalSwamps.Large-scalecommercial and depressionalswampssuchastheOkefenokee deepwater swamptypesincludecypressdomes 1990,WilhiteGarrett andToliver 1990).Other most oralloftheyear(Johnson1990,Littleand are freshwatersystemswithstandingwaterfor [ var. [ Nyssa aquaticaL. water tupelo[ Swamp Forests Michelak andothers2002). (Gardinerandothers2002, properly supervised indicate thateithermethodcanbeeffectiveif unknown (Russell andothers1998).Observations establishment successofthetwomethodsare differences betweentheoperationalratesof Chamaecyparis thyoides T. Myocastor coypus

Planting of seedlings may be necessary to Planting ofseedlingsmaybe necessary Although therehasbeenlittlesuccessin Deepwater swamps,primarilybaldcypress- distichum biflora (Walt.) Sarg.],orAtlantic white-cedar var. Taxodium distichum nutans ], pondcypress-swamptupelo Molina) isdeveloped(Blair (Ait.) Sweet- (L.) B.S.P .] swamps, (L.) Rich.- N.

sylvatica Hook and others 1967, Kennedy 1982, Smith and understory conditions exists across the 1995). Planting 1-year-old baldcypress seedlings spectrum of longleaf sites, from dry sandhills to at least 1 m tall and larger than 1.25 cm at the wet savannas. Effective restoration techniques root collar improves early survival and growth depend on the site type and current condition (Faulkner and others 1986). Planting in the late of the overstory and understory (table 13.1). fall and winter is recommended so that seedlings Generally, techniques include reintroducing become established during periods of low water growing-season fire and planting longleaf pine (Mattoon 1915). Even when baldcypress is planted seedlings and understory species. Safely in permanent standing water, its height growth reintroducing fire during the growing season, averages 20 to 30 cm/year when there are no however, may require initial manipulation of other herbivory problems (Conner 1988, Conner and vegetation by mechanical or chemical means to Flynn 1989). Tree shelters generally increase the reduce built-up fuels. chances of survival of planted seedlings, but they Fire suppression has allowed understory shrubs do not prevent all herbivory (McLeod 2000). and hardwoods to expand significantly on many 125 A simple technique for planting seedlings longleaf sites. Prescribed burning during the in standing water has been tested successfully dormant season was introduced on public lands (Conner 1995, Conner and Flynn 1989, and larger private holdings to reduce fuel buildup, Funderburk 1995, McLeod and others 1996). but often had no effect on the well-developed This technique involves root pruning, or trimming midstory. Reintroducing growing-season fires off the lateral roots and cutting the taproot to will adjust structure and relative composition, 13. Chapter approximately 20 cm. When this is done, the thereby reestablishing normal function. In the Restoration planter can grasp the seedling at the root collar South, growing-season burning of stands with and push it into the sediment until his or her hand an intact longleaf overstory should be limited to hits the sediment. This method has worked well in the period from March to July, and late burning trials with baldcypress and water tupelo, but not (into September) avoided because longleaf as well with green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica pine is then susceptible to fire-caused mortality Marsh.) and swamp tupelo. (Robbins and Myers 1992). Nevertheless, reintroducing growing-season fires into xeric Longleaf Pine Forests longleaf communities that have not been burned Longleaf pine was once the most prevalent for a long time usually causes some mortality of pine type in the South, dominating as much as large trees from 1 to 3 years after the first burn. 25 million ha (Stout and Marion 1993). Burning The exact cause of this is unknown, but mortality of understory vegetation by Native Americans seems to be related to smoldering combustion of augmented the natural understory fire regime the excessive litter buildup around the base of of longleaf forests (Abrahamson and Hartnett larger stems. Several closely spaced dormant 1990, Christensen 1981, Robbins and Myers season burns should be used to reduce litter 1992, Ware and others 1993). Longleaf, however, buildup prior to any growing-season burning. was not well adapted to the forms of disturbance Caution should be exercised, however, where that accompanied European settlement (Frost slopes > 15 percent are burned frequently, 1993, Wahlenberg 1946). Logging, wildfires, because significant erosion can result when and conversion to other pines or urban areas mineral soil is exposed in such terrain. reduced longleaf pine to < 5 percent of its original area (Kelly and Bechtold 1990, Outcalt and On many sites, supplemental treatments can Sheffield 1996). accelerate restoration of red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis Vieillot) colonies or forest Because of past history, an array of potential cover at the urban interface zone. Mechanical sites for longleaf restoration is available in treatments (chain saw felling, girdling, or various conditions (Outcalt and Sheffield 1996). chipping onsite) can rid stands of midstory This includes an estimated 0.5 to 0.8 million ha hardwoods (Provencher and others 2001). Such with intact longleaf overstory and understory treatments can be followed with a prescribed (Noss 1989). Other areas with little or no longleaf burn to stimulate grasses and forbs and control in the overstory have understories that range from hardwood sprouts. Midstory material left onsite those having most of the native species to those should be allowed to decay before the first that are devoid of species typical of the longleaf prescribed burn. Fuel is often sparse in areas ecosystem (Outcalt 2000). This range of overstory dominated by scrub oak, so these areas are often Southern Forest Science: 126 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health pad euefe od ihdratRdc ullas eoeohrRemove othertrees; chop Reduce fuelloads; remove other Reduce fuelloads withdormant Uplands n e esnbrs nrdc umrpns hp euelgigandburn;plant longleaf; pines;chop, reduce logging burnsonshort intervals Remove othertrees; chop season burns, introduce summer Reduce fuelloads, remove other Reducelowlands fuelloads withdormant and wet Flatwoods ietp isoyadudrtr udrtr natoverstory orunderstory understory intact midstory andunderstory Site type ei n euefe od ihdratCo n unsrbok Remove othertrees; chop remove slashpine; Chopandburnscruboak; season burns, introduce summer Reduce fuelloads withdormant sub-xeric Xeric and overstory andunderstory Table 13.1—Longleaf pinerestoration prescription dependsuponsite typeandthecondition of the will maintain the understory condition. will maintain the understory be appliedonlyonce;periodic prescribedburns be reducedforaperiod.However, herbicideneed although coverofdesirable woodyspeciesmay on sandhillssites(Brockway andothers1998), grasses andforbs reductionsinunderstory term hardwoodswithonlyshort- topkilling midstory and Outcalt2000).Thistreatmentiseffectiveat (Brockway one herbicideapplicationandburn ingredient); desiredresultscanbeobtainedwith hexazinone (appliedatarateof2kg/haactive supplemented byuseofanherbicidesuchas curing. after aprescribedburn ground layerthatwillcarry used toknockoverandcompresstheoaksintoa chopperwithnooffsetcanbe small single-drum Mechanicaltreatmentswitha difficult toburn. l k j i h g f e d c b a adil burns sandhills Boyer (1991). Waldrop andothers(1987). Barnett andothers1990). Boyer (1990). Outcalt andothers(1999). BurnsandHebb(1972). Provencher andothers(2001). Glitzenstein andothers(1995). Outcalt and Lewis (1990). Brockway andOutcalt (2000). Greenberg andSimons(1999). Hattenbach andothers(1998). Restoration is more rapid if burning is Restoration ismorerapidifburning chemical ie;itouesme nrdc umrbrsplant ordirect seedwiregrass; introduce summerburns andburn;plant longleaf; overstory pine, plant longleaf; burns; pines; introduce summer season burns, remove other consider mechanical or chemical treatments ogefoesoy od te pce noesoy Former longleaf site, no Otherspeciesinoverstory, Longleaf overstory, woody a k to invigorate grasses; cnie ehnclintroduce summerburns considermechanical d tetet umrbrsunderlongleaf overstory; summerburns treatments c o rprto;itoueroll in;plant wiregrass plugs preparation; introduce or l j b Overstory andunderstory condition umrbrsintroduce summer burns plant ordirect seedwiregrass; summer burns slash; plant longleaf; introduce longleaf; role asafuelsource forecosystemmaintenance. of thegrasscomponent becauseofitsimportant of operability. Thecriticalfactorisreestablishment advantage ofthereducedcompetition andease with replantingoflongleaf seedlings totake oak competition. hexazinone applicationonareaswithheavyscrub maybeincreased by althoughsurvival burning, seedlings andnositepreparationotherthan canbeobtainedwithcontainer Acceptable survival if grasscoveris>60percent(Outcalt1995). attached canboostbare-rootseedlingsurvival understory. Aplanterwithasmallscalperblade the outlined above,shouldbeavoidedtopreserve and others1990).Sitepreparation,otherthanthat andMcGilvray1997,Barnett machine (Barnett container, andcanbeplantedbyhandor f n rmnmlst plant noorminimalsite The understory is bestrestoredsimultaneously The understory Longleaf seedlingscanbebare-rootor e patandburn; plant introduce summerburns h or direct g plant longleaf; seed wiregrass; i Most work to date has focused on the eastern plants are still viable in the area, and no special portion of the range and reestablishment of effort other than reintroduction of burning is wiregrass (Aristida beyrichiana Trin. & Rupr.) needed for their reestablishment. Finally, artificial (Means 1997, Outcalt and others 1999, Seamon cavities are installed in some of the pines for 1998). Wiregrass also can be established by immediate use by the red-cockaded woodpecker. planting plugs under an existing longleaf overstory in the spring, in strips spaced about 1 m apart. DISCUSSION Fertilizer applied only to the wiregrass in the espite the handicap of incomplete knowledge, second- or third-growing season will stimulate attempts to restore native forests abound. growth (Outcalt and others 1999). Wiregrass also DSpencer (1995) drew three lessons from can be directly seeded between rows of trees in efforts to create woodlands in the United plantations (Hattenbach and others 1998). Other Kingdom. These accurately portray the state of native grasses can be included in seed mixes. the art of restoration ecology applied to forests: Pineywoods dropseed [Sporobolus junceus (P. 127 Beauv.) Kunth.], like wiregrass, will produce seed • Forests are amazingly resilient, and functioning following burning. In addition to selected common forest habitat will develop whether or not we species such as dwarf huckleberry [Gaylussacia intervene, given sufficient time. dumosa (Andrews) A. Gray.] that do not reinvade • Attempts at re-creating ancient forests are or survive, some rare species will probably have doomed to fail because the conditions under to be reintroduced (Glitzenstein and others 1998, which they developed cannot be replicated. Chapter 13. Chapter

Walker 1998). Restoration • We can at best design and implement the Shortleaf Pine Forests proper initial conditions that will foster Shortleaf pine in the Ouachita Mountains development of a forest appropriate to also evolved with fire (Foti and Glenn 1991). the site and present climate. Fire return intervals before European settlement were from 2 to 40 years, but today fire has been The economics of private land restoration will severely suppressed in this forest type (Foti and increase in importance. Current Federal programs Glenn 1991). Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, that provide large easement payments, such as efforts to recover the endangered red-cockaded the Wetlands Reserve Program, are expensive woodpecker in the Ouachita Mountains had been and probably justified on poor sites. On better largely unsuccessful, despite evidence that it once sites, restoration might pay its own way, with inhabited the region. Managers realized that the only cost sharing needed to establish the forest. decline of the bird was related to decline in Landowners could derive periodic income from suitable habitat, and restoration of the shortleaf- timber production and other nontimber products, bluestem community became a priority. Roughly including ecological services such as carbon 63,000 ha of the Ouachita National Forest were sequestration. allocated to restoration of pine savanna (U.S. Restoration forests could sequester vast Department of Agriculture, Forest Service 1996). amounts of carbon. Baldcypress, for example, can Restoration of shortleaf pine savanna requires live longer than a thousand years and attain net several changes in management. First, sawtimber primary productivity values as great as 20 t/ha/ rotation is lengthened from 70 to 80 to 120 years, year (Conner and Buford 1998). Biofuels produced which allows longer retention of suitable cavity from cottonwood (Populus spp.) or willow (Salix trees for the woodpecker and results in larger and spp.) would not only sequester carbon in soil higher quality pine sawtimber at harvest. Second, organic matter but would have the further carbon- the pine component is subjected to a low thinning offset benefit of replacing fossil fuels (Stanturf to reduce overstory basal area. This provides and Madsen 2002). more light and promotes herbaceous growth; a Attention to the effects of restoration at side benefit is a lowered susceptibility to southern landscape scales is highlighting the need to pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis Zimmermann) consider how restored forests will be managed, attack. Third, the hardwood midstory component, and raises the question of the degree to which which developed in the 60-year period of fire natural disturbance regimes can be incorporated exclusion, must be removed. Fourth, periodic into forest management. In the shortleaf pine prescribed burns are reintroduced on a 3- to 5- restoration program, for example, efforts are year cycle to reestablish the native prairie flora. concentrated on establishing restored conditions Rootstocks and seed for these woodland savanna over the full extent of the landscape, primarily Southern Forest Science: 128 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health LITERATURE CITED andothers2001). and Madsen2002,Stanturf contribute toecosystemrestoration(Stanturf areableto objectives otherthanpreservation on privateland,andlandownerswithmanagement approach offersabroadercontextforrestoration andothers2001).This and Madsen2002,Stanturf where self-renewal processesoperate(Stanturf within thenaturalrangeofmanagedforests 1999). We acceptasrestorationanyendpoint state forallfunctions(Bradshaw1997,Harrington rehabilitation mayneverrecovertotheoriginal for theendangeredwoodpecker. younger, whicharenotusefulasnestinghabitat should bemanagedinageclassesof30yearsand requiresthatsomeportionofthelandscape term But sustainabilityofthishabitattypeinthelong for thebenefitofred-cockadedwoodpecker. Bonner, F.T.; Vozzo, J.A.;Elam,W.W.; Land,S.B.,Jr. 1994.Tree Blair, R.M.;Langlinais,M.J.1960. Nutriaandswamprabbits J.P Barnett, J.P Barnett, Baker, J.B.;Broadfoot,W.M. 1979.Apracticalfieldmethod Baker, J.B.;Blackmon,B.G.1978.Summerfallowing—asimple Baker, J.B.1977.Tolerance ofplantedhardwoodstospring Allen, J.A.;Keeland, B.D.;Stanturf, J.A.[andothers].2001. Abrahamson, W.G.; Hartnett,D.C.1990.Pineflatwoodsanddry Service, Southern Forest Southern Service, Experiment Station.81p. New Orleans:U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest seed technologytrainingcourse.Gen. Tech. Rep.SO–107. 388–389. ofForestry.damage baldcypressplantings.Journal 58: 28 p. Agriculture, Forest ResearchStation. Southern Service, Tech. Rep.SRS–14.Asheville,NC:U.S.Departmentof for producinglongleafpineseedlingsincontainers.Gen. Forest ExperimentStation:72–93. U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Southern Service, of longleafpine.Gen.Tech. Rep.SO–75.NewOrleans: ed. Proceedingsofthesymposiumonmanagement longleaf pinewithartificialmethods.In:Farrar, R.M., Forest ExperimentStation.51p. Department ofAgriculture,Forest Southern Service, hardwoods. Gen.Tech. Rep.SO–26.NewOrleans: U.S. of siteevaluationforcommerciallyimportantsouthern Forest Forest Southern Service, ExperimentStation.5p. Pap. SO–142.NewOrleans:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture, technique forimprovingold-fieldsitescottonwood.Res. ofAppliedForestry. Journal flooding. Southern 1:23–25. Research Station.132p. U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Southern Service, ITR–2001–0011. Gen.Tech. Rep.SRS–40.Asheville,NC: Surv., Biol.Resour. Div. Inf. andTech. Rep.USGS/BRD/ A guidetobottomlandhardwoodrestoration.U.S.Geol. 103–149. Florida. Orlando,FL:UniversityofCentralFloridaPress: prairies. In:Myers,R.L.;Ewel,J.J.,eds.Ecosystemsof The forestthatresultsfromrestorationor .; McGilvray, J.M.1997.Practicalguidelines .; Lauer, D.K.; Brissette,J.C.1990.Regenerating Conner, W.H.; Toliver, J.R.;Sklar, F.H. 1986.Natural Conner, W.H.; of Flynn,K.1989.Growthandsurvival Conner, W.H.; deepwaterswamps. Buford,M.1998.Southern Conner, W.H. 1995.Baldcypress seedlingsforplantingin Conner, W.H. 1988.Naturalandartificialregenerationof Christensen, N.L.1981.Fire regimesinsoutheastern R.M.;Hebb, E.A.1972.Sitepreparationand Burns, Brockway, D.G.;Outcalt,K.W; Wilkins, R.N.1998.Restoring Brockway, D.G.;Outcalt,K.W. 2000.Restoring longleafpine Broadfoot, W.M. 1976.Hardwoodsuitabilityforandproperties Brantley, C.G.;Platt,S.G.1992.Experimentalevaluation Bradshaw, A.D.1997.Whatdowemeanbyrestoration? 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forests of the southeastern Coastal Plain. Gen. Tech. Rep. 13. Chapter Stanturf, J.A.; Gardiner, E.S.; Hamel, P.B. [and others]. 2000. SE–45. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Restoration Restoring bottomland hardwood ecosystems in the Lower Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Journal of Forestry. 98(8): 10–16. 23 p. Stanturf, J.A.; Madsen, P. 2002. Restoration concepts for Walker, J.L. 1998. Ground layer vegetation in longleaf pine temperate and boreal forests of North America and landscapes: an overview for restoration and management. Western Europe. Plant Biosystems. 136(2): 143–158. Rep. 3. Auburn, AL: Longleaf Alliance: 2–13. Stanturf, J.A.; Schoenholtz, S.H.; Schweitzer, C.J.; Shepard, J.P. Ware, S.; Frost, C.C.; Doerr, P.D. 1993. Southern mixed 2001. Achieving restoration success: myths in bottomland hardwood forest: the former longleaf pine forest. In: hardwood forests. Restoration Ecology. 9: 189–200. Martin, W.H.; Boyce, S.G.; Echternacht, A.C., eds. Stanturf, J.A.; Schweitzer, C.J.; Gardiner, E.S. 1998. Biodiversity of the Southeastern United States, lowland Afforestation of marginal agricultural land in the Lower terrestrial communities. New York: John Wiley: 447–493. Mississippi River Alluvial Valley, U.S.A. Silva Fennica. 32: Wilhite, L.P.; Toliver, J.R. 1990. Taxodium distichum (L.) 281–297. Rich.–baldcypress. In: Burns, R.M.; Honkala, B.H., tech. Stine, M.; Chambers, J.L.; Wilson, M.; Ribbeck, K. 1995. coords. Silvics of North America: 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. Twenty-year survival and growth of six bottomland 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture: hardwood species. In: Edwards, M.B., ed. Proceedings of the 563–572. eighth biennial southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–1. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 500–502.

Chapter 14.

Understanding and Controlling Nonnative Forest Pests in the South

Kerry O. Britton, INTRODUCTION Donald A. Duerr II, onnative insects, pathogens, and plants and James H. Miller1 continue to flow into the United States, as N they have for the past 500 years (Committee on the Scientific Basis for Predicting the Invasive Potential of Nonindigenous Plants and Plant 133 Abstract—Invasive nonnative forest pests are Pests in the United States 2002). With global multiplying and spreading in every forest type trade comes a mixing of once-separated in the Southern United States. The costs of organisms, often with harmful effects on their new natural systems and substantial costs for controlling these pests have become extremely mitigation. Invasive nonnative pests pose major high, and the damage they cause to ecosystem challenges. We are challenged to (1) detect and composition, structure, and function continues minimize entries, (2) detect critical outbreaks to increase. Plants imported for potential release and mobilize rapid responses, (3) monitor existing for forage, crops, soil reclamation, and ornamental invasive populations and apply integrated pest purposes are not evaluated for invasiveness. management (IPM) programs, and (4) disseminate Insect pests and diseases arrive in infested nursery information about the nature of the problem of stock, wood products, pallets, and dunnage, invasive pests and possible means of its solution. in spite of our regulatory system, which has been Executive Order 13112, issued in 1999, established overburdened by the rapid increase in international the National Invasive Species Council, comprised trade. The biological basis for the invasiveness of the heads of eight Federal Agencies. This of nonnative pests and possible means for dealing Executive order defined an invasive species as a species that is (1) nonnative (or alien) to the with them are discussed. ecosystem under consideration, and (2) whose introduction causes or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health. The council finalized in 2001 a “National Management Plan: Meeting the Invasive Species Challenge,” which is aimed at coordinating offensive and defensive efforts among the Government Agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and the public. New national initiatives in all elements of an IPM approach to invasive species are planned and specified, with actual regulatory and policy changes anticipated, as appropriations become available. This chapter addresses the biological and social bases for the current predicament, identifies the most damaging invasive pests, gives recommendations for their control, and formulates initiatives required for the defense of our native forests.

1 National Pathologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Forest Health Protection, Arlington, VA 22201; Entomologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Forest Health Protection, Asheville, NC 28804; and Plant Ecologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Auburn, AL 36849, respectively. Southern Forest Science: 134 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health (Pursh) Poir.] Christmastrees, adeclinesyndrome echinata causing littleleafdiseaseof shortleaf pine( cinnamomi (Crandall andothers1945, Hansen 1999). the remainingtrees,which occupied drierridges parasitica upslope whenchestnutblight[ in valleysandcovesgraduallywasextending Rands the nonnativepathogen discovered until1932.Inkdisease,causedby Mountains, althoughthecausewasnot Appalachian being eliminatedfromtheSouthern [ For example,asearly1864,Americanchestnut forestsinimportantways. function ofeastern forest pestshavechangedthecompositionand others 2000). two lakesat$10millionperyear(Pimenteland still estimateslossesinrecreationvaluesforjust per yeartocontrol million peryear. Florida spends$14.5million purple loosestrife( L.) aloneare$3to$6millionperyearandfor Their controlcostsformelaleuca statistics forinvasivenonnativeweedsinwetlands. State ofFloridahascompiledsomeimpressive losses duetononnativeweedsareavailable,the no comprehensivefiguresspecifictoforestry especially forinvasivenonnativeweeds.Although American forests(Liebholdandothers1995). nonnative insectshavebecomeestablishedin others 2000).Ithasbeenestimatedthat360 estimated at$4.2billionperyear(Pimenteland to nonnativeinvasiveinsectsandpathogenswere National lossesintraditionalforestproductsdue forest value,areeasiertoevaluateeconomically. although theyrepresentonlyasmallpartoftotal than agriculturallosses.Forest productindustries, resource lossesaremoredifficulttoestimate to speciesandhabitats.For thisreason,natural of speciesextinctionsorlessseveredamage thecost accurately andobjectivelydetermine and White2001).Itisdifficultorimpossibleto and predationbyinvasivenonnatives(Reichard are atriskprimarilybecauseofcompetitionwith threatened andendangeredspecies,57percent the costsofspeciesextinctions.Of958listed and others2000).Thisfiguredoesnotinclude an estimated$137billionperyear(Pimentel Economic andEcologicalEffects Castanea dentata Since Europeansettlement,nonnative Data specific to southern forestsarescarce, Data specifictosouthern Invasive nonnativepestscosttheUnitedStates , virtuallyeliminatedAmericanchestnut Mill.),rootrot onFraser fir[ (Murrill) Barr] arrived andremoved arrived Barr] (Murrill) continues to impact southern forests, continues toimpactsouthern Lythrum (Marsh.) Borkh.]treeswere Hydrilla Phytophthora cinnamomi spp.L.C.Rich.,and

salicaria Cryphonectria

( Melaleuca

Abies fraseri L . ) $45 P. Pinus spp. regeneration of nativeplantsandreduce forest (Stapanian and others1998).Suchplants inhibit linked toincreasinganthropogenic disturbance of forestsbynonnativeplants hasalsobeen of disturbedhabitat.Theincreasing occupation fire, windthrow, whichcreategaps orhurricanes, harvests, proliferateafter nonnative plantsoften frequent disturbancesofvariousorigins.Invasive and melaleuca.Second,forestsaresubjectto ( losses areanticipatedinhemlockforesttypes with thefir(AlsopandLaughlin1991).Similar dependent uponthespecialhabitatassociated are causinglossesofrareandthreatenedspecies attacking balsamfir[ understory. Adelgids [ host populationsastheyspreadthroughthe clavigignenti-juglandacearum canker( Redlin), andbutternut dogwood anthracnose( Beech barkdisease( whether other, undetectedoutbreaksmayexist. todetermine pathologists areconductingsurveys of thisdiseaseinOregonisbeingeradicated,but Man in’tVeld) Anoutbreak inpartsofCalifornia. death ( species of The sameforestsmaysoonbethreatenedbyanew front ofgypsymoth[ North Carolinaisunderattackfromtheadvancing Mexico (Tainter andothers1999). an oak( and Marks1987)wasrecentlycitedascausing flora intheforestsofWestern Australia (Weste hosts. Thissamefunguskilled79percentofthe in loblollypine( bittersweet ( petiolata Among themaregarlicmustard[ establish successfullywithoutdisturbance. reasons. First, anumberofinvasiveweeds this expectationhasproventobefalsefortwo therefore, arelesssignificantinforests.However, has ledtotheexpectationthatsuchinvasions, plants ondisturbanceasanentréetoinvasion (Pimentel 1993),thefrequentrelianceofnonnative by insectsanddiseasesinagriculturalsystems cause lossesroughlyequivalenttothosecaused less attentionfromforesters.Althoughweeds plants aremoreinsidiousandhavereceivedfar community. Incontrast,invasivenonnativeforest pests havelongbeenrecognizedbytheforestry [ Adelges tsugae Tsuga The oakcomponentinKentucky, Virginia, and The threatsposedbydiseasesandinsect Phytophthora ramorum spp Quercus (Bieb.)Cavara&Grande],oriental Phytophthora . Carr.) asthehemlockwoollyadelgid Celastrus orbiculatus Celastrus P. taeda (Annand)] spreadssouth. spp . Neonectria galligena L.)mortalityepicenterin Lymantria dispar Abies balsamea Adelges piceae Discula destructiva L.),andhundredsofother nowcausingsuddenoak ) havereduced Sirococcus Werres, deCock& Alliaria Thunb.), (Ratzeburg)] (L.)Mill.] (L.)]. ), growth and yield. Invasive nonnative weeds Bay (Rizzo and others 2002). Species killed by can alter ecosystems by changing nutrient the pathogen include coast live oak (Q. agrifolia cycling, geomorphology and physical structure Nee), tanoak [Lithocarpus densiflorus (Hook. of the site, drainage patterns and water flow, & Arn.) Rehd.], and California black oak (Q. sedimentation rates, and disturbance regimes. kelloggii Newb.). Nursery sanitation practices They displace native flora by competition, and fungicide applications can sometimes mask and thus alter wildlife habitat (D’Antonio 2001, infection, particularly in the case of Phytophthora Reichard and White 2001). species, and may allow infected material to pass Pathways inspection. Sometimes an import host is only slightly susceptible to a disease but may harbor Many invasive forest plants were intentionally the nonnative pathogen, as infected Chinese introduced as ornamentals or forage crops (table chestnut (Castanea mollissima Blume) probably 14.1), often as a result of Government-sponsored harbored chestnut blight. The associated pathogen plant introduction programs (Mack and Lonsdale is unnoticed on the resistant host, but under 135 2001). Some of these plants are still being sold as particularly favorable conditions may sporulate nursery stock. Herbaceous weeds are more likely and spread to more susceptible native species. to have been introduced as seed contaminants or Nurseries with overhead irrigation systems in soil used as ballast (Reichard and White 2001). often provide this ideal environment. In contrast, most nonnative insects and Another common source of nonnative insects pathogens were introduced unintentionally as and pathogens has been the trade in wood 14. Chapter contaminants on nursery stock (U.S. Congress and wood products (U.S. Congress Office of Office of Technology Assessment 1993). The Technology Assessment 1993). In the United sudden oak death pathogen probably arrived States, 35 percent of all softwood consumed is on infected rhododendron (Rhododendron spp.) imported, and up to 70 percent of all international nursery stock. Its origin is unknown. The cargo arrives supported by solid wood packing American strains of this pathogen cause only small material. The recent arrival of the Asian leafspots and twig blight on rhododendron and longhorned beetle [Anoplophora glabripennis many other hosts, but cause lethal cankers on oaks (Motschulsky)] in solid wood packing material in coastal regions surrounding the San Francisco has focused attention on this previously loosely

regulated pathway. In addition to established in the South Pests Forest Nonnative Table 14.1—Examples of intentionally introduced populations in New York and Chicago, the beetles invasive nonnative weeds have been intercepted in 26 warehouse locations in 12 other States. Solid wood packing material Common name Scientific name is usually constructed of poor-quality wood, often from trees damaged or killed by pests. Melaleuca Melaleuca Bark remnants increase the likelihood of pest Australian pine Pinus nigra Arnold association, and boards with bark attached can Japanese climbing fern Lygodium japonicum (Thunb. be hidden in middle layers of products such as Ex Murr.) Sw. wooden spools. One study found 2,500 live insects Old World climbing fern L. microphyllum (Car.) R. Br. in 29 short log bolts used to brace granite blocks Kudzu Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merr. in metal containers (Allen 2001). Mile-a-minute weed Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet The particularly invasive nature of many Tree-of-heaven Ailanthus altissima (P. Mill.) nonnative forest pests first became apparent near Swingle the close of the 19th century. Over the past 100 Oriental bittersweet Celastrus orbiculata Thunb. years, plant pathologists, entomologists, and weed Silktree or mimosa Albizia julibrissin Durazz. scientists have developed a broadly applicable Chinaberrytree Melia azedarach L. concept of IPM. In this chapter, we will describe a Winged burning bush Euonymus alata (Thunb.) Sieb. few important nonnative forest pathogens, insect Bush honeysuckle Lonicera spp. L. pests, and invasive plants, and will discuss their Cogongrass Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv. entry pathways, control strategies, and ecological Chinese silvergrass Miscanthus sinensis Anderss. and environmental impacts. We will apply the Chinese privet Ligustrum sinense Lour. lessons learned from these examples to develop Tallowtree Triadica sebifera (L.) Small recommendations for a more proactive IPM Chinese wisteria Wisteria sinensis (Sims) DC. approach to preventing future invasions. Japanese honeysuckle Lonicera japonica Thunb. Southern Forest Science: 136 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health synthetic DNA coding for viruslike ribonucleic synthetic DNA codingforviruslike Recently researcherssucceeded ingetting intotherecalcitrantstrains. at gettingthevirus Muchefforthasbeen directed exchange thevirus. likely thanEuropeanstrains tofusemyceliumand parasitica the fungusthanisfoundin Europe. exists invegetativecompatibility(v-c)groupsof United States,unfortunately, greater diversity recovered andremainsaviablecroptoday. Inthe Italianchestnut ( to hypoviruses. appeared tobecallusingoverandhealingdue the 1950s,researchersinItalynotedthatcankers In fungus, causedbyinfectionhypoviruses. isadebilitatingdiseaseofthe Hypovirulence and(2)resistancebreeding. (1) hypovirulence taken toreducetheimpactofchestnutblight: (Anagnostakis 1987,Liebholdandothers1995). disease everdyingoutforlackofhostmaterial oriental chestnut.Thusthereisnohopeofthe Munchh.), andwhite( post ( can survive onoak;e.g.,live( can survive diseased. Thefungusisaweakerpathogenbut coppice, butthesproutseventuallybecome andproduce disease, therootsofchestnutsurvive chestnut. Becausethisisanonsystemicbark within 40yearsthroughouttherangeofAmerican trees withfungicidalsprays,thefungusspread infectedtrees andtoprotecttheuninfected burn efforttoquarantine,remove,and Despite every provided theinitialinoculumforthisepidemic. stockisbelievedtohave asymptomatic nursery chestnuts ( and cambiallayersofAmericanchestnut.Oriental Barr,(Murrill) wasdiscovered killingthebark a fungus,nowcalled droughts weresuspectedasthecause,butlater trees intheBronxweredying.At first,recent New York ZoologicalSociety, noticedthatchestnut Chestnut Blight of such“unnatural”interactions. Nannf.] willbeusedheretoprovideexamples Dutch elmdisease[ Chestnut blight,dogwoodanthracnose,and adequate protectionagainstthenewpest. some generalizedresponsetoattackprovides Therefore, thehostlacksresistancegenes,unless N INVASIVE NONNATIVE FOREST PATHOGENS Two separateavenuesofresearchhave been In 1904,H.W. Merkel,ChiefForester ofthe they havenotcoevolvedwiththeirnewhost. thannativepathogensbecause disruptive onnative pathogensarepresumablymore Q. stellata strainsintheUnitedStates areless Castanea Wangenh.), scarlet( Ophiostoma spp.)wereunaffected,and Cryphonectria parasitica Cryphonectria Q. alba L.),aswell Q. virginiana

ulmi C. sativa Cryphonectria Q. coccinea (Buisman) Miller) Mill.), epidemic development, whereas dry periodsofa epidemic development, whereasdry 2 weeksofeachotherwere neededtomaintain moist conditionsarecommon. Wet periodswithin slopes, andnearstreams waterfallswhere mountains, athigherelevations, onnorth-facing explains whythediseaseis more severeinthe unusually long(24to48hours), whichpartially forinfectionsis rain. Thewetperiodnecessary leaf. Theyarewelladaptedtospreadinsplashing a slimymatrix,mostlyontheundersideof but thesegrowingreatnumberspustuleswith caused bythisdisease. of thetreeallhelpexplainseveredamage forest history, andthesilvicalcharacteristics reopened in1975.Features ofpathogen biology, tradewithChinawas coasts, shortlyafter simultaneously neartwoportcities,onopposite was firstdetectedinNorthAmericaalmost fungus hasAsianorigins.Inaddition,thedisease dogwood ( others 1996).TherelativeresistanceofChinese points toarecentintroduction(Daughtreyand but thelackofgeneticdiversityinpathogen introduction andoriginarenotpreciselyknown, named Dogwood Anthracnose others 2000). locally adaptedAmericanparents(Hebardand Chinese sourcesofresistanceandoutcrossingto their breedingprogrambyincorporatingmore cultivars. TheACFintentionnowistobroaden were developedmainlyfromthreeChinese selection fortheresistancetrait.TheACFhybrids be reducedgreatlybytheuseofmarker-assisted cost requiredtoidentifyresistantprogenycould from theAmericanparentsaswell.Thetimeand some individualshaveresistancegenesacquired levels ofresistance.Theirresultsindicatethat American chestnutgenesandpossessingvarying generation backcrosses,containing94percent Chestnut Foundation (ACF’s)hasselectedthird- backcrossing totheAsianparent.TheAmerican than themajesticAmericanparent,becauseof resembledtheAsianspeciesrather often gave disappointingresults.Thehybrids genes intoAmericanchestnutbycrossbreeding the hypovirulence. v-c groups,thuspromotingthespreadof spread throughsexualreproductionintoall It ishopedthatthesyntheticgeneswilleventually acid particlesintotheDNAofuninfectedstrains. The fungusproducesonlyasexualspores, The causeofdogwoodanthracnoseisafungus Early attemptstoincorporateAsianresistance Discula destructiva Discula destructiva Cornus kousa Cornus Hatch)suggeststhatthe Redlin. Thedetailsof month or more greatly reduced the infection rate 4. Use proper planting techniques. (Britton 1993). These requirements greatly slowed 5. Prune and destroy deadwood and leaves the spread of the fungus as it reached the southern yearly, and prune trunk sprouts in the fall. edge of the Appalachians. 6. Water weekly in the morning during drought; Eastern flowering dogwood (C. florida L.), the do not wet foliage. main host in southern forests, is a rapid colonizer of gaps, and its population probably expanded 7. Maintain a 4- to 6-inch deep mulch around greatly after the demise of chestnut and as a trees; do not use dogwood chips as mulch. consequence of logging activity in the early 20th 8. Fertilize according to soil analysis. century. This shade-tolerant species persisted after gap closure, surviving under as little as 2 9. Use proper insecticides and fungicides percent ambient light in the photosynthetically where appropriate. active range (Chellemi and Britton 1992). Trees 10. Avoid mechanical and chemical injury to trees. growing in these conditions had few carbohydrate 137 reserves and could not withstand the stress of Hybrids of C. florida x C. kousa resistant repeated defoliation when a susceptible population to anthracnose were developed at Rutgers and environmental conditions favorable for University. Selections from resistant C. florida epidemic disease development coincided. survivors at Mt. Catoctin National Park were Since it was first reported in the southern propagated and tested by the University of region in 1986, anthracnose has spread into Tennessee and entered the market in 2002. 14. Chapter 277 counties (Anderson and others 1994; U.S. Dutch Elm Disease Department of Agriculture, Forest Service 1999). The story of Dutch elm disease [Ophiostoma The epidemic is now spreading West more than ulmi (Buisman) Nannf.] clearly illustrates a weak South or East and is generating much concern in link in the defensive cordon of our quarantine Michigan, Indiana, Ohio, and Missouri. Flowering regulations. Current U.S. regulations prevent dogwood impact plots in western North Carolina, entry only of pests that are (1) not present in where the climate is very favorable for the the United States; or (2) present, but of limited disease, have incurred 56 percent mortality since distribution, and subject to an active eradication/ 1991 (http://fhpr8.srs.fs.fed.us/2001Conditions/ control program. index.html). Disease severity today is much in the South Pests Forest Nonnative greater at the epidemic front than behind it, for To be effective, inspectors must be able to find several reasons: (1) the dry weather experienced and identify new invaders before they enter and recently in the South has probably reduced the become established. Unfortunately, the necessary number of secondary disease cycles occurring each taxonomic information did not exist in the case of year, (2) the loss of so many dogwoods growing Dutch elm disease. A new invader arrived and was in microsites optimal for fungal development mistakenly assumed to be the original Dutch elm reduced the inoculum load for the surviving trees, disease fungus, which had become widespread (3) survivors are growing on sites less favorable and consequently not subject to regulation. for fungal development, and (4) survivors may The new invader was much more aggressive possess some genetic resistance. than the first Dutch elm disease species. Thus No economically feasible control measures there have been two separate epidemics of this have been found to protect dogwood in forest vascular wilt in North America, Europe, and Asia. environments. A 10-point program for reducing The original causal fungus, Ophiostoma ulmi disease severity was developed for landscape (Buisman) Nannf., was probably of Himalayan trees. The main goal of the program is to improve origin and reached the Netherlands by way of tree vigor and thus reduce disease impact the Dutch East Indies (Brasier 1990). It was (Bailey and Brown 1991). The 10 points are: introduced from there into North America in the 1930s. 1. Select healthy trees to plant. The second, visually similar species, O. novo- 2. Purchase trees from a reputable nursery; ulmi Brasier, was not discovered in the American do not transplant trees from the wild. Midwest until after it began killing elms in 3. Select good planting sites to promote rapid Britain that had survived the original epidemic. foliage drying. The second epidemic was traced to elm logs shipped from North America in the 1960s. Southern Forest Science: 138 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health disease-resistant Bentz (1995)listfivevarieties ofDutchelm healthy tree(Haugen2001). Santamourand fromdiseasedrootstothe transpiring root grafts trees topreventthedrawing ofinoculumacross should bedonepriortotheremovalofdiseased ploworatrenchingmachine.Trenchingvibratory diseased andhealthytreesshouldbebrokenwitha between to reducevectorpopulations.Rootgrafts beetle emergence.Insecticidescanalsobeused mustbedestroyed priorto vectors. Prunings trees greatlyreducespopulationsofthebeetle Rapid sanitationofdeadbranchesanddying most successfulwhenadoptedcommunitywide. landscapes,aswellinnativeforests. southern United States,itisgraduallylosingitsplacein planted aswidelyintheSouthNorthern (4) Valley Forge, and(5)NewHarmony. Other elm, (2)American Liberty, (3)Independence, and others2000).Although is estimatedat$100millionperyear(Pimentel (Haugen 2001).Thecostofremovaldeadelms limb atatimeoverperiodofyearormore Inothercases,thetreemaydieone root grafts. incaseswherethefungushasspreadthrough true mycelium, tyloses,andgums.Thisisparticularly weeks, itsvasculartissuepluggedwithfungal and die.Sometimesthetreedieswithinafew yellow,Leaves oninfectedbrancheswilt,curl,turn and bymycelialgrowththroughothertissues. within thetreebysporestransportedinxylem, feeding intwigcrotches.Thefungusspreads they spreadthesporestohealthytreeswhile on dyingelms,andwhentheyemergeasadults beetles becomeinfestedwithsporesastheyfeed elm barkbeetle,isthemorecommonvector. The multistriatus United StatesandCanada.IntheSouth, tierofthe native elmbarkbeetle,inthenorthern to treeby fromtree elm disease.Thesporesarecarried In Britainalone, tree particularly thehistoricallysignificantstreet more pathogenic intothe protection fromdebilitatingviruses) heterogeneity ofv-cgroups(andsubsequent brings advantageous molecular techniques,andthisgeneflow two specieshasbeendemonstratedusing fungus (Brasier2001).Geneflowbetweenthe spp. L.)intheUnitedStateswerelosttonew elm trees.Hundredsofmillionselms( Control measuresforDutchelmdiseaseare All NorthAmericanelmspecies,and U. americana Hylurgopinus rufipes Hylurgopinus rufipes (Marsham),thesmallerEuropean O. novo-ulmi O. novo-ulmi U. americana L., aresusceptibletoDutch O. ulmi U. americana genesfor killed30million (Brasier2001). : (1)Princeton (Eichhoff Ulmus Scolytus wasnot ), a Northeast and theGreatLakesregion,as well spread toallorpartsof17States, mostlyinthe in1889.Thegypsymothhas outbreak occurred by aFrench scientistlivinginBoston.Thefirst was introducedintotheUnited Statesin1869 Department ofAgriculture,Forest 1985). Service Forests”in thebook“InsectsofEastern (U.S. gypsy moth(McManusandothers1989) in the“Forest Insect&DiseaseLeaflet162”for aboutthegypsymothcanbefound information tens ofmillionsdollarsannually. Usefulgeneral 14.1), andthecostsofdamagecontrolruninto of acresaredefoliatedbythegypsymoth(fig. UnitedStates.Inmostyears,millions the Eastern one ofthemostseriouspestshardwoodtreesin Gypsy Moth U.S. forests. present, orpotentialfutureimpactsonSouthern nonnativeinsectswhichhavepast, destructive chapter willfocusonseveralofthemore further damage.Thisportionofthepresent IPM beforetheybecomeestablishedandcause apply effectiveeradicationprogramsbasedon todetectnewonesquicklyandthen necessary rates andhighreproductivecapacities,itis States. Becausethesepestshaverapiddispersal United established throughouttheSoutheastern INVASIVE NONNATIVE FOREST INSECTS suitable foruseintheforestenvironment. are noeconomicallyfeasiblecontrolmeasures andpossiblenontargeteffects.Againthere to drift opposed toinsecticidalsprays,whicharesubject localizing controlchemicalswithinthetree,as andhastheadvantageof of sanitationpruning inoculum. Fungicide injectionimprovesthesuccess sprays, contributetothedevelopmentofplentiful practices andcommunityobjectionstoinsecticidal when otherfactors,suchaspoorsanitation rise inpriorityrelativetoothercontroloptions Stipes andFraedrich (2001)suggestthatinjections is alsoasignificantfactorinoveralltreehealth. damage tothetreeincreatinginjectionports 1 to3years,dependingonthefungicideused, Since thetreatmentmustberepeatedevery a preventivemeasureonlyforhigh-valuetrees. are alsoresistanttoDutchelmdisease. nonnative N The gypsymothisnativeto Europeand The gypsymoth[ Injection orinfusionoffungicidesisusedas of nonnativeforestinsectsarecurrently forests.Over70species effect onsouthern onnative insectshavehadaprofound Ulmus speciesandsomehybrids Lymantria dispar (L.)]is 14

12

Figure 14.1—Amount 10 of defoliation by the European gypsy 8 moth 1940–2003. 6

4 Defoliation (million acres) 2

0

1940 1944 1949 1954 1959 1964 1969 1974 1979 1984 1989 1994 1999 2003 139 Year as to the District of Columbia. In the Southeast, by midsummer. Healthy trees can usually the current advancing front runs eastwest withstand one or two consecutive defoliations across northern North Carolina then slants of > 50 percent. Trees that have been weakened northwest through southwestern Virginia and by previous defoliation or that have been subjected 14. Chapter eastern Kentucky. to other stresses, such as drought, frequently die The gypsy moth life cycle has four stages: after a single defoliation of > 50 percent. (1) egg, (2) larva, (3) pupa, and (4) adult (moth Natural controls, including introduced insect stage). Only the larvae damage trees and shrubs. parasites and predators, fungal and virus diseases, Gypsy moth egg masses are most often laid on and adverse weather conditions, help control the branches and trunks of trees, but egg masses may gypsy moth. A number of tactics have the potential be found in any sheltered location. Egg masses to minimize damage by gypsy moth and to contain are buff-colored when first laid, but may bleach gypsy moth populations at levels considered out during the winter months. The hatching of tolerable. These tactics include monitoring gypsy moth eggs coincides with the budding of gypsy moth populations, maintaining the health in the South Pests Forest Nonnative most hardwood trees, from early spring through and vigor of trees, discouraging gypsy moth mid-May. Larvae are dispersed naturally by survival, treating with Bacillus thuringiensis the wind and artificially on cars and recreational var. kurstaki, disrupting mating with pheromone vehicles, firewood, household goods, and other flakes containing disparlure, treating with gypsy personal possessions. The larvae feed until early moth nuclear polyhedrosis virus, treating with July before pupating. Adult females do not fly. diflubenzuron, and mass trapping. The tactic Gypsy moth larvae prefer hardwoods, but or combination of tactics used depends on the may feed on several hundred different species condition of the site and of the tree or stand and of trees and shrubs (for a list of host plants, the level of the gypsy moth population. Tactics see http://www.gypsymoth.ento.vt.edu/vagm/ suggested for homeowners, such as removing index.html). When gypsy moth populations are egg masses, placing burlap bands around boles, dense, the larvae feed on almost all vegetation. or spraying individually affected trees, are In the Eastern United States, the gypsy moth’s usually too labor intensive for managers to main ecological effect is on oaks and in oak- use in forest stands. dominated hardwood forests. The gypsy moth infestation spreads at an The effects of defoliation depend primarily average rate of 21 km/year along its border to on the amount of foliage removed, the condition the west and south. In 1999 following a successful of the tree at the time it is defoliated, the number pilot project initiated in 1992, the U.S. Department of consecutive defoliations, available soil moisture, of Agriculture Forest Service (Forest Service), and the species of the host. If < 50 percent of along with State and Federal cooperators, their crown is defoliated, most hardwoods will implemented the National Gypsy Moth Slow experience only a slight reduction in radial growth. the Spread (STS) project across the 1,200-mile If > 50 percent of their crown is defoliated, most gypsy moth frontier from North Carolina through hardwoods will produce a second flush of foliage Southern Forest Science: 140 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health and Carolinahemlock( hemlock[ eastern 1924 (McClure1994).Thisseriouspestof (Annand)] hasbeenintheUnitedStatessince Hemlock Woolly Adelgid susceptible specieswilldominatetheforest. gypsy mothdefoliationindicatethatless studies offorestcompositionalchangesafter and ecologicallydominantoakspecies.Most is thepotentiallossofeconomicallysignificant it causesinforestvegetation.Amajorconcern to explainandpredicttheextentofchanges the UnitedStatesfor>100years,itisdifficult http://www.gmsts.org/operations. STS projectmaybefoundontheWeb site: onthespreadofgypsymothand information 1990(SharovandLiebhold1998).More year after spread was26.5km/yearbefore1990and8.6km/ Appalachians. Theaveragerateofgypsymoth were employedinanSTSprojectthecentral STScontrolanderadicationmethods year after rates declinedfrom20to40km/year514km/ parks, andprivateproperty. Estimatedspread forests, forest-basedindustries,urbanandrural invaded bythegypsymotheachyearandprotects project significantlydecreasesthenewterritory gypsy mothspreadintouninfestedareas.TheSTS to usenovelIPMstrategiesreducetherateof Michigan.ThegoaloftheSTS projectis northern year, butaremostprominent inearlyspring. cotton swabs.Theyarepresent throughoutthe infestation. Thesesacksresemble thetipsof are goodevidenceofhemlock woollyadelgid wingless andremainonhemlock allyearround. mostdamagingtohemlockare 1996b). Theforms in NorthAmerica(Salom not beenobserved has Successfulreproductiononspruce spruce. which developwingsandmigratetofeedon eachcompletesixlifestages,someof forms with anextremelycomplicatedlifecycle.Four majority offorestsettings. woolly adelgidcannotbecontrolledinthevast found tohaveinfestations.At present,hemlock Virginia. In2001alone,20additionalcountieswere Pennsylvania, RhodeIsland,Virginia, andWest NewJersey,Maryland, NewYork, NorthCarolina, counties inConnecticut,Delaware,Massachusetts, adelgid infestationshavebeenfoundin>150 is anativeofAsia.Through2001,hemlockwoolly The hemlockwoollyadelgid[ Although gypsymothhasbeenpresentin White cottonysacksatthe base oftheneedles Hemlock woollyadelgidisasuckinginsect T. canadensis T. caroliniana (L.)Carriere] Adelges tsugae Engelmann) and arecovered withsecretionsofwaxy threads purplish-black insectsabout 0.8mminlength, parthenogenesis. Theyare wingless, oval, There arenomales;females reproduceby the egg,threenymphalstages, andfemaleadults. Appalachians. Sarg.) foresttypeintheSouthern of thematureFraser ( fir-redspruce mid-1980s, thisinsecthadsignificantlyalteredall still existintheirnaturalrange.However, bythe enough toproduceseeds,youngFraser firtrees and becausesomematuretreesescapeattacklong attack Fraser firuntilthetreesapproachmaturity, range intheEast.Becauseadelgiddoesnot have beenkilledthroughoutmuchofthesespecies’ Very extensivestandsofFraser andbalsamfir the adelgidfeedsonbalsamfirandFraser fir. Pacific UnitedStates, Northwest.IntheEastern that time.Thepesthasalsofounditswayintothe and hasspreadtoallfirstandsintheregionsince AppalachianMountainsinthe1950s the Southern in 1908,thebalsamwoollyadelgidwasfound (Salom 1996a).First ME, discoveredinBrunswick, seed production,landscape,andChristmastrees (Ratzeburg)] isconsideredaseriouspestofforest, 1900, thebalsamwoollyadelgid[ Balsam Woolly Adelgid control option(McClureandothers2001). of thesepredatorsareafeasibleandeffective infestations. Undercertaincircumstances,releases for biologicalcontrolofhemlockwoollyadelgid native tothePacific Northwest),holdpromise Japan) and Sasaji andMcClure(aladybirdbeetlenativeto Two nonnativepredators, situation. populations enoughtohelpthecurrent woolly adelgid,butnoneofthemreducesadelgid or thesoilbeneaththem. (imidacloprid) isinjectedintothetreesand oils andorsoaps,systemicinsecticide 1996b). Infestedtreesaredrenchedwithbotanical adelgid inareaswherethisisfeasible(Salom recommended forcontrollinghemlockwoolly trees totheecosystemsinwhichtheyoccur. inviewoftheimportancehemlock is alarming, mortality thatthehemlockwoollyadelgidcauses a treeinsingleyear. Thewidespreadhemlock prematurely. Ifuncontrolled,theadelgidcankill from theirtwigs,treeslosevigoranddropneedles The balsamwoollyadelgid life stagesinclude Introduced fromCentralEuropearound Several nativepredatorsfeedonthehemlock Application ofinsecticidesiscurrently When immaturenymphsandadultssucksap Laricobius nigrinus Laricobius Pseudoscymnus (Fender) (abeetle Adelges piceae Picea rubens

tsugae that appear as a dense white wool mass. A female use in spraying infested bark and foliage. When is capable of laying 200 eggs or more in a cluster feasible, the cutting and removal of infested trees near her body. The first-instar crawlers, reddish is effective. Cut trees must be wrapped in tarps to brown and about 0.4 mm in length, are the only ensure that adelgids do not fall off the trees as stage of the insect capable of moving and they are being removed. dispersing. Once the crawler finds a suitable Beech Scale and Beech Bark Disease feeding location, it inserts its tubelike mouth parts into the bark of the host and remains there Beech bark disease (Neonectria galligena) for the rest of its life. The second and third instars is one of the more recent problems to plague are about 0.5 to 0.65 mm in length, respectively, Eastern U.S. forests. Beech bark disease refers and closely resemble the adult. to a complex consisting of a sap-feeding scale insect and at least two species of Nectria fungi The balsam woolly adelgid generally (McCullough and others 2001). Beech scale concentrates either on the outer portions of tree (Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind. = C. fagi Baer.) crowns or on the main stem and large branches. was accidentally introduced into Nova Scotia 141 Crown infestations are characterized by abnormal in 1890 on ornamental beech trees from Europe. drooping of the current shoots and gouting of The scale and associated fungi have spread since the outer twigs. The crown becomes increasingly that time, and the current range in the United thin, and dieback may occur. Persistent crown States includes most of New England, northern infestation can kill a tree over a number of years. Pennsylvania, and northeastern West Virginia. Stem infestations usually cause greater damage Localized infestations of beech scale have been 14. Chapter and mortality. Conspicuous white woolly masses discovered in Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, characteristic of stem attack can give the lower and Ohio (McCullough and others 2001). The bole a whitewashed appearance in the most severe overall effect of this insect-disease complex cases. The tree responds to feeding by adelgids is the mortality of roughly 50 percent of the in an allergic manner that causes swelling of beech (Fagus spp.) trees > 8 inches in diameter the sapwood, gouting of the twigs, and increased (Houston and O’Brien 1983). The resulting forest heartwood formation in the sapwood—a condition has a few residual large beech trees and stands called rotholz or redwood. This abnormal of many small trees, often root sprouts from growth of sapwood tissue inhibits water flow susceptible trees, which are frequently defective. within the tree. Beech scale insects are yellow, soft bodied, in the South Pests Forest Nonnative In forest situations, silvicultural and and 0.5 to 1.0 mm long as adults. They feed management techniques can be used to reduce on American beech (F. grandifolia Ehrh.) and balsam woolly adelgid populations and damage European beech (F. sylvatica L.). Adult scales are (Salom 1996a). Tree stress may be minimized legless and wingless and have only rudimentary by thinning overstocked stands, by fertilizing antennae. Reproduction is parthenogenic. This nutrient-poor sites, and by replanting or type of reproduction allows for rapid population encouraging more tolerant trees and varieties. growth. Beech scale has one generation per year. There are many different varieties and crosses Immature scales, called crawlers, have functional of Fraser fir, and some varieties are more tolerant antennae and are mobile. Crawlers are spread by of balsam woolly adelgid. A hazard-rating system wind, birds, and people moving infested wood. was developed to aid in management decisions. When a crawler finds a suitable feeding location The main variables used in the system are site on a host tree, it inserts its long, tubelike stylet elevation, soil moisture regime, percent balsam into the bark and begins to suck sap. It then molts fir by basal area, total basal area of balsam fir, to the second crawler stage, which has no legs and stand age. In general, lower elevation dry sites and is immobile. These produce a white wax that with > 40 percent balsam fir at an older age (45 eventually covers their bodies. Thus when trees years of age or more) are most susceptible. Trees are heavily infested with beech scale, they appear between 25 and 45 years of age are moderately to be covered by white wool. The small wounds susceptible, and trees < 25 years old are least produced by the beech scale’s feeding allow the susceptible. In Christmas tree plantations in which Nectria fungi to invade the infested trees only a few trees are infested, it should suffice (Houston 1994). to rogue and burn those trees. Chemical control can be used effectively on ornamental trees, seed Crawlers that fall from trees or are washed production trees, and Christmas trees (Day and off by precipitation usually die. Severely cold ° others 2001). Several insecticides are available for weather (-35 F) that persists for a few days Southern Forest Science: 142 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health have beeninvadedby mortality usuallydoesnotoccuruntilthetrees control infestations. does notreducescalepopulationsenoughto UnitedStates,butthispredator of theEastern on thisscaleandiscommonthroughoutmost ladybird beetle[ probably neveroccurintheSoutheast.Asmall may killbeechscale,butsuchweatherconditions remain theonly twoareaswhereinfestations of States, althoughNewYork CityandChicago and foundinwarehousesthroughout theUnited China. Thebeetlehasbeen interceptedatports States insidesolidwoodpacking materialfrom beetleprobablytraveledto theUnited longhorned 1999).TheAsian Plant HealthInspectionService of Agriculture,Forest andAnimal Service eventually, deathofthetree(U.S.Department attacks leadtodiebackofthetreecrownand, transport withintheattackedtree.Repeated stems andbranches,impedingwaternutrient Tunneling girdlestree bythebeetlelarvae New York Cityin1996andChicago1998. glabripennis Beetle Asian Longhorned or logstouninfestedareas. taken toavoidtransportinginfestedfirewood spread rateofthedisease.Careshouldalsobe in whichbeechispresentwillreducetherisksand necessary. Increasingthediversityofforeststands control ofbeechrootsproutsis,therefore,often more beechbarkdiseaseinfestations.Herbicide wildlife, andeventuallyincreasesusceptibilityto densethickets,havelittlevalueto sprouts form root sprouting.Thisisundesirablebecausethe regeneratesbyprolific After itiscut,beechoften Resistant treesshouldbeidentifiedandretained. heavily infestedwithbeechscaleor bark isrough(Houston1997). probably becausethescalesprefertofeedwhere with smootherbarkappeartobemoreresistant, fewarecompletelyresistant.Treesand avery are partiallyresistanttobeechbarkdisease, as aresultofbeechbarkdisease.Sometrees large beechcomponentsmaychangedramatically habitat formanywildlifespeciesandareaswith importantsourceoffoodand Beech isavery beech barkdiseasebecomesestablishedarekilled. Most large-diameterbeechtreesinareaswhere 3to6yearsofscalefeeding. typically occursafter Although thescalefeedingaloneweakenstrees, The Asian longhorned beetle[ The Asianlonghorned The onlycontrolisremovalofthetreesmost (Motschulsky)]wasdiscoveredin Chilocorus stigma Chilocorus Nectria fungi.Thisinvasion Anoplophora (Say)]feeds Nectria fungi. ( the UnitedStates,beetleprefersmaplespecies pest inChinawhereitkillshardwoodtrees.In of dollars. had aneconomicimpactinthetensofmillions water andair. beetlehas TheAsianlonghorned habitat, aestheticvalue,andbenefitsforclean valued urbantreesthatprovidedshade,wildlife beetle’s spread.Mostofthetreeslostwerehighly beetle, orcutdownanddestroyedtostopthe trees inthetwocitieshavebeenkilledby live treeshavebeenfound.Since1996,>7,000 Norway ( Norway successful eradicationofthe beetle.Early to and rapidtreatmentresponse arecrucial wood fromthearea.Early detection ofinfestations transportation ofinfestedtrees, branches,and quarantines havebeenestablished toavoidthe To preventfurtherspreadoftheinsect, trees anddestroythembychippingorburning. beetleistoremoveinfested Asian longhorned the bodyandhaveblackwhitebands. a jetblackbody. Theantennae arelongerthan inches longandhavestrikingwhitemarksagainst eighths inchindiameter. Adult beetles are1to1.4 roundexit holethree- adults createaperfectly the woodwheretheyeventuallypupate.Emerging tunnelunderthe barkanddeepinto the larvae 30 to70eggs.Thesehatchin1015days,and single eggineach.Eachfemaleiscapableoflaying laying sitesinthebarkoftreeandplacea reproduce. Adult femaleschewovaltoroundegg- disperse shortdistancestoanewhostfeedand the treesfromwhichtheyemerge,butmay Adultstemperatures arewarm. typicallystayon can befoundearlierinspringorlaterfallif are usuallypresentfromMaytoOctober, but they cycle maytakeaslong2years.Adult beetles beetleperyear,longhorned althoughthelife forestecosystems. alter manyeastern irrevocably beetlemayhavethepotentialto Asian longhorned effects onnaturalforests.Itappears,however, that forests thusfar, itisdifficulttopredictitspotential because thebeetlehasbeenrestrictedtourban index.htm. Becausenotallhostsareknownand is availableathttp://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/alb/ Anupdatedlist States hasnotbeendetermined. maples. AcompletelistofhosttreesintheUnited Marsh.), andsycamore( silver ( Acer The Asian longhorned beetleisalsoaserious The Asianlonghorned Currently theonlyeffectivemeanstoeliminate Currently There isusuallyonegenerationofAsian spp.),includingboxelder( A. saccharinum A. platanoides L.),sugar( A. pseudoplatanus L.), red( A. negundo A. rubrum A. saccharum L.) L.), L.), detection is difficult, time consuming, and costly, mask eventual problems. This spread function also and to be effective, it must involve tree climbers explains why eradication is most possible during and surveyors in bucket trucks. Since 2000, the early lag phase. unattacked potential host trees have been injected Occupation and infestations by nonnative with the systemic insecticide imidacloprid as a pest plants decrease forest productivity, preventive treatment. Researchers are assessing threaten forest health and sustainability, and the biological control potential of a variety of the limit biodiversity and wildlife habitat in the beetles’ natural enemies in Asia. Southeast (Wear and Greis 2002). Alterations to ecosystem structure, functions, and processes INVASIVE NONNATIVE FOREST PLANTS are occurring, but study of these effects has illions of acres of forest land in the Southeast just begun (Ehrenfeld and others 2001). Some are being increasingly occupied by nonnative invasives, such as cogongrass [Imperata M invasive plants, which are also termed exotic cylindrica (L.) Beauv.], can alter natural fire weeds. Their range, infestations, and damage are regimes and increase risk of wildfire occurrence 143 continually expanding. All Federal parks and and damage (Lippincott 2000). Nonnative plant forest lands in the Southeast have nonnative “biological pollution” is one of the greatest threats infestations (Hamel and Shade 1985, Hester 1991). to biodiversity across the southern landscape, The actual infested acreage, spread rates, and attacking our highly valued nature preserves and damage estimates are still unknown, although this recreational lands. Adjoining croplands, home information is essential for planning containment sites, pastures, and wetlands contain invasive plant 14. Chapter and eradication strategies and programs (U.S. species that will eventually affect forests. These Congress Office of Technology Assessment 1993). nonnative invaders (often called nonindigenous, The Forest Service and State partners have alien, or noxious weeds) include trees, shrubs, initiated a cooperative survey of 42 invasive vines, grasses, and forbs. In all there are about nonnative plants within the region and another 70 infestation-forming, terrestrial plant species 20 species in Florida; however, it will take invading forests and their edges in the temperate several years to collect initial data (for a list, parts of the Southeast. Thirty of these are see “Nonnative Invasive Plants of Southern discussed briefly here to provide a general Forests” at http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/fia/manual/ sense of identifying characteristics, common Nonnative_Invasive_Plants_of_Southern_Forests.pdf). pathways of introduction, mechanisms of Nonnative Forest Pests in the South Pests Forest Nonnative Invasive plants are able to outcompete native invasiveness, ecosystem effects, and range species. They reproduce rapidly because of the of current occupation. Not discussed here are absence of predators from their native ecosystems, the approximately 70 tropical and subtropical and eventually form dense infestations that nonnative species currently invading exclude most other plants, except certain other south Florida. nonnatives (Randall and Marinelli 1996). Other reasons for their invasiveness are that they are naturally robust plants or have been made so through plant breeding efforts; that most are Maximum perennials with tough roots or rhizomes; that occupation many are still being sold as ornamentals and some are widely planted for wildlife use and soil stabilization; that most produce abundant seeds or spores that are spread widely by birds, Exponential wind, and water; and that their seeds or tubers spread phase persist in the soil (Randall and Marinelli 1996). It remains unclear what percentage of nonnative plants arriving in the Southeastern United States become invasive. One problem in determining this Lag phase is the nature of invasive plant spread, which can be characterized by a short-to-lengthy lag phase preceding an exponential spread phase (fig. 14.2). Figure14.2—Logistic spread model for invasive nonnative plants. In many species, e.g., kudzu, tallowtree, wisterias, etc., the lag phase can be very protracted and can Southern Forest Science: 144 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health valued woodfor exporttoJapan.Ithaslarge plantations forspeculative production ofhigh- andinscattered It isgrownasanornamental was introducedfromEastAsia intheearly1800s. tomentosa and Georgia. and ismostabundantinMississippi,Alabama, common alongroadsidesthroughouttheSoutheast root sprouting.Itisbecomingincreasingly by andreplacesnativeshrubs forest midstory Partially shadetolerant,mimosa invadesthe disturbance,especiallyintopineplantations. after and areencroachingintoadjoiningforestedareas rights-of-way, fencerows,andriparianzones, many years.Infestationsarespreadingalong and seeds remainviablefor along waterways, seedpods float,whichaidsinlong-distancespread dangling seedpodsthatpersistintowinter. The spring andsummerblossoms,yieldingabundant leaves, smoothlightbrownbark,andshowypink It hasfeathery, pinnatelycompound,deciduous 1745. Itisaleguminoustree,30to50feettall. fromAsiain was introducedasanornamental and Tennessee. and ismostabundantinKentucky, Virginia, vegetation. ItoccursthroughouttheSoutheast densethicketsthatdisplacenative forming often disturbanceandincreasesbyrootsprouts, after intolerant, andallelopathic.Ailanthusestablishes female trees.Itisshadeintolerant,flood dioecious speciesandspreadsbyseedsfrom parts oftheplanthaveastrongodor. Itisa flowers inearlysummer. Flowersandother clustersofgreenish gray bark,andlargeterminal long, pinnatelycompoundleaves,slightlyfissured value, ailanthusgrowsupto80feettallwith (Miller 1990).Ashort-livedspecieswithnotimber China Europe, althoughitoriginatesinEastern in1784from North Americaasanornamental altissima increase byabundantrootsprouting. and animaldispersal,whileexistinginfestations Most spreadwidelybyprolificseedproduction densestands. scattered trees,whileothersform trees arehardwoods.Somepresentlyoccuras processes. Almostalloftheinvasive alters habitatandmayalterimportantnatural by replacingnativeplants.Thisdramatically of forests,rights-of-way, andnaturalareas Invasive Princesstree orpaulownia[ Silktree ormimosa( Tree-of-heaven orailanthus[ Nonna tive treespecieshindermanagement (P Nonna (Thunb.)Sieb.&Zucc.exSteud.] . Mill.)Swingle]wasintroducedto tive Trees Albizia julibrissin Paulownia Ailanthus nonna Durazz.) tive reproduction and understory plantsin wetland reproduction and understory tallowtree replaces bottomlandhardwood dense stands,andbecauseit toleratesflooding, beekeeping andlimitedpulpwood use.Itforms valueasahoneyplantfor and ithascurrent seeds weretraditionallyused tomakecandles, in fullsun(JonesandMcLeod 1990).Itswaxy seedlings areshadetolerantandyetgrowrapidly invading treespeciesintheregion.Tallowtree and plantedisthoughttobethemostrapidly from 1920to1940.Tallowtree isstillbeingsold Agriculture encourageditsuseasaseedoilcrop in theearly1900s,andU.S.Departmentof It wasintroducedfromChinatotheU.S.gulfcoast andothers1997). monospecific stands(Bruce Tallowtree isaprolificrootsprouterandforms abundant seedsarespreadbybirdsandonwater. remain attachedtothetreeinfallandwinter. The and bundlesofwhite,waxy, seedsthat popcornlike scarlet inthefall,longdroopingflowersspring, It haslightgreenheart-shapedleavesthatturn is ashade-toleranttreethatgrowsto50feettall. (L.) Small,formerly Alabama, andGeorgia. abundant inArkansas,Louisiana,Mississippi, is commonthroughouttheSoutheastandmost potential useasnaturalpesticides.Chinaberry are poisonoustohumansandlivestockbuthave of pineplantationsinpartstheSouth.Thefruit shade tolerant,itisincreasinginthemidstory that hasbeendisturbed.Becauseitissomewhat sprouting alongrights-of-way toadjoiningland spread bymeansofabundantseedingandroot thatpersistduringwinter.yellow fruit Infestations blue flowersinspring.Theyieldround compound darkgreenleavesandproducespale which disperseitsseeds.Ithaslacy, bipinnately grows toabout50feettallandisspreadbybirds, is commonlyfoundaroundoldhomesites.It Asian introduction.Thistraditionalornamental abundant incentralTennessee andVirginia. throughout theSoutheastandispresentlymost obscures scenicvistasalongroadsides.Itoccurs to 60feettall.Becauseitsproutsrapidly, itoften disturbance.Thisdeciduoustreegrows after the overstory. Itisshadeintolerantandinvades reach including youngtreesthatmightotherwise and rootsprouts,replacingnativevegetation, seeds. Paulownia reproducesbyabundantseeds capsules, eachfilledwiththousandsoftinywinged flowers thatyieldclustersofpecan-shaped and inearlyspringproducesshowypaleviolet heart-shaped leaveswithfuzzyhairsonbothsides, Tallowtree tree[ orpopcorn ( Chinaberrytree Melia azedarach Sapium sebiferum Sapium sebiferum Triadica sebifera L.)isanother (L.) Roxb.] forests throughout the Coastal Plain (Jones and pastures but are now extending into forest edges Sharitz 1989). It is also spreading into upland and interior forests, including wetlands. The forests from widespread ornamental plantings. species occurs throughout the Southern and It occurs in all the Southern States except Eastern United States. Oklahoma, Kentucky, and Virginia, and there Bush honeysuckles—Amur honeysuckle are severe infestations in coastal areas of Texas, [Lonicera maackii (Rupr.) Herder], Morrow’s Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama. honeysuckle (L. morrowii Gray), tatarian Invasive Nonnative Shrubs honeysuckle (L. tatarica L.), and sweet breath Invasive nonnative shrubs often occur with of spring (L. fragrantissima Lindl. and Paxton)— invasive tree species and present similar problems. are generally deciduous multistemmed shrubs 6 to Herbicide control options are similar to those for 16 feet tall with arching branches. The leaves are trees, but foliar sprays are often more effectively distinctly opposite, usually oval to oblong in shape, used against shrubs than against trees. All of the and range in length from 1 to 3 inches. Fragrant, most common invasive shrubs are abundant seed tubular flowers occur in pairs from May to June 145 producers, and their fruits are often consumed and are creamy white in most species, but turn and spread by birds. yellow or pink to crimson in varieties of tatarian honeysuckle. Red-to-orange berries in pairs are Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense Lour.) and abundant on plants in fall to winter, and seeds European privet (L. vulgare L.) are shade-tolerant are long lived in the soil. All were introduced tall shrubs or small trees growing to about 30 feet from Asia in the 1700s and 1800s as ornamentals 14. Chapter in height. These common southern ornamental and wildlife plants. They are widely invading and shrubs were introduced from China and Europe forming exclusive understory layers in lowland in the early to mid-1800s and have already become and upland forests, replacing most native plants some of the most severely invasive species. They and preventing regeneration of native trees. Most form dense stands in the understory of bottomland alarming is the increased occupation of wetlands. hardwood forests and exclude most native plants These invasive species occur everywhere in the and replacement reproduction. These privets Southeast except Louisiana and Florida and are are also increasing in upland forests, fencerows, most abundant in Kentucky and Virginia. rights-of-way, and special habitats throughout the region. They drastically alter habitat and critical Autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb.) wetland processes. Both species have leafy is a deciduous, bushy shrub growing to 20 feet in the South Pests Forest Nonnative stems with opposite leaves < 1 inch long. Chinese tall. It has alternate leaves that are dark green privet is semievergreen, and European privet is above and silvery beneath. It produces abundant deciduous, but the two species are nearly identical spherical red berries with silvery scales in the fall. in all other respects. Both have showy clusters of Introduced from China and Japan, and still widely small white flowers in spring that yield drooping planted for wildlife habitat, reclamation of strip clusters of small, spherical, dark purple berries mines, and shelterbelts, autumn olive is being during fall and winter. Birds spread seed very spread rapidly and widely by birds and other effectively, but privet stands also increase in animals. It is becoming a scattered understory density by stem and root sprouts. Both species shrub in open forests throughout the Southeast, occur throughout the Southeast. to the detriment of native trees and shrubs. Multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora Thunb. ex Silverthorn or thorny olive (E. pungens Thunb.) Murr.) is an erect-to-arching shrubby rose growing is a popular ornamental evergreen bushy shrub to about 10 feet tall and taller when it climbs into with long limber shoots projecting to 20 feet when trees. The recurved thorny stems have pinnately supported by tree limbs. It has alternate leaves, compound leaves with 3 to 7 leaflets. White rose which in spring are silver and scaly on both flowers are produced in many clusters in spring, top and bottom and which by midsummer have and red rose hips, which are spread by birds, become dark green above and silvery beneath. appear in fall to winter. Sprouts and runners Thorns are widely scattered on its branches and that root consolidate and expand infestations. are subtended by brown-scaled red fruit that The species was introduced from Japan and Korea appear in spring. The fruit are consumed and in the 1860s as an ornamental. Later, Government widely dispersed by wildlife, which results in programs encouraged its planting for use as living scattered infestations. This widely planted fences for livestock containment and as wildlife ornamental shrub was introduced from China habitat. Infestations have been confined to and Japan. A shade-tolerant species, it replaces Southern Forest Science: 146 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health and often form mixedinfestationswith form and often Many ofthesevinesovertopevenmatureforests difficult, especiallytheapplicationofherbicide. the densestinfestations,makingcontrolefforts form troublesome invadersbecausetheyoften Invasive Georgia, NorthCarolina,andSouthCarolina. Oklahoma, Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, regeneration. Thisproblemisspreadingin native plantsandeventuallystoptree densestandsthatexclude prairies. Itforms increasingly invadingforests,pastures,and andspreadseedwidely.to thefruit pairs inleafaxils.Birdsandanimalsareattracted appearasstemmed bright red,whileorangefruit Infall,theleavesturn planted asanornamental. from NortheastAsiainthe1860s,itisstillwidely along stemswithfourcorkywings.Introduced upto12feettallwithoppositeleaves bushy shrub (Thunb.) Sieb.]isashade-tolerant,deciduous, to 1950. It forms denseinfestations thatexclude to 1950.Itforms programsfrom1920 in Government-sponsored planted extensivelyforerosion controlandforage fromJapanin1876,kudzuwas as anornamental animal- andwater-dispersed seeds.Introduced It isspreadbyvinesrootingatnodesand leguminous vinewithlobedtrifoliateleaves. formerly trees andshrubs. States exceptTexas, Oklahoma,andArkansas. tree regeneration.ItoccursinallSoutheastern vegetationandpreventsnatural native understory as wellbybird-dispersedfruits. widely ramblingvinesthatrootatnodes, throughout theSoutheastandisspreadby sustains deerherdsduringwinter. Itoccurs planted andculturedinwildlifefoodplots and hassomevalueforerosioncontrol.Itisalso Japanese honeysuckleissoldasanornamental vines, andaltershabitatecosystemprocesses. in lowlandanduplandforests,replacesnative nonna in 1806,itisthemostwidespreadandinvasive infallandwinter.berries IntroducedfromJapan to yellowflowersinearlysummeryieldblackish with semievergreen,oppositeleaves.Paired white shade-tolerant, climbingandtrailingwoodyvine the mostprevalentinvasive Nonna Japanese honeysuckle( Winged bush[ burning Kudzu [ tive plantspecies.Itoccupiesmultiplestrata tive vinesareamongthemost P. lobata Nonna Pueraria montana tive Vines (Willd.) Ohwi]isawoody Euonymus alata L. japonica nonna (Lour.) Merr., tive vine,isa E. alata Thunb.), nonna is tive the Appalachians. Coastal PlainandChineseyam morecommonin Gulf mostlyinthesouthern with airyamoccurring distribution isscatteredthroughout theSoutheast, exclusiveinfestations. Their toform understory downslope. Thevinesexpandthroughoutthe newplantsastheyscatter prolific bulbilsform these vinescolonizepersistentlybecausethe by unsuspectinggardeners.Onceestablished, spread ormedicinaluseandareoften ornamental sources inthe1800s,butarenowculturedfor Africa. Bothwereintroducedaspossiblefood Chinese yamisfromAsia,andair infestationsthat cover trees. nor dotheyform Dioscorea cover smalltreesinonegrowingseason.Native vines aredeciduous,theygrowrapidlyandcan newplants.Althoughthe tubers dropandform (bulbils) atleafaxilsinmid-to-latesummer. These shaped leavesandsmalldangling,yamliketubers Dcne.) aretwiningandsprawlingvineswithheart- yam ( extensiveinfestations. form clustersand doesnot onlyinterminal fruit bittersweet ( Texas, Louisiana,orMississippi.American the NortheastandisnotyetfoundinOklahoma, decreasing plantdiversity. Itisinvadingfrom expandingthickets,and forests, forming and alongforestedges,spreadingintointerior Oriental bittersweetcolonizesdisturbedforests decorations contributetospreadwhendiscarded. are usedashomedecorationsinwinter, andthese introduced fromAsiain1736.Theshowyberries widely spreadbybirds.Orientalbittersweetwas are during winteratmostleafaxils.Thefruits appearinfallandremain Clusters ofscarletfruit along awoodyvinewithdroopingbranches. leaves 2to3inchesbroadandlong,alternating invasive vinewithelliptictoroundeddeciduous orbiculatus (Britton andothers2002). initiated abiocontrolprogramforkudzu material forfolkart.TheForest has Service iconandprovidessomeraw popular southern of spreadareanticipated.Kudzu hasbecomea seedpods. Hydrologicimpactsfromthismode along riversandstreamsbymeansoffloating Kudzu isincreasinglyinvadingriparianhabitat changing habitatonmillionsofacresland. native plants,haltingforestproductivityand Air yam( Oriental orAsianbittersweet( D. oppositifolia speciesdonotproduce“airpotatoes,” Thunb.)isanattractivebutvery Dioscorea bulbifera C. scandens L., formerly L.,formerly L.)hasflowersand L.)andChinese Celastrus D. batatas Wintercreeper or climbing euonymus Nonnative Invasive Grasses [Euonymus fortunei (Turcz.) Hand.-Maz.] is a Nonnative grasses spread along highway rights- trailing, climbing, or shrubby evergreen plant of-way and then into adjoining forest lands. Most with opposite, thick, dark green or green-white nonnative grasses are highly flammable and variegated leaves. It is shade tolerant, spreads to increase fire intensity. Intense fires tend to kill form a dense ground cover, and climbs by aerial plants with which the grasses occur and thus roots. Abundant reddish-hulled orange fruit facilitate the spread of the grasses after wildfire appear in fall and are widely spread by birds. or prescribed burns. Wildland firefighters and Introduced from Asia as an ornamental ground forest home sites are subjected to increased risks cover and still widely planted, E. fortunei where nonnative grasses form heavy infestations. continues to form dense exclusive infestations Repeated applications of herbicides are required that decrease diversity, hinder access, and alter for control. habitat. It occurs in Kentucky, Virginia, Tennessee, Cogongrass [Imperata cylindrica (L.) Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, 147 and South Carolina. Beauv.] is a dense, erect perennial grass. Its wide yellowish green leaves have off-center Japanese climbing fern [Lygodium japonicum midveins and finely sawtoothed margins. It was (Thunb. Ex Murr.) Sw.] is a viney deciduous fern introduced from Southeast Asia in the early 1900s, with lacy, finely divided leaves and green-to- first accidentally and then intentionally for soil orange-to-black wiry stems that climb and twine stabilization and use as forage. It has been rated over shrubs and trees. Native to Asia and tropical as the world’s seventh worst weed (Holm and 14. Chapter Australia, it was introduced to North America others 1979). It spreads by windblown seeds in from Japan as an ornamental and is often spread early summer and by rhizome movement in by unsuspecting gardeners. It is one of three fill dirt along highways, often yielding circular species of climbing ferns in the Southeast. infestations. This grass is highly flammable. The American climbing fern [L. palmatum It is mostly shade tolerant. Dense infestations (Bernh.) Sw.] and Old World climbing fern [L. increasingly occupy forest openings, open forests, microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br.], another nonnative and rights-of-way in the Southern Gulf Coast which grows in Florida, have once-divided leaves. States and eventually exclude most native plants. All are perennial plants that grow from creeping Forest regeneration is hampered and habitat rhizomes and are spread by wind-dispersed destroyed. This process is hastened by burning in the South Pests Forest Nonnative spores. Dispersal of spores from nonnative species (Lippincott 2000). Cogongrass is spreading results in rapid spread and widely scattered dense northward from the Gulf Coast States and had infestations that cover native herbs, shrubs, and not reached North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, eventually trees. L. japonicum is invading from Kentucky, Arkansas, or Oklahoma as of 2001. the South to the North and has yet to arrive in Oklahoma, Tennessee, or Kentucky. Nepalese browntop [Microstegium vimineum (Trin.) A. Camus] is an annual grass. Stems are Chinese wisteria [Wisteria sinensis (Sims) DC.] from 1 to 3 feet long with alternate, lanceolate and Japanese wisteria [W. floribunda (Willd.) DC.] leaves to 4 inches long. It forms dense mats and are woody, leguminous vines with long pinnately consolidates occupation and spreads by prolific compound leaves and showy spring flowers. seed production in late summer. Seed remain They spread by adventitious rooting and are less viable for 1 to 5 years. This shade-tolerant commonly dispersed by seeds. These traditional weed is native to temperate and tropical Asia southern porch vines were introduced from Asia and was first collected near Knoxville, TN, in in the early 1800s. They usually spread slowly, 1919. It increasingly occupies creek banks, flood although more rapidly near rivers and streams. plains, forest roadsides and trails, damp fields, They form dense infestations mainly around old and swamps. It spreads into adjoining forests, home sites, often in mixtures with other nonnative where it forms exclusive infestations and displaces plants. Both hinder reforestation and commonly most, if not all, native understory plants. It occurs occur as scattered patches throughout the throughout the Southeast except in Oklahoma. Southeast. The native or naturalized American wisteria [W. frutescens (L.) Poir.] does not Chinese silvergrass (Miscanthus sinensis form dense infestations. Anderss.) is a densely clumped perennial grass with upright to arching long, slender leaves with whitish upper midveins. It can grow to a height of 5 to 10 feet. Silvery to pinkish loose plumes appear Southern Forest Science: 148 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health Native to Eastern Asia, Native toEastern in fall.Viability oftheseedisunpredictable. native plants throughout theSoutheast. forests,replacing invadesurrounding often They arestillplantedforquail food,andplants extensively forwildlifefood andsoilstabilization. poorly understood.Theyhave beenplanted seeded legumes,butdispersal mechanismsare summer. Bothspeciesproduceabundantsingle- tinycream-coloredflowersduring stems. Itforms three-leaflet leavesfeatheredalongerect,whitish semiwoody plantupto3feettallwithmanysmall, flowers withwhitecenters.Chineselespedezaisa leaflets andproducessmallpurple-pinkpeatype legume thatgrowsupto10feettall.Ithasthree lespedezaisashade-tolerantbushy Shrubby Cours.) G.Don]werebothintroducedfromJapan. Turcz.) andChineselespedeza[ Louisiana, orTexas. inFlorida,Alabama,Mississippi, has yettoarrive Garlic mustardisinvadingfromtheNortheastand University(Blosseyandothers2001). at Cornell conditions. Abiocontrolprogramhasbeenstarted occurs onlyinspringunderfavorable Germination soil for2to6years,buildinglargeseedbanks. inthe produces prolificseedthatcanliedormant plants anddrasticallyalteringhabitat.Thisspecies mustard isdisplacingnativeforestunderstory medicinal herbfromEuropeinthe1800s,garlic has fourwhitepetals.Introducedoriginallyasa clusters,andeachflower interminal flowers form shapedwithwavymargins.The arrow-point grow, becoming2to4feettall.Leavesarebroadly winter. Inthesecondyear, stemsemergeand basal rosetteofleavesthatremaingreenduring canopies. Inthefirstyear, theplantappearsasa grows insmall-to-extensivecoloniesunderforest herb; allpartsoftheplanthaveagarlicodor. It Cavara &Grande]isanaptlynamedbiennial or pulledbyhand. usually treatedwithfoliarherbicidesprays aresemiwoody.while subshrubs Theyare Invasive NonnativeForbs andSubshrubs vegetation andalteringhabitat. disturbed uplandforests,excludingnative dense infestationsalongrights-of-way andin itishighlyflammable.Itforms as anornamental, Oklahoma, andTexas. Stillwidelysoldandplanted older fertileplantsinallStatesexceptArkansas, using sterilecultivars.Itisspreadingfrom planted inallStatesforlandscaping,recently Shrubby lespedeza Shrubby Garlic mustard[ Forbs arebroadleafherbaceousplants, Alliaria petiolata (Lespedeza M. sinensis L .

cuneata bicolor hasbeen (Bieb.) (Dum.- plants andminimize impactstonativeplants applications can specificallytargetnonnative Carefully plannedandexecuted herbicide seed bankinplacetoreestablish nativeplants. minimize soildisturbanceand leavethesoil other treatments.Herbicide treatmentsalso easily andeffectivelyapplied followingthese invasive woodyplantsareencountered. programs whenmultispeciesinfestationsof disturbing techniquescanstartreclamation with nativeplants.Nonetheless,thesesoil- and possibleerosionifitisnotrapidlystabilized plants, butleavesoilbareforprobablereinvasion can cutanddislodgewoodyrhizomatous rhizomes. Tree shears,rootrakes,andharrows aboveground plantparts,whileleavingrootsand cuttersremove Mowers, chainsaws,andbrush and asarapidmeansoffirst-sightelimination. such asrecreationaltrailsornaturepreserves, but effectiveapplicationinspecialhabitats, are small.Thusmanualtreatmenthaslimited is practicalonlywhereplantsandinfestations laborintensiveand pulling plants.Thisisvery or Manual treatmentusuallyinvolvesgrubbing height butsuppressingtheplantsonlytemporarily. only theabovegroundplantparts,reducingtheir and mechanicalcuttingtreatmentsusuallycontrol and mechanicalormanualremoval.Fire, grazing, usually involveherbicides,prescribedfire,grazing, be identified. that minimizeimpactsonnontargetorganisms and developmentcaneffectivebiocontrolagents 1996). Onlythroughcarefulandpreciseresearch years todevelopthem(SimberloffandStilling to identifysuchagentsareunderway, itwilltake are largelyunavailablenow, andalthoughprojects organized onaregionalbasis.Biocontrolagents measures andbiocontrolprogramsarebest (6) mechanicalandmanualremoval.Preventive (4) prescribedfire;(5)livestockovergrazing;and predators anddiseases;(3)herbicidetechnology; and embargoes;(2)biocontrolbymeansofnatural controls suchasquarantines,borderinspections, may include(1)preventivemeasures,i.e.,legal incorporate alleffectivecontrolmethods,which Plant Council1996).Integratedprograms approach (Miller2003,Tennessee ExoticPest requires anintegratedvegetationmanagement to combatandcontaininvasivenonnativeplants treatment ofinitialinvaders.Anysuccessfuleffort for controlisearlydetectionandeffective Invasive PlantControl Herbicide treatments often canbemore Herbicide treatmentsoften treatmentoptions forspecificareas Current The mosteffectiveandefficientstrategy (Miller 2003) (http://www.invasive.org/weeds.cfm It is helpful to examine opportunities to and http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/gtr/ prevent intentional and unintentional introductions gtr_srs062). Well-developed applicator-directed separately. Most invasive nonnative plants have techniques for selective control of nonnative been imported intentionally, in ignorance of their trees and shrubs are tree injection and girdle potential invasiveness. Yet, plant exploration and treatments, basal sprays and wipes, cut-stem international seed exchange continues. Present applications, and foliar-directed sprays (U.S. regulations only examine incoming plant material Department of Agriculture, Forest Service 1994). for the presence of insect pests and pathogens or Directed treatments of nonnative vines and forbs contamination with listed noxious weed seed. A usually involve foliar sprays applied with backpack system to test invasiveness of plant introductions sprayers. For treating extensive inaccessible was developed in Australia in the 1990s and has infestations, broadcast applications of sprays and been helpful in addressing the problem (Mack pellets using helicopter and tractor-mounted and others 2000). Several such systems have systems may be required. Yet even in broadcast been proposed (Reichard 2001). 149 treatments, the use of carefully timed selective Prevention of spread also requires examining herbicides can safeguard native plants. If the the Internet sales of nonnative plants and animals. treatment is to be safe and effective, herbicide This remote means of mail order shipments of applicators must read, understand, and follow the nonnative organisms will only increase the global herbicide label and its prohibitions before and problem. Retail sales within the United States during use. Continued surveillance and followup of even federally listed noxious weeds like 14. Chapter treatments are often required to control nonnative I. cylindrica persist with unproven sterility plant infestations. of cultivars being sold. Only a rapid phasing out Site Rehabilitation after Nonnative of the sale of known invasive nonnative plants will Plant Control halt the spread through commercial networks. The rehabilitation phase is the most essential Unintentional introductions require a different final part of an eradication and reclamation approach. Inspection processes developed for program. Fast-growing native plants that will agricultural products have inherent weaknesses outcompete any surviving nonnative plants must in preventing the importation of forest pests. be planted or released. Native plant seeds and International trade agreements specify that seedlings are becoming increasingly available import regulations will only address pests known in the South Pests Forest Nonnative (http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/). If the to be present on the commodity in the exporting soil seed bank remains intact, native plant country, and for which a risk assessment has been communities may naturally reclaim many areas performed. Provisional regulations can be adopted after nonnative plants are controlled. Constant when insufficient data about the pest exist, but surveillance, treatment of new unwanted the risk assessment process must be initiated. arrivals, and rehabilitation of current infestations The mitigation measures must be those that are the necessary steps in managing nonnative protect our resources with the minimum plant invasions. disruption of trade. Crop plants are similar the world over, and it is generally known which pests CONCLUSIONS pose problems. When pests of natural ecosystems e have learned much that can help us are considered, the major difficulty is in knowing control invasive nonnatives in the future. which ones might prove invasive. W An important point is that the cost of controlling nonnative invasives increases greatly Biological and ecological characteristics of the the longer control measures are deferred. This pests themselves may render them particularly suggests that the best approach might be to find effective as nonnative invasives. Among these ways to improve our ability to prevent invasions or high-risk characteristics are a cryptic nature, to control invasions before they become crises. which helps them avoid early detection, and extended diapause or dormant periods, which Prevention help them survive transit and quarantine. Other The entry and spread of invasive organisms characteristics can also increase the probability could be stopped by effective legal and policy of pest establishment. Asexual reproduction, barriers. Such barriers could range from Federal, for example, reduces the minimum population State, and county laws that prohibit importation size needed to establish the pest in a new land. to sanitation of equipment and vehicles before The presence of related hosts, usually at least they leave infested zones. Southern Forest Science: 150 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health of entry mayseemexorbitanttoday becausethis of entry The expenseofinstallingsuch systemsatallports be adaptedforimplementation onabroadscale. of upto30,000organismsin 15minutes,needto whichcantestforthepresence time microarrays, Advances inmolecular technology, suchasreal- system. thepresentregulatory has overwhelmed trade risk, asthesheervolumeofinternational Improved detectiontechnologyisneededtoreduce organisms. unintentionally introducedharmful Detection andMonitoring and pest-by-pestbasis. to developregulationsonacountry-by-country might proveabetterinvestmentthancontinuing standard treatmentsformajorimportpathways environmentally friendlyandeconomicallyfeasible pathways forforestpests.Studiestodevelop it maybemoreappropriatetointroduction approach, butforallthereasonsgivenabove, prior toimportation.Thisisamoreconservative of particulararticlestoprovetheyaresafe, keep itout,”orcleanlistapproach,requiresstudy indoubt, In contrast,theinversepolicyof“when to provethattheyposeanunacceptablerisk. approach; itrequiresstudyofparticulararticles guilty.” Thishasalsobeencalledthedirtylist that importedarticlesare“innocentuntilproven of articleslikelytocontainforestpests. approach maybeneededtoregulateimportation described todate(Campbell2001).Adifferent inhabit forestecosystemshaveevenbeen percentage oftheinsectsandmicrobesthat borders.However,international onlyasmall possibly besharedmoreeffectivelyacross the biologyanddistributionofknownpestscould about any introducedforestpest.Information outbyhistoricalexperiencewith not beenborne to study, assessasrisks,andquarantinehas know orshouldinadvancewhichpests adaptability tonovelconditions. the availabilityofsuitablehabitats,andhigh to beaneffectivepredatorinthenewecosystem, an abilitytoswitchanewhost, invasiveness includealackofnaturalenemies, and others(2000)ascontributingtopest likely. Additional factorssuggestedbyPimentel stock orseed,makesestablishmentmuchmore in associationwithhostmaterial,suchasnursery the riskthatapestwillbesuccessful.Importation in thesamegenusasoriginalhost,increases Detecting early entry isamaindefenseagainst Detecting earlyentry The presentpolicyoftheUnitedStatesis Unfortunately, thesuppositionthatwewill 1994), highlightstheurgency offurtherresearch. and nativepathogensmeet (Spiers andHopcroft occur whennonnativepathogens ornonnative thatinterspecifichybridizationcan discovery has beenappliedand toolate.Therecent organisms showsclearlythat inadequateresearch Research the process. processes, suchasplantsuccession,tocomplete invasive organismsandleaveittonatural plant componentsthatareresistanttononnative present, itappearsfeasibleonlytoestablish and becausetheecosystemlacksresiliency. At of theresidualinfluencepestinfestation affected ecosystemtoitspriorconditionbecause reinvaded. Itmaybeimpossibletorestorean made moreresistant,theywillprobablybe Restoration human hazards,andeconomicloss. managed tominimizeecologicaldegradation, are usedtochoosewhichinfestationsshouldbe eradicated, thencost:benefitorsimilaranalyses organisms cannotbecompletelycontrolledor control, andbiologicalcontrol.Wheninvasive applications, sanitation,physicalandmechanical methods includeculturalmethods,pesticide eradication acrosslandownerships.Control developedtopromoteprompt Inspection Service of Agriculture,AnimalandPlantHealth interagency weedteamconceptU.S.Department could beuseful.Anexampleofthisisthe activities. Sometimesinteragencycooperation defend theirpropertiesthroughowncontrol States. At present,individuallandownersmust efforts canprotectadjoiningforests,counties,and containment; i.e.,tostopthespread.Containment control effortsshouldbeanattempttoprovide If eradicationeffortsproveineffective,thenext eradicate invasivepestsinspecificcircumstances. Control, Containment,orManagement control measures. located andforjudgingtheeffectivenessof targeting effortswheretheorganismsare control andcontainmentprograms,bothfor known pests.Monitoringisthebasisforeffective Again, suchtechnologyisonlyeffectiveagainst maybecomeeconomicallyfeasible. interface more widelyused,itsapplicationtothiscritical technology isnew. Butasthistechnologybecomes The current situationwithnonnativeinvasive The current Unless affectedforestecosystemscanbe Early detectioncanmakeitpossibleto Sometimes such interactions can result in new ACKNOWLEDGMENTS host ranges (Brasier and others 1999, Newcomb he authors gratefully acknowledge the and others 2000) or increased aggressiveness editorial reviews provided by Johnny (Brasier 2001). Only through research and T Randall, Steve Oak, and Bill McDonald. technology development for each of the key We also appreciate the assistance of Erwin elements of IPM and successful implementation Chambliss and Sherry Trickel, who helped of proven strategies may current invasions be prepare the manuscript. halted and future invasions be prevented. Because our resources are limited, and the supply of RELEVANT WEB SITES invasive pests is virtually unlimited, landscape- Asian Longhorned Beetle level analyses should be used to learn which ecosystems are most at risk and to prioritize ttp://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/alb/index.htm control efforts. Also, methods for screening plant http://www.aphis.usda.gov/lpa/issues/alb/ introductions must be developed (Committee on h 151 the Scientific Basis for Predicting the Invasive alb.htm Potential of Nonindigenous Plants and Plant http://www.uvm.edu/albeetle/ Pests in the United States 2002). Balsam Woolly Adelgid Education and Extension http://fhpr8.srs.fs.fed.us/idotis/insects/bwa.html Informed individuals are needed to combat http://www.ext.vt.edu/departments/entomology/ Chapter 14. Chapter the invasive nonnative problem. Much of the factsheets/balwoade.html problem from invasive organisms is perpetuated http://fhpr8.srs.fs.fed.us/hosf/bwa.htm and exacerbated by an unaware and poorly informed populace. Our Federal Government was Beech Bark Disease designed to react slowly to broad swells of concern raised by the constituency to the attention of its http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/fidls/beechbark/ leaders. Managers can only react when they fidl-beech.htm perceive the threat and have the resources, and http://www.invasive.org/symposium/houston.html the citizen consumer will stop spreading nonnative organisms when they are made aware of the Chestnut Blight dangers. Public education programs might be in the South Pests Forest Nonnative www.ppws.vt.edu/griffin/accf.html more successful if we inform the traveling public, in advance of their foreign travel, of the threat to http://www.apsnet.org/online/feature/chestnut our natural resources from smuggling forbidden http://www.forestpests.org/southern/Diseases/ products. Once they have made their purchases chsntblt.htm and packed them away in their suitcases, the option to ignore this issue is much more tempting. http://www.forestpests.org/southern/ Similarly, a proactive “plant natives” http://www.srs.fs.fed.us/pubs/rpc/1999-03/ program (http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov) rpc_99mar_33.htm might be easier to promote than the negative message “Don’t buy nonnative pest plants.” Dogwood Anthracnose Beneficial characteristics of native plants, such as http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/howtos/ better adaptation to local climate, less irrigation ht_dogwd/ht_dog.htm requirements, and the joys of restoring natural http://fhpr8.srs.fs.fed.us/pubs.html ecosystems in your own backyard should be stressed in homeowner education programs. Dutch Elm Disease In fact, many Government land management agencies could set a good example by making http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/howtos/ht_ded/ improvements in their own landscape designs ht_ded.htm in this regard. The problem of fighting invasive http://www.fs.fed.us/na/morgantown/fhp/palerts/ nonnative pests seems overwhelming, but the ded/elm.htm war must be won one battle at a time. http://www.ext.nodak.edu/extnews/askext/treeshr/ 1423.htm Southern Forest Science: 152 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health http://www.plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/ Sources ofNativePlantsforReclamation http://www.ento.vt.edu/~sharov/hwa/ hwasite.html http://www.fs.fed.us/na/morgantown/fhp/hwa/ Hemlock Woolly Adelgid http://www.fs.fed.us/ne/morgantown/4557/gmoth/ index.html http://www.gypsymoth.ento.vt.edu/vagm/ Web site) http://www.gmsts.org/operations (Slow-the-Spread http://na.fs.fed.us/wv/gmdigest/ Gypsy Moth (Global InvasiveSpeciesDatabase) http://www.issg.org/database/welcome/ General Web Site nonnative species) http://www.invasive.org (photosofinvasive http://www.invasivespecies.gov/ Agricultural Pest SystemWeb Information site) http://www.ceris.purdue.edu/napis/ health images) http://www.forestryimages.org/ http://spfnic.fs.fed.us/exfor/ http://www.pestalert.org/ General NonnativeForest SpeciesInformation Control Handbook) Weed(The NatureConservancy’s Methods http://tncweeds.ucdavis.edu/handbook.html sites relatedtoinvasiveplants) Web Service’s (Natural ResourcesConservation http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/invasive.html (Federal NoxiousWeed Program) http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ppq/weeds/ http://www.se-eppc.org/ Nonnative Plants

(for forest

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EcologicalApplications.8:1170–1179. Pest PlantCouncil.119p. plant managementmanual.Nashville,TN:Tennessee Exotic unknown]: 71-74. diseases offoresttrees.GrantsPass, OR:[Publisher Proceedings, IUFROworkingparty7.02.09: oak treesinfectedwith phloemofMexican Histology ofthezonelineinsecondary Shade treewiltdiseases.St.Paul, MN:APSPress:53–64. elm diseasewithemphasisonfungicides.In:Ash,C.L.,ed. Plant Ecology. 139:49–62. with anthropogenicdisturbanceinNorthAmericanforests. A. 1998.Alienplantspeciescompositionandassociations Research. 98:889–903. their interspecifichybrid poplar rusts control? Ecology. 77:1965–1975. Ulmus Melampsora medusae,M.larici-populina ) cultivarsforuseinNorthAmerica.Journal Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae Lepidoptera: . 1996.Howriskyisbiological Phytophthora cinnamoni M. medusae-populina ) withabarrier Phytophthora . Mycological . In: , and Weste, G.;Marks,G.C.1987. Thebiologyof Wear, forest DavidN.;Greis,JohnG., eds. 2002.Southern U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest 1999. Service. U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Animaland Service; U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest 1994.Pest Service. U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest 1985.Insects Service. U.S. Congress,OfficeofTechnology Assessment.1993. Phytopathology. 25:207–229. cinnamomi ResearchStation.635p. Southern NC: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Service, resource assessment.Gen.Tech. Rep.SRS–53.Asheville, Region,Forest Southern Service, HealthProtection].20p. MR35. [Atlanta]: [U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest foresthealthatlasofinsectsanddiseases.R8– Southern Private Forestry. [Notpaged]. Agriculture, Forest Area,Stateand Northeastern Service, Alert NA–PR–01–99GEN.Radnor, PA: U.S.Departmentof beetle ( 1999.Asianlonghorned Plant HealthInspectionService. www.srs.fs.fed.us. [Dateaccessed:May18,2003]. R8–MB 60.Atlanta: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture.46p. forests.Man.Bull. and pesticidemanagementonsouthern forests.Misc.Publ.1426.Washington,of eastern DC.608p. OTA-F–565. [Placeofpublicationunknown].391p. nonindigenousspeciesintheUnitedStates. Harmful Anoplophora inAustralian forests.AnnualReviewof

glabripennis ): anewintroduction.Pest Phytophthora Chapter 15.

Advances in the Control and Management of the Southern Pine Bark Beetles

T. Evan Nebeker1 Because of its history, aggressive behavior, and reproductive potential, SPB causes more concern than the other bark beetles of the Southeastern United States. Although Ips spp. have been associated with tree mortality, they Abstract—Management of members of the are generally considered a less-aggressive species. southern pine bark beetle guild, which consists Ips prefer host material that is stressed due to a 155 of five species, is a continually evolving process. moisture deficit, slash from harvesting operations, A number of management strategies and tactics or windthrown material. It is essential to recognize have remained fairly constant over time as new that not just one species kills our pines. However, ones are being added. These basic practices during periods of drought, as in 1999 and 2000, include doing nothing, direct control, and Ips beetles attacked and killed considerable areas indirect control. This chapter focuses primarily of pine. These events increased public awareness on the latter two. Emphasis is given to recent of the impact Ips can have. During that same and possible future management strategies period, SPB populations were low across the region, especially west of the Mississippi River, that may become part of our overall programs. where they were at record lows with zero The World Wide Web will play a key role or near zero attacks reported. The reason for in the distribution of information about the this apparent anomaly is unknown. One could management of the southern pine bark beetles. hypothesize that SPB populations were so low because Ips populations displaced them during tree colonization. Another possibility is that the INTRODUCTION drought altered suitable habitat for SPB ive species make up the guild of insects population development by limiting or changing known as the southern pine bark beetles. resource availability. The question as to why F They include the southern pine beetle the SPB population has been at such a low (SPB) (Dendroctonus frontalis Zimmermann), level during this period remains unanswered black turpentine beetle (BTB) [D. terebrans at this point. Further efforts are needed to (Olivier)], small southern pine engraver understand the dynamics of insect biology (fourspined engraver) [Ips avulsus (Eichhoff)], during suboutbreak periods. fivespined engraver [I. grandicollis (Eichhoff)], and the sixspined engraver [I. calligraphus SURVEY AND DETECTION (Germar)] (fig. 15.1). The SPB was responsible, oresters and entomologists have long relied in presettlement forests, for periodic on ground observations, aerial surveys, and perturbations that maintained uneven-aged aerial photography to locate southern pine forests and a diversity of plant species. F bark beetle infestations. Some progress has These outbreaks were beneficial events in been made in this area over the past decade. For normally functioning southern pine ecosystems. example, SPB spots can now be detected remotely However, the SPB is now viewed as a pest (Carter and others 1998). Carter and others (1998) because an economic value is placed on pine and indicate that individual trees with foliage ranging because intensive management of pine forests from yellow to brown and classified as heavily has caused beetle populations to interfere damaged by the SPB were easily located in 675- with efforts to achieve management and 698-nm reflectance images. Statistically, mild objectives (Nebeker 2003). chlorosis in recently infested pines was detected by a normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) derived from 840- and 698-nm imagery. However, this was not easily resolved visually 1 Professor, Mississippi State University, Department of in the NDVI images. Detection of infestations Entomology and Plant Pathology, Mississippi State, MS 39762. Southern Forest Science: 156 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health observing newinfestationsorthat observing whethertheyare helps workersdetermine and evaluateinfestations.TheuseofGPSalso has madeiteasierforgroundcrewstolocate GPS locationsofspotsduringaerialsurveys can belocatedontheground.Capturing increased theefficiencywithwhichSPBspots high-image resolutionentercommercialservice. increase astechnologyimprovesandsatelliteswith species diversity. Interestinthesemethodswill pine plantations,whichareevenagedandhavelow induced chlorosiswouldberesolvedmoreeasilyin 700 nmthatischaracteristicofearly, damage- it isexpectedthattheincreasedreflectancenear small decreasesinleafchlorophyllcontent.Thus, now dependsentirelyonthecapabilitytodetect Service, Lufkin, TX. Jasper, TX;photo by Dr. Ronald Billings in1981,Texas Forest by Richard Kleifoth in1964,SouthernForest Research Institute, I. calligraphus of thesouthernpinebarkbeetle guild( Figure 15.1—Diagram of adults, gallery patterns, andattack sites Global positioningsystems(GPS)have , Dendroctonus frontalis , and Ips vulsus D. terebrans , I. grandicollis ). Painting , MANAGEMENT are produced. Program, andmapswithspotcoordinates System(GIS) into aGeographicInformation on thedisplayscreen.Thedataaredownloaded infestations bytouchingtheirlocations observed location relativetotheground.Thespotterplots proper backdropwhileindicatingtheplane’s flight, thecomputerusesGPStodisplay and atouch-sensitivescreen.Duringthesurvey The computerislinkedtoanonboardGPSsystem areacanbeloadedintoalaptopcomputer.survey Selected backdrops(mapsoraerialphotos)ofthe the locationsofinfestationsduringaerialsurveys. mapping hasbeendevelopedtoassistinplotting sketch mapswhileflying500to1,000feetAGL. traditional spotterslocatedspotson laboratory; in thatthevideocanbeanalyzedanofficeor are tobedetected.Thereisanaddedconvenience 1,000 feetAGLifindividualtreesindenseforests limits ofvideo,missionsmustbeflownatabout for SPBhazardrating.Becauseoftheresolution aboveground level(AGL)provedtobeadequate states thataerialvideographyat1,000feet of hazardratingsfortheSPB.Matthews(1998) todetectSPBspotsandthedevelopment surveys new technology. usesincludeaerial Current detected duringtheyear. thetotalnumberofspots todetermine is trying were identifiedpreviously. Thisishelpfulwhenone Highway, Pineville,LA71360. Representative, Forest HealthProtection, 2500Shreveport 2 differing pointsofvieware based onindividual for forestfirecanbeseenin thisway. These just thenaturalcourseofevents. Thepotential others seethesameconditionsashealthyor conditions asthreateningorunhealthy, while options. For example,someviewcertainforest utilized ornotdirectlyimpactmanagement individual viewsofhowforestresourcesaretobe 1997). Continuingchangesinoursocietyand consideration ofpestproblems(BoyceandHaney has muchtooffer, butsometimes failstoinclude (Nebeker 2003).Ecosystemmanagementalso of protectingandsustainingforestresources different philosophies,buttheyallhavethegoal forest resourceprotection(FRP)haveslightly I Personal communication.2001. Forrest Oliveria,Field Office ntegrated pestmanagement(IPM),integrated protection (FHP),foresthealth(FH),and forest pestmanagement(IFPM),health Oliveria observed thatelectronicsketch- Oliveria observed The useofaerialvideographyisarelatively 2 or organizational agendas (Allen 1994, Boyce and We have, for a number of years, recognized Haney 1997). Reconciling different points of view various management strategies and tactics that is one of the most difficult tasks we face in the are available when dealing with bark beetles. protection of our natural resources. One option is to do nothing. If we take this approach, we can expect history to be repeated: The Expanded Southern Pine Beetle Research we can expect periodic outbreaks as a result of and Application Program and the IFPM Program population fluctuations, and we can expect that the were administered by the U.S. Department of amount of pine mortality in our forests will reflect Agriculture Forest Service (Forest Service) past trends. However, with increases in acreage of out of Pineville, LA, during the 1970s and 1980s. host type, we might predict proportional increases These programs provided an opportunity to gain in bark beetle activity and tree mortality. a great deal of new information concerning the SPB, as well as for Ips and BTB. The technology Prevention is another management strategy transfer efforts associated with these programs we are beginning to understand. To prevent losses provided a structure for getting pest management to southern pine bark beetles, we must follow a 157 information into the hands of users as quickly as few guiding principles (Nebeker and Hedden possible. Efforts such as these have shown that 1984). These principles include (1) matching the communication and distribution of information tree species to the right site—trees planted on tles are critical for control and management purposes. the wrong sites seldom have the vigor necessary to deter or withstand attack; (2) controlling stand Recently an extremely useful tool for the density—if a stand’s basal area exceeds the site 15. Chapter management of bark beetles has been evolving on index, then the stand should be thinned to the the World Wide Web (WWW). Financial resources appropriate level; (3) promptly salvaging all have become a limiting factor in providing printed lightning-struck, logging-damaged, diseased, and material for distribution, and the Web has high-risk trees, and harvesting overmature trees developed into an outstanding addition to that end. when pest activity is low; (4) planting trees only The Web site (http://whizlab.isis.vt.edu/servlet/sf/ in their natural range—planting pines outside spbicc/) of the Southern Pine Beetle Internet Pine Bark Bee Southern

their range and offsite causes additional stress Control Center (SPBICC) has become a source that increases their susceptibility to attack; for SPB information, control strategies, research, (5) minimizing site and stand disturbances— and other ongoing activities. This site also exercising care in use of heavy equipment, road supports communication among persons whose layout, culvert location, and other construction work involves southern pine bark beetles. For projects since changes in drainage result in tree example, CONTACT _Con-49F8B1C38C Steve stress; and (6) harvesting all mature trees at, Clark (U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest or shortly after, rotation age. The use of good Service, Lufkin, TX) has summarized an IPM silvicultural practices reduces the likelihood of Program for the SPB that can be accessed on the insect attack. Good silviculture can reduce losses SPBICC at http://whizlab.isis.vt.edu/servlet/sf/ from SPB (Belanger and Malac 1980). spbicc/page.html?name=spb_IPM. This program draws together currently available approaches and Hazard rating and thinning have tremendous new investigations. Appropriate links are included practical value but have not been fully utilized. to provide additional information about the various Hazard-rating systems have been developed for control and management options. Information most subregions of the South (Mason and others about SPB activity is posted on the SPBICC 1985). They identify the combinations of site and site as it becomes available. Another site, stand conditions commonly associated with SPB http://bugwood.org/, contains valuable information infestations. They also identify the conditions about bark beetles and related insects. It also under which SPB is most likely to occur and presents a wealth of related information about where the greatest amount of damage would be FH and FHP issues. One can also refer to expected. Hazard ratings do not predict when, numerous Web sites at universities, follow the or if, an attack will occur, but they do provide appropriate links, and find needed information. information that managers should find useful in An example of a university site having links to identifying and ranking locations or stands that useful sites is http://msstate.edu/~nebekers/. warrant consideration for increased surveillance, The WWW has become an extremely useful tool preventive treatment, accelerated suppression for communication and technology transfer. With action, or postdamage appraisal (Hicks and such information, informed decisions can be made others 1987). Most hazard-rating systems include and appropriate strategies can be followed. variables that can be altered silviculturally. Southern Forest Science: 158 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health allow formaximum exposureoftheinfested trees arefelled towardthecenterof spot to sold, cut,andremoved;(2)cut andleave—infested appropriate bufferstrip(uninfested trees)are tactics: (1)salvage—infested treesandan population. Therearefour basic directcontrol result inimmediatemortality tothebarkbeetle are availableorevolving.Directcontrolmeasures indirect methodsofcontrolandmanagementthat are otheroptions.Theyincludebothdirectand is notthemanagementstrategyofchoice,there suppression strategiesandtactics. toward preventionratherthanrelyingonlyon practitioners ofFRPwillwelcomethismovement for attackandspotgrowth.Itishopedthat healthy standsresultinginareductionofhabitat spot growth.Thinninghelpsmaintainvigorous, which reducesadditionalmortalitycausedby by earlydetectionandrapidcontrolofspots, State, andtriballands.SPBriskcanbereduced projects onnationalforestsandotherFederal, implementing pestsuppressionandprevention to reduceimpactsofinsectsanddiseasesby FH conditions.FHP(Forest strives Service) for addressingproblemsassociatedwithchanging maps andtoutilizetheseinsettingpriorities Forest effortstodevelopnationwiderisk Service to initiatepreventioneffortscameasaresultof had beenallocatedonlyforsuppression.Themove bark beetlepreventionwork.Priortothis,funds pine to cooperatingStateagenciesforsouthern pinebarkbeetles. losses causedbysouthern of thestandand,thus,reduceseverity habitat, and(4)tomaintainthehealthvigor income,(3)to enhancewildlife an intermediate (1) toretainhigh-qualitytrees,(2)receive the appropriatetimeforfollowingreasons: (2000) indicatedthatitisimportanttothinat 1985; Nebekerandothers1985).Traugott and Hedden1984;NebekerHodges1983, to SPBattack(Brownandothers1987;Nebeker reducing thesusceptibilityandsuitabilityofstands studies haveindicatedthatthinningisusefulin SPB whenappliedoverthelandscape.Numerous affecting theoverallpopulationdynamicsof of lowpopulations.Thinninghasthepotential of suitablehabitatfortheSPBduringperiods overlooked asamethodofreducingtheamount density, basalarea,orradialgrowth. treatments thatalterparameterssuchasstand hazard orlow-hazardstandsthroughsilvicultural High-hazard standscanbeconvertedtomedium- Under circumstancesinwhichprevention In 2001,theForest allocatedfunds Service been Thinning, likehazardrating,hasoften BIOLOGICAL CONTROL registered foruse. or attractbarkbeetles,buthavenotyetbeen various compoundsthathavebeenfoundtorepel to suppressbarkbeetlepopulationsbytheuseof strategies andtacticsarealsobeinginvestigated those interestedinfollowingthiseffort.Other Workshop/workshop.html, hasbeenestablishedfor A Web site,http://everest.ento.vt.edu/~salom/ to ensurethattheproductisusedcorrectly. to suppressSPB.Specializedtrainingisnecessary Carolina, Mississippi,andGeorgiacanbeused has beenregisteredinNorthCarolina,South verbenone, anantiaggregationcompound, are alwaysbeinginvestigated.For example, their costandtheproblemsassociatedwithsmoke. methodswillhavelimitedusebecauseof burn bark beetlepopulationisthegoal.Cut,pile,and recommended whenimmediatemortalitytothe control tacticsotherthaninsecticideswillbe Direct are beingstudiedaspossiblealternatives. Othercompounds,suchasbifenthrin, supervision. certified applicatorsorpersonsundertheir and canbepurchasedappliedonlyby chlorpyrifos isnowarestricted-usepesticide thatthereisademandforit.Also, determine productuntiltheycan of theforestry-labeled The manufacturerwillnotinitiateproduction registration andisreregisteringitsproduct. compound hasconsentedtomaintainaforestry the manufacturerofachlorpyrifos-based discontinued withinthenextfewyears.However, or havedisappeared,andtheproductwillbe use. Existingsuppliesoflindanearedisappearing, is notpresentlyavailablewithalabelforforestry in forestoperations.Lindaneisregisteredbut and chlorpyrifosarenowregisteredforuse pine barkbeetlesinthefuture.Onlylindane it maynotbepossibletouseinsecticidescontrol approved insecticide.Itappears,however, that are felled,andtheirbolessprayedwithan and(4)cutspray—trees pile, andburned; treesarefelled,pushedintoa burn—infested portion oftheboletosun;(3)cut,pile,and beetles arelimited. Hence,thecommunity and nectarsourcesfortheparasites ofbark pine forest.Insuchsettings plantdiversityislow, has lessplantandanimaldiversity thananatural grown inamonocultureusually createaforestthat pine plantationmanagement systems.Pinetrees C New approachestomanagingbarkbeetles been ignored,especiallyin relation tointensive pinebarkbeetleshaslargely to thesouthern onsideration ofbiologicalcontrolinrelation of SPB natural enemies is potentially reduced mass-reared predator would be another option in pine plantations and is therefore less likely in attempting to manage bark beetle populations. to be effective against SPB populations in such Recently, new mortality agents have been settings. In addition, direct control techniques discovered in association with the SPB. Sikorowski recommended for controlling bark beetles are and others (1996) were the first to discover and aimed at killing or disrupting the colonization describe virus and viruslike particles in SPB process, and these techniques also damage adults from Mississippi and Georgia. It is believed natural enemy communities. that this is the first record of viruses associated Research has discovered that supplemental with SPB and Dendroctonus (Coleoptera: feeding of SPB parasitoids increases their egg Scolytidae) in general. Sikorowski and others production and longevity (Stephen and Browne (1996) hypothesize that viruses associated with 1999). This suggests that providing food for SPB may be an important means of naturally parasitoids can increase parasitism of SPB. controlling SPB populations and useful in A new product has been developed for application explaining population cycles. Future research 159 to boles and crowns of pines infested with SPB will examine this hypothesis. (Stephen and Browne 2000). The use of this new product should conserve and promote parasitoid CONCLUSIONS tles populations and increase their effectiveness. t is anticipated that there will be major It is important to maintain communities advances in survey and detection in the of natural enemies. Simple things, such as not I future. These advances will involve the use 15. Chapter cutting trees vacated (used and abandoned) by of remotely sensed data obtained from satellites SPB when implementing direct control tactics and various other platforms. High-resolution is a good strategy. Many of the natural enemies imaging systems are in place or are planned, do not complete their life cycle until after the SPB and accompanying techniques to identify key has vacated the tree. Vacated trees also provide features on the landscape, such as SPB spots, will become another part of our detection system. nesting habitat for woodpeckers that prey on Pine Bark Bee Southern bark beetles. Our society has emphasized and will Processing imagery of large landscapes will continue to emphasize the need for protecting the become automated and increase our efficiency environment and the need for increasing species in identifying the boundaries of infestations. diversity whenever possible. Hence, there is a FRP of the future will be aimed more and need to expand our efforts in the area of biological more at prevention. Initial steps have already control, concentrating on methods that increase been taken through the development of hazard- biodiversity without harming the environment. and risk-rating systems. These systems identify It may be possible in the future to plant flowers areas that are likely to be attacked by bark in or near pine stands to provide nectar that will beetles. This information then becomes part increase the life span of adult parasites associated of the decisionmaking process by identifying the with the southern pine bark beetle guild. areas that should be treated first to reduce the As we learn more about the nutritional hazard. Hazard-rating information can then be requirements of the natural enemies of SPB, we used in connection with other criteria specified in must also understand their population dynamics. a forest management plan to make a final decision. Progress has been made in this area. For example, Hazard-rating systems provide various options it has been hypothesized (Turchin and others 1999) for reducing hazard through silvicultural means that SPB outbreaks are controlled by a delayed and become part of a prevention management density-dependent response from natural enemies. program. Various decision-support systems that Augmenting natural populations of predators, can help us deal with southern pine bark beetles parasitoids, and competitors may accelerate the can be accessed through the SPBICC. decline of SPB epidemics. In addition, mass- We may soon be unable to use any insecticides rearing techniques are being developed for one of in our forests. At present, there is effectively only the key predators of the SPB, the checkered clerid one insecticide labeled for forest uses, and there beetle [Thanasimus dubius (F.)].3 Releasing a are no new insecticides on the horizon. Hence we will be dependent on the other direct tactics, such as salvage or cut-and-leave operations, 3 Personal communication. 2002. John D. Reeve, Assistant when trying to suppress southern pine bark Professor, Department of Zoology, Southern Illinois University, beetle populations. The practicality of salvage Carbondale, IL 62901–6501. Southern Forest Science: 160 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health LITERATURE CITED State University. and Forestry ExperimentStation,Mississippi as BC10100oftheMississippiAgricultural and suggestions.Approvedforpublication Mississippi StateUniversity, fortheirreviews ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ournaturalresources. to conserve efforts torestoreandrehabilitateforests environmental change.Suchprocessesinclude management processesthatlimitadverse increased desiretoparticipateinresource of theenvironmentaroundus.We havean one atwhichwehavebecomemuchmoreaware regulating barkbeetlepopulations. to identifyanddocumentthekeyfactors ecological processesimprovesandhelpsus process, especiallyasourunderstandingof paradigms willinfluenceourdecisionmaking management ofbarkbeetlepopulations.New this approachandotherdevelopmentsinthe concerning tool fordistributinginformation colonization process.TheWWWwillbeauseful thebarkbeetle compounds thatdisrupt useful. Theseincludetheuseofantiaggregation emphasis willbeplacedonpreventiontactics. trees. Becauseoftheselimitations,moreand or impossibilityoffindingmarketsforsalvaged and cut-and-leavetacticsislimitedbythedifficulty Hicks, R.R.;Coster, J.E.; Mason,G.N.1987.Forest insect Carter, G.A.;Seal,M.R.;Haley, T. detection 1998.Airborne Brown, M.W.; Nebeker, T.E.; Honea,C.R.1987.Thinning Boyce, M.S.;Haney, A.,eds.1997.Ecosystemmanagement: Belanger, R.P forests:a Allen, D.C.1994.Healthyforestry–healthy I hazard rating. Journal ofForestry.hazard rating.Journal 85(10):20–25. ofForestCanadian Journal Research. 28:1040–1045. pinebeetledamageusingkeyspectral bands. of southern ofAppliedForestry. Journal Southern 11(1):28–31. increases loblollypinevigorandresistancetobarkbeetles. New Haven,CTandLondon:Yale UniversityPress.392p. applications forsustainableforestandwildliferesources. [Washington, DC]:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture.17p. pinebeetle.Agric.Handb.576. losses fromthesouthern ofForestry.balancing act.Journal 92(11):60. wishtothankGeraldBaker, Lawrence, Gary ofEntomologyandPlantPathology, andMichaelCapriooftheDepartment We standataninterestingpointinhistory, There ishopethatnewapproachesmayprove .; Malac,B.F. 1980.Silviculturecanreduce Stephen, F.P Stephen, F.P Sikorowski, P Nebeker, T.E.; Hodges,J.D.;Karr, B.L.;Moehring,D.M. Nebeker, T.E.; Hodges,J.D.1985.Thinningandharvesting Nebeker, T.E.; Hodges,J.D.1983.Influenceofforestry Nebeker, T.E.; Hedden,R.L.1984.Integratedforestpest Nebeker Matthews, J.S.1998.Pest managementstrategiesforLonghorn Mason, G.N.;Lorio,P Turchin, P Traugott, T. 2000.Aremypinetreesreadytothin?Mississippi of pagesunknown]. publication unknown]:[Publisherunknown].[Number forest insectanddiseaseworkconference.[Placeof In: Biologicalcontrolofbarkbeetles:Proceedings,western andoviposition [Abstract]. to enhanceparasitoidsurvival unknown]: [Publisherunknown].9p. For. Exp.Stn.Tech. Bull.212.[Placeofpublication beetle adultsinMississippiandGeorgia.Agric. pine 1996. Virus andvirus-likeparticlesfoundinsouthern Forest 36p. Service. of publicationunknown]:U.S.DepartmentAgriculture, management recommendations.Tech. Bull.1703.[Place pines–withpest 1985. Thinningpracticesinsouthern Experiment Station:263–271. of Agriculture,Forest Forest Southern Service, Gen. Tech. Rep.SO–56.NewOrleans:U.S.Department symposium onintegratedpestmanagementresearch. Branham, S.J.;Thatcher, R.C.,eds.Proceedingsofa susceptibility tobarkbeetleanddiseaseattack.In: practices tominimizesiteandstanddisturbance Fur AngewandteEntomol.96(2):194–208. practices onhost-susceptibilitytobarkbeetles.Zeitschrift Agricultural ScienceandTechnology: 116–125. forest pestmanagementsymposium.Ames,IA:Councilfor Branham, S.J.;Hertel,G.D.,eds.Proceedings:Integrated management inpinestands(6+yrs.)—insects.In: unknown]: 111–116. Rep. 140.[Placeofpublicationunknown]:[Publisher Council foragriculturalscienceandtechnology. Task Force andfuturestrategies. Integrated pestmanagement:current F. Austin StateUniversity. 91p.M.S.thesis. beetle infestations.[Placeofpublicationunknown]:Stephen pine videography forhazardratingpinestandssouthern AmmunitionPlantandanassessmentofaerial Army Department ofAgriculture.31p. attack. Agric.Handb.645.[Washington, DC]:U.S. pinebeetle Rating thesusceptibilityofstandstosouthern an experimentaltest.Science.285: 1068–1071. role ofpredatorsinpopulationcyclesaforestinsect: unknown]: [Publisherunknown].7p. State Univ. Ext.Serv. Publ.2260.[Placeofpublication ofEntomology.Scolytidae). CanadianJournal 132:983–985. infested with parasitoid foodtobolesandcrownsofpines(Pinaceae) , T.E. 2003.Integratedforestpestmanagement.In: .; Taylor, A.D.;Reeve,J.D.1999.Dynamical .; Browne,L.E.2000.ApplicationofEliminade .; Browne,L.E.1999.Usingnutrientsources .P .; Lawrence,A.M.;Nebeker, T.E.; Price,T.S. Dendroctonus frontalis .L.; Belanger, R.P .; Nettleton,W.A. 1985. (Coleoptera: TM Chapter 16.

The Impact and Control of Major Southern Forest Diseases

A. Dan Wilson, Theodor INTRODUCTION D. Leininger, William J. he preceding two decades have brought a Otrosina, L. David Dwinell, barrage of new developments that are shaping 1 and Nathan M. Schiff T the evolution of forest management practices with regard to forest health issues and disease suppression in southern forests. Some of the more 161 important developments impacting forest health Abstract—A variety of forest health issues, management in the South include: (1) legislative concerns, and events have rapidly changed bans on the use of many pesticides and chemical southern forests and plantations in the past controls formerly used to manage forest pests; (2) continued introductions of nonnative pests to two decades. These factors have strongly which many of our endemic tree species have impacted the ways we manage forest pests in little resistance; (3) expansion in distributions and the Southern United States. This trend will no outbreaks of important native pests into previously doubt continue to shape forest pest management unaffected areas; (4) occurrence of new synergistic in the future. The major issues and events of forest pest complexes previously unrecognized concern include changing forest conditions, as important to forest management decisions; urbanization, multiresource issues, increased (5) nationwide reductions in the research work harvesting, forest fragmentation, expanding human force (forest pathologists) available to study populations, pesticide bans, expansions of native and develop new pest suppression technologies; and nonnative pests into new regions, emergence (6) drastic reductions in forest management and of new damaging insect-disease complexes, and pest-suppression activities on Federal lands; reduced resources to manage these problems. (7) inadequate approaches to regional pest problems as a result of overemphasis of theoretical The effects of some of these factors on forest research approaches, e.g., modeling systems and health priorities and specific pest-suppression disease forecasting, instead of improvements in practices are discussed in relation to some major direct, applied approaches to disease suppression; hardwood and conifer diseases in southern forests. and (8) the existence of new emerging endemic The ways in which these pests are influencing diseases such as bacterial leaf scorch (Xylella southern forest management priorities and fastidiosa Wells and others) that are causing practices and the progress that past and present widespread damage previously unrecorded in pest-suppression research has made toward commercially important fiber- and lumber- solving some of these pest-suppression problems producing tree species (Billings 2000, Britton also are discussed. and others 1998). The impact of these issues and events on disease suppression and forest management decisions in general will be treated in the following discussions relevant to individual major hardwood and conifer diseases that occur in the southern region.

1 Principal Research Pathologist, Research Plant Pathologist, and Principal Research Entomologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Stoneville, MS, 38776; and Supervisory Research Pathologist and Principal Research Pathologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Athens, GA 30602, respectively. Southern Forest Science: 162 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health (Dewers 1971).Itisnotuncommonforlandowners in alossofasmuch$20,000propertyvalue of asinglelargeurbanliveoakinTexas canresult significantly lowerpropertyvalues.Thedeath aesthetics resultingfromtreemortalitycan losses inseveralways.Reductionslandscape (Wilson 2001). Wisconsin, Iowa,andIllinoisin theMidwest in theSouthandwithinmajorcitiesMinnesota, trees withinandnearmetropolitanareasofTexas devastating lossestovaluableurbanandsuburban the last20years,oakwilthascausedincreasingly (T.W. Bretz)J.Hunt,onurbanforestry. Within of oakwilt,causedby of thistrendhasbeendemonstratedbytheimpact significantly topropertyvalues.Agoodexample but becausetheiraestheticvaluecontributes value orprovidehabitatandfoodforwildlife, only becauseurbantreeshavecommerciallumber in urbanareasisbecomingmoreimportant,not natural foreststands.Protectionoftreeresources as citiesandmunicipalitiescontinuetoencroachon U Oak Wilt inUrbanForests MAJOR HARDWOOD DISEASES the livingsapwood by insectvectors. Photo by A. Dan Wilson. (infection courts) for introduction of theoakwiltfungus into at aresidential building site inAustin, TX,providing entry points Figure 16.1—Live oakinjured by heavy tree-clearing equipment Tree mortalityinurbanareascauseseconomic rban forestsarebecomingincreasingly development offorestmanagementobjectives important componentstobeconsideredinthe Ceratocystis fagacearum as high-grade harvesting, preferential thinning, as high-gradeharvesting, changes inforestmanagement practicessuch natural standshassincebeen closelylinkedto 2001). Theincreasedincidence ofoakwiltin red oakspeciessusceptible tooakwilt(Wilson dominant speciesthatwerelargelyreplacedby caused changesinstandcompositionbyremoving parasitica parasitica ulmi Ophiostoma United StateswhenDutchelmdisease,causedby the firsthalfof20 increased inmanynaturaloakstandsduring incidence inurbanareas.Oakwilt in naturalstandshasalsocontributedtoahigher infected. Anincreaseinincidenceofoakwilt vectors bywhichwoundedtreesmaybecome near residencesprovidesbothinoculumandinsect oak wiltandbarkbeetle-infestedfirewoodinpiles transmission.The storageof spread byroot-graft which newoakwiltinfectioncentersdevelopand become infected,theyinitiateinfectionfocifrom insect vectoractivityishigh.Whensuchtrees bylandownersduringtimeswhen are pruned (fig. 16.1).Tree woundingalsooccurswhentrees introduction ofoakwiltinoculumbyinsectvectors bark fromtrees,creatinginfectioncourtsforthe Heavy equipmentfrequentlyscrapesandremoves tree clearingoflandpriortohomeconstruction. sustainconsiderabledamageduringinitial often affected cityintheUnitedStates.Residualtrees wilt inthelast20years,maybemostheavily Small and with over10,000liveoaks( associated withurbandevelopment.Austin, TX, andlandscapeimprovementactivities construction has beenattributedinparttoincreaseshome (Wilson 2001). area ofatleast61254countiesinTexas alone now estimatedtohaveexceeded$1billionoveran trees haveresultedinacceleratedeconomiclosses increases inoakwiltincidencevaluableurban valuable landscapetrees.Theconsequencesof replanting treesaddstothefinalexpenseoflosing trees. Finally, replacementcostsassociatedwith also canbesignificantwhentheyinvolvelarge costs) forhomeowners.Tree removalcosts can substantiallyincreaseutilitybills(cooling in propertyvalue.Losingvaluableshadetrees the investmentlossassociatedwithreduction has beendiagnosedontheirlandinordertoavoid in Austin, TX,toselltheirpropertyonceoakwilt The riseinoakwiltincidenceurbanareas Brasier, andchestnutblight{ (Murrill) Anderson&Anderson]} (Murrill) [formerly Barr (Murrill) Q. virginiana

ulmi (Buisman)Nannf. and th century inthe Eastern century Miller)killedbyoak Quercus fusiformis Cryphonectria Endothia O. novo- overgrazing, and fire suppression that favor have had no breakouts. This improvement was reduced species diversity and increase the number attributed to installation of deeper trenches (up of susceptible red oaks in stands. to 1.8 m) and improved trench placement. The majority of trench breakouts that occurred within The Texas Forest Service administers the the first 3 years after trench installation were Texas Oak Wilt Suppression Project (TOWSP) due to improper trench placement or insufficient with funding and technical assistance provided by trench depth that failed to sever preexisting root a combination of U.S. Department of Agriculture grafts. Breakouts that occurred 3 or more years Forest Service (Forest Service) funds and after trench installation were more likely to result matching funds provided by the State of Texas. from the formation of new root grafts across This has been among the very few cooperative the trench by fusions of new adventitious roots (State) disease suppression programs in the arising in the loose, trench-backfill soil from country that have received Federal assistance roots previously severed by trenching (Wilson since 1995 (Wilson 2001). A recent addition and Lester 2002). During the first several years occurred when the sudden oak death pathogen, 163 following trench installation, an abundance Phytophthora ramorum Werres, was first of small adventitious roots commonly formed discovered in the United States (California) in from roots severed in the loose backfill soil by 1995, and Federal funds were appropriated for trenching. These roots provided opportunities research and suppression beginning in 2003. for initiation of new root-graft connections across TOWSP personnel coordinate the efforts of local trenches in subsequent years. governments and private citizens to detect and 16. Chapter control oak wilt. The project’s goals are to educate A recent oak wilt suppression research the public, locate disease centers, provide technical study, conducted by a Forest Service scientist, and cost-sharing assistance in suppressing the investigated the effectiveness of trench insert fungus, and monitor suppression treatments to materials in preventing trench breakouts initiated control spread. by root grafting across the trench. These results indicated that trench inserts did not significantly Recent improvements in oak wilt management reduce or stop root transmission during the first have resulted from modifications of existing 3 years following trench installation, but that control strategies, empirical advances arising the use of water-permeable inserts effectively Diseases Forest Major Southern from experiences gained during implementation of improved the performance of trenches beyond suppression programs, and research developments the third post-trenching year, when trenches of new suppression technologies. Trenching, the are still normally effective, and extended trench practice of mechanically cutting root connections longevity indefinitely (Wilson and Lester 2002). between healthy trees in advance of the visible Water-impermeable materials, however, expanding edge of infection centers to control sometimes promoted trench breakouts by their root transmission of the oak wilt fungus, has tendency to redirect root growth around these been recommended for many years (Himelick barriers, leading to the development of new root- and Fox 1961) and has long been the cornerstone graft connections and associated oak wilt root and primary means of suppressing the spread transmission across the trench. Water-permeable of oak wilt in the United States (Wilson 2001). inserts were more effective root barriers because In Texas, the fungus spreads primarily through they did not direct root growth from the point interconnected root systems, creating infection of root contact. The additional minimal cost of foci with radial expansion rates that sometimes trench inserts above trenching costs is justified exceed 31 m/year. In attempts to stop the advance in urban and rural homestead sites where of infection, cooperators in the TOWSP began valuable landscape trees require more protection, cutting barrier trenches in 1988. The TOWSP and additional retrenching costs are avoided. installed over 762,000 linear m of trench around Assuming that trench depth and placement almost 4,000 infection centers detected in central problems are now solved through experiences Texas by 2000 (Wilson 2001). This represented gained by the TOWSP, this improved method treatment of about 44 percent of confirmed centers of oak wilt suppression should greatly increase detected, but < 10 percent of infection centers trench effectiveness, and could potentially save likely to exist statewide. Trenching was about Texas landowners (alone) hundreds of millions of 67 percent successful in stopping the spread of dollars in tree removal costs and property value encircled infection centers by 1994 (Billings and depreciations if this control is vigorously others 2001). Since 1994, 76 percent of trenches implemented by the TOWSP. Southern Forest Science: 164 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health propiconazole (Alamo that applicationsofthesystemicfungicide Fiber-farming technology hasallowedindustrial the plantingofmanymore acres ofhardwoods. cultural methodsforgrowing hardwoodsand to environmentalissueshave ledtochangesin 1990s, marketconditionsand newapproaches species.Sincetheearly than thatinsoftwood acreage inhardwoodplantationsismuchless States formorethan50years,althoughthetotal United plantations throughouttheSoutheastern Hardwood PlantationDiseases affected bythisdisease. savings inotherareasoftheUnitedStates depreciations inTexas, andsubstantiallygreater of dollarsintreeremovalcostsandpropertyvalue potentially savelandownershundredsofmillions If thesecontrolsareimplemented,theycould oak speciesaffectedbythismaladyinotherStates. semievergreen liveoaksinTexas andindeciduous advance effortstosuppressoakwiltdiseasein applied fungicidetreatments,shouldsignificantly together withtheincreasedeffectivenessofsoil- inserts topreventroottransmissionofoakwilt, trenching methods(culturalcontrol)withtrench (Wilson andLester1995). distribution throughouttheentirerootsystem apices, thusallowingmorecompleteandthorough and takenupatthedistalendsofrootsnearroot of rootsystems,becausethefungicideisapplied treatment (bettercoverage)andmoreprotection to challengeinoculationsprovidedmoreeffective fungicide atthetreedriplineimmediatelyprior indicated thatsoil-drenchapplicationsofthe vapor phaseactivity. However, previousresearch active ingredientmovingdownintotherootsby 10 ml/Lorhigher, thusincreasing theamountof increasing thedosageoffungicidefrom3to City arboristspartiallycompensatedforthisby down intotherootsystembyvaporphaseactivity. proportion oftheinjectedactiveingredientmoved bole. Aspreviouslyapplied,onlyasmallfixed when thefungicidewasinjectedintolower of thefungicide,whichprecludedroottreatment attributed tothepredominatelyupwardmobility undependable effectivenessofpropiconazolewas (Wilson andForse 1997).Thesporadicand high sensitivityofthefungustothisfungicide oak wiltpathogeninindividualtrees,despitethe ineffective inpreventingroottransmissionofthe injections, usedbytheTOWSPuntil1997,are The trenchingresearchalsoconfirmed Hardwood treespecieshavebeengrownin The combinedeffectofusingtheimproved © ) byhigh-volumebole immunosorbent assays(ELISA)hasmade Kostka 1992).Theadventofenzyme-linked because ofitsfastidiousnature (Sheraldand techniques usingroutinelaboratory to confirm the bacteriumintreespreviously wasdifficult stress andherbicidedamage. Thepresenceof other bioticandabioticfactorssuchasmoisture it. Symptomswereeasilyconfusedwiththoseof and nodiagnostictoolswereavailabletodetect diagnosticians wereunfamiliarwiththepathogen considered hardtodiagnoseinthepastbecause Tree diseasescausedby species ofColletotrichum(McGarity1976). of anthracnosecausedbyfungi,particularly attributed inthe1970stolate-summersymptoms 1999, SheraldandKostka 1992),butwhichwas fastidiosa bacterial leafscorch,adiseasecausedby prematurely. Thesesymptomsarecommonfor completelybrown,butnotshedding turning Leaves weredescribedasscorched,eventually inalllocationssurveyed. Leaf scorchingoccurred (Sacc. &Speg.)Höhn(Filer andothers1975). to twoconidialstagesof rhodina canker,Botryosphaeria causedby fimbriata included cankerstain,causedby diseases associatedwithsycamoredecline.These scorch, dieback,andcankers,foundacomplexof conductedinthe1970s,focusingonleaf Surveys UnitedStates. producers intheSoutheastern tosycamore the mainproblemofconcern the earlyandmid-1970s,sycamoredeclinewas commonly usedinafforestationefforts.During production ofpaperproducts.Sycamoreis growth andexcellentpulpingqualitiesforthe has goodcommercialvaluebecauseofitsrapid growers andpestmanagementprofessionals. present uniquechallengesandopportunitiesto 2000). Fiber andlarge-scaleafforestation farming andothers in ecosystemrestoration(Stanturf agricultural marketsandincreasinginterest is beingafforestedinresponsetochanging other areasintheSoutheast,agriculturalland Mississippi RiverAlluvialValley (LMRAV) and IntheLower associated environmentalconcerns. stands islimitedbywetsoilconditionsand innaturalbottomland wintertime harvesting whereas method allowsyear-roundharvesting, toasfertigation.Thiscultural referred andliquidfertilization,amethod by irrigation on uplandsiteswhererapidgrowthisfostered growers toplantbottomlandhardwoodspecies American sycamore( (Cooke) Arx; andanthracnose,attributed (Cooke)Arx; (Ellis&Halst.)F. Wells andothers(Leininger Platanus occidentalis Apiognomonia veneta X. fastidiosa platani Ceratocystis Botryosphaeria J.M.Walter; were Xylella L.) diagnosis of X. fastidiosa infections in plants as methyl bromide have been eliminated. Concern routine, and has facilitated the detection of for the surrounding environment is likely to lead bacterial leaf scorch in sycamore throughout the to the development of biological and chemical Southeast. Polymerase chain reaction is also being controls that minimize long-term effects on used to detect this bacterium in plants. Recent ecosystems adjacent to plantations. visual surveys and ELISA testing of sycamore plantations across the Southeast showed that Declines of Oaks and Other Hardwoods bacterial leaf scorch caused severe dieback, Decline disease syndromes, commonly called decline, and mortality to sycamore saplings declines, have been described by Manion and growing on sites with or without irrigation (Britton Lachance (1992) as a progressive interaction of and others 1998). Initially, necrotic zones appear abiotic events and biological factors or agents that along the midrib and main veins of leaves by late eventually can lead to individual tree death and July of the second growing season. Severe widespread forest mortality, depending on the severity of the decline event. Declining trees marginal leaf scorching in foliage throughout 165 individual crowns and the entire stand is common typically have been predisposed by abiotic factors by the third year. Branch and top dieback occurs in such as site index, soil type, and climate change, 50 percent or more of a stand and some mortality although biotic factors such as old age or genotype may occur by the fifth year. In severe cases, also can be predisposing factors. Actual decline premature salvage harvests are justified because is triggered or incited by biotic or abiotic factors of concerns that stands will not contain sufficient such as drought, flooding, insect defoliation, or air volume at the normal pulpwood rotation age pollution. Trees that are already in a weakened 16. Chapter to pay for the additional carrying cost. Research physiological state are weakened further, and is currently underway to identify sycamore in this condition may die. They may recover, genotypes that are tolerant to bacterial leaf scorch perhaps to succumb later to other stresses. disease (Chang and others 2002). Biological agents, for example, wood-boring insects, phytophagous insects, wood decay fungi, Many of the same hardwood species used in and bacteria can quickly colonize a physiologically fiber farming also are used for afforesting former weakened tree and contribute to its final demise. agricultural fields. These include several oak Declines occur periodically and are often triggered species, eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides Diseases Forest Major Southern by climatic extremes. For example, a report by Bartr. ex Marsh.), American sycamore, and Ammon and others (1989) summarized 26 decline green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.). events during the previous 140 years, and many Forest restoration through afforestation is just of these were brought on by periods of drought. beginning on a large scale in the LMRAV, and many successful planting and cultural methods are The most recent Forest Service report of forest in use (Stanturf and others 2000). Development of insect and disease conditions in the United States new management methods for controlling insect (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service and disease pests in these monocultural plantation 2002) lists several Southeastern States in which settings is badly needed. Cherrybark oak (Q. forests are experiencing oak decline as a result falcata var. pagodifolia Ell.) seedlings growing of severe summer drought from 1998 to 2000. in nursery beds are susceptible to leaf injury and A drought-induced decline of red oaks in the stunting from Cylindrocladium scoparium Morg. Ozark and Ouachita Mountains of central (Smyly and Filer 1977). Newly emerged hardwood Arkansas reportedly covers hundreds of thousands seedlings of many species are susceptible to of acres and is associated with extraordinarily damage from soil-borne fungi such as species of high numbers of red oak borers [Enaphalodes Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, and Pythium that cause rufulus (Haldeman)] as a contributing factor damping-off (Filer and Cordell 1983). Insect and in the decline (U.S. Department of Agriculture, disease management guides for oaks (Solomon Forest Service 2002). The Forest Service report and others 1997), sycamore (Leininger and others also describes oak declines in the Appalachian 1999), cottonwood (Morris and others 1975), Mountains of Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, and ash (Solomon and others 1993) will aid in and in Tennessee, where white oaks were diagnosing many problems, especially in older especially affected. During the summer of 2000, stands. However, disease problems in nurseries many Nuttall (Q. nuttallii Palmer), willow (Q. and on stored and newly planted seedlings will phellos L.), and water (Q. nigra L.) oaks began require research and development of new control declining in the Dewey-Wills Wildlife Management methods, especially since traditional controls such Area in east-central Louisiana because of the 1998 Southern Forest Science: 166 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health [ were severelydefoliatedbyanotodontidmoth cottonwoodtrees of plantation-growneastern during thelatespringof2001,about2,000acres wetwood infections.Inwest-centralMississippi attacks bytheredoakborerandbacterial oaks havebeenaffected,andthedeclineincludes to 2000drought.To date,nearly6,000acresofred southern hardwoodstands bypreventingthe southern have triedtosuppressroot andbuttrotsin During mostofthe20 logs pulledonskiddertracks, andbyfallingtrees. equipment,by likely tobewoundedbyharvest most valuablelogsinthetree andthelogsmost hardwood forestmanagersbecausethesearethe to lower bolehasalwaysbeenofmostconcern amounts tomillionsofboardfeetannually. The ofhardwood timbervolume the lossinterms hardwoodspeciesareaffected,and All southern forests. of lumbercullanddegradeinsouthern Root andButtRots decline-related insectanddiseaseproblems. they willlikelygiverisetomorenumerous intheclimate, systematic changesoccurring Synthesis Team 2000).Iftherearemajor man-made ecosystems(NationalAssessment changes andthesubsequenteffectstonatural process modelsattempttoexplainpossibleclimate and Abdollahi1999).Various hypothesesand resultinginthegreenhouseeffect(Ning surface, amount ofsolarenergyreflectedofftheEarth’s temperaturesbyalteringthe global surface these increasedgasconcentrationsareaffecting Abdollahi 1999).Someresearchsuggeststhat historiclevels(Ningand above apparentlynormal atmosphere havebeenincreasingforsometime dioxide, methane,andoxidesofnitrogenintothe Anthropogenic inputsofgasessuchascarbon from increasedgreenhousegasesholdtrue. temperature andprecipitationresulting forests ifpredictionsofextremesinatmospheric forfuturesouthern be ofparticularconcern boles werealsoinfectedwithbacterialwetwood. cottonwood treesinlatespring2002;lower Canada,defoliatedthesame and Southeastern UnitedStates common intheNortheastern trees. Thispestof flush ofleavesin2001,furtherweakeningthe ( Gluphisia factor inthisdecline.Defoliationbythecommon to 2000droughtwasbelievedbeapredisposing Gluphisia septentrionis Chrysomela scripta Chrysomela Root andbuttrotsarethemostseriouscause Decline diseasesinvolvingclimatemay wasfollowedbycottonwoodleafbeetle Populus F.) defoliationsonthesecond th century, forestmanagers (Walker)]; again,the1998 species,whichis decay fungi,and logtaperequationsofindividual volume modelsmustaccount forhostspecies, the hostspeciesinvolved(Toole 1959).Thus,decay with thespecificwooddecay funguspresentand of decaydevelopmentwithin hardwoodsvaries Hypoxylon deustum Kretzschmaria deusta Tomentella Ryv., (L.:Fr.) Pil., igniarius tigrinus Lentinus Tyromyces fissilis include to alesserextentinindividualhardwoodspecies (Bull.:Fr.) Mu.Otherspeciesthatareimportant (Pers.:Fr.) Mu.;and tabescens Hericium erinaceus (Jacq.:Fr.); hardwood standsinclude most frequentlyencounteredinsouthern of thedamage.Therootandbuttrotfungi but onlyarelativelyfewspeciescausemost hardwoods, to rootandbuttrotsinsouthern approach becomesfeasible. knowledge anddetectioncapabilitiesbeforethis have tobedevelopedprovidethenecessary However, new technology anddecaymodelswill thespecificcausesofdecay.trees anddetermining capability ofdetectingincipientdecayinstanding to reducelosses.Thisapproachwillrequirethe schedules standing treesandadjustingharvest approach basedondetectingthesemicrobesin by increasingcutvolume,toamorepreemptive with andallowforacertainamountofculllosses the toleranceapproach,orawillingnesstolive hardwoods willslowlybegintomoveawayfrom future, managementofrootandbuttrotsin for hardwoodlumbervolumeincreasesinthe thinning andpartialcommercialcuts.Asdemand equipmentduringprecommercial harvesting wounds inresidualtreescausedbyheavy wound managementtooflogging today, fromfire haslargelyshifted thisconcern fires arerarelyaprobleminhardwoodforests inavoidingwounding.However,concern because 1960). Protectionofthelowerboleisstillprime attributed tofirescarsduringthatperiod(Toole lower boledecaysinbottomlandhardwoodswere wounds causedbyfires.At least80percentof the lastcentury, mucheffortwentintocontrolling intothetree.Duringfirsthalfof gain entry creation ofwoundscarsbywhichmostdecayfungi At least30fungiareknowntocontribute R. ulmarius Inonotus hispidus (Scop.)Den.; (L.:Fr.) Quél, Ganoderma lucidum Ganoderma spp.(Pat.), andtheascomycete Rigidoporus lineatus Rigidoporus (Sowerby:Fr.) ImazekiinIto, (Bull.:Fr.) Fr., (Berk.&Curt.)Donk, Laetiporus sulphureus Laetiporus (Bull.:Fr.) P (Hoffm.:Fr.) Grev.). Therate (Hoffm.:Fr.) P Inonotus dryadeus Trametes versicolor Pleurotus ostreatus (Bull.:Fr.) P .; (W. Curt.:Fr.); Phellinus (Pers.) Armillaria . Martin(= . and hardwood species when predicting future lumber advanced defect is of little value, because it only volume losses.2 This information would be serves to identify unmerchantable trees. Also, necessary for making stand harvesting decisions. it occurs long after the decision should have been Also, a portable, inexpensive, easily used detection made to harvest the tree and avoid the high level device would be necessary to identify the presence of cull losses associated with the development of and extent of damage by specific decay fungi in defect to advanced stages. standing trees during routine stand evaluations Previous strategies for managing defects in by timber cruisers for the purpose of planning southern hardwoods involved simply accepting future harvest schedules. the defect losses caused by microbes and insects The development of new technologies and by removing the cull volume as the logs were methodologies for mitigating losses by wood decay processed at the mill. With the growing demand fungi and other microbes causing defect losses in for quality lumber volume in the United States, standing timber has been an active field of interest new technologies are now needed with the in recent years (Wilson and Lester 1997). Forest capability of detecting defects in logs of standing 167 managers and cruisers responsible for monitoring trees at incipient stages before significant damage forest stands are primarily interested in methods reduces the resulting lumber value in individual and criteria for minimizing losses in lumber trees. New methods and technologies under volume and optimizing production in commercial development, such as electronic aroma detection forests. A major challenge facing forest managers by conductive polymer analysis (CPA) of volatile

is that of establishing policies and procedures metabolites released from microbial log-degrading 16. Chapter for making management decisions to deal with pests, will allow preharvest field detection of log defect losses including decay, discoloration, and defects using a portable detector (Wilson and structural alterations in the properties of wood Lester 1997). This will be much more effective caused by microorganisms in the sapwood and than older methods in optimizing lumber yields heartwood of standing timber. Most estimates because it will prevent cull losses by allowing indicate that at least 30 percent of the total lumber detection and control of the problem long before volume available in many southern hardwood significant damage occurs. Early detection of these stands is degraded or rendered unmerchantable defect-causing microbes in standing trees is useful by lumber defects caused by these pests. Defects for predicting future potential damage because the Diseases Forest Major Southern in logs of standing trees can lead to significant damage potential is species-specific and thus the economic losses ranging from reduced lumber future depreciated value of individual trees can production volume per acre to reduced lumber be estimated by using decay models coupled value (grade), degrade to pulpwood status with with fungi-specific decay expansion constants no merchantable lumber, and ultimately total loss in different hosts. An integral part of this early with no commercial value available for salvage. detection system is the identification of the The most significant challenges to be addressed specific microbe(s) present, because the rate in relation to defect volume losses in lumber of development, type of damage, and location production are to find ways of detecting defect in of defect volume depends on the particular pest logs of standing trees and to determine when to present. Several applications of this technology cut individual trees that have log defects in order are being developed. For example, CPA recently to optimize production on an individual tree basis. was used to distinguish the aroma signatures of The methods used over the past 50 years to detect sapwood cores (host woods) from southern the presence of log defects in standing trees by hardwood species (table 16.1). Technology also has cruisers of most commercial lumber producers been developed to identify forest pathogens and have involved “sounding” the wood (butt log) by wood decay fungi in vitro and in wood samples, striking it with a hard object to locate hollows and to distinguish between different Armillaria in the lower bole. This archaic method is useful species for disease diagnosis (table 16.2). Host- only to detect advanced defect in standing trees and fungi-specific decay-volume models based on because trees with incipient or even intermediate log-taper equations of individual hardwood species stages of defect usually cannot be distinguished also are under development with the objective of from healthy trees. Unfortunately, detecting predicting future lumber volume losses for planning and establishing future harvest schedules for individual hardwood stands (see footnote 2).

2 Wilson, A. Dan. 2002. Wood decay volume models. [Not paged]. Unpublished data. On file with: Southern Research Station, P.O. Box 227, Stoneville, MS 38776. Southern Forest Science: 168 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health Sapwood cores hardwoods basedonelectrical aroma signatures obtained from the32-sensorarray of theAromascan A32S Table 16.1—Globalclassmembership(identity) of aroma profiles for sapwood cores of selected southern capable, insome cases,ofcausingconsiderable unknown woodwasp-wood decayfungicomplexes value. Thisworkhasrevealed new, previously reductions inhardwoodlumber productionand and diseasepeststhatarecausing substantial and quantifyinglossescaused byimportantinsect in Stoneville,MS,hasbeen aimedatidentifying HardwoodsLaboratory research attheSouthern are evenmoredamaging.RecentForest Service capable ofactingtogetherinsymbioticcomplexes wood decayfungiandthehardwoodborers.Those production, nonearemoreimportantthanthe Insect-Wood DecayPest Complexes b for southernhardwoods. Data onlylist comparisons between aroma signatures of sapwood cores from thesesixhardwood species. a Platanus occidentalis Populus deltoides Liquidambar styraciflua Celtis laevigata Carpinus caroliniana Acer rubrum Percentage globalclassmembership(relatedness) of sapwood core aroma profiles basedoncomparison against reference database Mean globalclassmembershipfor 10replications pertreatment. Of allthepeststhatreducehardwoodlumber A. tabescens A. ostoyae A. mellea A. gallica b list comparisons between aroma signatures of thesefour on comparison against reference database for thesefour a Armillaria obtained from the32-sensorarray of theAromascan A32S signature comparisonswith an of aroma profiles for four Table 16.2—Determinations of globalclassmemberships(identity) Percentage globalclassmembership(relatedness) of Mean globalclassmembershipfor 10replications pertreatment. spp. A. rubrum -percent - 80 . . 00 . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 98.0 000000001599.3 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.0 0.0 98.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 96.7 0.0 3.8 0.0 0.0 3.7 0.0 91.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 99.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 A. gallica b 0. 00000.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 - percent - .crlnaaC avgt .syaila .dlodsP. occidentalis P. deltoides L.styraciflua C.laevigata C. caroliniana . . . 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 91.3 8.7 0.8 0.0 99.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 b Armillaria Armillaria .mle .otyeA.tabescens A.ostoyae A. mellea Global classmembership Globalclassmembership glands (mycangia) atthebaseofabdomen near cellulose. Thedecayfungiare carriedinspecial microbes becausetheyare incapable ofdigesting live insymbioticrelationships withwooddecaying Like mostwood-feedinginsects, woodwaspsmust fungi intheprocess(Gilbertson 1984,Smith1979). galleries andvectoring(transmitting) wooddecay trees andcausesignificantdamagebyforming the woodofstressedandweakenedhardwood stagesthatborethrough Siricoidea), withlarval group ofinsects,thewoodwasps(Hymenoptera: decay fungiaremycosymbiontsofapeculiar reducing hardwoodlumbervalue.Thesewood damage tologsinstandingtrees,ultimately spp. basedonelectronic aroma reference library database Armillaria Armillaria Armillaria aroma profiles based species. species. Data only a a the ovipositor in female woodwasps. The adult basidiomycetous wood decay fungi. The two most female woodwasp stores inoculum of the wood common species are Tremex columba (Linnaeus) decay fungus in these mycangial glands, which and Eriotremex formosanus (Matsumura). The are connected directly to the oviduct that passes smaller xiphydriid woodwasps attack mostly through the ovipositor. The decay fungus is maples, elms, and upland hardwood species. injected into the wood with the eggs during They carry ascomycetous wood decay fungi that oviposition. The fungus then grows rapidly and form spores in microscopic sacks (asci) inside of produces extracellular cellulases, which digest the perithecia embedded in black stromatic tissues wood for larval consumption (Kukor and Martin that develop on the surface of the wood. The 1983). When the eggs hatch, the larvae begin woodwasp family (Xiphydriidae) has 22 described boring through the decayed wood, consuming genera, approximately 100 species, and a nutrients both from the decayed wood and the worldwide distribution (Smith 1978). The family mycelium of the fungus itself. The larvae cannot is represented in the United States by a single consume and digest the wood until it is decayed genus, Xiphydria, with 10 described native 169 by the enzymes of the fungus. The larvae produce species. Hitherto, we have isolated the extensive galleries throughout the rotting wood, mycosymbionts from 6 of the 10 native xiphydriid eventually pupate in the wood, and emerge as adults making round exit holes. The wood is decayed far beyond these borer galleries in all directions. Most of these fungi grow very rapidly through the wood, and the wood is decayed 16. Chapter almost completely over several years as both the cellulose (wood fibers) and lignin are digested by extracellular enzymes (Wilson and Schiff 2003). Thus, all of these fungi are physiological white rotters. The actions of these two pests together result in synergistic damage to and economic loss of merchantable hardwood lumber volume. The decay fungi also produce discoloration in the wood Major Southern Forest Diseases Forest Major Southern (a type of stain called zone lines) that further degrade lumber value. The zone lines, produced within decaying wood in association with these wood decay fungi complexes, are a result of somatic antagonism (SA) between different strains of the wood decay fungi competing for the same wood substrate (Wilson and Schiff 2000a). Zone lines that form in wood as SA interactions between xylariaceous fungi represent areas delimiting their territory around decay zones (fig. 16.2). The wood becomes riddled with all three types of damage (borer galleries, decay, and discoloration of wood) until the entire branch or bole becomes unmerchantable. This is a perennial process in which the damage may be compounded by repeated infestations of branches and boles by subsequent generations of the woodwasp. Two major groups of woodwasps can affect hardwood lumber production. The large, siricid woodwasps (Siricidae: subfamily Tremicinae) attack predominantly oaks, sugarberry (Celtis laevigata Willd.), beech (Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.), Figure 16.2—Zone lines observed in decayed wood of sugar and other bottomland hardwood species. Smith maple colonized by Daldinia concentrica, mycosymbiont of and Schiff (2002) provide a review and keys to the Xiphydria maculata woodwasp larvae. These antagonistic interactions form between the decay zones of xylariaceous siricid woodwasps of the Eastern United States. wood decay fungi around woodwasp galleries, and represent These tremecine woodwasps vector predominantly areas delimiting their territory defended by the production of dark inhibitory compounds. Photo by A. Dan Wilson. Southern Forest Science: 170 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health galleries throughout thewooduntilfollowing produce in thefallenlimbonground. Larvae continue toboreanddevelop Xiphydriid larvae thelimb falls off.the remainingbranchstub after can extendintothesapwood ofthebolethrough be brokenbywindoriceaccumulation. Thedecay eventually weakensthelimbwhichmaythen extensive decayandgalleriesinthisarea.This the axilsoflivinghardwoodbranches,causing identification tospecies. the sexualstageinculture,whichhashindered and Schiff2000b).Thesefungidonotusuallyform known tobesymbiontswithwoodwasps(Wilson mycosymbionts are It wasrecentlydiscoveredthatmostofthese and rapidlydecayweakenedhardwoodtrees. to rots inhardwoodspecies.Theyarecloselyrelated which areknownfortheirabilitytocausewhite xylariaceous fungi(Ascomycotina:Xylariaceae), in table16.3.Allofthesemycosymbiontsare hardwoods oftheUnitedStatesaresummarized andeastern xiphydriid woodwaspsinsouthern wood decayingfungalsymbiontsoftremicineand and hicoriae abdominalis woodwasps knowninNorthAmerica,including of culture morphologyof asingle mycangial strain isolated from onlyonefemale woodwasp. References Commonnames Xiphidriidae Major tree hosts Fungal symbiont Siricidae Woodwasp of hardwood lumbervolume insouthern andeastern hardwood species Table 16.3—Symbioticinsect-wood decay fungipest complexesthat cause synergistic defect losses c b fungus complex. a Themycosymbiont of References refer to source(s) that reported thesymbioticassociation and/ornew hosts of thewoodwasp-wood decay Anew species(Smith andSchiff 2001). .tbai Xylaria X. tibialis .saaXylaria X. scafa .mlie Daldinia Acer saccharum D. concentrica X. mellipes X. maculata .hcra Daldinia X. hicoriae X. decem Fagus grandifolia Cerrena unicolor Tremex columba ihdi boiai Xylaria Xiphydria abdominalis Eriotremex formosanus Hypoxylon Xiphydriid woodwaspsovipositprimarilyinto X. tibialis Rohwer, b Say, speciesthatcommonlyattack Say(Smith1976,1979).Theknown X. maculata X. decem Xiphydria hicoriae Xylaria Xylaria Basidiomycete Smith&Schiff, speciesnotpreviously Say, sp. sp. sp. sp. sp. sp. was tentatively identified asa c X. scafa C. caroliniana A. saccharum Carpinus caroliniana B. papyrifera T. americana Carya ovata Betula nigra Tilia americana Celtis laevigata Quercus phellos Smith, X. X. cellulose decomposition. on asinglemycosymbiontforfoodand examined hithertoapparentlydependonly and theirfungalsymbiont.Allwoodwaspspecies symbiotic associationbetweenwoodwaspspecies There alsoappearstobehighfidelityinthe as hardwood species,althoughafewspeciessuch attackingonlyoneortwo host-specific, often cycle. Mostwoodwaspspeciesseemtobefairly into deadlimbsonthegroundtocomplete eggs onceagainintotheaxilsoflivingbranchesor 1995). Adults mate(optionally)andoviposittheir spring, pupate,andemergeasadults(Solomon Stoneville, MS38776. ResearchStation, P Entomologist, Southern Research Pathologist, andNathanMarkSchiff, Research 3 wooden shippingcratesbrought backbythe introduction intotheUnited Statesininfested pest hasspreadfromGeorgiatoTexas since its becausethis States isofconsiderableconcern United in hardwoodforestsoftheSouthern woodwasp [ ofanew,stands. Theoccurrence nonnativesiricid significant sourcesoflogdefectsinallhardwood Thus, thesepestcomplexesarepotentially majorhardwoodspecies. been foundinevery Personal communication.2002.A. Dan Wilson, Principal X. tibialis Woodwasp-wood decay fungicomplexeshave Daldinia ua al WilsonandSchiff 2000b WilsonandSchiff 2000b American hornbeam Sugar maple mrcnhrba WilsonandSchiff 2000b American hornbeam ae ic Unpublisheddata Paper birch asodWilsonandSchiff 2000b WilsonandSchiff 2000b WilsonandSchiff 2000b Basswood Sugar maple Shagbark hickory ie ic WilsonandSchiff 2000b River birch asodWilsonandSchiff 2000b Unpublisheddata Basswood Unpublisheddata Stillwell 1964,1965 Sugarberry American beech Willow oak speciesbasedonsuperficialobservations Eriotremex formosanus Eriotremex formosanus haveanumberofhardwoodhosts. 3 .O. Box227, (Matsumura)] a military from Southeast Asia after the Vietnam Forest Service 1988). The majority of these War in the early 1970s (Smith 1996). Recent decay plantations are more than 10 years of age. Loblolly tests in vitro have demonstrated that the wood pine (Pinus taeda L.) and slash pine (P. elliottii decay fungus vectored by this woodwasp has Engelm. var. elliottii) are the two most planted the potential to rapidly decay sapwood in many and economically important pine species in the eastern hardwoods (Wilson and Schiff 2003). South. The importance of southern forests and This fungus does not fruit readily on its oak plantations as the major suppliers of renewable hosts or in vitro. This makes identification wood products in the United States continues to difficult because the teleomorph or sexual stage increase as production in Western States declines contains key taxonomic characters required for because of changing public land management identification. Perhaps these symbiotic fungi policies which are placing less emphasis on forest do not normally produce sexual fruiting bodies commodity production in that region. The South is because they are regularly carried to appropriate well suited to take on this role because of the rapid tree hosts by their woodwasp vector and, tree growth and production possible in southern 171 therefore, do not have to expend energy to forests, the wide diversity of wood products that produce a metabolically costly fruiting body for can be produced, the responsiveness of southern sporulation and wind dispersal in order to survive. pines to intensive culture and even-aged This is why the extensive damage caused by these silvicultural systems, and the abundance of low- pests often goes unnoticed until the tree is cut. relief sites allowing fully mechanized harvesting These wood decay fungi are rarely visible on the (Blakeslee 1997). outer surface of trees, and adult emergence holes 16. Chapter of the woodwasps look similar to those of other Although relatively few pathogens have had hardwood borers. Consequently, the extent to major impacts on pine production in southern which these pests are damaging southern oak plantations and forests, the diseases caused by forests is not known, although preliminary results these pathogens have caused very significant losses in pulpwood and sawtimber production. with wood decay studies in vitro indicate that Fortunately, there also have been significant the mycosymbiont of E. formosanus and those of xiphydriid woodwasps can cause substantial advances within the past two decades in the white rots in eastern hardwoods after only 1 year development of management strategies to (Wilson and Schiff 2003). We do not yet understand reduce losses to most major pine diseases. Diseases Forest Major Southern the importance of the role woodwasps play in the These advances have often taken into dispersal of wood decay fungi, the impact they consideration changes in pathogen adaptations have on forest health, or the effects that nonnative to suppression strategies, environmental conditions, host genetics, and legislative pests such as E. formosanus and its symbiont will have on lumber defect losses, hardwood timber constraints on management alternatives. salvage, and forest decomposition cycles. Further Fusiform Rust research is needed to elucidate the roles played Fusiform rust continues to be recognized by these new pest complexes that are invading as the most damaging disease of southern pine our southern forests so that appropriate control forests and plantations. The causal agent, strategies can be developed. These insect-disease Cronartium quercuum (Berk.) Miyabe ex Shirai pest complexes will likely receive increasing f. sp. fusiforme (Hedge. & N. Hunt) Burdsall & G. attention in the future as forest managers become Snow, occurs in a broad band across the Southern more aware of their existence, their potential States and is prevalent in the most productive to cause damage, and their long-term impact high-quality loblolly and slash pine sites in this on lumber production in hardwood forests. region (Anderson and others 1986). Fusiform rust MAJOR CONIFER DISEASES incidence has increased dramatically within the he total land area in pine plantations now last 30 years, especially in intensively cultured exceeds 25 million acres in the Southern stands and in afforestation areas, where 47.9 T United States (Belanger and others 2000). million acres of former agricultural lands have The area is expected to more than double by the been converted into pine stands and plantations year 2030. This valuable resource continues to (Starkey and others 1997). Annual losses to the expand primarily on private lands, which furnish disease have been estimated at $35 million in the vast majority of timber products obtained from five Southeastern States (Schmidt 1998). Forest southern forests (U.S. Department of Agriculture, managers throughout the South are concerned about this disease because it affects stocking, Southern Forest Science: 172 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health 1986, Starkey andothers1997);forpredicting 1986, Borders andBailey1986,Froelich andSnow and standcharacteristics(Anderson andothers damagebasedonsite susceptibility ofsitestorust been usefulforidentifying the relativehazardor disease. Thedevelopmentof predictivemodelshas to developintegratedprograms tomanagethis suppression havebeenhelpfulinshapingefforts (Cubbage andWagner 2000). the quantityandqualityoftimberproduced economic valuebecausethediseaseaffectsboth resistance hastranslateddirectlytoincreased rust Nevertheless, developmentoffusiform are tolerant(Walkinshaw 1995). andBarnett strainstowhichpines but maintainlow-virulent strains, on thefungustoproducenewvirulent entirely, toavoidputtingselectionpressure damage,notpreventinfection minimize rust involves theproductionofbreedinglinesthat rotations inthefield.However, anewstrategy when pineselectionsaregrownfortoomany avoid geneticchangesinthefungusthatoccur rotating newresistantpinegrowingstockto fungusbyconstantlyproducingand the rust pine breedershaveattemptedtostayaheadof areas eventuallyovercomeresistance.Previously, 1979). Consequently, fungalstrainsinsome to host-resistancegenes(Powers andMatthews andperhapspathogenadaptations virulence, strain-specific resistance,variationsinpathogen fungus, whichhasapparentlygivenriseto geographical variationinthegeneticsof been encounteredasaconsequenceofthewide severity inmanysites,butsomeproblemshave generally hasreducedpinemortalityanddisease resistance. Thegeneticresistanceapproach rust fast-growing treeswithenhancedfusiform simultaneous developmentofgeneticallysuperior resistance andtreegrowthratehasallowedthe The absenceofageneticlinkagebetweenrust effective routinetoolformanagingthisdisease. brought geneticresistancetotheforefrontasan forest pathologistsoverthepast40yearshave Theeffortsofmany rust. and severityoffusiform management strategyusedtoreducetheincidence planting stockhasbeenthemajordisease vulnerable years(Blakeslee1997). of agetoreduceinfectionduringthemost thetreesare5years by managersuntilafter example, pinefertilizationisfrequentlydelayed integrated intolandmanagementactivities.For managementinmanyareasishighly rust product quantity, andproductquality. Fusiform Alternative approaches to fusiform rust approachestofusiform Alternative The developmentofgeneticresistancein cankers arecommon onVirginia ( management practices. Insouthernpines, trunk bypinehostand canker frequentlyvary (Dwinell andothers1985).The symptomsofpitch pitch cankersfrommostother maladiesofpines wood isadiagnosticcharacter usefulinseparating a cankertogirdlethemain stem.Thepitch-soaked dark gray. Itmaytakeseveralyears,however, for grayishbrownto reddish brown;latertheyturn yellowto girdled bythefungus,needlesturn branches orshoots.Astheshootsare onthe crown resultsfromcankersforming canker isdeeplyresin-soaked.Diebackinthe the barkisretained,whilewoodbeneath exposed roots.Thecankerisusuallysunkenand largebranches,shoots,and terminals, trunk, bleeding, resinouscankerofthemainstemor with cankersofpines.Theclassicsymptomisa from theinductionofcopiouspitchflowassociated andothers].Thediseasederivesitsname Correll P [= Fusarium circinatum Pitch Canker molecular level. knowledge ofhost-pathogeninteractionsatthe more resistantpinesbytakingadvantageofnew new geneticengineeringstrategiesforcreating willultimatelybeuseful indeveloping information and others1997,Wilcox andothers1996). This responses (Covertandothers1977,Roberds host genomes,anddefinecellularresistance genesinpine pine hosts,locaterust-resistance mechanism offungus-inducedgallformationin geneticvariation,identifythe to determine cellular, andbiologicalaspectsofthepathogen techniques tostudypopulationstructure, and others2000). the qualityoftreesinresidualstands(Belanger andgreatlyimproves rust losses tofusiform gallsisaneffectivemeansofreducing by rust with moderate-to-severestemgirdlingcaused and Snow1983).Theselectivethinningoftrees the earlystagesofstanddevelopment(Hare in have helpedreducetheincidenceofrust treatments followedbyprotectivefoliarsprays and others1985).Triadimefon (Bayleton)seed infectionisthegreatest(Nance impact ofrust (during thefirst5years)whenpotential duringstandestablishment of preventingrust Other modelshaveemphasizedtheimportance and Clutter1985,GeronHafley1988). mortality(Devine rust-associated preharvest . E.Nelson,Toussoun &Marasasf. sp. Pitch cankerisadiseaseofpinescausedby Recent researchhasutilizedmolecular F. subglutinans (Wollenweber &Rienking) NirenbergetO’Donnell P. virginiana pini Mill.), longleaf (P. palustris Mill.), and eastern Fraedrich and Dwinell (1997) concluded that white (P. strobus L.) pines. Dieback is common F. circinatum is a wound pathogen of longleaf on slash, loblolly, shortleaf (P. echinata Mill.), sand pine seedlings. Any fresh wound, regardless of [P. clausa (Chapm. ex Engelm.) Vasey ex Sarg.], cause or location, provides an infection court for and pond (P. serotina Michx.) pines. Trunk cankers the pathogen. Insects can create wounds that can on slash pine are common in seed orchards and be infected by airborne spores of the pathogen are usually associated with the use of tree shakers or serve as vectors. In the Southeastern United for cone removal. Cankers on exposed roots States, the deodar weevil (Pissodes nemorensis can be found on slash pine in seed orchards and Germar) creates wounds that may become infected other pines in landscape plantings (Dwinell and by airborne spores of the pathogen (Blakeslee others 1985). and others 1978). Recent unpublished research indicates that the Nantucket pine tip moth Pitch canker is an incomplete descriptive name [Rhyacionia frustrana (Comstock)] may not be for the range of damage caused by F. circinatum. associated with pitch canker in loblolly pine.4 In The pathogen infects a variety of vegetative and 173 slash pine seed orchards, main stem cankers often reproductive pine tissues at different stages of develop after injury caused by mechanical cone maturity and produces a diversity of symptoms. harvesters. Also, injuries caused by wind and Damage to pines by this fungus includes growth hail may serve as entry points. Hurricanes and suppression, stem deformation, and tree mortality. tornadoes, in particular, have contributed to the The pitch canker fungus also causes mortality of intensification of the disease in some seed orchards female flowers and mature cones, and deteriorates 16. Chapter (Dwinell and others 1985). The involvement seeds of several pine species. Dwinell and of insects, interactions with other pine diseases, Fraedrich (1997) isolated F. circinatum from and numerous biotic and abiotic factors can the surface and interior of immature shortleaf influence the incidence and severity of infections pine cones from a North Carolina seed orchard. by F. circinatum. They concluded that interior contamination by F. circinatum was not correlated with necrotic Annual mortality due to pitch canker in regions, caused primarily by insects, on the cone the Southeastern United States has been low. surface. The mode of entry of the pitch canker Southern pines, particularly loblolly, pond, and fungus into cones is unknown. Entire slash pine shortleaf pines, usually recover from outbreaks Diseases Forest Major Southern seedlots and entire longleaf pine seed-crops have of shoot dieback (Barrows-Broaddus and Dwinell been lost as a consequence of contamination by 1985, Kuhlman and others 1982). From 1945 to F. circinatum, which resulted in low seed viability 1973, limited outbreaks of pitch canker were noted and germination (Dwinell and others 1985). in the Southeastern United States, but the disease Current research is aimed at determining whether was not considered to be economically important. the pathogen is primarily on the seed surface or In 1974, a shoot dieback identified as pitch canker infects the embryo. Contamination of seed in reached epidemic proportions on slash pine in longleaf and shortleaf pines is mostly on the seed Florida plantations and seed orchards, and on surface (Dwinell and Fraedrich 1997, Fraedrich loblolly pine in North Carolina and Mississippi and Dwinell 1997). The fungus appears to be seed orchards (Dwinell and others 1985). These primarily external (Dwinell 1999). There is little outbreaks spawned considerable research on pitch empirical data linking seed contamination by F. canker. Over the last three decades, pitch canker circinatum with seedling cankers that occur in outbreaks in the South have occurred sporadically nursery beds and on outplanted sites. The major in time and place. Pitch canker has also evolved result of seed contamination by the pitch canker from a regional problem to one of national and fungus is preemergence and postemergence international importance (Dwinell 1999). Because damping-off (Dwinell 1999, Dwinell and Fraedrich each outbreak has its own unique history, no 2000). In addition, pitch canker occurs in bare-root specific management strategy has been developed and container nurseries. Diseased pine seedlings to reduce or eliminate the threat of pitch canker show chlorotic or reddish brown needles and disease. An integrated management approach, wilting. Pitch-soaked lesions usually occur at including chemical control, biocontrol, genetic or near the soil line, but occasionally are found selection for resistance, and altered cultural in the region of the cotyledonary node (Barnard and Blakeslee 1980). The pitch canker fungus has been associated with late-season mortality in 4 Personal communication. 2002. L David Dwinell, Principal Research Pathologist (retired), Southern Research Station, longleaf pine nurseries (Carey and Kelley 1994). 320 Green Street, Athens, GA 30602. Southern Forest Science: 174 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health for asinfectioncourts 2000). Becausewoundsserve treatments (Dwinell1999,DwinellandFraedrich reduced oreliminatedbyappropriateseed contamination ofpineseedscanbe External and growingconditions(Dwinellothers1985). practices shouldbeconsideredforspecifichosts rot. Thus,wood rottedby extent cellulose,resultingin aphysiologicalwhite woody tissues,particularly lignin andtoalesser its nutritionfromtheenzymatic decompositionof widening mortalitycenters. Thefungusderives creatingever- trees viarootcontactsorgrafts, stand, infectionspreadsfromstumpstohealthy (Garbelotto andothers1999).Oncepresentina (Hendrix andKuhlman 1964)andin pinessuchasslashpine can occurinsouthern through rootwoundsorpossiblyunwoundedroots the stumpandrootwood.Directinfectionofroots subsequently bringaboutmycelialcolonizationof and basidiospores cangerminate which airborne provideasuitablenichein These cutsurfaces the standthroughfreshlycutstumpsurfaces. ofthefungusinto of thispathogenistheentry in theUnitedStates. known tooccureastoftheMississippiRiver only thePbiologicalspeciesof (Otrosina andothers1992,1993).At thistime, close proximityandoverlappinghostniches North AmericanSandPgroups,despitetheir 1998). Virtually nogeneflowoccursbetweenthe elevated tospeciesstatus(NiemlaandKorhonen genetically distinctentities,buthavenotyetbeen S andPbiologicalspeciesinNorthAmericaare andcomposition.Currently,structure ecological forcethatcanaffectstand powerful pest oftemperateconifersworldwideanda annosum Annosus RootDisease and others1985). andDwinell1985, (Barrows-Broaddus genetic selectionforresistanceispossible clones withinseedorchards,suggestingthat in theincidenceofpitchcankeriscommonamong andothers1985).Variation(Barrows-Broaddus Biocontrol organismshavebeenineffective pesticides haveseverelylimitedthisoption. However, regulationsontheuseofchemical control mayreducediseaseintensification. where thewoundingagentisaninsect,chemical pitch canker(Dwinellandothers1985).Incases causes ofthewoundingistantamounttomanaging The most crucial stageinthediseasecycle The mostcrucial The fungalrootpathogen F. circinatum (Fr.) Bref. isaneconomicallyimportant , understandingthecauseor H. annosum Heterobasidion H. annosum Abies H. annosum hasa species is root-infection processes. root habit,andconfiguration canaffectthe water stress,microbialactivity, aeration, and development. Soiltypeaffects factorssuchas explain whyorhowsoilfactors affectdisease availableto disease, thereislittleinformation between certainsoiltypesand 1999). Whilethesemapsprovidecorrelations been usedtodevelophazard-ratingmaps(Anon. (Alexander 1989).Theseedaphicriskfactorshave sand, loworganicmatter, andlowwatertable as highriskhavewell-drainedsoilscontaining associated withthisdisease.Sitesclassified andhazard elements associatedwithoccurrence United States.Edaphicfactorsareimportant H. annosum regarding riskassessmentwithrespectto Froelich andothers1977). reduction occurs(Bradfordandothers1978, considerable rootinfectionbeforegrowth slash andloblollypinesmaybeabletosustain Alexander andothers1981).Ontheotherhand, without significantmortality(Alexander1989, increment losscanoccurinaffectedstands advancedstages,considerablegrowth very root diseaseinfectionintreesisinvisibleuntil usually resultsfromsublethalinfections.Because of and others2002).Mortalityisadramaticeffect andcontacts(Otrosina trees viarootgrafts inoculum potentialtoinfecthealthyresidual thinning,providing for atleast7yearsafter resinous stumpsandstumprootsinlongleafpine fungus canpersistsaprotrophicallyinthehighly and others1981,SchowalterFilip 1993).The bark beetlesandotherrootdiseases(Alexander by host defenseinresponsetoextensiverootinfection of thetreeovertime.Theexpenseenergyfor expended energyandmayresultintheweakening of costlyinterms infection ismetabolicallyvery production ofresinouscompoundsinresponseto contain theadvanceofinfection.The tree toinvasionandmayslowsometimes is aphysiological,host-defenseresponseofthe front containingactivemycelia.Resinproduction become highlyresinousinadvanceoftheinvasion changesindecayedwood. these structural trees aresubjecttowindthrowasaresultof removed fromcellulosicwoodfibers.Infected becomes lightertoalmostwhiteastheligninis characteristic delaminatedappearance,andlater H. annosum Considerable researchhasbeendone Roots infectedbythefungusinlivingtrees H. annosum rootdiseaseintheSoutheastern rootdisease,butgrowthreduction predisposesconiferstoattackby H. annosum root Control of H. annosum root disease is achieved regarding root disease (Otrosina and others primarily through prevention. The most effective 1999, 2002). More comprehensive information on means to date is the prophylactic application of H. annosum root disease in North America and powdered borax formulations to freshly cut stump Europe is presented in Otrosina and Scharpf surfaces. Borax is toxic to basidiospores and (1989) and Woodward and others (1998). conidia of H. annosum (Hodges 1970). Prevention and control is achieved only if borax applications ACKNOWLEDGMENTS are timely, ideally within a few hours after tree he authors thank Evan Nebeker, Frank cutting. Technology that automates application Tainter, and Steve Meadows for reviewing of powdered borax by devices that attach to feller T the manuscript. buncher equipment is now under development (Karsky 1999). Another avenue for H. annosum LITERATURE CITED root disease control is through silvicultural Anon. 1999. Southern forest health atlas of insects and diseases. management. Research by Ross (1973) revealed R8–MR 35. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 175 that thermal inactivation of basidiospores is Service, Southern Region, Forest Health Protection. 36 p. achieved when stump surfaces reach > 35° C, Alexander, S.A. 1989. Annosus root disease hazard rating, resulting in no stump colonization. These detection, and management strategies in the Southeastern temperatures are common during the summer United States. In: Otrosina, W.J.; Scharpf, R.F., tech. coords. ° Proceedings of the symposium on research and management months south of 34 N. latitude and form the basis of annosus root disease (Heterobasidion annosum) in for the recommendation that southern pine stands Western North America. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW–116. Albany, Chapter 16. Chapter south of this latitude be thinned in the summer. CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific On the other hand, high temperature may not be Southwestern Research Station: 111–116. the sole factor responsible for lowering rates of Alexander, S.A.; Skelly, J.M.; Webb, R.S. 1981. Effects of stump infection. Some research suggests that Heterobasidion annosum on radial growth in southern microbial synergy at the stump surface may be pine beetle-infested loblolly pine. Phytopathology. 71: 479–481. affected by high temperatures on stump surfaces, since the fungus could be reisolated from surface Ammon, V.; Nebeker, T.E.; Filer, T.H. [and others]. 1989. Oak decline. Miss. Agric. For. Exper. Stn. Bull. 161. Mississippi sterilized and inoculated wood bolts at State, MS: Mississippi State University. [Not paged]. temperatures up to 40° C (Gooding 1964). Anderson, R.L.; Cost, N.D.; McClure, J.P.; Ryan, G. 1986. Diseases Forest Major Southern Less emphasis has been given to H. annosum Predicting severity of fusiform rust in young loblolly and root disease control in recent years. Preventive slash pine stands in Florida, Georgia, and the Carolinas. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 10: 38–41. measures such as application of borax after thinning are becoming less common. While some Barnard, P.E.; Blakeslee, G.M. 1980. Pitch canker of slash pine data suggest that mortality of trees planted in seedlings: a new disease in forest nurseries. Plant Disease. 64: 695–696. severely infested sites is minimal up to 22 years after planting (Kuhlman 1986), multiple stand Barrows-Broaddus, J.B.; Dwinell, L.D. 1985. Branch dieback and cone and seed infection caused by Fusarium entries and thinning without the proper preventive moniliforme var. subglutinans in a loblolly pine seed measures, combined with longer rotation lengths, orchard in South Carolina. Phytopathology. 75: 1104–1108. will increase the importance of this disease in Barrows-Broaddus, J.B.; Dwinell, L.D.; Kerr, T.J. 1985. coniferous forests in the Southern United States. Evaluation of Arthrobacter strains: a biocontrol of the pitch Such a scenario exists in certain longleaf pine canker fungus (Fusarium moniliforme var. subglutinans) stands where H. annosum root disease results in on slash pines. Canadian Journal of Microbiology. 29: significant and steady mortality beginning when 1382–1389. trees are about 40 years of age. Longleaf pine has Belanger, R.P.; Miller, T.; Zarnoch, S.J. [and others]. 2000. been regarded as highly tolerant to this disease, An integrated approach toward reducing losses from fusiform rust in merchantable slash and loblolly pine but various factors such as degraded soils, root plantations. Res. Pap. SRS–23. Asheville, NC: U.S. damage by equipment, and lengthened prescribed Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern fire regimes have resulted in increased mortality Research Station. 14 p. due to H. annosum and other root pathogens in Billings, R.F. 2000. State forest health programs: a survey these stands. Thus, long-term goals of managing of State foresters. Journal of Forestry. 98: 20–25. longleaf pine on a 75- to 120-year rotation for red- Billings, R.F.; Gehring, E.H.; Cameron, R.S.; Gunter, J.T. cockaded woodpecker [Picoides borealis (Vieillot)] 2001. Current practices in managing oak wilt: Federal habitat, stand restoration, and seed production can cost share programs, trenching, chemical injection, be thwarted if appropriate caution is not exercised and the Texas suppression program. In: Ash, Cynthia L., ed. Shade tree wilt diseases: Proceedings from a national conference. St. Paul, MN: APS Press: 117–129. Southern Forest Science: 176 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health Blakeslee, G.M. 1997. Diseases in the forest: Southern United Blakeslee, G.M.1997.Diseasesintheforest:Southern Blakeslee, G.M.;Oak,S.W.; Gregory, W.; Moses,C.S. Britton, K.O.; Leininger, T.; T.C. Chang,C.J.;Harrington, 1998. Bradford, B.;Alexander, S.A.;Skelly, J.M.1978.Determination Borders, B.E.;Bailey, R.L.1986.Fusiform prediction rust Dwinell, L.D.;Fraedrich, S.W. of 1997.Recovery J.;Kuhlman,Dwinell, L.D.;Barrows-Broaddus, E.G.1985. Dwinell, L.D.1999.Associationofthepitchcankerfunguswith Dewers, R.S.1971.Shadetreeevaluation.Fact SheetL–958. Devine, O.J.; Clutter, inslash J.L.1985.Prediction ofsurvival Cubbage, F.W.; Wagner, J.E.2000.Aneconomicevaluationof Covert, S.F.; Warren, J.;Zwart,A.1977.Differentialgene Chang, C.J.;Leininger, T.D.; Britton;K.O. 2002.Screeningfor Carey, W.A.; Kelley, W.D. 1994.First reportof Compendium ofconifer States. In:Hansen,EverettM.;Lewis,KatherineJ.,eds. var. 1978. Naturalassociationof 82–83. Association of 8: 129–134. annosum of growthloss 145–151. ofAppliedForestry. Journal in theSoutheast.Southern 10: models forsite-preparedslashandloblollypineplantations Phytopathology News.12:208. subglutinans Disease. 69:270–276. pines.Plant Pitch canker:adiseasecomplexofsouthern 35–39. Scientific andIndustrialResearchOrganizationPublishing: workshop. Collingwood,Victoria, Australia: Commonwealth canker inradiatapine:ProceedingsofIMPACT Monterey Gordon, T.R, andpotentialimpactsofpitch eds.Current cones andseedsofpines.In:Devey, M.E.;Matheson,A.C.; 1p. Extension Service. [Place ofpublicationunknown]:Texas Agricultural 31: 88–94. Forest rust. pine plantationsinfectedwithfusiform Science. Applied Forestry. 24:77–85. of Journal protection research.Southern rust fusiform Norcross, GA:TAPPI Press:93–98. In: TAPPI proceedings:biologicalsciencessymposium. pine infectedwith transcription ingalledandasymptomatictissuesofloblolly by sycamores thatmaybetoleranttoleafscorchdiseasecaused pine nurseries.PlantDisease.78:754. subglutinans 1 p.Vol. 3. plant pathology. Edinburgh,Scotland:[Publisherunknown]. congressof In: Proceedingsoftheseventhinternational UnitedStates. sycamore plantationsintheSoutheastern platani publication unknown]:[Publisher unknown]: 42–47. forest nurseriesIUFROworking party conference.[Placeof In: James,R.,ed.Proceedingsofthe diseasesandinsectsin Xylella fastidiosa subglutinans , and . (Fr.) Bref. ofForest EuropeanJournal Pathology. Botryosphaeria f. sp. asacauseoflate-seasonmortalityinlongleaf Xylella Pinus taeda with Cronartium quercuum pini . Phytopathology. 92:S13.

fastidiosa Pissodes nemorensis

diseases. St.Paul, MN:APSPress: from shortleafpineconesandseeds. Fusarium moniliforme

rhodina L.causedby , Ceratocystis withdeclining f. sp. Heterobasidion Fusarium [Abstract].

Fusarium fimbriata fusiforme . Kuhlman, E.G.1986.Impactofannosusrootrotminimal 22 Karsky, boraxapplicator:operators manual.Tech D.1999.Dry Hodges, C.S.1970.Evaluationofstumptreatmentchemicals Himelick, E.B.;Fox, H.W. 1961.Experimentalstudieson Hendrix, F.F.; Kuhlman, E.G.1964.Rootinfectionof Hare, R.C.;Snow, inslash rust G.A.1983.Controloffusiform Gooding, G.W. 1964.Effectoftemperatureongrowthand Gilbertson, R.L.1984.Relationshipsbetweeninsectsandwood- Geron, C.D.;Hafley, W.L. on rust 1988.Impactoffusiform Garbelotto, M.;Cobb,F.W.; T.D. Bruns, [andothers].1999. Froelich, R.C.;Snow, G.A.1986.Predictingsitehazardto Froelich, R.C.;Cowling, E.B.;Collicott,L.V.; Dell,T.R. Fraedrich, S.W.; Dwinell,L.D.1997.Mortalityoflongleaf Filer, T.H., Jr.; diseasesof Cordell,C.E.1983.Nursery Filer, T.H., Jr.; Cooper, D.T.; Collins,R.J.;Wolfe, R.1975. Dwinell, L.D.;Fraedrich, S.W. 2000.Contaminationofpine Journal ofApplied Forestry.Journal 10:96–98. plantingpinesonrootrotinfested sites.Southern years after Development Center. 30p. Agriculture, Forest Missoula Technology Service, and Rep. 9934–2812–MTDC.Missoula, MT: U.S.Departmentof DC: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest 43–53. Service: conferenceon international J.; Yde-Andersen,A.,eds.Proceedingsofthethird for controlof unknown]: [Numberofpagesunknown]. Tech. Bull.680.[Placeofpublicationunknown]:[Publisher control ofoakwiltdisease.IllinoisAgric.Exper. Stn. elliottii Forest Forest Southern Service, ExperimentStation.4p. SO–288. NewOrleans:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture, pine withbayleton(triadimefon)seedtreatment.Res.Note Phytopathology. 54:893–894. of survival Chapter 6. evolution. NewYork: ColumbiaUniversityPress:130–165. Fungus-insect relationships.Perspectives inecologyand rotting basidiomycetes.In:Wheeler, Q.;Blackwell,M.,eds. Forestry. 12:226–231. ofApplied Journal product yieldofloblollypine.Southern Phytopathology.mortality centersinCalifornia. 89:546–554. of Genetic structure Forest rust. fusiform Science.32: 21–35. of plantedslashpine.Forest Science.23:299–306. 1977. unknown]: [Publisher48–54. IUFRO workingpartyconference.[Placeofpublication Proceedings ofthediseasesandinsectsinforestnurseries evaluation ofpotentialinoculumsources.In:James,R.,ed. pine seedlingscausedby ForestSouthern ExperimentStation.6p. Orleans: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Service, hardwoods.For.southern InsectandDis.Leafl.137.New and dieback.PlantDiseaseReporter. 59:152–153. ofsycamoreplantationsforcanker,Survey leafscorch, publication unknown]:[Publisher75–82. 4th meetingofIUFROWorking Party 7.03.04.[Placeof eds. Diseasesandinsectsinforestnurseries.Proceedingsof seeds by Fomes annosus by Fusarium circinatum Fomes annosus Fomes annosus Fomes annosus Heterobasidion annosum reducesheightanddiametergrowth Fusarium subglutinans infreshlycutpinebolts. . Nature.201:555–556. Fomes annosus . In:Hodges,C.S.;Rishbeth, . In:Lilja,A.;Sutherland,J., . Washington, inwhitefir andan Pinus Kuhlman, E.G.; Dianis, S.D.; Smith, T.K. 1982. Epidemiology Otrosina, W.J.; Walkinshaw, C.H.; Zarnoch, S.J. [and others]. of pitch canker disease in a loblolly pine seed orchard. 2002. Root disease, longleaf pine mortality, and prescribed Phytopathology. 72: 1212–1216. burning. In: Outcalt, Kenneth W., ed. Proceedings of the eleventh biennial southern silvicultural research conference. Kukor, J.J.; Martin, M.M. 1983. Acquisition of digestive Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–48. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of enzymes by siricid woodwasps from their fungal symbiont. Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: Science. 220: 1161–1163. 551–557. Leininger, T.D.; Solomon, J.D.; Wilson, A.D.; Schiff, N.M. 1999. Powers, H.H., Jr.; Matthews, F.R. 1979. Interactions between A guide to major insects, diseases, air pollution injury, and virulent isolates of Cronartium quercuum f. sp. fusiforme chemical injury of sycamore. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–28. and loblolly pine families of varying resistance. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Phytopathology. 69: 720–722. Service, Southern Research Station. 44 p. Roberds, J.H.; Kubisiak, T.L.; Spaine, P.C. [and others]. 1997. Manion, P.D.; Lachance, D. 1992. Forest decline concepts: an Selection of RAPD markers for investigation of genetic overview. In: Manion, P.D.; Lachance, D., eds. Forest decline population structure in fusiform rust fungus infecting concepts. St. Paul, MN: American Phytopathological Society: loblolly pine. In: Proceedings of the 24th biennial southern 181–190. forest tree improvement conference. [Place of publication McGarity, R.W. 1976. Sycamore disease incidence survey. unknown]: [Publisher unknown]: 293–298. 177 Unnumbered Intern. Rep. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department Ross, E.W. 1973. Fomes annosus in Southeastern United of Agriculture, Forest Service, Hardwood Management States: relation of environmental and biotic factors to stump Research. 9 p. colonization and losses in the residual stand. Tech. Bull. Morris, R.C.; Filer, T.H.; Solomon, J.D. [and others]. 1975. 1459. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Insects and diseases of cottonwood. Gen. Tech. Rep. SO–8. Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 26 p. New Orleans: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Schmidt, R.A. 1998. Fusiform rust disease of southern pines: 16. Chapter Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 37 p. biology, ecology, and management. [Place of publication Nance, W.L.; Shoulders, E.; Dell, T.R. 1985. Predicting survival unknown]: University of Florida, Agricultural Experiment and yield of unthinned slash and loblolly pine plantations Station. 14 p. with different levels of fusiform rust. In: Branham, S.J.; Schowalter, T.D.; Filip, G.M. 1993. Beetle-pathogen interactions Thatcher, R.C., eds. Proceedings of the integrated pest in conifer forests. London: Academic Press, Harcourt Brace management research symposium. Gen. Tech. Rep. SO–56. & Co. 252 p. New Orleans: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station: 62–72. Sherald, J.L.; Kostka, S.J. 1992. Bacterial leaf scorch of landscape trees caused by Xylella fastidiosa. Journal of National Assessment Synthesis Team. 2000. Climate change Arboriculture. 18: 57–63. impacts on the United States: the potential consequences of climate variability and change. Washington, DC: U.S. Global Smith, D.R. 1976. 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Cylindrocladium scoparium associated with root rot and mortality of cherrybark oak seedlings. Plant Disease Reporter. 61: 577–579. Southern Forest Science: 178 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest 2002.Forest Service. U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest 1988. Service. Toole, hardwoods.For. E.R.1960.Buttrotofsouthern Toole, bottom- tosouthern fireinjury E.R.1959.Decayafter Stillwell, M.A.1965.Hypopleuralorgansofthewoodwasplarva Stillwell, M.A.1964.Thefungusassociatedwithwoodwasps Starkey, D.A.;Anderson,R.L.;Young, C.H.[andothers].1997. Stanturf, J.A.;Gardiner, E.S.;Hamel,P Solomon, J.D.;McCracken,F.I.; Anderson,R.L.[andothers]. Solomon, J.D.;Leininger, T.D.; Wilson, A.D.[andothers].1993. Solomon, J.D.1995.GuidetoinsectborersofNorthAmerica Washington, DC:Forest Health Protection.100p. insect anddiseaseconditionsintheUnitedStates2000. Res. Rep.24.Washington, DC.512p. forthefuture.For.The South’sfourthforest:alternatives Office. 4p. Pest Leafl.43.Washington, Printing DC:U.S.Government Printing Office.25p. Government land hardwods.Tech. Bull.1189.Washington, DC:U.S. unicolor Tremex columba of Botany. 42:495–496. CanadianJournal onbeechinNewBrunswick. occurring Region. 29p. Department ofAgriculture,Forest Southern Service, change overtime.Prot.Rep.R8–PR30.Atlanta: U.S. intheSouthand rust Monitoring incidenceoffusiform Mississippi AlluvialValley. ofForestry. Journal 98:10–16. Restoring bottomlandhardwoodecosystemsintheLower Forest ResearchStation.69p. Southern Service, Region; Asheville,NC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture, U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Southern Service, pollution andchemicalinjury. Prot.Rep.R8–PR7.Atlanta: 1997. Oakpests:aguidetomajorinsects,diseases,air ForestSouthern ExperimentStation.45p. Orleans: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Service, injury, andchemicalinjury. Gen.Tech. Rep.SO–96.New Ash pests:aguidetomajorinsects,diseases,airpollution DC: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest 735p. Service. Agric.Handb.706.Washington,broadleaf treesandshrubs. Bull.exFries. CanadianEntomology. 97:783–784. (L.)containingthefungus .B. [andothers].2000. Daedalea Woodward, A.1998. S.;Stenlid,J.;Karjalainen,R.;Hutterman, Wilson, A.D.;Schiff, N.M.2003.Wood decaypotentialof Wilson, A.D.;Schiff, N.M.2000b.Xylariaceouswooddecay Wilson, A.D.;Schiff, N.M.2000a.Somaticantagonismbetween Wilson, A.D.;Lester, D.G.2002.Trench insertsprovidelong- Wilson, A.D.;Lester, D.G.1997.Useofanelectronic-nose Wilson, A.D.;Lester, D.G.1995.Applicationofpropiconazole Wilson, A.D.;Forse, L.B.1997.SensitivityofTexas strainsof Wilson, A.D.2001.Oakwilt:apotentialthreattosouthern Wilcox, P Walkinshaw, J.P C.H.;Barnett, control. NewYork: 589p. CAB International. Heterobasidion annosum Phytopathology. 93:S90. mycosymbionts fromxiphydriidandtremicinewoodwasps. Phytopathology. 90:S84. fungi: mycosymbiontsofxiphydriidwoodwasps. 90: S84. fungal symbiontsofxiphydriidwoodwasps.Phytopathology. Plant Disease.86:1067–1074. toroottransmissionforcontrolofoakwilt. barriers term S116. identify phytopathogenicmicrobes.Phytopathology. 87: device forprofilingheadspacevolatilemetabolitestorapidly live oaks.Fungicide andNematicideTests. 50:393. and 89: 468–480. Ceratocystis fagacearum ofForestry. oakforests.Journal and western 99:4–11. of theNationalAcademy ofSciences.93:3859–3864. disease inloblollypinebygenomicmapping.Proceedings rust Detection ofamajorgeneforresistanceinfusiform 60–64. ofAppliedForestry. Journal Southern rust. to fusiform 19: Pseudomonas cichorii .L.; Amerson,H.V.; Sederoff, R.R.[andothers]. 1996. totriazolefungicides.Mycologia. : biology, ecology, impact,and forcontrolofoakwiltinTexas . 1995.Tolerance ofloblollypines Chapter 17.

Monitoring the Sustainability of the Southern Forest

Gregory A. Reams, INTRODUCTION Neil Clark, and he ecological and economic sustainability James Chamberlain1 of our Nation’s forests is being questioned. T The definition of forest sustainability is not fixed. As knowledge of forest processes and uses expands, conceptions and components Abstract—The ecological and economic of sustainability will change. At a minimum, 179 sustainability of southern forests is being sustainability must include both ecological and questioned because there are many competing human dimensions: underlying ecological integrity uses for these forests and because there are large of soil, water, atmosphere, biological diversity and regional shifts in forest land use. To adequately productivity must relate to human needs for food, understand the state of our forests and their use water, health, shelter, fuel, and culture. The U.S. with respect to sustainability, several significant Department of Agriculture Forest Service (Forest changes have been made in programs of the Service), Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) and U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service’s Forest Health Monitoring (FHM) Programs have Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) and Forest been expanding their roles to include analyses of Health Monitoring Research Work Units. These biological diversity and productivity as influenced changes are enabling these units to better assess by soil, water, and atmospheric composition. For example, in the past decade these two programs the status of and sustainability of our forests. The have been modified to provide the monitoring FIA Program has replaced the 70-year-old periodic data and analyses required for the investigation forest survey sampling design with a continuous of environmental concerns about air pollutant annual sampling program. The new sampling impacts and effects of climate change on forests. design provides for continuous monitoring and Concern over perceived and real trends in reporting, with the emphasis on current status forest resource conditions has led to numerous and trends in forest resources and many of requests for improvement in the quantity, quality, the criteria and indicators of sustainable forest and timeliness of information about forests and management as identified by the Montreal enhanced access to this information. To address Process. The program is a collaborative partnership these concerns, FIA and FHM contribute data among the Southern State forestry agencies and and analyses to a variety of national and global the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, assessments. The FIA and FHM data address Southern Research Station. The process used to at least 38 of the 67 criteria and indicators of develop the new annual forest inventory program sustainability for reporting under the Montreal has provided the opportunity to build stronger Process. FIA and FHM data are essential partnerships with State forestry agencies, to those who produce reports required by universities, nongovernmental organizations, and the Resources Planning Act (RPA) and are increasingly employed to support regional the forest industry. These new and renewed resource assessments used as a basis for forest partnerships are of considerable value in defining, planning. In response to these needs, FIA interpreting, and reporting on criteria and indicators and FHM have implemented an annual forest related to sustainable forestry. Recent collaborative inventory and monitoring program nationwide. research has produced methods for estimating forest area and area change from satellite imagery, initiatives on how to quantify and report nontimber 1 forest products, and potential uses of remote Mathematical Statistician and Project Leader, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research sensing instruments for on-plot measurements; Station, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709; Research Forester e.g., global positioning system units, lasers, and and Research Forest Products Technologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, camera systems. Blacksburg, VA 24060, respectively. Southern Forest Science: 180 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health FOREST HEALTH MONITORING MISSION decadal scaledesignallowed. trends muchmorequicklythantheprevious program enablesFIAtoidentifychangesin over thelastfourdecades.Theannualinventory landshavecontinuedtoincrease forest industry pollutants haveabated,and(5)growthrateson pine growthdeclinerelatedtoair of asouthern more plantedandfewernaturalstands,(4)fears of theSouth’sforestismovingsteadilytoward for severaldecades,(3)thepinecomponent forest landbaseintheSouthhasbeenstable the predominantlanduseinSouth,(2) FIA hadestablishedthat(1)forestlandremains of about10years.Priortotheannualinventory, reinventoried eachState’sforestsatintervals sustainability oftheNation’sforests. thepublicabouthealthand and inform economically andecologicallysustainable; businessplansthatare processes; formulate for moreintensivestudiesonkeyecosystem asastartingpoint reporting;serve international State andFederal policydecisions,including and harvesting. of treeregeneration,growth,mortality, change intreespeciescomposition,andrates about theextentofforests,changeinforestarea, available and scientificallydefensibleinformation various products,andonforestlandownership. on woodproductionandutilizationratesby FIA Programalsocollectsandreportsinformation considered tobeindicatorsofforesthealth.The onattributes provide additionalinformation removals.TheFIAandFHM Programs in harvest in treesize,volume,growthandmortality, and of andtrendsinforestarea,speciescomposition, status States. Theprogramreportsonthecurrent for allpublicandprivatelandwithintheUnited T THE FIAMISSION growth, andnonnative speciesaffectforests. such asairpollutants, climatechange,population weather events,andanthropogenic stresses factors suchasinsects,disease, andextreme abouthownatural address environmentalconcerns The FHMProgramwasestablished in1991to T Historically, theFIAProgramhas isusedtohelpformulate This information The FIAProgramprovidesthemostobjective credible programthatprovidesforestdata operation since1930.Itistheonlyconsistent, of forestecosystemsinthe United States. about thestatusofandtrends inthehealth he FIAProgramhasbeenincontinuous he purposeofFHMistomakestatements of cause-effect relationshipsbylinkingthe current Intensive site monitoringenhancesunderstanding for monitoringurbanandriparian forests.(4) detection ofinvasivespecies, anddevisemethods bioindicators offoresthealth, provideearly designs andanalyticaltechniques usedtodevelop on monitoringtechniquescreates sampling through detectionmonitoring.(3)Research undesirable changesinforesthealthidentified theextent,severity,determines andcausesof in forestconditions.(2)Evaluationmonitoring toevaluatethestatusofandchange surveys uses nationallystandardizedgroundandaerial five majoractivities.(1)Detectionmonitoring estimation ofthespatialdistributioninjury. tospecificcausesandformoreaccurate of injury to specificpollutants.Thisallowsforassignment bioindicator speciesthataresufficientlysensitive are closed.Thus,FHMhasoptedtomonitor occurwhenstomata and theseepisodesoften occuratthe sametime, and temperaturesoften plants unlesstheirstomataareopen.Highozone It isknownthathighlevelsofozonedonotinjure that ofmonitoringthepotentialimpactozone. and anthropogenicstresses.Akeyexampleis other variablestomonitortheeffectsofnatural relied onthemonitoringofbioindicatorplantsand variables, whileeffortsintheUnitedStateshave for onsitemonitoringofpollutantsandweather for Western Europe.EffortsinEuropehaveopted the UnitedStatesandsimilarmonitoringefforts difference betweenFHMasimplementedin and sustainabilityissues.Thereisonekey and abioticdatasourcestoaddressforesthealth andotherbiotic aerialsurveys, ground surveys, FHM Programusesdatafromgroundplotsand Federal Agenciesandacademicgroups.The StateForesters,Service, andotherState through apartnershipinvolvingtheForest FHMProgram. to thoseaddressedbythecurrent research questionsaskedbyNAPAP aresimilar to causesofthiskind.Manythepolicyand andsugarmaplehavebeenattributed red spruce, pines, the productivityorhealthofsouthern and others1990).Suspecteddeclinesineither pollutants mightbedamagingforests(Barnard pollutants andthattheseregionallydistributed States wereexposedtoacidicdepositionandother thatmanyforestsintheUnited increased concern FHM Program.Duringthemid-1980stherewas the mid-1980swasinmanywaysaprecursorof Program (NAPAP) Forest ResponseProgramof The FHMProgramisimplementedthrough The FHMProgramcoversallforestedlands The NationalAcid PrecipitationAssessment status of and trends in surveyed attributes and is very different from the situation in most bioindicators to process-level studies of specific inventories, in which the sampling strategy is issues such as calcium depletion and carbon directly tied to the need to efficiently estimate cycling. (5) Analysis and reporting produces one or two closely related attributes of interest. peer-reviewed publications about analysis and Fortunately for the continuity of FIA inventory interpretation of sampled populations and reports work, the types of measurement data that were on forest health at national and regional levels. used to estimate forest resources 30 years ago Since 1999, the FHM ground plot network used remain equally useful today. Nevertheless, a for detection monitoring has been integrated with dominant consideration in planning a long-term the more intensively sampled forest inventory monitoring program is the inevitability that a network maintained by the FIA Program. highly efficient sample design, one that optimizes Currently, FIA has one plot per 6,000 acres, and on one or very few resources of interest, will go FHM has one plot per 96,000 acres. Also, FIA out of date. Examples in forest inventory work has adopted annual survey methods similar to include the use of overly detailed stratification and 181 those used in the FHM Program. The merger of variable probability of selection based on volume the FIA and FHM plot networks and increased or value per unit area. Design features that involve coordination of survey methods enable both complex sample structure create potentially programs to produce annual estimates of forest serious difficulties, whereas an equal-probability area, forest inventory, and bioindicators of forest design permits greater adaptability and flexibility. health. Moreover, the FHM (phase 3) field plots To minimize sample design obsolescence, structure 17. Chapter expand the suite of attributes sampled. The FHM should be employed sparingly and with awareness attribute list now includes tree crown conditions, of its undesirable effects. Variable probability cover and diversity of lower vegetation (shrubs, sampling designs and other complex sampling forbs, grasses, and vines), soils, lichen diversity schemes are less amenable to the multiple and (as an indicator of air quality), indicator plants changing objectives that long-term monitoring for ozone presence, and coarse woody debris. This designs must address, and therefore should be expanded sampling provides data that can be used avoided (Overton and Stehman 1996). to estimate forest carbon and forest fire fuel loads. Simplicity is desirable for many reasons. It is Readers are encouraged to visit http://fia.fs.fed.us/ not only that sample elements will change over library.htm#manuals for a thorough explanation

time (as when forest plots become parking lots); Forest the Southern of Sustainability of all FHM indicators. it is also that overall objectives change. Another The assessment of forest health should be reason for simplicity is the growing recognition based on definable criteria. The Forest Service’s that data collected by federally funded monitoring monitoring programs have adopted the Montreal programs should be accessible to the public at Process and criteria and indicators for evaluating large (Cowling 1992). With a relatively simple forest health and conditions to provide information sample design, it is more likely that valid results for sustainable forest management. and conclusions can be reached by various public Some of the challenges and concepts that users of the databases. must be considered in integrating and redesigning The simplicity and resiliency needs of the inventory and monitoring programs are discussed southern FIA Program have resulted in the use in the following section. of an equal-probability systematic sample design (Roesch and Reams 1999). The new annualized DESIGNING AN INVENTORY AND sample design employs five annual panels, MONITORING SYSTEM whereby plots measured in year one will be n designing an inventory and monitoring remeasured in year six (fig. 17.1). The southern system, it is important to recognize that FIA Program has historically used a completely I definitions of sustainability change over time overlapping single-panel design for periodic and vary according to location and interests. inventories and is implementing a similar design Changes in forest type and condition have in its annual surveys (Reams and Van Deusen accelerated, and the rapid pace of change likely 1999). To transition from the single-panel periodic will continue in the South. The combination of real survey measured once every 10 years to an annual change, introduction of new sampled attributes, survey, FIA subpaneled the periodic plot list into and definitional changes over time calls for a five panels. Panels represent a sample in which the resilient and simple sampling frame. This goal same elements (plots in this case) are measured on Southern Forest Science: 182 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health hexagon (Roesch andReams 1999). panel asanimmediate neighbor. There isoneplotper design. Noelement hasanothermemberfrom thesame Figure 17.1—Aninterpenetrating pattern for afive-panel and Van Deusen1999). and others2000),imputation (Reams individual treegrowthmodels (McRobert estimation (Van Deusen1996),updatingusing These estimationmethodsinclude mixed being consideredforpossible implementation. presented bythescientificcommunityandare estimation. Severalnewapproacheshavebeen provides increasedflexibilityininventory estimation(Reamsandothers1999). for inventory canbeused thehurricane panels measuredafter dropped fromtheestimationprocess,andonly areas. Insuchacase,priorpanelsmustbe intheaffected would overestimateinventory estimates basedona5-yearmovingaverage during themeasurementofpanel3,inventory of interest.For occurred example,ifahurricane orastrongtrendintheattribute ininventory shift are mostobviouswhenthereiseitheranabrupt inventory.underestimate current Thesesituations 5-year movingaveragewilloverestimateor 1999). Therearecircumstancesinwhichthe estimates(Roesch andReams annual inventory providing thefoundationoffirst-generation similartotheperiodicestimatesare is very estimates likethesimplemovingaveragethat estimation techniqueswillberealized.Annualized implemented, theincreasedflexibilityininventory in growth,mortality, andremovals. due totheimportanceofestimatinggrosschanges FIA Program,theuseofapaneldesignislargely masked inanonoverlappingdesign.Insouthern’s for theaccountingofgrosschangethatwouldbe studies ofindividualchangeandthereforeallow two ormoreoccasions.Panel designspermit 1 1 1 1 The time-seriesnatureoftheannualsurvey Once thenewfive-paneldesignisfully 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 5 5 5 5 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 5 5 5 5 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 4 2 2 23 2 5 5 5 5 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 5 5 5 5 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 5 5 5 5 Programs provideasignificant levelofinformation displayed intable17.1.The FIAandFHM agreed uponinthe1995Santiago Agreementare indicators definedintheMontreal Processand Programs addresstheecological criteriaand institutional, andeconomicframework. multiple socioeconomicbenefits;and(7)legal, (6) maintenanceandenhancementoflong-term of forestcontributiontoglobalcarboncycles; of soilandwaterresources;(5)maintenance andmaintenance and vitality;(4)conservation (3) maintenanceofforestecosystemhealth of theproductivecapacityforestecosystems; ofbiodiversity;(2)maintenance (1) conservation periodically,when observed demonstratestrends. that canbemeasuredordescribed,andwhich, indicator isaquantitativeorqualitativevariable are monitoredperiodicallytoassesschange.An characterized byasetofrelatedindicators,which forest managementmaybeassessed.Acriterionis conditions orprocessesbywhichsustainable of for eachcriterion.Acriterionisacategory sustainability withmanymeasurableindicators Forest hasidentifiedsevencriteriaof Service as itisdefinedbytheMontrealProcess, view ofsomeappropriatelevelresourceuse. rates ofregeneration,and(5)awidelyaccepted ratesofresourceuseand (4) knowledgeofcurrent generations, (3)anestimateoffutureneeds, forfuture resources overtime,(2)aconcern and others2001).Theseinclude(1)maintaining Greis 2002). and theavailabilityofforestresources(Wear and model futureforestdistributionandcomposition, FIA dataalsoprovidethebasicinputsusedto forest assessmentswithintheUnitedStates.The foralltypesoflarge-scale the basicinformation FIA data,analyses,andinterpretationsprovide (Reamsandothers1999). increasingly necessary public policythemesorinitiativesarebecoming sustainability relatedtooneormoremajor As aresult,large-scaleassessmentsofforest national,andregionalscales. at international, statusofandemergingtrendsinforests current T SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENTS The degreetowhichtheFHMandFIA The sevencriteriaofforestsustainabilityare In anefforttomonitorforestsustainability Sustainability hasatleastfiveelements(Floyd community, andthepublicatlarge overthe among naturalresourcemanagers,thescience he pastdecadehasseenincreasedconcern Table 17.1—The degree to which the FHM and FIA programs are currently addressing the criteria and indicators of the Montreal Process as specified in the 1995 Santiago Agreementa

Criterion Indicator Measurement FHM and FIAb

Biological diversity Ecosystem diversity Areal extent of forest types Percent total forest *** Percent nonprotected— by forest type and age class * Percent protected— by forest type and age class * Fragmentation of forest types *** Species diversity Forest-dependent species Total number— no. of forest-dependent species **P Status of risk species— no. of breeding populations * 183 Genetic diversity Proportion of former range ? Population levels of representative species— species/diverse habitat/ * total range

Productive capacity Timber production— 17. Chapter area and net area available; population estimate is coarser than those provided by FIA *** Total growing stock— Plantations— merchant and nonmerchant area/growing stock, native available and exotic species *** Annual removal wood products— compared to sustainable volume *

Ecosystem health Insects and disease *** and vitality— Competition from exotics **P based on area Abiotic stressors Fire *** Forest the Southern of Sustainability and percent Storms *** forest affected Flooding *** Salination *** Management/use Land clearance *** Domestic animals *

Air pollutants S, N, O3, etc. **P UV-B ? Biological indicators of Epiphytes *** key processes— Insects * nutrient cycling, Fauna * reproduction, etc. Vegetation communities **P

Soil resources— Physical properties Erosion *** based on area and/ Compaction ** or percent Other physical properties *** Chemical properties Organic matter *** Nutrients *** Toxins ** Protective functions— watersheds, floods, avalanche, riparian ** continued Southern Forest Science: 184 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health development of soundpolicy. resource trends, arerequisitesforthe aboutforest provide unbiasedinformation and that arecost-effective,publicly trusted, assessments ofsustainability. Annualinventories scientific questionsregarding societalissue-driven toaddressthemany monitoring information systems canprovidethebasicbaselineand forest conditionsandtrends. and FHMdatatodescribeestimatecurrent rely heavily, andinmanycasesexclusively, onFIA of forestcarbonstocks(HeathandBirdsey1997) Man andtheBiosphere1996),monitoring Appalachian Appalachian Assessment(Southern 1993), therecentlycompletedSouthern assessments suchasRPA (Powell andothers ecosystems (HeinzCenter2002),nationalresource Center reportonthestateofNation’s forestassessments. TheHeinz international level foralltypesofregional,national,and attheforestarea,plot,andtree basic information in table17.1. six andseven.Criteriasevenarenotlisted littleforcriteria for thefirstfivecriteria,butvery lblcro yls Total ecosystem biomass/ Global carbon cycles— a e eore—Sra lwadtmn * unknown whether regional monitoring FHMandFIA methods exist. FHM pilotstudies; ***=techniques for measurement orestimation developed inFIA/FHMPrograms andimplemented nationally; ?= development inFIA/FHMPrograms; **P=techniques for measurement orestimation underdevelopment andtested inregional FIA/ b sample andreport thesemeasures. a FHM =Forest Health Monitoring; FIA=Forest Inventory Measurement andAnalysis;S=sulfur;N =nitrogen; O Indicator Stream flow andtiming Water resources— Criterion and indicators of theMontreal Process asspecifiedinthe1995Santiago Agreement Table 17.1—Thedegree to whichtheFHMandFIAprograms are currently addressing thecriteria Criteria sixandseven andcorresponding indicators are notincludedbecause theFIAandFHMPrograms are notdesigned to *=techniques for measurement orestimation developed inotherprograms; **=techniques for measurement orestimation under otiue yfrsscarbon pool— contributed by forests ae nhsoia ilgcldvriy* * Temperature Physical properties Biological diversity patterns based onhistorical Well-planned andexecuted annualsurvey FIA andFHMdatawillcontinuetoprovidethe oetpout * ** Forest products Standing biomass Sequestration/release of carbon hmclpoete H* pH Chemical properties .. oettp,aecas t.** e.g., forest type, age class, etc. PRODUCTS OUTPUTREPORTS excelsior, logsforloghomes,shavings, and industrial mills;e.g.,those that producecharcoal, veneer mills,compositepanel mills,andother Typical mill typesincludepulpmills,sawmills, by milltypeandproduct mixesacrossmills. is usedtotracktrendsinindustrial production domesticmanufacturer(Johnson 1998). primary of timberdrainonlyiftheyaredeliveredtoa chipped inthewoodsareincludedestimate processorsarenotcanvassed.Treessecondary and products fromresiduesgeneratedatprimary make compositeboardproducts.Millsproducing pulpwood, veneerlogs,poles,andlogsusedto of industrialroundwoodproductsaresawlogs, directlyfromthewoods.Examples or chipform that processroundwoodinstemlength,log,bolt, millsarethose estimates ofremovals.Primary byprovidingindependent the fieldsurvey This componentoftheFIAProgramcomplements wood-usingfacilities. canvasses ofprimary removals andmortality. FIAalsoconducts F This timberproductsoutput (TPO)information IA andFHMfield-plotsystemsprovide volume andchangesinducedby datausedtoestimatecurrent the inventory ol *** * **P Soils Peat Coarse woody debris eiet * * * Electrical conductivity Dissolved oxygen Sediments 3 = ozone;UV-Bultraviolet-B. a (continued) b firewood. The TPO information is often used This study is an initial effort to define the overall by industry analysts to estimate current rates industry, identify obstacles to the collection of of demand. data needed to estimate the volume and value In addition to timber, hundreds of plants, of NTFPs, and formulate protocols for regular fungi, and microorganisms are being collected monitoring of output from the varied segments and harvested for personal and commercial use. of this industry. These nontimber forest products (NTFP) are Assessments of NTFP outputs have never been harvested from within and on the edges of forests. undertaken in the South. For the most part, lists of They may include fungi, moss, lichen, herbs, vines, enterprises that could be contacted and surveyed shrubs, or trees. Many different parts of plants are do not exist. We are able to utilize some lists, such harvested, including roots, tubers, leaves, bark, as those of ginseng dealers in each State. For the twigs and branches, fruit, sap and resin, and wood. most part, we are starting from scratch to develop NTFPs can be classified into four major product a framework that will allow for regular contact categories: (1) culinary, (2) wood based, (3) floral with NTFP enterprises. On a regional basis, this 185 and decorative, and (4) medicinal and dietary requires canvassing county agriculture agents to supplements (Chamberlain and others 1998, 2002). get their estimates of the numbers of enterprises To date, inventory and monitoring of NTFPs within their geographic areas of responsibility. have been limited because there has been no County agents are asked to estimate the number legislative mandate for such activities. However, of firms that deal in four segments of the NTFP Chapter 17. Chapter there is increasing awareness that NTFPs should industry; i.e., medicinal, edible, floral, and be recognized as renewable resources, managed specialty wood. Figure 17.2 presents the scientifically, and collected on a sustainable basis. perceptions of county agents in 7 of the 13 Forest managers have identified a number of Southern States. critical problems hindering efforts to improve To undertake assessments of the output by forest management for NTFPs. These problems State will require identifying and contacting include (1) lack of baseline information on the enterprises in each county. To assess the distribution, abundance, condition, and rates challenges of undertaking NTFP assessments of change for NTFP populations of interest; at this level, the project is carrying out a pilot (2) lack of knowledge about the biology and ecology of the flora from which these products Sustainability of the Southern Forest the Southern of Sustainability originate; (3) diversity of the products and of the collectors; (4) lack of market knowledge; and (5) insufficient personnel and resources to assign to NTFP management. Emerging policies could significantly change how the Forest Service addresses NTFPs. A new bill would require the Secretary of Agriculture to determine sustainable harvest methods and harvest levels for these products and to establish methods to ensure that revenues are returned to Number of enterprises the local units from which they were 0 generated. Implementation of this bill 1 Ð 10 may require tracking the distribution, 11 Ð 20 21 Ð 50 abundance, condition, removals, and final 51 Ð 100 markets of NTFPs. 101+ No data In anticipation of these new reporting requirements, a study has been initiated to determine the importance of NTFP industry throughout the South. The lack of knowledge about the role of this industry in rural communities hinders efforts to allocate resources to improve management. Figure 17.2—Number of nontimber forest products enterprises by county for seven Southern States. Southern Forest Science: 186 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health 1994, Liuand others1995).Thesetoolsare used ultrasonic orlaserrangefinders (Fairweather 1996) tolocateplotcenters. (Hofmann-Wellenhof andothers2001,Kaplan FIA usesglobalpositioning systems(GPS) collect dataonmanyquantitativevariables. map objectswithgeographiccoordinates,and used tolocateforestplots,preciselyand some variables. and increasetheprecisionofmeasurementsfor being usedanddevelopedtoreducecollectiontime costly. Increasingly on-plotremotesensorsare previously, fieldcollection istimeconsumingand Given theintensivedataneedsmentioned collect on-plotmeasurementsisbeinginvestigated. can beusedtoestimatethesizesofstrata. produced inamoreautomatedfashion.Thismap enumeration oftheentirelandscapecanbe moreeasily;and(4)aspatiallyexplicit performed detection toimproveremovalestimates,canbe for forestinventory, suchasspectralchange frequent updates;(3)certainanalysesimportant provides anopportunityformore imagery Photography Programisinquestion;(2)satellite viabilityoftheNationalAerial(1) thelong-term reliance onsatellite-basedremotesensing: several reasonsformakingatransitiontogreater and others2001).Wynne andothers(2000)cite traditional FIAphoto-basedmethod(Wayman estimates comparabletothoseproducedbythe that satellite-basedmethodsprovideforestarea Polytechnic InstituteandStateUniversityfound the Virginia DepartmentofForestry andVirginia change. Studiescompletedincooperationwith toestimateandmapforestarea,area imagery and FHMaretransitioningtotheuseofsatellite use ofremotesensingtechnology. Nationally, FIA also requestedthatFIAandFHMmakefuller REMOTE SENSING extend monitoringofNTFPs tootherStates. work willprovideinsightsthatcanbeusedto NorthCarolina.This of enterprisesinwestern enterprises thatwillallowforregularmonitoring project toproduceasampleframeofNTFP contacts withlocalexperts.We expectthis enterprises arebeingobtainedthroughinitial NorthCarolina.Leadsto study inwestern T Other on-plot inventory applicationsinclude Other on-plotinventory Active andpassiveremotesensorsarebeing The useofremotesensingtechnologyto annual inventory andmonitoringprogram annual inventory activities intoan of FIAandFHMsurvey he 1998Farm Billthatrequiredthemerger Easier operation • i.e.,light, Improvedfiltersforinterference, • costs Reducedinstrument • Creationofweatherproof, durableinstruments • Capabilityforwirelesstransmissionofdata • Increaseddatastorage • Reducedpowerconsumption • Advances fromhand-heldcomputersto • Automated processesallowingtheflowofmany • Confluenceofsensors (GPS,camera, • foresters: inventory make thesedevicesstandardequipmentfor process. Thefollowingimprovementswill prototypes andarestillinthedevelopment application inforestry, mostofthemare (Demarais andothers2000). and usingremotesensorsinwildlifemonitoring and Eradus1999)trees(Wilson, inpress); frequency identificationfortaggingwildlife(Mans studies (Comeauandothers1998);usingradio cameras incanopyclosureandregeneration meters, densitometers,anddigitalhemispherical scenic beauty(Rudis andothers1998);usinglight regeneration,and to recordstandstructure, Mikaelian andParker 2000);usingCCDcameras biomass (Ramachandranandothers2000,Ter- and (CCD) camerastoquantifyunderstory includeusingcharge-coupleddevice in forestry Fairweather 1994,Williams andothers1999). etc.(Clark2000, diameters, heights,stemform, e.g., to obtainotherdimensionalinformation, be combinedwithclinometersoranglegauges and speedthanGPS.Theserangefinderscan limiting distances,withmuchgreateraccuracy distances,e.g.,plotradiior etc., anddetermine to maplocationsofobjects,e.g.,trees,subplots, Though thesesensorsexistandarefinding Other applicationsofon-plotremotesensors humidity, sound from woodstooffice others 2001) press) towearablecomputers(Baberand portable dataassistants(Kerns andothers, in analysis, andonwardtothefinalreport datastreaminputsintomodels, observation solution ofproblems Systemsforrapid Geographic Information methods, models,optimizations)within distance, etc.)andprocessing(numerical • Improved means of validation ownerships, with the cooperation of State and Federal partner agencies. Nationally, FIA and • Revitalization of sampling methods previously FHM are transitioning to the use of satellite underutilized due to previously impractical imagery to estimate and map forest area and data needs (Osawa and Kurachi 1997) area change. The national compatibility of data The southern FIA Program will continue to collection, database production, estimation, and take advantage of new technologies where they reporting is ultimately leading to improved service aid in meeting the objectives of accurate and to all of FIA’s partner and customer groups. cost-effective data collection. The exploration, expansion, modification, and development LITERATURE CITED of on-plot remote sensing systems will be Baber, C.; Cross, J.; Woolley, S.I.; Gaffney, V.L. 2001. Wearable required in order to achieve the objectives computing for field archaeology. In: IEEE fifth international of FIA in the future. symposium on wearable computers. [Location of publisher unknown]: [Publisher unknown]: 169–171. 187 SUMMARY OF INVENTORY AND Barnard, J.E.; Lucier, A.A.; Brooks, R.T. [and others]. 1990. MONITORING ENHANCEMENTS Changes in forest health and productivity in the United States and Canada. NAPAP Rep. 16. [Washington, DC]: n the 1998 report of the Second Blue Ribbon [National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program]. Panel on FIA and the 1999 Farm Bill, a number [Number of pages unknown]. I of enhancements were suggested to: Chamberlain, J.L.; Bush, R.J.; Hammett, A.L. 1998. Nontimber forest products: the other forest products. Forest Products • Improve and expand information on ecosystems Journal. 48(10): 2–12. 17. Chapter and noncommodity values Chamberlain, J.L.; Bush, R.J.; Hammett, A.L.; Araman, P.A. • Recognize and identify ownership, regulatory, 2002. Eastern national forests: managing for nontimber and social impacts on forest productivity products. Journal of Forestry. 100(1): 8–14. Clark, N.A. 2000. Initial results from a video-laser rangefinder • Integrate the FIA and FHM Programs device. In Proceedings, 3rd southern forestry GIS conference. [Location of publisher unknown]: [Publisher unknown]. • Implement the use of satellite imagery for D1. 6 p. estimation and mapping of forested ecosystems Comeau, P.G.; Gendron, F.; Letchford, T. 1998. A comparison • Produce the most current resource of several methods for estimating light under a paper birch data possible mixed wood stand. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 28: 1843–1850. Sustainability of the Southern Forest the Southern of Sustainability • Implement a uniform approach on Cowling, E.B. 1992. Challenges at the interface between all ownerships ecological and environmental monitoring: imperatives for research and public policy. In: McKenzie, D.H.; Hyatt, D.E.; • Increase consistency and compatibility among McDonald, V.J., eds. Ecological indicators. London: Elsevier FIA units Applied Science: 1461–1480. • Enhance coordination between FIA and Demarais, S.W.; McKinley, S.W.; Jacboson, H.A. 2000. Using public agencies infrared-triggered cameras to survey white-tailed deer in Mississippi. [Location of publisher unknown]: Mississippi • Improve service to all groups State University, Forest and Wildlife Research Center, Research Advances. 5(3). 4 p. In response to these needs, FIA and FHM Fairweather, S.E. 1994. Field tests of the Criterion 400 for have introduced improvements in their sampling hardwood tree diameter measurements. Compiler. 12(1): programs and have designed pilot studies for 27–29. undersampled populations such as urban and Floyd, D.W.; Vonhof, S.L.; Seyfang, H.E. 2001. Forest riparian areas and noncommodity values. Since sustainability: a discussion guide for professional resource 1999, the FHM ground-plot network used for managers. Journal of Forestry. 99(2): 8–27. detection monitoring has been integrated with Heath, L.S.; Birdsey, R.A. 1997. A model for estimating the the more intensively sampled forest inventory US forest carbon budget. In: Birdsey, R.; Mickler, R.; network maintained by the FIA Program. Sandberg, D. [and others], eds. USDA Forest Service global change research program highlights: 1991–95. Gen. A study has been initiated to better understand Tech. Rep. NE–237. Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of the importance of NTFP industry throughout Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest the South. The FIA Program has initiated a Experiment Station: 107–109. national ownership survey to identify and quantify Heinz Center (H. John Heinz III Center for Science, the ownership, regulatory, and social impacts Economics, and the Environment). 2002. The state of on forest productivity. An annual survey is the Nation’s ecosystems. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge now being implemented consistently across University Press. 276 p. Southern Forest Science: 188 Past, Present, and Future Forest Health McRoberts, R.E.;Holdaway, M.R.;Lessard,V.C. 2000. Mans, B.J.;Eradus,W. 1999.Future developmentsondevices Liu, C.J.;Huang,X.;Eichenberger, J.K.1995.Preliminary Kerns, R.R.;Burk,T.E.; Bauer, M.E.2001.Taking GIS/ Kaplan, E.D.,ed.1996.UnderstandingGPS:principlesand Johnson, T.G. 1998.TheSoutheast’stimberindustry—an Hofmann-Wellenhof, B.;Lichtenegger, H.;Collins,J.2001. Ramachandran, B.; Arvanitis, L.;Moore,S.2000.VegetationRamachandran, B.;Arvanitis, Powell, D.S.;Faulkner, J.L.; Darr, D.R.[andothers].1993. 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Thesouthern Wayman, J.P Van Deusen,P Ter-Mikaelian, M.T.; Parker, W.C. 2000.Estimatingbiomass AppalachianManandtheBiosphere.1996.The Southern Rudis, V.A.; Thill,R.E.;Gramann,J.H.[andothers].1998. Roesch, F.A.; foran Reams,G.A.1999.Analyticalalternatives Reams, G.A;Van Deusen,P Reams, G.A.;Roesch,F.A.; Cost,N.D.1999.Annualforest Forestry. 98(5):31–36. of Optical remotesensingforforestareaestimation.Journal and heights.Forest Science.45(1):53–61. 400 laserdendrometersformeasuringupperstemdiameters &StroudFP15andCriterion 1999. EvaluationoftheBarr Forestry Cooperative.D1.24p. Washington, CollegeofForest Resources-Precision symposium. Seattle:Universityof precision forestry applications. In:Proceedingsofthefirstinternational Forest ResearchStation.103p. Southern Service, SRS–54. Asheville,NC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture, report.Gen.Tech.resource assessment:summary Rep. Engineering &RemoteSensing.67(10):1155–1166. guided spectralclassrejection.Photogrammetric Landsat TM-basedforestareaestimationusingiterative 1709–1713. forest inventory. ofForest CanadianJournal Research.26: New Forests. 20(2):145–162. seedlingswithverticalphotoimagery.of whitespruce Forest Region.288p. Southern Service, report. Rep.5of5.Atlanta: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture, technical Appalachianassessmentterrestrial Southern Management. 114:309–320. treatment.Forest2 and6yearsafter Ecologyand reproduction cutting:acomparisonofselectedmeasures byseasonfollowinguneven-aged structure Understory ofForestry. system.Journal annual inventory 97(12):33–37. Environmental Statistics.4(4):346–360. ofAgricultural,Biological,and system.Journal inventory of Forestry. 97(12):21–26. ofsustainabilityintheSouth.Journal cornerstone inventory: .; Wynne, R.H.;Scrivani,J.A.;Reams,G.A.2001. .C. 1996.Incorporatingpredictionsintoanannual .C. 1999. The southern annualforest .C. 1999.Thesouthern Water and Soils Southern Forest Science: 190 Past, Present, and Future Water and Soils Water Quantity andQuality Influences of Management of SouthernForests on Chapter 19. Water andSoils Chapter 18...... 191 ...... 195 ...... Chapter 18. Water and Soils

Carl C. Trettin1 turnover and the role of organisms were well known. The early forest soil scientists established that soil quality could be affected by silvicultural practices, especially harvesting and fire. It was n the second chapter, Ge Sun and others discuss well understood that careless harvesting caused the effects of management of southern forests reductions in soil organic matter, increased bulk I on water quantity and quality. Their thorough density to the detriment of rooting, and promoted 191 review of water quality and quantity research erosion. Fire was known to effect soil fertility, in the South provides valuable insights. This especially when hot fires followed a harvesting research has shown that the greatest changes operation. Woodland grazing was very common, in streamwater yield or ground-water table occur and it was recognized that this grazing reduced immediately following forest land disturbances. soil organic matter, altered the nutrient cycle The overall water-quantity impact of silvicultural balance within the forest, and increased erosion. operations is much less on wetlands than in areas having greater relief and shallow soils. Soil management was a well-established Silvicultural practices in the South cause relatively concept by the early 1930s. In the silvicultural minor water-quality problems. Roads managed context, soil management included the application without regard to best management practices of practices to conserve soil organic matter, (BMP) are the major source of sedimentation maintain nutrient cycles and organic matter, from forestry operations. Studies of the and enhance fertility. The biggest factor driving cumulative effects of land use changes on water the development of soil management practices quality are lacking. The capability of existing was the challenge of restoring millions of acres computer modeling tools to describe the forest of degraded agricultural lands to forest. Much hydrologic processes and provide practical of this land occurred in the Southeastern United guidance in designing forest BMPs is limited. States, and was the basis for many of the national forests that were established during that period. The research discussed by Sun and others The need to reforest large acreages across a is very closely related to the study of forest soils, diverse landscape led to the recognition of species and I think it appropriate to say a little about suitability, which was an early precursor to the work in soil science in the South. considerable body of soil-site research that was to emerge in the 1960s to 1970s. ADVANCES AND CHALLENGES IN FOREST SOIL SCIENCE The tremendous advances in forest productivity that have been realized in the t wasn’t until the early 1900s that linkages Southeastern United States are a testament between soils and silviculture were recognized, to the effectiveness of the soil management and the forest soils discipline was established I practices that are based on a large body of (Wilde 1946). By the late 1930s, the forest was forest soils research. The relationships of recognized as a system consisting of aboveground species to site conditions were recognized early and belowground components. In the words of on, and eventually led to the development of Wilde, “An understanding of the forest lies just formal classification systems and the design of as much below as above the ground line.” Organic forest soil or site surveys. Those systems also matter was known to be a critical component of facilitated the application of soil management the soil, affecting fertility, moisture retention prescriptions across the region. These approaches properties, and the rooting environment. Studies were embraced by the forest products industry of the factors affecting soil organic matter in the Southeast, which used soil and site inventories as a basis for harvest scheduling, site preparation prescriptions, fertilization, and 1 Soil Scientist and Project Leader, U.S. Department of weed control prescriptions. Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Charleston, SC 29414. Southern Forest Science: 192 Past, Present, and Future Water and Soils in siteproductivityandimpact studiesarerarely effects arerarelylinkedtochanges short-term immediate posttreatmentperiod. However, such and organicmatterdecomposition rate,duringthe affected soilcharacteristics, e.g.,soilbulkdensity usually showedthatsuchoperationssignificantly the productivecapacityofsite.Research aboutsustaining quality werebasedonconcerns site preparation,orwatermanagementonsoil Considerations abouttheeffectsofharvesting, the soilhavebeenexploredextensively. basis forimprovedenvironmentalmanagement. Piedmont mixedhardwoods,hasprovidedthe vs. forest types,e.g.,high-elevationspruce-fir Understanding thedifferentsensitivitiesamong soil acidification,andorganicmatterdynamics. detailed investigationsonnutrientcycling, processes. Thatworkprovidedthebasisfor to theunderstandingofsoilbiologyandchemical programs alsomadeconsiderablecontributions management. Thevarious“acidrain”research practices,standregeneration,andfertility nursery 1975),whichhaswidelyinfluenced and Bryan (Marx researchonmycorrhizae example isMarx’s of soilbiologyandchemistry. Aprominent produced majoradvancesmadeinthefields productivity andwaterquality. operations, improveregeneration,andsustain reduce potentialsoildamageduringforest that waterregimescouldbemanipulatedto prescriptions evolvedwhenitwasrecognized in therootingzone.Water management conditions andtendstoconcentratenutrients planting bedsimprovesaerationandmoisture example ofthesetechniques.Theuseelevated in soilmanagement.Beddingisperhapsthebest competition alsorepresentanimportantadvance certain soilconditionsandreducevegetative preparation techniquesdevelopedtoameliorate routine acrosstheregion.Similarly, thesite fertilizationarenow nitrogen andphosphorus site productivity. Asaresult,prescriptionsfor to thereforestationeffortsandforimproving of fertilizationprescriptionswasfundamental weathered, andgenerallyabused,development UnitedStatesareold,highly Southeastern Davey 1970).Giventhatthesoilsof Stone 1984,Youngberg 1978,Youngberg and andWingetand sitepreparation(Bernier 1975, in theareasoffertilization,watermanagement, The impactsofsilviculturalpracticeson UnitedStates Research intheSoutheastern Major advancesinforestsoilscienceoccurred the workonCalhounExperimental Forest States.Anexceptionis in theSoutheastern changesinforestsoils assessing thelong-term Unfortunately, thereisvirtuallyno basisfor process, itwouldbeeasiertoanticipatethefuture. ofthat years. Ifweknewmoreaboutthehistory disturbed, andhavechangedoverthepast200 UnitedStateshavebeen the Southeastern resources? Clearly, mostoftheforestsoilsin What aretheimplicationsforsoilandwater suburban development(Wear and Greis2002). forestsarebeingfragmentedby The southern this affectthesustainabilityofresource? andmoistureregimes;Howwill altered thermal region’s forestsoils?Climatechangemayinvolve interactions withplantproductivity. soil biogeochemicalprocessesandtheassociated we understandsufficientlytheroleofrootsin Considerable workremainstobedonebefore For example, fireeffectsarestillunderstudy. impacts oflandmanagementonthesoilremain. fertility andmoistureregimes.Questionsabout stock maynecessitateaparallelefforttooptimize in theproductionanduseofgeneticallyimproved management prescriptions.Similarly, advances to developmoreintensivefertilizationandwater the remainingland.Therefore,itwillbenecessary will beaneedtoproduceevengreaterbiomasson commercially availableforestlanddeclines,there most importantchallenge.Astheacreageof the maintenanceofproductivitywillbe to sustaininghealthyforests. to achieveparticularoutcomesisfundamental wetlands, biological systems,e.g.,constructed ability tomanagenaturalsystemsorengineer of ecologicalengineeringasadiscipline.The affecting thedesignofBMPs andtheevolution andconcepthasbeenextensive, information and hydrologicsciences.Theapplicationofthis would notbepossiblewithouttheadvancesinsoil biogeochemical andhydrologicprocesses.This removal, reductioninnitrateconcentration),and understanding theameliorativegoal(i.e.,sediment and implementationofbufferzonesdependson soil andhydrologicprocesses.Effectivedesign acknowledges thefundamentallinkagesbetween i.e,rotation,havenotbeendeveloped. term, effectsoverthelong interpreting short-term sustained beyond2to3years.Tools for How willachangingenvironmentaffectthe Now andinthenextfewdecades, The conceptofriparianbufferzones over the past 40 years, which highlights the LITERATURE CITED importance of being able to assess long-term Armson, K.A. 1970. Soils, roots, and foresters. In: Youngberg, change (Richter and Markewitz 2001). It is clear C.T.; Davey, C.B. Tree growth and forest soils: Proceedings, from that work, and the numerous short-term 3rd North American forest soils conference. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press: 513–522. impact studies, that long-term soils studies are needed to provide the basis for sustainable Bernier, B.; Winget, C.H., eds. 1975. Forest soils and forest land management. Proceedings, 4th North American forest soils management. The U.S. Department of Agriculture conference. [Place of publication unknown]: [Publisher Forest Service’s experimental forest network unknown]. 675 p. could be used to address soil and water science Marx, D.H.; Bryan, W.C. 1975. The significance of questions over time and across most of the major mycorrhizae to forest trees. In: Bernier, B.; Winget, C.H., forest types in North America. eds. Proceedings, 4th North American forest soils conference. [Place of publication unknown]: [Publisher unknown]: Perhaps the most difficult challenge will 107–117. be the development of spatially explicit, process- Richter, D.D., Jr.; Markewitz, D. 2001. Understanding soil based forest soil simulation models that will change. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University 193 allow the consideration of management Press. 255 p. alternatives at the landscape scale. As forest Stone, E.L., ed. 1984. Forest soils and treatment impacts. resource management moves into the realm of Proceedings, 6th North American forest soils conference. precision agriculture, better information is going [Knoxville, TN]: [University of Tennessee]. 454 p. to be needed to optimize both economic and Wear, D.N.; Greis, J.G., eds. 2002. Southern forest resource noncommodity values. At present, most process- assessment. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–53. Asheville, NC: U.S. 18. Chapter based forest soil simulation models are based Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 635 p. on data for uplands and cannot be applied directly and Soils Water to the complex mosaic of upland, wetland, and Wilde, S.A. 1946. Forest soils and forest growth. Waltham, aquatic resources at the landscape scale. Models MA: Chronica Botanica Co. 241 p. provide a means for synthesizing data, providing Youngberg, C.T.; Davey, C.B., eds. 1970. Tree growth and interpretations, and identifying important forest soils. Proceedings, 3rd North American forest soils conference. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press. knowledge gaps. Improving the quality and 527 p. applicability of forest soil and hydrology models will enhance our ability to provide interpretations Youngberg, C.T., ed. 1978. Forest soils and land use. Proceedings, 5th North American forest soils conference. at the spatial and temporal scales that are Ft. Collins, CO: Colorado State University. 623 p. appropriate to major issues and questions. The models will also provide the basis for quantifying the uncertainties associated with our interpretations.

Chapter 19.

Influences of Management of Southern Forests on Water Quantity and Quality

Ge Sun, Mark Riedel, INTRODUCTION

Rhett Jackson, Randy ater is a key output of southern forests Kolka, Devendra Amatya, and is critical to other processes, functions, 1 and Jim Shepard W and values of forest ecosystems. Most of the drinking water in the South comes from forested watersheds. Much of our current understanding of 195 the linkages between southern forest management Abstract—Water is a key output of southern and water quantity and quality is derived from forests and is critical to other processes, functions, long-term watershed-scale experiments conducted and values of forest ecosystems. This chapter in more than 140 small watersheds in various synthesizes published literature about the effects physiographic regions in the 13 Southern States of forest management practices on water quantity (Chang 2002). This chapter synthesizes published and water quality across the Southern United literature about the effects of forest management States region. We evaluate the influences of forest on water quantity and water quality across the management at different temporal and spatial region. We evaluate the influences of forest scales, and we recognize the heterogeneity of management at different temporal and spatial forest ecosystems; e.g., wetlands and uplands in scales. We recognize the heterogeneity of forest the South. Hydrologic models that were developed ecosystem, e.g., wetlands and uplands, as affected by climate, geology, and topography. We identify specifically for southeastern forests were reviewed. sensitive regions and discuss the effects of We conclude that the greatest streamwater yield management activities on the timing of hydrologic or ground-water table changes occur immediately responses across the physiographic regions of following forest land disturbances. The overall the South. We scale up information derived from water-quantity impact of silvicultural operations experiments at field and watershed scales to on wetlands is much less than in areas having the regional level. Forest management practices greater relief and shallow soils. Water quality from examined in this chapter include harvesting, site forested watersheds is the best when compared preparation, bedding, surface drainage, road to that from other land uses. Silvicultural practices building, fertilizer and herbicide applications, and in the South caused relatively minor water-quality fire management. A review of regional hydrologic problems. Roads without best management characteristics across nine physiographic regions practices (BMP) are the major source of is used as a framework to contrast effects of various management practices on key water- sedimentation. Studies on the cumulative effects quantity and water-quality variables. Hydrologic of land use changes on water quality are lacking. models that were developed specifically for Exiting computer modeling tools are useful but southeastern forests are reviewed. limited in describing the forest hydrologic processes and providing practical guidance in designing forest BMPs. Recommendations to future research on forestry BMPs and forest hydrology in general 1 Research Hydrologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture are proposed. Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Raleigh, NC 27606; Research Hydrologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Otto, NC 28763; Associate Professor, University of Georgia, Warnell School of Forest Resources, Athens, GA 30602; Research Soil Scientist, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, North Central Research Station, Grand Rapids, MN 55744; Research Hydrologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Charleston, SC 29414; and Sustainable Forestry Program Manager, National Council for Air and Stream Improvement, Newberry, FL 32669, respectively. Southern Forest Science: 196 Past, Present, and Future Water and Soils provinces hasitsuniquehydrologiccharacteristics geographicregion,andeachofthese the southern describes 10majorprovincesthatintersectwith in thisconnection(Bailey1995)(fig.19.1).Bailey ecoregionclassificationsystemisuseful Bailey’s conditions intheregionandforcesthatdrivethem. to facilitatecharacterizationofforesthydrologic others 1973). variety ofhydrologicconditions(Danielsand greatlyandresultina States alterthispattern United topography andelevationintheSouthern 1998).However,summers (MullerandGrymes climate withcoolwintersandwarm-to-hot in theclimatesystemdescribedashumidforest forestsarelocated background. Mostsouthern on hydrologymustconsiderthesefactorsasa to projecttheimpactsofmanagementpractices andfunctions.Anyattempts forest structure C CLIMATE, TOPOGRAPHY, ANDHYDROLOGY hydrology ingeneralareproposed. best managementpractices(BMP)andforest Recommendations forfutureresearchonforestry United States. of theSouthern and annualrunoff Bailey ecoregion Provinces of the Figure 19.1— The Southcanbedescribedinvariousways hydrologic patterns, soildevelopment,and hydrologic patterns, are themajorfactorsthatdictateregional limate, underlyinggeology, andtopography ForestÐMeadow Ouachita Mixed Prairie ParklandPrairie (Subtropical) ForestÐMeadow Broadleaf Ozark Lower MississippiRiverine Forest Forest (Continental) Broadleaf Eastern Outer CoastalPlainMixed Forest of BMPs (table19.1). and qualityresponsestomanagementdesign described defineallaspectsofthewaterquantity summer. Variations ofhydrologiccharacteristics have muchlowertotalflowthanhillyuplandsin highest inwinterandlowestsummer. Flatlands lower inotherseasons.Therefore,streamflowis precipitation inannualtotal,andsummer, but States, potentialETisgenerallyhigherthan through 19.2D).Across United theSoutheastern the seasonaldistributionofstreamflow(figs.19.2A (upland vs.flatland)arecriticalindetermining (precipitation andpotentialET)topography data fromfourforestsitesshowthatbothclimate storage capacity. monthlyhydrologic Long-term evapotranspiration (ET)loss,andsoilmoisture depend onthebalancesofprecipitationinput, (table19.1). and seasonaldistributionofrunoff ratio, amount,runoff:precipitation annual runoff (Wolock andMcCabe1999)indiscussingtotal hydrometeorologicaldatabases regional long-term the South.We obtainedfrom refertoinformation framework fordescribingthegeneralhydrologyin that supportforestecosystemsasaspatial vegetation. We useninemajorecoregionprovinces as affectedbyclimate,topography, soils,and Forest MixedSoutheastern Seasonal dynamicsofstreamrunoff Forest (Oceanic) Broadleaf Eastern ForestÐMeadow Broadleaf ForestÐConiferous Central Appalachian Runoff (mm/year) 1200 Ð1400 1000 Ð1200 800Ð1000 600Ð800 400Ð600 200Ð400 23Ð200 provinces Ecoregion Table 19.1—Hydrologic characteristics of eight major physiographic regions in the Southern United States

Physiographic Forest management province Topography Climate and hydrology concerns

Outer Coastal Plain Poorly drained flat High precipitation (PPT) (> 1200 Impacts on forested Mixed Forest lands with elevation mm/year) and warm temperatures, wetland hydroperiod and < 100 m above high evapotransipration (ET) (> 65 water quality; artificial sea level percent of PPT), variable runoff amount surface drainage essential (300–800 mm/year), low runoff ratio (< 30 percent in most of area) and slow- moving streams

Southern Mixed Covers upper Coastal PPT (1200–1400 mm/year) moderate Sedimentation caused by Forest Plain and Piedmont, runoff amount (200–800 mm/year) new forest disturbance elevation 100–300 m and runoff ratio (20–60 percent) and historical land uses; 197 channel erosion common

Central Appalachian Steep hillslopes at PPT (1100–2000 mm/year), high runoff Sedimentation caused Broadleaf Forest— high elevations (400–1200 mm/year) and runoff ratio by new forest road Coniferous Forest— (300–2000 m) (> 50 percent); low ET due to low construction and historical Meadow (Blue air temperature land uses; fish habitat

Ridge) 19. Chapter

Eastern Broadleaf Rugged topography PPT (1000–1600 mm/year), high runoff Sedimentation caused Forest (Oceanic) with elevation 300– ratios > 40 percent by hardwood forest 800 m; long, narrow harvesting valleys and ridges

Eastern Broadleaf Dendritic drainage with PPT decreases from 1400 to 1000 Sedimentation caused by Forest (Continental) winding narrow-crested mm/year northward, runoff amount road and harvesting (Cumberland Plateau) ridges and deep, narrow (500–700 mm/year) and ratios operations and Quality Quantity Water valleys; elevation (35–45 percent) decline westward 100–400 m

Lower Mississippi Alluvial plains, elevation PPT (1200–1500 mm/year) with a Harvesting impacts on Riverine Forest < 50 m decreasing south-north gradient; low wetland water quality runoff amount (450–550 mm/year) and site productivity and runoff ratio (< 35 percent)

Ouachita Mixed Forest— Rugged topography Precipitation decreasing northwestward Effects of forestry activities Meadow and Ozark with relief over 300 m from1500 to 400 mm/year with runoff on water quality and Broadleaf Forest— and narrow valleys (400–550 mm/year) and runoff ratio (> site productivity Meadow and floodplains 45 percent)highest at high elevations in the Ouachita and Boston Mountains

Prairie Parkland Flat, with elevation Low but variable precipitation decreases Water shortage, intensive (Subtropical) < 5 m in the Coastal dramatically westward (700–1100 mm/ pine forest management Plain to 500 m in the year); high ET, low runoff (50–300 mm/ effects on sedimentation western Great Plains year) and runoff ratio (5–25 percent) Southern Forest Science: 198 Past, Present, and Future Water and Soils in increasedstreamflow (Swankandothers 1988). Mountains by clearcutsorpartialcutsresulted intheAppalachian showed thatforestharvesting (Coweeta) at CoweetaHydrologicLaboratory Harvesting— Water-Quantity Impacts:Uplands quality foruplandsandwetlandsseparately. discuss theeffectsofmanagementonwater differ fromthoseemployedonwetlands,we management practicesemployedonuplands from thoseofwetlands,andbecausetheforest hydrologic characteristicsofuplandsdiffer precipitation andETrunoff. Because the storage thatisroughlythedifferencebetween of thewatertablereflectschangeinsoil biological processesofwetlands.Thefluctuation precipitation andbyET, controlsthechemicaland per year. Hydroperiod,whichisaffectedbothby waterispresent the numberofdayswhensurface most importanthydrologicvariableishydroperiod, or peakflowrates.For forestedwetlands,the periods, asinthecaseofseasonalflowpatterns W WATER-QUANTITY IMPACTS Streamflow (mm/month) Streamflow(mm/month) 100 150 200 100 150 200 50 50 ater quantityorwateryieldrefersnotonly 0 but alsotothetimingofflowovershorter volumeonanannualbasis to totalwaterflow 0 (PPT= precipitation; PET=potential evapotranspiration). (B) North Carolina Coastal Plain,(C)Texas shrubland, and(D)Georgia Piedmont forested watersheds across theSouthernUnited States: (A)Arkansas mountains, Figure 19.2—Seasonal distribution of streamflow from four representative (A)

Ja (B) Ja n n

F MF e ae Without exception,experiments M b rcb PET PPT Runoff PET PPT a h Runoff rc h April A p ril M a M y a Month y Ju Ju n e n e Ju Ju ly ly A u A g u S g e p S t e p t O c O t c t N o N v o v D e D c e 100 150 200 100 150 200

were notaffected byforestremoval;(3)peak flows flood-producing conditions(highrainfall, wetsoils) andpeakflowsunder response; (2)stormflow down largeforestsoilpores, reversedthis ET, however, subsoiling, apracticeofbreaking asaresult ofreduction harvesting year after eventsthefirst increased thenumberofstormflow volumeby100mm,or40percent,and stormflow showed that(1)clearcuttingincreasedannual Small-watershed experimentsinthisregion Arkansas inthe1980s(Scolesandothers1994). loss intheOuachitaMountainsofOklahomaand andsoil of pineforestmanagementonstormflow developed atCoweetawasusedtostudyeffects received, andbasalarearemoved. and elevationsofthewatersheds,solarenergy asafunctionoftreespecies, aspects harvesting quantified theannualresponseofwateryieldto and Fletcher1947).DouglassSwank(1972) variationindischarge(Dunford loss ofdiurnal daily dischargeonaverageandanearlycomplete vegetation resultedina12-percentincrease riparian 1972, Swankandothers2001).Harvesting (DouglassandSwank harvest the firstyearafter to 41cm,or2865percentofcontrolduring Clearcuts causedwateryieldtoincreaseby26 c 50 50 0 0 A pairedwatershedapproachsimilartotheone

Jan (D) Ja (C) n

Feb F e b March PET PPT Runoff PET PPT Runoff M a rc h April April

May M a y

Month J une Ju n e

July Ju ly Aug A u Sept g S e p t Oct O c Nov t N o Dec v

D e c tended to increase as harvest intensity increased. from correlations between historic hydrology and However, the differences were not large enough reforestation data (1919 to 1967) for large basins to be statistically important. Harvesting had the (2820 to 19 450 km2) across the Piedmont regions. most influence on peak flows during late summer They found that reforestation reduced water yield and early fall, when storms were generally small. in the Piedmont region, with the most significant reductions in water yield occurring in dry years. Blackburn and others (1985) reported Over large heterogeneous basins, 10- to 28-percent hydrology and water-quality changes following increases in forest cover were correlated with clearcut timber harvesting in nine small gauged reductions in annual water yield of 30 mm (4 watersheds in eastern Texas. Three watersheds percent) to 100 mm (21 percent). Small changes were clearcut, sheared, windrowed, and burned; of water yield resulting from modest land use three were clearcut and drum chopped; and three conversion, while not observable on first-order were left untreated as controls. During the first and second-order watersheds, were additive in the year following harvesting, stormflow averaged 147 downstream direction and resulted in significant mm for the intensively site-prepared watersheds, 199 water-yield reductions for the encompassing 84 mm for the chopped watersheds, and 25 mm larger basins. for the controls. Stormflow in the second through fourth years following harvesting was less than Increases in water yield that result from half that measured in the first year. forest harvesting are not distributed equally over the seasons. It was estimated that approximately With natural regeneration of plants, the 60 percent of the observed increase in water 19. Chapter increases in water yield declined logarithmically yield resulting from deciduous tree harvesting each year after the initial treatment (Swank and occurred in the late summer (July) to early winter Helvey 1970, Swank and others 1988) (fig. 19.3). (November) period. The majority of this increase Depending on the history of forests, water yield occurred during the normally low-flow months recovered 30 to 50 years after harvesting in the of August, September, and October (Douglass Appalachian region (Swift and Swank 1981). and Swank 1972). At Coweeta, the water-yield increases on the treatment watersheds decreased at a rate of Conversion from deciduous to coniferous— and Quality Quantity Water approximately 2 mm per 1-percent increase in At Coweeta, conversion of broadleaf deciduous regenerative forest cover (Hibbert 1966). Trimble forests to eastern pines reduced streamflow by 20 and Weirich (1987) derived similar conclusions percent (Swank and Douglas 1974). The magnitude

40 Treatment Figure 19.3—Annual First streamflow responses to 35 Second repeated harvesting of mixed First hardwood forest (watershed Second 13 at Coweeta Hydrologic 30 Laboratory) (adapted from Swank and others 1988). 25

20

15

10 Actual minus predicted streamflow streamflow (cm) minus predicted Actual

5

0 1234567891011121314151617181920212223 Posttreatment (years) Southern Forest Science: 200 Past, Present, and Future Water and Soils Conversion fromforesttograss— largest (Swankandothers1988). losses) betweenthetwoforesttypeswere of ecosystemET(especiallyfrominterception during DecembertoAprilwhenthedifferences to pines,thereductionwasmostpronounced conversionfromhardwoods reduced after impact onwateryield. deciduous toconiferousspecieshasasignificant and canevaporate.Thus,conversionfrommixed can beinterceptedbytheevergreentreecanopy these conditions,largeamountsofprecipitation low-volume, low-intensityrainfallevents.Under atCoweetafallsduring precipitation occurring (Swank andVose 1994).Second,mostofthe themixedhardwoodcommunitiestheyreplaced ( subsequent evaporativelossesofthewhitepine streamflow. First, theinterceptioncapacityand reductionsin responsible fortheobserved relatively wetyears.Two factorsarechiefly during with greaterreductionsoccurring of yieldreductionissensitivetoprecipitation, use change.These experimentsweredesigned to that combined forestremovalpracticeswith land Researchers atCoweetaconducted experiments Conversion fromforestto farmland— 4yearsofregrowth. no longerdetectableafter Hydrologic impactsofthemountain grazingwere of approximately28.7m After grazing,itgeneratedapeakdischarge L. tree densitytoKentucky 31fescuegrass( of 80percentaforestedwatershedwithlow peak dischargeofapproximately1.15m of effectiveprecipitationproducedamaximum hydrologic changes.Beforegrazing,102mm rates werethemostsignificanteffectsof grazing oninfiltrationandultimatelypeakflow increased totalwateryield,theimpactsof Although conversionfromforesttograzing Conversion fromforesttomountaingrazing— increased asaresultofforestconversiontograss. frequencyalso (Burt andSwank1992).Stormflow hardwoods duringthesummergrowingseason might usemorewaterthannaturalmature suggested thatdensegrassorrecolonizingforest the winterseasons.Flowfrequencyanalysis annual wateryieldandbaseflow, especiallyduring However, grass declineresultedinincreasedtotal height) couldhaveusedasmuchwateraforest. vigorous, andproductivegrasssystem(>1min at Coweeta(Hibbert1966).Afertilized,highly Pinus strobus ) Although monthlywateryieldwasalways didnotcauseimmediateincreaseinwateryield L.)standscanbetwicethoseof 3 /s/km 2 (Johnson1952). Conversion 3 /s/km Festuca 2 . States, andespecially inFloridaandonthe United or riversarepresentinthe Southeastern andisolatedfromstreams that areseasonallydry Carolina bays)— Depressional wetlands(cypress domesand (Lockaby andothers1997b, Wang 1996). pronounced duringthefirsttwogrowingseasons onfloodplainsaremost of forestharvesting are notwellunderstood.Thewater-tableeffects others 1994).Thecausesofthisuniqueresponse period(Lockabyand during thepostharvest dark-colored organicsoilsdropped20to40cm response hasbeenreported:thewatertablein drainage.However,subsurface oneexceptional and water storageandblockingofsurface severely disturbed,and(3)increaseofsurface sites are and increaseofbulkdensityifharvesting reduction ofsoilsaturatedhydraulicconductivity of canopyinterceptionandplanttranspiration,(2) isattributedtothese:(1)reduction “watering-up” and others1997b,Perison 1997,Wang 1996).This of thewatertable(Aust andLea1992,Lockaby ofbottomlandsiselevation following harvesting others 2001).Themostcommonhydrologicchange helicopters, methods,e.g., harvesting 1997a) oralternative if BMPs areemployed(Lockabyandothers effectonhydroperiod usually haslittlelong-term Bottomlands— and responses. each wetlandtypehasuniquehydrologicfeatures hydrologic impactsbywetlandtypesbecause to forestmanagementpractices.We review This reviewfocusesonwater-tableresponses hydrologic processesareground-waterdriven. been conductedinthelasttwodecades.Wetland forestedwetlandshave impacts onsouthern and others2001).Moststudiesofthehydrologic UnitedStatesisrelativelynew(Sun the Southern and groundwater. Wetland hydrologyresearchin water involving complexinteractionsofsurface Water-Quantity Impacts: Wetlands Hewlett 1982). from thewatershedincreased22cm(Boschand 1956). Following thetreatment,annualwateryield and unregulatedgrazing(JohnsonKovner local agriculturalpracticesincludingrowcropping toutilize removing theforestandallowingfarmers converted toanoperationalmountainfarmby quality. For example,one9-hawatershedwas Appalachiansonwateryieldand in theSouthern investigate theeffectsoftypicallandusepractices Wetland hydrologyisextremelydynamic,

are used(Perison 1997,Rappand Harvesting ofbottomlandforests Harvesting Many depressionalwetlands Atlantic Coastal Plain (Tiner and others 2002). 1989b). In the sixth year after treatment, runoff Examples are cypress domes (ponds), Carolina from the maximum disturbance watershed was bays, and pocosin wetlands of different sizes. They still significantly 65 percent higher than the are important habitats for reptiles and amphibians predicted value from a regression equation. The (Russell and others 2002). Many of the small ground-water tables in both disturbance sites isolated wetlands are imbedded in intensively remained higher than the control. Hydrologic managed plantations. Isolated wetlands have changes (water table and runoff) were most similar hydrologic characteristics. They receive pronounced in dry years. These findings were water and nutrient inputs mainly from consistent with those of other experimental and precipitation, and lose water through the ET modeling studies (Sun and others 1998a) in the process. Physical and chemical interactions with region. Williams and Lipscomb (1981) found a surrounding uplands and deeper aquifers vary water-table rise of 15 to 35 cm after partial cutting depending on local geology, but usually are minor in a coastal pine forest on sandy soils. However, as a consequence of the generally flat topography Rodriguez (1981) concluded that clearcutting 201 and the presence of thick fine-textured layers a wet savanna watershed did not significantly beneath the shallow surficial aquifer. alter the watershed hydrology. A hydrologic impact study at a 42-ha Harvesting under wetland conditions, such as northcentral Florida site consisting of a mosaic those encountered on wet pine flats, can alter soil of cypress ponds/pine flatwoods (Bliss and hydrologic properties (e.g., hydraulic conductivity,

Comerford 2002, Crownover and others 1995, Sun macropores) by soil compaction, rutting, and 19. Chapter and others 2000b) suggests that tree removals puddling (Greacen and Sands 1980). The physical from isolated wetlands and surrounding uplands property changes affect subsurface flow and caused the water table to rise and runoff to water-table depth. Soil compaction, rutting, increase. Harvesting of wetlands and surrounding and puddling become greater with increased soil uplands, and harvesting of wetlands alone, raised wetness, clay content, and traffic (Green and the level of the water table by as much as 100 cm. others 1983). However, Aust and others (1995)

This effect on the water table was greatest during found that skidding altered the hydrology of and Quality Quantity Water the first dry growing season. It was not significant poorly and very poorly drained soils less than subsequently; and in fact, the water table was it altered that of moderately well-drained or somewhat lower than the control in the subsequent somewhat poorly drained soils. This suggests relatively wet years. The hydrologic regime at that lateral subsurface water movement is an this site appeared to recover within 5 years. A important factor in hydrologic impacts on wet retrospective 25-year study on a similar landscape pine flats, especially for fine-textured soils. in the Coastal Plain of Georgia suggests that the A field-scale study on wet pine flats in South hydrologic impacts of harvesting pine plantations Carolina has examined the effects of wet-weather on cypress wetlands are inconclusive (Batzer harvesting, dry-weather harvesting, and bedding and others 2000). on hydrology and site productivity (Preston 1996, Wet flats and pocosins—Wet flats and pocosins Xu and others 2002). Two site preparation levels occur on broad interstream divides on poorly (nonbed and bed) were randomly assigned to both drained soils. Wet flats occurring on higher dry-weather and wet-weather harvested plots, elevations are better drained than pocosins, which and an additional level of preparation (moleplow develop thick organic layers. Most of the wet pine plus bed) was applied only in the wet-weather flats and pocosins have been intensively managed harvested plots. Dry-weather harvesting raised for timber production. Forest harvesting practices the water table 14 cm, and wet-weather harvesting generally result in short-term water-table rise and raised it 21 cm. The response differences were an increase in runoff. A long-term watershed-scale largest (> 10 cm) during the growing seasons (48 to 64 ha) study on a cypress-pine flatwoods from May to October. Churning and deep rutting landscape at the Bradford Forest in northern affected the water table significantly in wet- Florida showed that “maximum” disturbance harvesting areas, but not in the dry-harvesting caused a 15-cm or 150-percent increase in water areas. Bedding lowered water tables initially in yield and the “minimum” disturbance resulted in both areas, but the dry-harvesting site recovered only an insignificant increase (3 cm) in water yield. within 2 years after replanting. Bulk density, Water table rose significantly for both treatments, macroporosity, and hydraulic conductivity especially during the drought months (Riekerk were significantly affected by all levels of wet- harvesting disturbance. Dry-weather harvesting Southern Forest Science: 202 Past, Present, and Future Water and Soils Skaggs 2001; Amatya andothers1996,2000, 2002; controlled drainagemethods (Amatyaand Carolina CoastalPlainand to testvarious quantity and qualityontheNorth waterflow howartificialdrainageaffects to determine and modelingstudieshave been conducted (Skaggs andothers1991). caused limitedchangeintotalflowvolume fromforestlandsbut composition ofrunoff that ditchspacinghadmajoreffectsonthe DRAINMOD hydrologicmodelsuggested stand didnotdiffer. Simulationbythe regenerated watershed,andaditchednatural plantations, amixedplantationandnaturally unditched naturaltimber, fullystockedpine hydrographs fora16-year-oldplantation, (1990) reportedthatflowvolumesandseasonal (Segal andothers1986).Hughes water-table conditions(80cmfromsurface) ditch (2mdeepand3wide)forhighaverage affected water-tablelevelsupto45mfromthe stand age23.OnPomona sandinFlorida,ditching dramatically reducedduringthegrowingseasonat (Andrews 1993).However, theditching effectwas when thewatertablewasclosetosoilsurface 0 to3yearsoldonwetflatsduringseasons lowered thewatertableinpineplantationsfrom study inVirginia foundthatditchingsignificantly or convertwetlandstouplands.Aretrospective Drainage didnotchangethebasichydrologiccycle and therewaslessfluctuationinthewatertable. minimized, butsoilsaturationwasmaintained during wetseasons.Standingwaterwas on pocosinsloweredthewatertable30to60cm reported thatfreedrainageinpineplantations development. CampbellandHughes(1991) characteristics andthestageofvegetation dependingonsoil effects ofditchingvary drained soilsintheCoastalPlain.Hydrologic operability andforestproductivityonpoorly (Blanton andothers1998). was reducedbyhalfwithina200-cmprofile site inNorthCarolina,wheresoilmacroporosity andregenerationinawetpine-flat harvesting changes insoilphysicalpropertiesfollowed traffic.Similar soil changescausedbyharvest resulted fromchangeinvegetation,andnot study suggeststhatchangeinwater-tabledepth (Xuandothers2002).Overall,the harvesting thandry-weather for wet-weatherharvesting degree andextentofimpactsweremuchgreater also alteredthosesoilphysicalproperties.The Many field-towatershed-scaleexperiments Artificial drainageisusedtoincrease WATER-QUALITY IMPACTS and others1996). nondrained orcontrol-drainedareas(Amatya free-drained landsarehigherthanthosefor Peakthan mightbesurmised. flowratesfor pocosin wetlandshasratherlessimpactonrunoff that drainageofforestedwetflatsand and 13mmforseepage.Accumulated datasuggest precipitation, 910mmforET, 369mmforrunoff, water-budget estimateforpocosins—1300mm over 5years.Heath(1975)gaveasimilarannual ET, whichwasestimatedasR:R,averaged970mm Annual brought thewatertabletosurface. except duringperiodswhenlargetropicalstorms outflows insummer, whenETdemandswerehigh, mm. Theforestedwatershedgenerallyyieldedno 15 to32percentasrainfallvariedfrom9601410 (R:R)ratiovariedfrom coast, therunoff:rainfall of managementpracticesontheNorthCarolina watershed (2950ha)studyofcumulativeimpacts canals inthewholewatershed.Inanongoinglarge consequence ofroutingeffectsinditchesand than fromthewholewatershed,partiallyasa block(82ha)ofthewatershed a smallerharvested rates perunitareawereconsistentlyhigherfrom outflow, was58percentofthegrossrainfall.Flow as thedifferencebetweengrossrainfalland Averagewere harvested. annualET, estimated aboutathirdofthetrees rainfallafter of normal mature, toasmuch53percentduringayear driest year, whenmostofthe treespresentwere varied from29percentoftherainfallduring period. Total annualoutflowsfromthewatershed in vegetationdifferentfieldsduringthestudy changes had heterogeneoussoilsandunderwent NorthCarolinathat pocosin watershedineastern the 5-yearhydrologyofa340-hadrainedforested 1991, 1992).Amatyaandothers(1997a)describe Chescheir andothers2001;McCarthy (1999), andmost recentlybyFulton andWest Lockaby andothers(1997a), Lockabyandothers Shepard (1994),Walbridge andLockaby(1994), in reviewpapersbyRiekerk andothers(1989a), United Stateshavebeensummarized Southern of forestmanagementonwater qualityinthe potential todegradewaterquality. Theimpacts chemicals (insecticidesandfertilizers),havethe andtheapplicationof prescribed burning, sitepreparation, including timberharvesting, others 1999).Manyforestmanagementpractices, primarily fortimberproduction(Binkleyand I n theUnitedStates,bestwatercomesfrom Brown 1993),evenwhenforestsaremanaged forested watersheds(Binkley2001,Binkleyand (2002). Effects of forest management on the following harvesting with the largest, though water quality in upland and wetland landscapes relatively small, losses—1.3 kg/ha NO3-N, 2.4 kg/ are discussed separately. ha K, 2.7 kg/ha Na, 3.2 kg/ha Ca, 1.4 kg/ha Mg, 0.4 kg/ha sulphur and 2.1 kg/ha chlorine—occurring Water-Quality Impacts: Uplands during the third year following treatment. Export Riekerk and others (1989) synthesized findings increases were frequently lower than background of studies of silvicultural nonpoint-source pollution rates of atmospheric deposition. As in other in uplands of the South. They noted that sediment studies, the nutrient losses returned to baseline production during silvicultural operations was levels within a few years after treatment. low in the mountains and lower Coastal Plains, However, a second phase of increased NO3-N but high in the Piedmont and upper Coastal losses started 14 years after treatment, and this Plains. Nutrient export in the Piedmont and effect had not been observed in other studies. upper Coastal Plains was elevated, and rates It was hypothesized that mortality and shifts of nutrient export were controlled by the degree in species composition, nutrient releases from 203 of soil disturbance and the recovery rate of decomposition, elevated soil nitrogen (N) the vegetation. Nutrient exports in the lower transformation, and reductions in soil carbon Coastal Plains were not much affected by (C):N ratio could have contributed to the elevated silvicultural operations. NO3-N export. Harvesting Impacts on Streamwater Harvesting Impacts on Sediment—Long-term Chemistry—Change of streamwater chemistry effects of forest road construction and harvesting 19. Chapter is one important signature of ecosystem response on watershed sediment loading were studied at to watershed disturbance. The impacts of forest Coweeta (Swank and others 2001). Prior to harvesting on water chemistry and nutrient export construction of a forest access road (~3 km) were reported in a number of papers based on and cutting, sediment yield averaged 0.23 metric studies conducted at Coweeta (Douglass and ton/ha/year while that from a control watershed Swank 1975, Johnson and Swank 1973, Swank and averaged 0.1 metric ton/ha/year. Most of the Swank 1981, Swank and Vose 1994, Swank and logging was completed with a cable yarding and Quality Quantity Water others 2001). system; tractor skidding was restricted to a 9-ha area where slopes were under 20 percent. Road Johnson and Swank (1973) analyzed long- construction and harvesting resulted in significant term water-chemistry responses for calcium (Ca), increases in water yield and soil loss. Over the magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), and sodium (Na). period of monitoring, the rate of soil loss increased They found that clearcutting treatments did not by a factor of 3.5. The majority of the measured cause substantial losses of Ca, Mg, K, and Na over sediment resulted from road erosion. The average the duration of experimental record. sediment yield was about 340 metric tons/ha/year Converting hardwoods to white pine at Coweeta or 50 percent above the pretreatment level at the not only reduced water yield but also altered end of this 15-year experiment (fig. 19.4). streamwater quality (Swank and Vose 1994). Harvesting trees without disturbing the During the 20 years following initial treatment, soil generally did not increase sediment levels streamwater solutes in the pine watersheds and in runoff in the South, but mechanical site the mixed hardwood control watersheds were preparation with shearing and windrowing of generally similar. However, flow weighted mean debris generated significant sediment pollution nitrate-N (NO3-N) concentrations increased (Ursic 1986). However, this was not the case in 2- slightly, 0.1 mg/L, while sulphate ion (SO4 ) a study that compared the hydrologic responses concentrations increased nearly threefold. Johnson to clearcutting with skidders and logging with a and Swank (1973) reported that reductions in the cable yard on a hilly upland site in the southern losses of Ca, Mg, K, and Na were 2.3, 1.7, 4.4, and Coastal Plain in north Mississippi (Ursic 1991b). 1.2 kg/ha/year, averaged over both watersheds; In the latter study, skidder harvesting increased and Swank and Vose (1994) reported that the rates sediment slightly (by 0.12 metric ton/ha/year), of reduction were unchanged 20 years later. while cable harvesting increased sediment sixfold Swank and others (2001) contrasted the (3.3 metric tons/ha/year) over the first 5 years. long-term water-chemistry records of a grazing Subsurface flow was critical in elevated channel and clearcut watershed with those of a control erosion and deposition in forested landscapes on watershed. Increases in nutrient export occurred unconsolidated formations in the Coastal Plain Southern Forest Science: 204 Past, Present, and Future Water and Soils 16 smallmatureloblollypine( (Ursic 1991b).Anotherstudy, whichemployed responses to current silviculturalpractices. responses tocurrent demonstrated theuncertaintyofhydrologic Although thiswasasmall-scale study, it roughness andstorage. additional surface (Grace andCarter2001).Bedding produced it wasatasitethatclearcut butnotbedded was lowerataclearcutandbeddedsitethan runoff at aPiedmontsiteinAlabamafoundthatsurface disturbance intensity. However, arecent study and sitehydrologywouldbeaffectedbyincreased soil erosion.Onemightexpectthatstructure supposed toreducesoilproductivityandincrease andsitepreparationisgenerally during harvesting sediment loading,usuallywithin4years. effects (<0.093-metricton/ha/yearincrease)on growing onpreviouslydegradedlandshadlimited oftrees This studysuggestedthatharvesting channel erosiononsedimentloading(Ursic1991a). in Tennessee, alsoindicatedtheimportanceof plantation watershedsontheupperCoastalPlain Cumulative sediment yield Cumulative sediment yield (metric tons)

Mechanical disturbanceoftheforestfloor (metric tons) 100 200 300 400 500 600 20 40 60 80 0 0 pi uyNvArlJl o pi uyNov July April Nov July April Nov July April second-order stream (Swank andothers2001). after treatment, and(B)intheponding basinof the below alogging road duringthefirst 32months Laboratory (A)inoneof thefirst-order streams one Appalachian watershed at Coweeta Hydrologic Figure 19.4—Cumulative sediment yieldmeasured at 9517 9918 9318 971989 1987 1985 1983 1981 1979 1977 1975 (B) Road construction (A) 961978 1976 Two events majorstorm Logging activities 1977 P. taeda L.) Measured Predicted increased again asitpassedthrougha200-m through an800-muncutriparian area,and rapidly increasedbyupto6 cut anduncutriparianzones. Water temperature watershed. Thestreamflowedthroughalternating onasmall,mountain impacts offorestharvesting in mitigatingpotentialstreamwatertemperature a12-m bufferofstreamsidevegetation preserving and Messer1971). suitable forthenativetroutpopulations(Swift water temperatureswereraisedabovelevels significantly alteredstreamwaterquality, inthat provided shading.Thetemperatureincreases levels whenregenerationofriparianvegetation topretreatment impacted streamsreturned did notincrease.Also,temperaturesinthe with uncutstreamsideorriparianvegetation more than7 intensive treatmentsraisedtemperaturesby an averageof19 summer streamtemperaturesincreasedfrom completely,watersheds thatwereharvested in treatmentandcontrolwatersheds.Onthe Messer (1971)monitoredstreamtemperatures 1982; Wooldridge and 1979). Swift andStern 1973, in increasedstreamtemperatures(Swift Forest alongstreamsusuallyresults harvesting Harvesting ImpactsonStreamTemperatures— within3years. of sedimentproductionoccurred levels topreharvest Recovery timber harvesting. during thefirstyearfollowingclearcut observed sediment lossesof0.13metricton/ha/yearwere averaged <0.02metricton/ha/year. Maximum Mountains, OzarkPlateaus,andBostonMountains in undisturbedpineforeststheOuachita roads wasabout0.16metricton/ha/year. sitepreparation,anderosionfrom of harvesting, tostreamsintheOuachitasasaresult delivery sediment camefromroads.Projected eachyear,storms and90percentofannualstream duringafewlarge rotation. Mosterosionoccurred inthefirst5yearsof35-year occurred tobaselineconditions cropland, andrecovery was stilllow, aboutone-thirtiethofthelossfrom andclearcutting.However,harvesting theamount increases insoilerosionfollowingselection and Oklahoma.Theynotedthreefold-to-twentyfold watersheds intheOuachitaMountainsofArkansas study ofhydrologyandwaterqualityongauged by approximately1 flowed througha900-mcut area.Itthendecreased Swift (1973)investigatedtheeffectivenessof Swift Lawson (1985)reportedthatsedimentlosses Scoles andothers(1994)describeda15-year o C. Water temperaturesinstreams o C tomorethan23 o C asthestreamflowed o C asthestream o C. Themost cut area. The stream’s temperature eventually application. When herbicides were applied stabilized to normal (12.8 oC) when the stream a second time, a 10-foot buffer of grass along passed through two forested sections of a total the channel was left unsprayed. Atrazine was of 2100 m. The alternating network of cut and detected in the streamwater following storm uncut riparian areas limited maximum water events for 4 months after the herbicide temperatures to < 20 oC, a temperature above treatments. The largest concentration of atrazine, which trout habitat is impaired. ranging from 24 to 34 parts per billion, occurred immediately after application. Following the Swift (1982) reported long-term impacts second treatment, a sustained, background of cable logging on streamwater temperatures. concentration (4 parts per billion) of atrazine In the first 2 years following cable logging, existed in the streamwater for 3 months. No average summer streamwater (38 percent shaded) detectable atrazine was found 3 months after temperatures increased 3.3 oC. Regeneration of the last application (Douglass and others 1969). streamside trees by stump and root sprouting increased streamside leaf biomass to 78 percent Forest road construction—Much of the road 205 of the pretreatment condition within 3 years research at Coweeta was conducted in conjunction following treatment. Subsequent temperature with forest harvesting experiments and was o increases averaged 1.2 C. Minimum temperatures designed to identify methods that would reduce were elevated only in the first year of treatment, sedimentation from access roads for timber whereas daily temperature range (maximum – harvesting operations. A comprehensive summary minimum) was elevated during the 5 years of the of these experiments and their results is given 19. Chapter study. Swift (1982) predicted that the increase by Swift (1988) and Swift and Burns (1999). in streamwater temperature would decrease at a rate of 0.3 oC per year, and that streamwater Hursh (1935, 1939, 1942) reported that soil loss temperature would ultimately return to from forest roads could be reduced significantly pretreatment levels. by mulching or vegetating the adjacent cut-and- fill slopes. Several best construction methods Harvesting Impacts on Biota—Williams and employing bioengineering techniques to stabilize Water Quantity and Quality Quantity Water others (2002) investigated the effects of timber slopes were identified. Use of these methods harvesting on physical stream features and significantly reduced sedimentation following regional fish and macroinvertebrate assemblages road construction. during a 3-year period in six hydrologically variable streams (basin area 1517 to 3428 ha) As a part of research on exploitive logging at in the Ouachita Mountains, AR. Most of the Coweeta, loggers were allowed to construct roads variations in fish assemblages were explained by in a typical fashion. This included the construction drainage basin differences, and both basin and of skid trails directly upslope, from roads, and year-of-sampling influenced macroinvertebrate adjacent to and within streams (Swift 1985). These 3 assemblages. Williams and others (2002) argue practices resulted in the loss of 408 m of soil/km that the lack of logging effects on biota may of road constructed (Lieberman and Hoover be due to the scale of the study, timing of the 1948b). Sediment delivery to streams was high, sampling, and high levels of natural variability and turbidity peaked at 5700 parts per million in the streams. (Lieberman and Hoover 1948a), significantly reducing downstream aquatic fauna (Tebo 1955). Forest conversions—The conversion of cove Road erosion became so severe that the roads had hardwood to mountain grazing at Coweeta to be closed and stabilized. It was concluded that resulted in decreased water quality. Peak the sedimentation observed in the stream resulted concentrations of sediment during stormflow almost exclusively from road erosion and not from events were up to three times higher than other forest harvesting activities (Swift 1988). expected as the clay fraction of the suspended Swift (1988) found that soil loss potentials load significantly increased beyond pretreatment were highest immediately after road construction conditions (Johnson 1952). at Coweeta. The pulses of soil loss after road Converting hardwoods to blue fescue grass construction were triggered by intense rainfall at Coweeta (see water-quantity sections also) events. Soil losses from bare roadbeds were eight required spot applications of herbicides to times those from graveled roadways. The erosion suppress competition. Erosion of the stream rates declined in the ensuing 6 months; however, channel margin occurred after the first herbicide losses from the bare soil were still six times Southern Forest Science: 206 Past, Present, and Future Water and Soils included suchanassessment. aquatic organismswasfound, butfewstudies than ureawasused.Noevidence ofeffectson applications, andwhenammonium nitraterather withrepeated concentrations wereobserved inagriculture.HighestN those observed concentrations weretypicallyone-tenthof short-lived (weekstomonths).Elevated standards, andelevatedconcentrationswere of Nwererarelyabovedrinkingwater-quality ditches. However, maximum concentrations if pelletsaredepositeddirectlyintostreamsand (P)concentrations,especially N andphosphorus that forestfertilizationusuallyresultsinelevated upland andwetlandforestecosystems.Theyfound to forestfertilizationin of streamwaterchemistry (1999d) reviewedworldliteratureaboutresponse National CouncilforAirandStreamImprovement Fertilization— 1984b). estimated forundisturbedforest(Swift entire roadwaywas20timesgreaterthanthat these improvements,thenetlossofsoilfrom those forthepretreatmentcondition.Despite reduced totalerosionratesto<10percentof the cut-and-fillslopesandgravelingroadbeds A combinedtreatmentthatconsistedofvegetating to <20percentofthoseforthebare-soilcondition. sites. Gravelingoftheroadbedreducedsoillosses 70 to80percentofthetotalsoillossesfrom that madeuphalfoftheroadprismaccountedfor rains, ratesoferosionfrombarecut-and-fillslopes werehighduringheavy losses fromallsurfaces 1984a).Althoughsoil of roadtreatments(Swift roadbeds, cutslopes,andfillslopesalongaseries 1984a). for bare-soilconditions(Swift roads reducederosionratesto50percentofthose roadbeds andcut-and-fillslopesoflightlytraveled similar tothoseforbare-soilroads.Seedingofthe rockwere from roadbedsoffine(5cm)crushed at asignificantlyreducedcost.Ratesoferosion similar tothatobtainedwiththe20-cmstonebut rockprovided roadbedprotection (15 cm)crushed too coarseformanyvehicularoperations.Medium against erosion;however, thisstonewasdeemed stonesaffordedthemostprotection crushed withlarge(20cm) bare-soil roads.Surfacing thin layersofrockweresimilartothosefrom with present, lossesofsoilfromroadssurfaced were frequent traffic.Whenloggingtrucks The largestlosseswerefromroadsthatreceived greater thanthosefromthegraveltreatments. Swift (1984b)monitoredrates oferosionfrom Swift Binkley andothers(1999) phosphate (PO as 3.8mg/L,totalNmuch9.3 in elevatedconcentrationsofammoniumasmuch North CarolinaCoastalPlain,fertilizationresulted and Ptoincreasetreegrowth.Inastudyonthe pretreatment levels.ConcentrationofNO to treatment, concentrationsofallionsreturned edges (Campbell1989).After 3weeksof much as1.2mg/Lmeasuredatthefield(27ha) orthophosphate asmuch0.1mg/L,andurea to <0.56metricton/hathe third year. in theother. Sedimentproductiondropped the firstcatchmentand7.5 metric tons/ha increased from0.11to1.9metric tons/hain During thefirstyear, sedimentproduction increased peakdischargesandoverlandflow. butsignificantly change thevolumeofstormflow second catchment,whichhadafragipan,didnot second andthirdyearsalso.Treatment ofthe increasedinthe one catchment,andstormflow during thefirstyearincreased48percentin two abandonedfieldsinMississippi.Stormflow onhydrologyandwaterqualityin burning frequency andintensity(Richterothers1982). properties, topography, climate,weather, andfire practice variesgreatlyanddependsonfuels,soil and others1999).Themagnitudeofeffectsthis sediment loading(KnoeppandSwank1993,Vose and Swank1993)apotentialincreaseof N asaresultofvolatilizationandleaching(Knoepp communities includereductionoftotalecosystem The negativeimpactsofthispracticeonforest Richter andothers1982,Vose andSwank1993). species fromcompetition(Clintonandothers2000, forest enhance standhealth,andreleasepreferred annuallytoreducefuelloads, prescribed burning about 1millionhaofforestlandissubjectedto Prescribed Fires— has beentakeninapplyingthefertilizer. water standardof10mg/L,especiallywhencare Environmental ProtectionAgency(EPA) drinking N concentrationinstreamstoexceedtheU.S. Fertilization offorestlandshasrarelycausedNO Council forAirandStreamImprovement(1999d). physiographic regionscanbefoundinNational effects offertilizationonwaterqualityinother about studies intheCoastalPlain.Information Riekerk (1989b)reportedsimilarfindingsfor monitoring period.Segalandothers(1986) ranged from0to1.2mg/Lduringthe60-day In theSouth,itiscommontofertilizewithN Ursic (1969)describedeffectsofprescribed 4 -P) asmuch0.18mg/L, In the Southern UnitedStates, In theSouthern 3 -N 3 - Douglas and Van Lear (1983) reported This reduces infiltration and increases runoff responses of nutrient and sediment export to and soil erosion, especially in the forests of the prescribed burning at a Piedmont site in the Western United States (Tiedemann and others Clemson Experimental Forest, SC. Four loblolly 1979, Wolgemuth 2001, Wright and Bailey 1982). pine watersheds were burned twice at 18-month However, Wolgemuth (2001) found that forests intervals. The first burn took place in March and treated with prescribed fires had erosion rates the second in September. The prescribed burns lower than unburned forests had during did not change water quality of the streams. subsequent fire events on chaparral watersheds in southern California. Clinton and others (2000) summarized the results of four experiments that examined stream The literature suggests that fire generally has nitrate (NO3-N) responses to forest fires in the less effect on sediment loading in the Southern Nantahala National Forest in western North United States than it has in the Western United Carolina. A fell-and-burn fire (Jacob’s Branch) States (Goebell and others 1967, Marion and Ursic and two stand-replacement fires (Wine Spring 1992, Shahlee and others 1991, Swift and others 207 Creek and Hickory Branch) were implemented 1993, Van Lear and Danielovich 1988, Van Lear to improve degraded xeric oak (Quercus spp.)-pine and Waldrop 1986). Increased soil erosion forests. The fourth (Joyce Kilmer) fire was an following fires is frequently associated with arson-related wildfire, burning the understory in forest floor disturbances caused by mechanical an old-growth mesic and xeric forest. The Jacob’s site preparation during fire controlling activities.

Branch and Joyce Kilmer fires occurred in the fall, Similarly, operationally disturbed sites and 19. Chapter and the fires on Wine Spring Creek and Hickory especially skid trails have been found to be more Branch were spring burns. Stream nitrate was susceptible to erosion following fires (Ursic 1970, elevated by 0.03 mg/L for 8 months following Van Lear and others 1985). However, it must be the burn on Jacob’s Branch and by 0.06 mg/L noted that most fire research in the Southern for 6 weeks following the Joyce Kilmer fire. There Appalachians has involved fires of low-to-moderate was no stream NO3-N response at the two spring intensity (Swift and others 1993, Van Lear and

burn sites. Clinton and others surmised that N Waldrop 1989). and Quality Quantity Water released during the spring burns was immobilized Pesticides—Pesticides have been increasingly by vegetation uptake, but that N released during used in the South to control insects and unwanted the fall burns was not. vegetation. These organic substances have Neary and Currier (1982) monitored stream the potential to pollute water by aerial drift, chemistry [NO3-N, ammonium nitrogen (NH4-N), decomposition, leaching and adsorption, and

PO4-P, Na, K, Ca, and Mg] and total suspended transport by subsurface flows. Substantial effort solids for five streams burned by wildfire in has been made to discover the fate of applied the Blue Ridge Mountains of South Carolina. forestry pesticides (Michael and Neary 1990;

Increases in streamwater nitrate, NO3-N, Neary 1983; Neary and Michael 1996; Neary and were attributed to fertilizer applications. others 1985, 1993; U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Elevated concentrations of NO3-N and PO4-P Forest Service 1994). The literature suggests that in streamwater occurred mostly during the risk of long-term contamination from pesticide stormflow events, and mean concentrations application is low when care is taken. Residues were not significantly higher than those observed are not persistent and do not bioaccumulate. on undisturbed watersheds. Concentrations of When herbicides are not applied directly to anions Na, K, Ca, and Mg ranged from 12 to 82 streams or when buffer strips are used, peak percent above background levels during the residue concentrations are generally low (< 500 monitoring period. parts per billion), and residue levels in surface runoff are < 36 parts per billion for ground Forest fires can burn significant amounts of application and < 130 parts per billion for aerial the understory canopy, litter, and duff layers of applications (Riekerk and others 1989). Most forests, leaving forest soils unprotected against herbicides used in modern silviculture are of raindrop impact. The combustion of forest litter low toxicity to aquatic and terrestrial organisms, and plants in high-intensity forest fires can create and thus pose little hazard to wildlife. and concentrate petroleum-based compounds that induce water repellency in forest soils. Southern Forest Science: 208 Past, Present, and Future Water and Soils ha/year, respectively, comparedwith baseline mm, 2.1to2.2kgN/ha/year, and0.12to0.36kgP/ outflow, Nexport,andPexportwere111to164 increasesinannual harvesting, year periodafter slightly increasednutrient concentrations. For a3- of loblollypineplantations increased outflowand (1998)foundthatharvesting Lebo andHerrmann waterquality.plantations didnothavetoharm Carolina andconcludedthatestablishmentofpine from newlybuiltditchesatapocosinsiteinSouth reported asmallincreaseinsuspendedsediments water qualitygreatly. Williams andAskew(1988) Drainage— discussed belowbytypeofmanagementpractices. these papersandotherrecentpublicationsare Lockaby andothers(1999).Majorfindingsfrom Lockaby (1994),andothers(1997a), summarized inShepard(1994),Walbridge and UnitedStatesare balances intheSouthern on wetlandforestwaterqualityandgeochemical Water-Quality Impacts:Wetlands frequency, andbuildingdensity. road density, pavedroadlength,building impacts includingpercentnonforestland,paved withnumerousmeasuresofhuman correlated parameters werestronglyandpositively its mouth.Theincreasesinthesewater-quality through theresidentialandagriculturallandsto asthestreamflowed to eight(totalcoliform) increased byfactorsrangingfromthree(turbidity) andstreptococcicounts fecalcoliform, coliform, outbreak ofthelocuststemborer( in onewatershedwascausedbyawidespread rise ofnitrateconcentrationsfrom0.5to0.75mg/L (Swank andothers1981).For example,asudden concentration inseveralwatershedsatCoweeta responsible fortheincreasedstreamnitrate Insect outbreaks— conductance, NO good.However,very turbidity, averagedstormflow confluence oftwoforestedsubwatershedswas watershed mouth.Thewaterqualityatthe degraded fromthecreek’sheadwatersto Appalachians. Theyfoundthatwaterquality space andtimealongtheCoweetaCreekin effects oflandusepracticesseparatedinboth Bolstad andSwank(1997)analyzedthecumulative time canhavecumulativeeffectsonwaterquality. that mayornotbeseparatedinspaceand Cumulative effects— pseudoacacia insiticiana Studies oftheeffectsforestmanagement Zeller)inblacklocust( Drainage usuallydoesnotalter L.) (SwankandCrossley1988). 3 -N, NH Insect defoliationwas Multiple forestoperations 4 -N, temperature,total Ecdytolopha Robinia in surface roughnessforsediment andnutrient in surface causesanincrease is slowandbecauseharvesting disturbance isnotgreat,because watermovement plain forestsareminorbecause thesite flood indicate thatonsiteeffects of harvesting and others1997;Wang 1996).Theseexperiments 1997; Lockbyandothers1994,1997b;Messina (Aust andothers1991, to timberharvesting conducted toexaminetheirecologicalresponses experimentshave been A seriesofharvesting UnitedStates. hardwoods forestintheSouthern relief andshallowsoils(Fisher 1981). the level,sandysitethaninareashavingmore impact ofsilviculturaloperationswaslesson tonearbackgroundlevels.The had returned the secondyearmostwater-qualityparameters volume wasincreasedduringthefirstyear, butby Florida.Runoffof apineflatwoodssiteinwestern preparation onthehydrologyandwaterquality described theeffectsofclearcuttingandsite Fisher (1981) harvest. during thefirstyearafter suspended sediment,andtotalN,K,Ca flatwoods resultedinsignificantincreasespH, (1985) foundthatclearcuttingapine-cypress affect onsiteandoffsitewaterquality. Riekerk and acceleratenutrientcyclingrates,thus flowpaths,increasewateryield, and subsurface soils,altersurface potential todisturbthesurface followed bysitepreparationactivitieshasthe Harvesting— caused byforestharvesting. attributable onlytosoilcanbeasgreatthat appears thatthevariationinnutrientloading It Most ofthetotalNwasinorganicform. much as26.6kg/ha,withanaverageof14kg/ha. total Nloadingvariedfromabout4.8kg/hatoas 0.3 to5.0mg/Lforthemineralsoils.Theannual edges were0.5to15mg/Lfortheorganicsoilsand of measuredtotalNconcentrationsatthefield NorthCarolina,ranges mixed landusesineastern increase of4to7percentabovebaselinelevels. Carolina. Onthatbasis,theyrepresentan rotations forloblollypineincoastalNorth can beconsideredinthecontextof30-to50-year andsitepreparation associated withharvesting increasesinannualnutrientexports temporary levels within2to3years.Theserelativelysmall tobaseline and nutrientconcentrationsreturned 0.09 to0.29kgP/ha/year, respectively. Outflow loading rangedfrom2.7to3.4kgN/ha/yearand levels. ThebaselinevaluesfortotalNandP There areover12millionhaofbottomland In alargedrainedwatershed(2950ha)with In wetands,forestharvesting retention (Aust and others 1991, Rapp and others source control programs that prescribe 2001). The treatment effects in these studies “Best Management Practices” (Rey 1977). were often overwritten by seasonal flooding The EPA defined BMPs as events (Perison 1997). . . . a practice or combination of practices, Prescribed fires—Controlled burning in the that are determined by a state, or Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain reduces the risk of designated area-wide planning agency, wildfire, controls certain tree pathogens, improves after problem assessment, examination wildlife habitat, and restores desired ecosystems. of alternative practices, and appropriate For these reasons, the use of controlled burning public participation, to be the most is very common. However, few data are available effective, practicable (including on the effects of this management tool on the technological, economic, and institutional hydrology and water quality of wetlands. One considerations) means of preventing exception is a 3-year paired watershed study or reducing the amount of pollution conducted at the Santee Experimental Forest in generated by nonpoint sources to a level 209 eastern South Carolina (Richter and others 1982, compatible with water quality goals . . . 1983). The treatment and control watersheds were (Ice and others 1997). about 160 and 200 ha in area, respectively, and had Oregon was the only State that had a first-order perennial streams. Dominant soils were silvicultural nonpoint-source control program Aquults (high water table), and the watersheds prior to 1972 (National Council for Air and were covered by natural stands of loblolly pine. 19. Chapter Stream Improvement 1999c). Florida and South Burns prescribed for twenty 7.1-ha compartments Carolina were among the first States to develop were administered during winters and summers. BMPs; South Carolina published its first water- It was concluded that periodic prescribed fires in quality guidelines in 1976, and Florida began these southeastern Coastal Plain pine forests are developing its BMPs in 1976 (Greis 1979). The not likely to have great impacts on onsite or offsite 1987 amendments to the Clean Water Act created water quality (Richter and others 1982). Section 319, which required States to develop and implement programs to control nonpoint-source and Quality Quantity Water WATER QUALITY REGULATIONS, pollution. This amendment stimulated States to AND DESIGN AND EFFECTIVENESS OF accelerate their efforts to develop silvicultural FORESTRY BMPS BMPs, and many State programs began shortly Federal and State Water-Quality Programs after 1987. here are many Federal and State programs Total Maximum Daily Loads designed to protect water quality. The first T Federal water-quality regulation applicable Section 303(d) of the Clean Water Act requires to forestry was included in the 1972 amendments that States list waters that do not meet water- to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act quality standards or that do not meet their (commonly known as the Clean Water Act). This designated uses because of a particular pollutant statute introduced two new concepts in Federal such as sediment, pathogens, nutrients, or water-quality protection. First, its Section 208 temperature. States must then develop a total required States to prepare area-wide (watershed maximum daily load (TMDL) for each pollutant or regional) waste treatment management plans; causing impairment, specifically for each water and second, it separated water pollution into body. A TMDL is the maximum amount of a two categories: pollution for point and nonpoint pollutant that a water body can receive and still sources (Ice and others 1997). meet water-quality standards and an allocation of that amount among the pollutant’s sources. Initially, the Clean Water Act was interpreted It can be expressed as follows: as requiring States to prepare water-quality management plans only for waters the States TMDL = Σ waste load allocation identified as impaired. However, the successful + Σ load allocation + margin of safety lawsuit NRCD vs. Train (1975) resulted in EPA Waste load allocations are point sources of requiring area-wide programs statewide, not just the pollutant, and load allocations are nonpoint for areas with water pollution problems. In the sources, including natural background levels regulations developed following NRCD vs. Train, of pollutants such as sediment, nutrients, and EPA specified that States may develop nonpoint- temperature. Although TMDLs were included Southern Forest Science: 210 Past, Present, and Future Water and Soils of PinePlantations intheSoutheast.”This Site Preparation Activities fortheEstablishment Management PracticestoMechanical Silvicultural field amemorandumabout “Application ofBest of forestroads(subjectto15 BMPs). maintenance ofexistingditches,andbuilding drainage (thatdoesnotconvertthesitetoupland), programareminor exempt fromthepermit operations (33CFR323.4).Otheractivities regulation whentheyarepartofestablished and forestproductsareexemptedfromthis fortheproduction of food,fiber,and harvesting plowing, seeding,cultivating,minordrainage, silvicultural andranchingactivitiessuchas farming, from theCorps.Normal permit and fillmaterialinwetlandsmustapplyfora than a activities thatwillresultinthedepositionofmore management oftheprogram.Thosewhoconduct for policymakingandoversightoftheCorps’ Section 404program,andtheEPA isresponsible Corps ofEngineers(Corps)administersthe (Guzy andAnderson2001).TheU.S.Army could affectinterstateorforeigncommerce wetlands, andisolatedintrastatewetlandsthat wetlands adjacenttonavigablewaters,interstate oftheUnited States,”whichinclude “waters the dischargeofdredgedandfillmaterialinto Federal Wetlands Regulations who implementBMPs (Anon.2000). operators water-quality standardstoforestry BMP programsgrantexemptionstoenforceable recommends thatStateswithapprovedforestry EPAregulations ispending.Current policy promulgated in1992,butrevisionofthose EPA operatingunderregulations iscurrently been affectedbyTMDLregulations.The Water Act ..”(NationalResearchCouncil2001). challenge forthestatessincepassageofClean waterquality pressing andsignificantregulatory Meeting thesedeadlineshasbecome“..themost the budgetsofStatewater-qualityagencies. 13 years,buttheamountofeffortrequireddwarfs EPA guidancetodeveloptheseTMDLswithin8 States arebeingrequiredbycourtordersor was over40,000(NationalResearchCouncil2001). listed inStates.Thetotalnumber2001 and sometimesthousandsofwaterbodieswere to beginimplementingtheprogram.Hundreds late 1980sthatlawsuitsforcedtheEPA andStates in the1972CleanWater Act, itwasnotuntilthe In 1995,theEPA andCorpsreleased tothe Section 404oftheCleanWater Act regulates Routine forestmanagementhasnotyet de minimis (threshold)amountofdredge to streams. frombare-soilareas connectivity of runoff and durationofbaresoil thehydraulic most BMPs aredesignedtominimizethe amount transports thesechemicals to streams.Therefore, recently,ground surface thenoverlandflowalso If fertilizersorpesticideshave beenappliedtothe sediment andtransportsittothestreamsystem. compaction promotesoverlandflowthatmobilizes soil,andthis Raindrops alsocompactsurface the ground,theydetachanddispersesoilparticles. soil anddisturbance.Whenraindropsstrike silvicultural activitiesstartswithexposureofbare BMPs isalways amajorissue. compliancewith In suchcases,theoperator’s the downstreamlandownercansuefordamages. quality problemsforadownstreamlandowner, operationcauseswater- fromaforestry If runoff is thethreatandrealityofcitizenlawsuits. imposed. AnotherreasonforemployingBMPs are nothigh,water-qualityregulationsmaybe TMDL program.IfratesofBMPcompliance mitigation tomeettherequirementsof accepts BMPs asappropriateandsufficient becausetheEPAof theforestindustry currently to waterqualityisidentified. actionswhenathreat can mandatecorrective the startofanactivity, and landowners mustnotifytheStateForester at are voluntary. InVirginia, however, loggersor States,BMPspractices. InmostSoutheastern to wetlands,and(4)thoserelatedharvesting areas suchasroadsandlandings,(3)thoserelated to riparianareas,(2)thoserelateddisturbed quality fallintofourcategories:(1)thoserelated Design ofBMPs is providedbyWant (1998). program, andadiscussionoflitigationhistory, of theentireFederal wetlandsregulatory Cubbage (1998).Acomprehensivetreatment regulationsisfoundinGaddisand forestry A morecomprehensivedescriptionofwetlands as sixnewBMPs wereemployed(Anon.1996). aslong continue tobeexemptfrompermitting It alsospecifiedthatotherwetlandswould Carolina bays,lowpocosins,andwetmarlforests. [ riverine bottomlandhardwoods,white-cedar to establishpineonwetlandssupporting be requiredformechanicalsitepreparation would memorandum specifiedthatapermit Chamaecyparis thyoides Most nonpoint-sourcepollutioncausedby High BMPcomplianceratesareintheinterest Generally, BMPs designedtoprotectwater (L.)B.S.P

the StateForester .] swamps, The development of silvicultural BMPs over allowable distances are generally narrower the last 20 years has been based on forestry than those for perennial water bodies. Allowable research and basic principles of stream ecology. harvest generally ranges from 75 to 100 percent Logger and forester experience, common sense, canopy removal. The effects of headwater area and political negotiation have also factored into the forestry operations on water quality are poorly development of BMPs. Because soils, topography, understood. Most State BMPs do not explicitly climate, and political environments vary from recommend SMZs for ephemeral streams. Most State to State, the States have issued different States in the northern part of the Southeast also BMP prescriptions. have guidelines for forestry practices in areas near coldwater streams that support trout. Generally, Riparian Areas BMPs for areas adjacent to coldwater streams are The term riparian area refers to a channel- more restrictive than those for areas adjacent to adjacent terrestrial area in which the presence perennial streams in terms of buffer width and of the stream and high water tables are primary overstory removal within buffers. 211 influences on vegetation and soil development. In Roads turn, the vegetation affects channel conditions by altering the microclimate and providing organic Because logging roads create permanent areas inputs to the stream system. Most BMP guidelines of bare and compacted soil, they are the principal call for maintaining natural conditions in a portion contributor of sediment from forestry activities (Swank and others 2001). Road and landing

of the riparian areas adjacent to channel systems 19. Chapter to protect streamwater quality from potential position in the landscape, the soil type and geology effects of upland management practices. These present, and method of retirement ultimately riparian protection areas are described as riparian determine the magnitude of sediment flux to the zones, riparian management zones, buffers, filter stream (Ketcheson and others 1999, Swift 1988). strips, and streamside management zones (SMZs) Impacts of road runoff and sediment can be in the BMP guidelines defined by different States reduced greatly by reducing or eliminating the (Stringer and Thompson 2000). Riparian buffers

hydraulic connectivity of roads to streams. This and Quality Quantity Water protect water quality by (a) stabilization of is done by routing water off roads at regular stream banks, (b) filtration of overland flow and intervals onto hillslope locations where flow can adsorption of chemicals transported in overland be dispersed and reinfiltrated. Water bars, broad- flow, (c) denitrification of shallow ground water, based dips, and cross-drains are typical methods and (d) maintenance of shade and organic debris by which road runoff is routed from roads onto recruitment for channels. hillslopes (Cook and Hewlett 1979, Swift 1988). Stringer and Thompson have published a Depending on slopes and native soils, surfacing review of State guidelines on riparian zones. roads with gravel or rock can also reduce surface Their findings are summarized: Most States in erosion. A review of specific State guidelines the Southeast now specify (a) minimum allowable for BMPs related to roads and skid trails can distance between water bodies and the nearest be found in Stringer and Thompson (2001). severe disturbance, e.g., roads or landings; and The use of filter strips along roads also (b) the allowable harvest within the riparian area mitigates the propagation of road sediment (Stringer and Thompson 2000). In most States, the through drainage networks and into streams. allowable distance between severe disturbance and While filter strips normally include natural perennial water bodies (perennial streams and vegetation, their performance may be augmented lakes) increases as upland slope increases. This by using trees and woody slash material to form is because the potential for surface runoff impacts brush barriers. Use of such materials reduced is greater with higher upland grades (Trimble and distance of sediment movement by approximately Sartz 1957). Most States allow 25 to 50 percent 40 to 50 percent (Swift 1986). Natural forest litter removal of the overstory within the perennial was also instrumental in inhibiting transport riparian area (Stringer and Thompson 2000). at burned sites. Grass-covered sites on which Generally, BMPs for intermittent streams are less runoff was diverted through forest litter and restrictive as they are considered to have less brush barriers provided the most resistance to potential nonpoint-source pollution impact than flow. Swift (1986) observed the distances traveled perennial streams. In the Southeast, about one- by sediment from forest roads. He recommends half of the States set a specific minimum distance that the width of forest road buffers be designed to the nearest disturbance, and about one-half on the basis of land slope and the use or nonuse relate the distance to upland grade; however, these of brush barriers. Southern Forest Science: 212 Past, Present, and Future Water and Soils requirements forwetlands.Silvicultural practices stipulatebasalareaorcanopy these often have developedtheirownwetland BMPs, and many individualforestmanagement companies guidance aboutditchesordrainage. However, Most StateBMPmanualsdo notprovidemuch prohibited bytheCorpsandEPA (Anon.1996). establish pinestandsincertainwetlandtypesis wetlands. However, mechanicalsitepreparationto treesisallowedinmost ofoverstory harvesting cannot connectwetlandstouplands.Thinningor However, withoutapermit. forestry suchdrainage Wetlands similar watershedswithoutaccessroads. comparing thesedimentationofdrainagefrom sediment loadingatthewatershedoutletwhen under thefourpracticeshadlittleimpacton Carolina. Theyfoundthepresenceofaccessroads watershed onthelowerCoastalPlainofNorth loading toditcheswithinadrainedforested inreducingsediment nongraveled roadsurface) anda agraveledroadsurface, roadside berms, noncontinuous (continuous roadsideberms, effectiveness offourroadmanagementpractices unimproved surfaces. gravel, improvedgravelwithsedimentcontrol,and anddecreasedprogressivelyforimproved surface from theroadbedwasgreaterforpavedroad most. Thedistanceofsedimenttransportaway sediment whiletheunimprovedroadgenerated gravel. Thepavedroadsystemgeneratedtheleast gravel withsedimentcontrol,and(4)unimproved old pavement,(2)improvedgravel,(3) types:(1)2-year- were measuredforfoursurface andtransportofsediment forest roads.Delivery andtransportofsedimentfrommountain delivery effectiveness ofroadpavinginreducingthe effective ofthethree. erosion-control mattreatmentwasthemost sediment productionby60to90percent.The slopes. Thethreecontrolmeasuresreduced significantly reducedonboththecut-and-fill andsedimentyieldwere runoff mat. Surface vegetation mixanchoredwithanerosion-control species vegetationmix,and(3)nonnative (1) nativespeciesvegetationmix,(2)nonnative National Forest, AL.Thethreetreatmentswere cut-and-fill slopesofroadsintheTalladega common treatmentsforcontrollingerosionfrom The CleanWater Act allowsminordrainage for Appelboom andothers(2002)evaluatedthe Clinton andVose (2002)evaluatedthe Grace (2000)studiedtheeffectivenessofthree found thatclearcutting withoutBMPs increased Kentucky,in eastern Arthur andothers(1998) Sediment andFlow effectiveness ofBMPs. the States usedifferentmethods tosurvey Williams andothers1999).However, different Kochenderfer andothers1997,Vowell 2001, and others1995,Keim andSchoenholtz1999, operations(Adamswater qualityduringforestry that BMPs arehighlyeffectiveinprotecting effectiveness. Theseinvestigationshavefound States havealsoconductedassessmentsofBMP In additiontomonitoringimplementation,many reported implementationratesbelow80percent. 90 percent(average94percent).AfewStates overall BMPimplementationratesofmorethan 22 StatesthatmonitorBMPimplementationhad of BMPimplementationis86percent.Halfthe when only38StateshadBMPs. Thenationalrate is animprovementsinceNASF’s1990survey, BMPs.all 50Stateshavedevelopedforestry This In itsfourthsurvey, NASF(2001)reportedthat (NASF) tracksStateBMPprogramperformance. Effectiveness ofBMPs erosion. in thepreventionofsurface do noteliminatethedufflayer, whichiscrucial fires onsteepslopesandcallforcoolthat recommendations precludesitepreparation to actasanorganicsiltfence.MostBMP If debrisispiled,itshouldbepiledoncontour to impedeoverlandflowandminimizeerosion. (plowing, bedding,ripping)bedonealongcontours and branchesoverwhichequipmentwilloperate. on wetsitesshouldbemattedwithalayeroflimbs pressure isrecommendedforwetsites.Skidtrails minimized. Equipmentthatexertslowground shouldbe avoidedand skid trails.Soilrutting from for usingwaterbarstodisperserunoff streamcrossingsand the numberoftemporary should bemaximized.BMPs callforminimizing should beminimizedandtheirdistancetostreams streams. Onanysite,thenumberoflogdecks areas istolimittheirhydraulicconnectivity roads, thewater-qualitygoalformanagingthese areasofbaresoils.Aswith become temporary Harvesting andSitePreparationPractices from landownertolandowner. greatly in andaroundwetlands,therefore,vary In astudyconductedonwatershed triplet The NationalAssociationofStateForesters BMPs requirethatmechanicalsitepreparation logdecksandskidtrails During harvesting, suspended sediment loads by a factor of 30 in the increased in the no-BMP watershed, but that this 17 months during and following treatment and that was explained by P bound to sediment, and was clearcutting with BMPs increased sediment loads not soluble P. by a factor of 14 during this period. The effect of The use of controlled drainage to improve clearcutting on sediment fluxes disappeared after water quality has been studied in a poorly drained 5 years. The increase in load was attributable loblolly pine plantation on the North Carolina partly to increases in water yield (138 percent Coastal Plain. Amatya and others (1998) reported without BMPs and 123 percent with BMPs, that controlled drainage with a raised weir at respectively, in the first 17 months after harvest), the field outlets reduced annual export of TSS, but was attributable mostly to increases in NO +NO -N, and total Kjeldahl N by as much suspended sediment concentrations. Most of 3 2 as 57 percent, 16 percent, and 45 percent, the streamflow effect also disappeared within respectively, by reducing drainage volume and 5 years of treatment, although some flow effect peak flow rates. The annual total P and NH -N was detectable when the study was completed 9 4 loadings were also reduced by 7 to 72 percent. 213 years after harvest. Amatya and others (2002) examined the effects Wynn and others (2000) analyzed a watershed of controlled drainage with a raised weir and an triplet in eastern Virginia. They found that orifice on water quality. The authors reported that median storm total suspended sediment (TSS) this system reduced flow volume and peak rates, concentrations increased by a factor of eight after and sediment and P loading, but had limited clearcutting without BMPs. After site preparation, effects on other water-quality parameters. 19. Chapter median storm TSS concentrations in the no-BMP watershed were 13 times as great as they had been Water Temperature prior to harvest. In the watershed in which BMPs Changes in surface water temperatures as were employed, there was no increase in TSS a result of forest harvesting activities conducted when TSS was converted for climatic variations in riparian areas can have dramatic effects on observed in the control. aquatic biota (Wallace 1988, Webster and others

Using a cross-landscape comparison of first- 1988). Shading provided by trees in forested and Quality Quantity Water order watersheds with complete randomized riparian areas cools aquatic habitats and block design, Keim and Schoenholtz (1999) moderates temperature fluctuations by insulation compared water quality for four treatments: (Swift and Messer 1971). Intensive harvesting (1) unrestricted harvest, (2) SMZs with cable of riparian areas has been shown to increase maximum daily stream temperatures from thinning, (3) no-harvest SMZs, and (4) reference. o Harvesting was group selection of hardwood 5 to 10 C (Lynch and others 1985). species on Mississippi loessal bluffs with steep Because harvesting in riparian areas increases slopes with highly erodable soils. Grab sample water temperatures and affects aquatic biota, and machine-composited TSS concentrations BMPs have been designed to minimize changes in were higher in the watersheds with unrestricted water temperature. BMPs have been developed harvest and with cable-thinned SMZs than in the that allow some overstory removal (generally ~ references. TSS concentrations in the no-harvest 25 to 50 percent) within riparian areas of perennial SMZ watersheds were not different from these in streams. Although many studies have shown references. Keim and Schoenholtz concluded that stream temperature effects following intensive BMPs should focus on eliminating machine traffic harvesting near streams (National Council for within 10 m of streams. Air and Stream Improvement 2000), few have been designed to test the efficiency of these BMPs Nutrients in moderating water temperature impacts of Arthur and others (1998) found that mean harvesting in ripirain areas. Within unharvested nitrate concentrations rose from < 1 mg/L to riparian areas, 15- to 30-m riparian buffer almost 5 mg/L in the first 3 years after harvesting. widths provide 85 to 100 percent effectiveness The nitrate pulse was similar in no-BMP and in in mitigating increased solar radiation (National 3- + BMP watersheds. Concentrations of PO4 , K , Council for Air and Stream Improvement 2000). 2+ 2+ + 2- Ca , Mg , Na , SO4 , and alkalinity did not Studies in northern Florida found no stream respond detectably to harvesting. Wynn and temperature increases in harvested riparian areas - others (2000) observed a similar pulse of NO3 ranging from 10.6 to 60.9 m in width when 50 from their no-BMP watershed but not from their percent of the canopy was removed in the zone BMP watershed. They found that total P loadings and a stringer of trees was left along the stream Southern Forest Science: 214 Past, Present, and Future Water and Soils THE EFFECTSOFFOREST MANAGEMENT MODELING TOOLSFOREVALUATING are affectednegatively. stream habitatandmacroinvertebratepopulations not implementedorareincorrectly, others 1995).However, whenriparianBMPs are macroinvertebrate communities(Adams and little tonoeffectonstreamhabitatand that riparianBMPs, whenimplemented,have (Vowell 2001).InSouthCarolina,studiesindicate and treesadjacenttothestreamwerenotremoved wasremoved 50 percentoftheriparianoverstory based onmacroinvertebratepopulations,when in habitatorstreamconditionindex,whichis Richards andHollingsworth2000,Wallace 1988). in faunalcommunities(Bartonandothers2000, productivityandshifts leads togreaterprimary stream sedimentandnutrientloads,generally temperatures, increasesflows,both riparian areasincreasesinsolation,raisesstream directly duringBMPeffectivenessstudies. of aquaticcommunitieshasrarelybeenassessed of aquaticcommunities.Therefore,thecondition fortheprotection considered tobeasurrogate and protectionofwaterqualityisgenerally activitiesonwaterquality,impact ofharvesting riparian areas,havebeendesignedtolessenthe Aquatic Biota in streamtemperature. the riparianarealeadtolittleornoincrease that 25to50percentbasal-areareductionswithin stream temperatureintheSoutheastdosuggest the fewstudiesofeffectsBMPdesignon andMesser1971).Thus, temperature (Swift percent ofthebasalareahadnoeffectonstream Coweeta inNorthCarolina,theremovalof22 in width(Kochenderfer andEdwards1990).At “light” removaloftimberinariparianzone20m increases instreamtemperaturefollowinga Forest inWest Virginia, thereweresmall(~1 (Vowell 2001).At theFernow Experimental uplands have different hydrologicprocesses, we questions. Because theCoastalPlainsand the be acost-effectivetoolforanswering “what-if” synthesize dataatdifferent scales,andmay can helpusunderstandthe processesand management. Iftheyareused properly, models C In northern Florida,therewerenochanges In northern orlandclearingin Intensive forestharvesting Forestry BMPs, especiallythoserelated to are powerful andeffectivetoolsinforest are powerful processes thattakeplaceinforests,butthey omputer modelscannotreplicatethecomplex o C) The interception ismodeledasafunction ofleaf using thetemperature-based Hamon’sPET model. transpiration. Potential ET(PET)iscomputed waterevaporation,andtree soil andsurface assumptions. ETisthesum ofcanopyinterception, standard ground-waterflow equationwithDupuit lateral ground-waterflowis simulatedbythe equationwhilethe2-D using asimplifiedDarcy’s The verticalunsaturatedwaterflowiscomputed links eachcellwithshallowground-waterflow. segmentorcellofawatershedand each uniform model simulatesthefulldailyhydrologiccycleof flatwoods landscape(Sunandothers1998b).The intheheterogeneouscypress-pine harvesting to examinethehydrologicimpactsofforest 1998a). Itwasdevelopedandtestedspecifically ground-watermodel(Sunandothers scale surface a physicallybased,distributed,andwatershed- FLATWOODS edge andthewatershedoutletonadailybasis. ground-water levelandtotaloutflowatthefield from DRAINLOB andDRAINWAT include ditches (Amtayaandothers1997b).Majoroutputs to forestedwatershedswithmultiplefieldsand routing algorithms,andsubsequentlyapplied modified toDRAINWAT bytheadditionofflow regimes ofapineplantation.Thismodelhasbeen management practicesforthinnedandunthinned water budgetandhydrologicimpactsofwater- applied DRAINLOB toevaluatethe long-term Boussinesq equation.McCarthyandSkaggs(1992) results ofnumericalsolutionstothenonlinear “table lookup”procedurethatemploystabulated drainagerateiscomputedusinga Subsurface is simulatedusingthePenman-Monteith method. at themidpointbetweentwoparallelditches.ET an hourlywaterbalanceconductedforasoilprofile runoff,surface ET, andsoilwaterstoragebasedon drainage, interception, infiltration,subsurface daily foresthydrologiccycleincludingrainfall analytical methods,themodelpredictsfull field scalehydrologicmodel.Usingapproximate the world.Itisaphysicallybased,lumped,and (ditched) conditionsinNorthCarolinaandaround models thatwerewelltestedforpoorlydrained 1992) isaforestversionoftheDRAINMOD-based DRAINLOB andDRAINWAT ecosystems arereviewed. forest or havebeenappliedtosouthern Only thosemodelsthatweredevelopedfor or uplandmodelsaccordingtotheirapplicability. classify theexistingcomputermodelsaswetland The FLATWOODS modelisclassifiedas The DRAINLOB model(McCarthyandothers area index (LAI), precipitation, and PET. Soil soil layers. PROSPER has been used to examine and surface evaporation are modeled as a function the hydrologic effects of forest conversions (Swift of LAI and ground-water level. Transpiration and Swank 1975) and climate change (Vose and consumes the rest of the PET, but is limited by soil Maass 1999). moisture status. Total outflow that is affected by averaged ground-water table and saturated areas ANSWERS (Forest Hydrology Version) is calculated using an empirical power function The ANSWERS model represents the derived from experimental data. Major outputs first generation of physically based, spatially from this model are total daily flow and distributed distributed, watershed-scale models that were ground-water levels. Because this model explicitly designed to simulate the effects of agricultural simulates the ground-water fluxes, it has potential BMPs on runoff and sediment loss from applications to isolated wetland systems, e.g., agricultural watersheds (Beasley and Huggins Carolina bays, that are common in the Coastal 1981) on a storm event basis. Thomas and Beasley Plain in the South. (1986a) modified the original ANSWERS model 215 with the goal of giving forest managers a tool for WETLANDS evaluating management practices (logging and WETLANDS (Mansell and others 2000) was prescribed burning). Major modifications include developed to simulate the dynamic linkages of the addition of interflow components of seepage ground water and surface water in isolated and macropore or pipe flow at the surface soil depressional wetlands, such as cypress swamps. layer, alternation of the canopy interception Chapter 19. Chapter It is an altered form of the VS2DT model, a two- submodel, and estimation of initial soil moisture dimensional water and solute transport model distribution. Major input data requirements for variably saturated media (Healy 1990). include soil physical characteristics, topography Radial symmetry and cone-shape geometry was (digital elevation model), and rainfall intensity. assumed for the seasonally flooded wetland that Major outputs are storm flow volumes and is surrounded by uplands. ET is estimated by storm hydrograph. the Priestley-Taylor equation from a minimum This event-based model has been validated and Quality Quantity Water set of daily weather data. Water-table levels in successfully on five upland watersheds in the the wetland, lateral, and vertical water movement upper Coastal Plain in Mississippi (Thomas and are simulated by solving two coupled equations Beasley 1986b). However, unsatisfactory results simultaneously: the Richards equation and the were reported when the model was tested on two water-balance equation for the wetland-upland steep mountain watersheds at Coweeta in North system. Major model outputs are water-table Carolina where soils and topography were believed distribution across the wetland-upland continuum, to be unique and baseflow rates are relatively ET, and soil moisture dynamics. higher than those of the Piedmont watersheds. PROSPER PnET-II PROSPER is a lumped parameter model that The PnET-II model is a lumped-parameter, was developed to estimate water stress for an monthly-time-step, generalized stand-level model upland forest stand by describing the atmosphere- that describes the C and water dynamics of mature soil-plant water-flow processes (Goldstein and forests (Aber and others 1995). It simulates both others 1974). As the major component of the C and water cycles in a forest ecosystem using model, ET is modeled by a combined energy simplified algorithms that describe key biological balance-aerodynamic method. Soil water is and hydrologic processes. This model has been depleted by ET, and its movement between layers validated and modified for southern upland forest is modeled by Darcy’s law and mass balance by ecosystems (Aber and others 1995, Liang and an approximate numerical solution. Major climate others 2002), southern pines (McNulty and others data requirements for this model include daily 1996, Sun and others 2000a), and hardwoods values of precipitation, air temperature, relative (Hanson and others 2003). It has been employed humidity, solar radiation, and wind speed. Other to assess the potential effects of climate change on parameters include mean values of albedo; leaf forest hydrology at a regional scale (McNulty and area of vegetation; typical resistance values others 1996). Input parameters for vegetation, soil for water movement through soils, plants, and and site locations, and climate may be derived atmosphere; soil hydraulic conductivity; and root from the literature or measured at a local study distribution. Major outputs from the model are site. Stand-level vegetation parameters include daily ET and soil water potential at different Southern Forest Science: 216 Past, Present, and Future Water and Soils FOR REGIONALASSESSMENT SCALING-UP WATERSHED HYDROLOGY and wateryield. productivity,primary monthlyandannualET, Major modeloutputsincludeannualforestnet subjected toETeventuallyendsupaswateryield. the water-balanceequation.Water thatisnot and roots.Thehydrologiccycleissimulatedby and roots;respirationfromleaves,stems, photosynthesis; allocationofCtofoliage,wood, the Ccyclebytrackingabsorbedduring and water-useefficiency. Themodelsimulates a functionofCabsorbedduringphotosynthesis canopy interception.Transpiration issimulatedas ET isdefinedasthesumofplanttranspirationand integrates hydrologywiththebiologicalprocesses. monthly precipitation.ThePnET-II modelclosely monthly photosyntheticactiveradiation,andtotal and maximummonthlyairtemperature,total required. Climateinputvariablesincludeminimum one soilparameter, soilwater-holdingcapacity, is soil respiration,andrainfallinterception.Only attenuation, foliarNconcentration,plantand processes suchasphotosynthesis,light those regulatingphysiologicalandphysical T guide regionalforestmanagement.Douglass experimental resultsfromsmallwatershedsto here havebeenseveralattemptstogeneralize a 30-mlanduse/landcover resolution. to forest removal at a4-kmresolution. Values are displayed at Figure 19.5—Predicted long-term annualwater yieldresponse United States(fig.19.5). complex physiographicgradientsintheSouthern by water-yieldincrease,variesgreatlyacrossthe shows thathydrologicresponse,asrepresented ET ata4-kmresolution.Theregionalanalysis cover, climate,topography, andpredictedpotential was usedtointegrateregionaldatabasesforforest System(GIS) States. AGeographicInformation United hydrologic datafromacrosstheSouthern and others2001)usingforestedwatershed a conceptualcatchment-scaleETmodel(Zhang States. Sunandothers(2002)testedmodified United modeling systemworksfortheSouthern water-yield response.Itisnotknownhowwellthe management areahasanimportantbearingon andfoundthatthesizeof in California Mountains tested thesysteminCentralSierra or vegetationthinningoveralargearea.They evaluating water-yieldimpactsofproposedforest empirical methodsandacomputerprogramfor regions. Huffandothers(1999)presented has limitedapplicabilityforothersimilarmountain precipitation asanindependentvariable,andthus Mountains. However, themodeldoesnotinclude response toforestmanagementintheAppalachian general empiricalequationtoestimatewater-yield and Swank(1972)Douglass(1983)deriveda mm/year

400Ð450 350Ð400 300Ð350 250Ð300 200Ð250 150Ð200 100Ð150 50Ð100 0 Ð50 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS stormflow relations. Such studies are important st esearch findings regarding water-yield in forest hydrology in the 21 century, when responses to deforestation and aforestation urbanization activities have been intensifying. Rin the Southern United States are consistent Forest watersheds produce better water quality with those of studies conducted elsewhere (Bosh than other land uses. Silvicultural practices in and Hewlett 1982, Stednick 1996, Whitehead and the South cause relatively minor water-quality Robinson 1993). The greatest increases in water problems. Forest removal, prescribed burning, and yield occur immediately following harvesting. chemical applications cause immediate responses As more tree cover is removed, the higher the in water-chemistry concentration and loading, but response of water yield and ground-water table these effects diminish rather quickly. Reductions increases. The conversion of a forest to a cover in nutrient export occur following conversion of type that requires less water, such as agriculture, grasses to forests. Reductions in forest standing grazing, and fodder production, significantly crop as a result of insect outbreaks also increase increases water yield. Conversely, conversion nutrient export. The major water-quality concern 217 of a forest to another forest type that intercepts related to forestry activities is sedimentation. The more water, such as conversion from mixed oak- impact of forest harvesting on sediment yield is hardwood to eastern white pine, significantly directly related to harvesting methods and road reduces water yield. Regrowth or reforestation building. Foresters in modern times have been increases the interception capacity and improving their methods to protect water quality. consumptive use of water, thus reducing When BMPs are used, forest harvesting does 19. Chapter streamwater yield. Large-scale forest not necessarily cause stream sedimentation. manipulation to increase water availability is not Numerous road construction practices that practical due to water quality and other ecological minimize erosion and sedimentation have been concerns. The overall water-quantity effect of identified. The cumulative effects of upstream silvicultural operations is much less in wetlands land use conversion and changes in land use than in areas having greater relief and shallow composition over time on streamwater quality soils. Compared to hilly uplands, southern can be mitigated by proper forest management. and Quality Quantity Water wetlands on the Coastal Plains or large flood plains have low ratios of runoff to precipitation Forestry BMPs have been seen as the best tools (< 40 percent). Hydrologic responses of wetlands for controlling nonpoint pollution and protecting to tree removal are expected to be low because ET water quality. However, the riparian BMPs for the is often near potential and because management Southern States are not based solely on the best activities generally have only minor effects on ET. available knowledge; rather they are the product Wet-weather harvesting in forest wetlands often of battles among forestry groups, environmental results in soil compaction, rutting, and churning, groups, and policymakers within each State. but hydrologic responses to forest management Our knowledge of the effects of existing BMPs are much smaller than hydrologic responses to is imperfect, and we could probably design vegetation changes. Hydrologic recovery appears better BMPs if our knowledge of these effects to be faster in wetlands than in uplands. Climate were increased. gradient also influences the effects of timber Recent studies show that sediment, nitrate management on hydrology, because climate affects release, stream temperature, and biotic the recovery of vegetation and the way in which response continue to be issues when BMPs environmental conditions change as a result of are implemented. Pesticide movement from forest disturbances. Effects of harvesting in colder silvicultural operations remains largely unstudied. and drier water regimes, such as those in the Process-based studies are needed to develop Appalachian Mountains, may last longer simply specific information on how, when, and where because it takes longer to establish a forest under silvicultural BMPs fail to provide adequate such conditions. Intensity of forest management protection of water quality. Models and regional practices can also affect hydrologic responses. analyses are needed to evaluate how BMPs Stormflow volumes and peak flow rates are perform at regional scales (National Council expected to increase when forests are cut heavily for Air and Stream Improvement 1999b). A key or converted to other land uses, especially during question in BMP development and TMDL nongrowing seasons. Few studies have addressed implementation is: How much nonpoint-source the relations between forest cover change and pollution is too much? For instance, what are the Southern Forest Science: 218 Past, Present, and Future Water and Soils applied toforestsystems. and revisionsareneededbefore theycanbe agricultural lands,butsignificant modification widely usedformodelingnonpoint pollutionfrom and SWAT andothers1998) havebeen (Arnold ANSWERS-2000 (BouraouiandDillaha1996), models suchasWEPP(Nearing1989), that candescribehillslopeprocesses.Several unsaturatedflowrequiremodels or subsurface upland systemsdominatedbyoverlandflow ground waterwater-tabledynamics,whilethose Coastal Plainrequireamodelthatcandescribe example, groundwater-dominatedsystemsinthe types ofmodelsintheSouthareneeded.For physiographic provincesintheSouth.Different hydrologic processesexistacrossthedifferent others 2002).We shouldrecognizethatdistinct of suchmodels(Bandandothers2001,Zhang processes haslimitedprogressindevelopment lands. Thecomplexityofforestedwatershed forest nutrientcycling,andsoilerosionon scale modelsthatcouplehydrologicprocesses, produce physicallybased,distributedwatershed- components. Thereisaneedforresearchthatwill nutrient, soilerosion,andsedimenttransport watershed-scale foresthydrologymodelslack to managementpractices.Mostoftheexisting individual studiesandapplyingtheknowledge generalizing andscaling-upthefindingsfrom can beevaluated. nonpoint pollutiononcomplexlargelandscapes BMPsand effectivenessofforestry inreducing and water-qualitymodels,therolesofforests sensing, GIS,andexplicitregionalhydrologic the developmentofnewtechnology, suchasremote traditional smallwatershed-scalestudies.With contradict presumptionsorresultsfrom new viewsontheroleofforeststhatmay 2002), whicharereviewedinthischapter, present (Trimble andWeirich 1987,Williams andothers water qualityatalargebasinscale.Suchstudies effects ofdifferentlandusesonhydrologyand and StreamImprovement1999a). and biologicalresponses(NationalCouncilforAir on thelinkagesbetweenhydrology, waterquality, and how?Ingeneral,thereisaneedforresearch operations, ephemeral streamsduringforestry for riverandlakesystems?Shouldweprotect concentrations, andhowdothesethresholdsdiffer ecological thresholdsforsedimentandnitrate Computer modelsareusefultoolsfor There havebeenfewstudiesofthecumulative Arnold, J.G.;Srinivassan,R.;Muttiah,R.S.;Williams,Arnold, J.R. 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Nonindustrial Forest Landowner Chapter 22. 231 ...... in theSouth:Past andFuture Research. Forest Values andAttitudes Chapter 21. Policy, Uses, andValues Chapter 20...... 227 ...... Chapter 20. Policy, Uses, and Values

H. Ken Cordell1 The chapter “Forest Values and Attitudes in the South; Past and Future Research” by Michael A. Tarrant and R. Bruce Hull, examines public viewpoints on forests over the past 100 he South has changed dramatically in the last years. At the turn of the 20th century, most people 100 years. It was a rural, agrarian society; it viewed forests as a resource for economic T has now become a predominantly urban one. growth—a means of livelihood. Forest utilization 227 This has changed forever the region’s forests and was preeminent and concerns about protection their management, use, and protection. In 1900, were just emerging. Today many southerners there were just over 20 million people living in put environmental protection and nonuse the South. By 2000, the South’s population was values over economic values. This change in almost 89 million, making the region now one attitudes is significant for forest policy and forest of the fastest growing in the country. Projections management. Increasingly, public opinion and by the U.S. Census Bureau indicate the region’s the threat of challenges, such as in the courts, population will continue to grow at a rate greater have reoriented forest policy and management, than the national growth rate, reaching over 110 especially policy and management that relate to million by 2020. By the year 2000, 74 percent of public forests. Tarrant and Hull offer a vision of the region’s population was urban, and as much as forest science and management shaped to reflect 80 percent of the region’s population will be urban the changing values and attitudes of southerners. by 2020 (Tarrant and others 2002). The population They discuss (1) increasing pluralism and conflict, of the South is now mostly concentrated along (2) the need for more collaboration and citizen the coast, in the Piedmont cities, e.g., Atlanta, science, (3) creation of politically viable indicators GA, Charlotte, NC, and Columbia, SC; in the of environmental quality, and (4) moving beyond major cities of Texas, e.g., Austin, Dallas, and a preservation-intervention polarization. Houston; and in Florida. In 1990, the South’s rural population was concentrated in the Southern In the chapter “Nonindustrial Forest Appalachians, parts of the Mississippi River Basin, Landowner Research: A Synthesis and New and the western Texas and Oklahoma Panhandle. Directions” by Gregory S. Amacher, M. Christine But, overall, the entire region experienced Conway, and J. Sullivan, an econometric a general decrease in rural residency between examination of nonindustrial forest landowners 1980 and 1990, a trend that continues today. is provided. Nonindustrial private forest (NIPF) landowners own more than two-thirds of the The future of the South’s forests will be forest land in some Southern States. Because determined within the context of rapid population of the importance of NIPF lands as a source growth and increasing urbanization. The Southern of wood supply, the behavior of these landowners Forest Resource Assessment forecasts that 12 has been a frequent topic in forest economics, million more acres of the region’s remaining forest rural sociology, and policy research. In this land will be lost to urbanization by 2020 (Wear and chapter, the authors review the large amount of Greis 2002). These trends make the management research literature on the topic, and then propose of the remaining forests, and those we will have new directions for future research. An emphasis in the future, extremely important. has been on recent empirical work regarding Because we must deal with the growing human the economics of nonindustrial forest landowner pressures on forests, we must understand the behavior. The majority of research undertaken human dimension of forestry. In these chapters prior to the late 1980s involved identifying and of the book, we review research on forest values, understanding factors that influence reforestation forest uses, and forest policy in the South over the last several decades. 1 Senior Scientist and Project Leader, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Athens, GA 30602. Southern Forest Science: 228 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic requirements, andotherbotanicalfactors. Until the variedusesofforest plants,theirsite 50 years.Mostofithasfocused ondescribing with NTFPs hasbeenundertakenoverthelast thereof. Onlyamodest amountofresearchdealing trees,orparts moss, lichens,herbs,vines, shrubs, are forestplantmaterialsthatmayincludefungi, NTFPs isrelativelynewintheSouth.NTFPs management expanded. forrecreation for science-basedinformation werestudiedastheneed and ofscienceconcern and 1990s,manytopicsofmanagementconcern of researchwereaddressed.Throughthe1980s andmethods problems andadvancesintheory universities andpublicagencies.Bothpractical tremendously withgreaterparticipationamong 1960s and1970s,recreationresearchexpanded poverty insomeareasoftheSouth.Through tourism canbeusedtoaddresspersistent on theresource,andwhetherrecreation recreates, wheretheyrecreate,theirimpacts these earlyyearsemphasizedidentifyingwho Muchoftherecreationresearchin Service. the Forest andtheEconomic Research Service universities andwithtwoFederal Agencies— beginnings inthelate1950swithinafewsouthern less so.Forest recreationresearchhadits has beenvoluminous;researchonNTFPs much commercial uses.Researchonforestrecreation forest products(NTFP)forpersonalaswell forest recreationandthegatheringofnontimber in theSouthduringlastfivedecadeson L. Chamberlainreviewsresearchconducted Forest Products”byH.Ken CordellandJames System applications. landscape modelsandGeographicInformation ownership databeintegratedfurtherintospatial decisions beinvestigated,andthatindividual substitution betweenvarioustypesoflanduse influence ofadjacentownersbestudied,that of assessinglikelihoodmarketentry, thatthe prices forvariousactivitiesbestudiedasaway research. Theyrecommendthatreservation conclude withrecommendationsforfuture decisionmaking andintentions.Theauthors emphasis hasbeenspatialmappingofowner and ownercharacterization.Anotherrecent other ownershipfactors,suchasbequests nontimber ownershipobjectivesanduses issues, includingtherelationshipsbetween researchers havestudiedabroadersetof decisions.Morerecently or harvesting Unlike recreationresearch,researchon The chapter“RecreationandNontimber the 19 regardingtimbershortagesin urgent concerns canalsobelinked to and practiceofforestry result inpartsoftheUnitedStates.Theprofession activitiesattheState levelalsowasa of forestry and todesignationofnationalforests.Regulation programsintheFederalforestry Government of timberfamineledtotheestablishment forests intheUnitedStates. has beeninfluencedbypolicyrhetoricabout examine howthisprivateforestlandresearch owners andofprivatetimbersupply. Theyalso they examineresearchintothebehaviorofprivate private timbermarketsintheSouth.Inparticular, private timbermanagementandthefunctionof ofresearchinto authors examinethehistory rhetoric.Inthischapter,and conservation the assumptions regardingmarkets,marketfailure, it hasprovidedasettingforevaluatingcore clearest exampleofprivateforestmanagement, nonindustrial entities.BecausetheSouthis and69percentisheldby by theforestindustry of timberlandintheregion;20percentisheld control89percent Private ownerscurrently timberpricesandharvests. sellers determines free interactionbetweenprivatebuyersand where privateforestsdominateand timber-producing regionoftheUnitedStates United States.TheSouthistheonlymajor movementinthe issues fortheconservation workings orfailingsoftimbermarketsascore N. Wear andJeffreyPrestemoninterpretsthe Private Forests, andPolicy Rhetoric”byDavid of forests. outforimprovedmanagement needs tobecarried aboutfutureresearchthat authors’ observations impact perspectives.Thechapterendswiththe recreational use,commercialandecological of nontimberforestproducts,frommanagement, agency scientistsarelookingatvariousaspects moreuniversityand these products.Currently on definingandunderstandinghowpeopleused pursuit. Muchoftheearlyresearchfocused norasarecreationalorcommercial concern, were notwellrecognizedasamanagement recently,very withinthelastdecade,NTFPs to harvest early.to harvest Without onoverall information prices, whichgiveslandowners astrongincentive of uncertaintyaboutfuture timberdemandand canbetheresult inventories. Overharvesting regardingoveralltimber or alackofinformation as marketfailurescausedby overharvesting The authorscontendthattherhetoric MarketResearch, Another chapter“Timber th century. Timbershortagescanbeviewed inventories, landowners cannot anticipate LITERATURE CITED oncoming shortages and so fail to recognize Tarrant, Michael A.; Porter, Robert; Cordell, H. Ken. 2002. the potential for additional returns from Socio-demographics, values, and attitudes. In: Wear, delaying their harvests. Both cases would lead David N.; Greis, John G., eds. Southern forest resource assessment. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–53. Asheville, NC: U.S. to suboptimal harvesting over time. A related Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern concern regarding timber markets has been a Research Station: 175–187. perceived failure of landowners to protect or invest Wear, David N.; Greis, John G., eds. 2002. Southern forest enough in the productive capacity of their forests. resource assessment. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–53. Asheville, But issues concerning the effectiveness of private NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, timber management and markets in providing a Southern Research Station. 635 p. sustainable timber supply have largely been answered. The research emphasis now is shifting to understanding how these markets work so that the future extent and structure of the forests 229 of the South can better be predicted. Better knowledge of how markets work will enhance understanding of how human occupation and utilization of forest lands will influence ecosystem structure and function in the future. Chapter 20. Chapter Policy, Uses, and Values Uses, Policy,

Chapter 21. Forest Values and Attitudes in the South: Past and Future Research

Michael A. Tarrant Act of 1960 (Public Law 86–517), in which the and R. Bruce Hull IV1 economic utility of timber, mining, recreation, and other uses was emphasized. In the last 40 years, there has been a growing recognition and respect of noneconomic benefits, the rights of nonhuman parts of nature, and the importance Abstract—At the turn of the 20th century, of public involvement in management decisions. 231 southerners favored economic utilization of This later era, which reflects ideas expressed forests over environmental protection. Today with much earlier in the writings of Muir and Leopold few exceptions, southerners rate environmental among others, has been characterized by the protection and noneconomic values as higher Federal Land Policy and Management Act of priorities than economic uses of forests. 1976 (Public Law 94–579) and by recent U.S. We consider a vision of forest science and Department of Agriculture Forest Service management that reflects the changing values (Forest Service) Agency programs, such as new perspectives and ecosystems management. and attitudes of southerners. We highlight four issues that we feel will help create such a vision: At the beginning of the 20th century, the South (1) increasing pluralism and conflict, (2) more was producing more lumber than any other region collaboration and citizen science, (3) the need of the country (Williams 1989). Despite some calls for politically viable indicators of environmental for sustainable logging practices and protection and rehabilitation of the forests at that time, quality, and (4) the need to move beyond a production continued without substantial changes preservation-intervention polarization. in practices for the next 20 to 30 years. As long as there was money to be made, the public asked INTRODUCTION few environmental questions (Clark 1984). It ver the last 100 years, the forestry profession was not until new technologies in transportation has undergone a dramatic shift that, to a large and harvesting, new chemical processes, and tax O degree, reflects changes in public attitudes incentives introduced in the middle of the century about forests and their management (Bengston that these dominant opinions changed. For and Fan 1999, Manning and others 1999, Rolston example, the introduction of a severance tax and Coufal 1991, Steel and others 1994, Tarrant on lumber removed from the land paved the way and Cordell 1997, Tarrant and others 2002, Xu for extensive reforestation efforts that led to a and Bengston 1997). During the early and mid reduction in cutover forests. (However, it should 20th century, forest management endorsed a be noted that most of the harvested forests were resource utilization philosophy that emphasized replenished with pine (Pinus spp.) species to the exploitation, use, and development of satisfy increasing demands for paper and resources, dominance of economic over pulpwood.) Furthermore, new chemical processes noneconomic values, and human control over and other applications meant relatively cleaner nature (Bengston 1994, Steel and others 1994). and more efficient utilization of forests in the This approach is probably best captured by the South and such utilization received much popular still popular “greatest good for the greatest support (Hansbrough 1963). The balance began number for the longest time” motto. It is also to shift again in the 1960s and throughout the reflected in the Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield remainder of the 20th century following the publication of books such as “Silent Spring”

1Professor, University of Georgia, Daniel B. Warnell School of Forest Resources, Athens, GA 30602; and Professor, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, College of Natural Resources, Department of Forestry, Blacksburg, VA 24061, respectively. Southern Forest Science: 232 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic forest management. For example,disagreements for management actionsisessentialinsuccessful others 1997a).Predictingand influencingsupport others 1999,PurdyandDecker 1989,Tarrant and 1989, Manfredoandothers 1995, Manningand strategies (Bengston1994, Decker andothers programs, andgoals;defining newplanning among stakeholders;establishingnewpolicies, actions thatincludemitigatingpotentialconflicts equipped todealwitharangeofnaturalresource forests, plannersandmanagersarebetter groups, activity-useretc.,holdtoward people, e.g.,politicalconstituents,special-interest values andattitudesthatindividualsorgroupsof future action.For example,byunderstandingthe because theyarethoughttoinfluence(predispose) object orabehaviordesirable. extent towhichindividualsorgroupsfindan are moretransientthanvaluesanddescribethe 1975, Theodorsonand1969).Attitudes (Cacioppo andothers1981,Fishbein andAjzen object, issue,orsituationthatisemotionallytoned predispositiontowardan An attitudeisalearned attitudes towardrelevantobjects(Rokeach1973). for guidingactionanddevelopingormaintaining itbecomesastandard Once avalueisinternalized, of thegood,importance,orworthanobject. defined. Avalueisarelativelyenduringconcept mustfirst be attitudes towardforests,theterms Definitions andTheory impacts arelikely. manage forests,especiallywhereenvironmental limiting thefreedomofprivatelandownersto is alsoseekinggreaterinvolvementinactions throughspecial-interestgroups) The public(often howforestsaremanaged. of powerindetermining public isincreasinglydemandingagreaterlevel authority delegatedtothembythepublic,that forest managershavehaddecisionmaking to thegeneralpublic.For example,whilepublic to amorediversesetofplayersandmostnotably power nature offorestmanagement,shifting private forestlandhaveincreasedthepolitical decisions aboutpublicforestsandcontrolsover and practices. public interestandawarenessofforestissues economic use,inpartbecauseofheightened over seems tofavorenvironmentalconservation water (Clark1984).Today, thegeneralpublic aboutair,organizations withconcerns land,and (Carson 1962)andtheriseofenvironmental Values andattitudesareconsideredimportant valuesand Before consideringsoutherners’ Questions aboutwhohastheauthoritytomake in nationalforests (BengstonandFan 1999). (NIPF) land(BourkeandLuloff 1994),androads management ofnonindustrial privateforest and others1994,Tarrant andothers1997b), management (Manningand others1999,Reading activities andissuesincluding ecosystems evaluations ofspecificforestmanagement they dependupon. are inextricablylinkedtothenaturalresources in theseforestvaluesistheideathathumans socialtrend spiritual values.Theoverriding and sustainableeconomicdevelopment; property values,communityidentityandstability, recreation, andtourism;communityvalues,e.g., biodiversity; publicusevalues,e.g.,subsistence, threatened andendangeredspecies, sustainability,e.g., habitatconservation, e.g., air, soil, andwaterquality;ecologicalvalues, wildlife, andnature;environmentalqualityvalues, include amenityvalues,e.g.,lifestyle,scenery, example, RolstonandCaufal1991)broadly of forestvalueshavebeenidentified(see,for importance onnoneconomicvalues.Various types scale. Increasingly,monetary thepublicisplacing characteristic ofbeingeasilymeasuredusinga range, andminerals,thesevalueshavethe values onmarketablecommoditiessuchastimber, rangers (Cramerandothers1993). employees, especiallynewlyappointeddistrict been showntoexistamongForest Service towardnoneconomicvalueshasalso for ashift environmental values(Bengston1994).Support isaneedtoadjustchangingsocialand forestry argued thatthecoreproblemfacingtraditional uses ofnaturalresources.Indeed,ithasbeen the diversityofvaluesheldregardingappropriate the proliferationofinterestgroupsrepresenting (Fortman andKusel 1990),andespeciallythrough involvement inforestmanagementdecisions Bengston 1997).Thishasresultedingreaterpublic others 1996,Manningand1999,Xu Fan 1999,BourkeandLuloff 1994,Jacobsonand noneconomic valuesofforests(Bengstonand others 1997)andincreasinglysupportiveof Scarce 1991,SteelandLovrich1997, environmental issues(Dunlap1991,Dunlapand and has becomeincreasinglyawareofforestry rather thanstalledinthecourts. decisions aretobeimplementedintheforest values arelikelytorequirespecialmediationif between groupsholdingconflictingattitudesand Attitudes ofnoteinclude publicbeliefsand Traditionally, thepublichasplacedhigh Over thepastfewdecades,generalpublic Forest Values and Attitude Research public, (2) a concomitant increase in noneconomic in the South values and attitudes held by the general public, Few empirical studies of public opinions about and (3) a continued emphasis on economic values forests were conducted prior to 1940, and we rely of forests by NIPF owners (but with increasing on anecdotal evidence in the early popular and interest in noneconomic attributes of forests). scientific literature to draw tentative conclusions A theme emerging from work conducted in the about forest values in the South during the first 40 past decade is that southerners favor a balance years of the 20th century. Prior to 1920, a majority of environmental protection and economic of the public favored exploitation of forests for development in public and private forests, lumber (Williams 1989). A small, vocal, and but with a very strong tilt in favor of the growing minority of easterners began to voice environment. For example, in a study conducted concern about aesthetic and other noneconomic in the Midsouth, Bliss and others (1994) found that values of natural lands. During this time, remote, most respondents believe a mix of economics and environment is necessary, but nearly three times forested resorts were popular tourist destinations 233 of the upper classes; the idea of creating the Great as many chose the environment over the economy Smoky Mountains National Park was born; and as chose the reverse. A balance of environmental romantic and picturesque views of nature matured. and economic values is also reported in studies Technological advancements in the 1920s led to of NIPF owners in the Southeast (Brunson new attitudes toward forest conservation and calls and others 1996, Williams and others 1996), in studies of North Carolinian (University of North

for reforestation to heal the destruction and raping 21. Chapter of southern forests that had occurred since 1880 Carolina 1993) and South Carolinian (University (Mobily and Hoskins 1956). However, even with of South Carolina 1992) residents, and in studies reforestation efforts beginning in the 1930s, of residents of southern Appalachia (Cordell industrial capitalism (with a focus on resource and others 1996). Other work suggests that utilization and efficiency) continued to be a southerners assign a higher priority to dominant attitude of forest owners and the general environmental protection than to economic public in the South through the middle of the 20th utilization of forests (Bliss and others 1997, century. During and immediately following the Cordell and others 1996, Tarrant and others 2002). and Attitudes Values Forest Depression period, few protests against the wood- Cordell and others (1996) found that responding producing industries were heard, as “communities residents of southern Appalachia exhibited asked only that the [timber] companies bring them proenvironmental values and attitudes that were fat payrolls” (Clark 1984). moderately stronger than the national average. The period from 1940 through at least the For example, more respondents were against 1960s witnessed the emergence of multiple-use increasing timber harvesting on private land management. Forests were no longer managed (46.5 percent) than were in favor (35.8 percent) for timber exclusively and the economic benefits and a much larger proportion were against of other uses (range, recreation, mining, water, (72.1 percent) than were in favor of (17.6 percent) etc.) were recognized. Public opinion surveys timber harvesting on public lands. Furthermore, conducted by the American Forest Products most respondents supported harvesting of dead Industries (AFPI) from 1941 to 1962 (Hansbrough and downed trees (70.0 percent), but were against 1963) showed that while southerners knew very the use of fire as a management tool (59.3 percent) little about private forestry, most respondents and having a landscape consisting of “brown and had a favorable impression of private forestry dead trees” (68.5 percent). Respondents also held practices; for example, more than 66 percent slightly stronger proenvironmental attitudes expressed favorable attitudes toward the pulp toward protecting fish and wildlife, and on aquatic and paper industry. Their attitudes clearly reveal and clean air issues, than toward forest practices. a strong economic orientation; southerners valued Overall, these findings are consistent with an the forests as an industry, as being essential to emerging noneconomic orientation to forests. America’s growth, and as offering good career However, since most respondents were not in favor opportunities. It was not until the 1970s that of using fire as a management tool (which could attitudes and values of forests shifted toward include letting forests burn naturally) or having an ethic more inclusive of noneconomic values. a dead landscape (which could be a natural occurrence), the public may have low knowledge Studies conducted in the last 30 to 40 years in about many ecological processes or management the South show (1) a relative decline in utilitarian practices. Such gaps in knowledge about forest and economic forest values among the general Southern Forest Science: 234 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic initiatives onprivate forestsbutalsostrongly NIPF owners supportedenvironmentalprotection Williams andothers(1996)foundthatArkansas increasing nontimberrevenues (10.2percent). such asimprovingwaterquality (5percent)and of theirtopthreechoices)than nontimberreasons 37.8 percent,respectively, reportingtheseasone overall landvaluerankedmuchhigher(42.1and reasons formanagingforestland,timbervalueand importance. Whenaskedtoidentifytheirtopthree commodity valuesrankedhighestoverallin owners supportednontimberbenefitsofforests, (1996) foundthatwhileover75percentofNIPF Plain ofSouthCarolina,Jacobsonandothers regions. InastudyconductedintheCoastal may notbeasstrongintheSouthother owners ofenvironmentalovereconomicvalues andothers1996).ThisorderingbyNIPF Brunson of thegeneralpublic(BourkeandLuloff 1994, managing foreststhatisconsistentwithattitudes for environmentalovereconomicobjectives reportapreferencebyNIPFowners country (Jacobson andothers1996).Studiesaroundthe do notdependontheirforestcoverforanincome percent intheNationasawhole,althoughmany percent oftheforestlandinSouthand58 landowners. NIPFownersmanageabout70 and attitudesofonespecial-interestgroup:NIPF access forscenicviewingandrecreation. less importantthannoneconomicvalues,suchas ormining, such asaccessfortimberharvesting rated commodity-relatedbenefitsofforestsroads, country, residents (includingsouthern) eastern Consistent withresultsfromotherregionsofthe access andcontributedtoecologicaldamage. national forestswerethattheyprovidedrecreation the moststronglyheldattitudesaboutroadsin In otherwork,BengstonandFan (1999)foundthat than toincreasethenumberofjobsinState. to maintainanacceptablelevelofwaterquality residents indicatedthatitwasmoreacceptable (1992) study, 81percentofSouthCarolina had improved.InaUniversityofSouthCarolina feltthattheenvironment of nonsoutherners) the past10years,and13percent(vs.19 felt thattheenvironmenthadbecomeworsein respondents (vs.43percentofnonsoutherners) study reportedthat48percentofsouthern residents. AUniversityofNorthCarolina(1993) amongsouthern level ofenvironmentalconcern 1963, Tarrant andothers1997b). the South(seeBlissandothers1994,Hansbrough activities havebeenreportedinotherstudiesof A fewstudieshaveexaminedtheforestvalues Other studiesalsorevealarelativelyhigh were foundto valueprivateforestsforwood values toforests thandidolderpeople.Males younger peopleattributedmore noneconomic higher thandidtheoldergeneration. Generally, generation valuedscenicbeauty significantly (50+ years).For publicforests,theyounger values ofprivateforeststhan didolderpeople wood productsandsignificantlymoreonheritage years) placedsignificantlylessimportanceon gender. For example,youngerpeople (16to24 values weresignificantlyinfluencedbyageand In thesamestudybyTarrant andothers,forest hold suchrestrictivevaluesforprivateforests. air inpreferencetowoodproducts,butdonot strongly thatpublicforestsshouldprovideclean public thanprivateforests;i.e.,theybelieve hold stronger(morerestrictive)valuesabout forests. Theseresultssuggestthatsoutherners not valuedashighforprivateforestspublic public forests,andtheprovisionofcleanairwas was notvaluedaslowforprivateforests private forests.Theprovisionofwoodproducts some differencesbetweenviewsofpublicand However, their workalsoshowedthattherewere with forestsandcleanairasthemostimportant. least importantoffourlistedvaluesassociated found thatwoodproductionwasratedasthe residents, Tarrantsouthern andothers(2002) may begrowingevenstronger. of Inasurvey public’s preferencesforenvironmentalprotection natural resources. about orbemisinformed may lackinformation or theCleanWater Act, suggestingthat many not familiarwiththeEndangeredSpeciesAct of theroad”environmentalists,majoritywere respondents consideredthemselvestobe“middle 2002). Interestingly, whilemostoftheNIPFowner forests(HullandStewart neighbors ofsouthern orientations arebecomingthenewownersand urban andmoreenvironmentalconservation in theSouthsuggeststhatpeoplewithmore offorest lands acreages. Therapidturnover increasing majorityofpeoplewhoownsmaller landowners livingintheSouth,especially objectives rankedhigherformanyNIPF Birch (1997)foundthatnoneconomicownership and wildlifeovercommodityproduction.Similarly, found Virginia forestownerstovaluescenery trees). HodgeandSouthard(1992),however, (supporting theiruseforgrowingandselling emphasized autilitarianapproachtoforests southwest regionsoftheStateespecially regulations. NIPFownersinthedeltaand a righttousetheirlandinanyfashionwithout believed thatprivateforestownersshouldhave Current studiessuggestthat thegeneral Current production significantly more than did females, with the highest gains in median household income while females valued public forests for heritage in the eastern half of the South, especially in major values significantly more than did males. Overall, cities, in the Carolinas, and along the Florida females demonstrated less support for commodity coast. Income levels decreased in the Mississippi values and more proenvironmental attitudes than River Basin, the Southern Appalachians, Texas, males. These findings are consistent with other and Oklahoma, and along the coast of Louisiana. national and regional studies showing that younger people and females are more likely to exhibit CONCLUSIONS proenvironmental orientations toward forests he purpose of this conclusion is to proffer than are individuals in other categories. Kellert a vision of forest science and management and Berry (1987) found gender to be the most T reflecting the changing attitudes and values important demographic influence on forest wildlife reviewed above. Gazing into a crystal ball can values. Men demonstrated significantly stronger be both empowering and sobering. The forestry utilitarian and scientific beliefs, while women had profession is empowered when it recognizes 235 stronger moralistic and humanistic beliefs. Steel that it is as much about conflict resolution, and others (1994) reported that women have communication, perceptions, and values as higher proenvironmental values of forests than it is about soil erosion, volume estimates, and do men and that younger persons have higher tree biology. Social science not only provides a proenvironmental values of forests than do critical tool for forest management but it helps older persons.

professionals be much more sophisticated in 21. Chapter Steel and Lovrich (1997) have argued that the defining and solving forest management problems. movement toward an environmental protection We are sobered, however, when we recognize that approach to forests and forest management we know very little about the social dynamics in North America reflects a postindustrial of forest management and still struggle just society in which “higher order” needs for to ask relevant questions about this subject. self-development and self-actualization have Below, we discuss four value-related issues we

supplanted “subsistence” needs that are satisfied expect to have profound implications for forest and Attitudes Values Forest through material acquisition. Factors that have science and management. These are (1) pluralism contributed to this change include (1) a shift in and conflict—in the future, the conduct of debate population from rural to urban areas and (2) an about matters of forest science and forest increase in economic growth. An increasingly management will be characterized by more urban population is thought to have a stronger pluralism and more conflict; (2) more collaboration association with a biocentric orientation because and citizen science—the general public will have the physical connection between people and the more influence in matters formerly decided largely realities of natural resource systems has been by specialist professionals; (3) politically viable removed. Also economic growth in urban areas indicators of environmental quality—those in may have created public desire for nonmaterial the social and natural sciences will need to uses (and, therefore, less resource extraction) collaborate to develop politically viable indicators of natural systems (Steel and Lovrich 1997). of environmental quality; and (4) the preservation- In the South, fairly rapid and large increases intervention dichotomy—forest science and in wealth and urbanization (along with higher management need to move beyond the polarizing education levels) might help explain why preservation-conservation dichotomy. southerners have begun to favor environmental Pluralism and Conflict protection over economic and utilitarian uses of forests. Since 1980, the South’s population has An increasingly pluralist society will increase increased at a higher rate (14.16 percent) than the diversity of stakeholders demanding and in the Nation (9.78 percent), with most of the deserving a place at the decisionmaking table. increase occurring in major urban areas such Diversity springs from many sources. The as Atlanta, GA, Austin, TX, Dallas, TX, and ethnicity of the South’s population is changing Miami, FL, and along the eastern coastline and the increasing political power of groups that (Tarrant and others 2002). In the South, the formerly had little influence will likely affect the population declined only in rural areas, including management of forested lands. Migration from the Southern Appalachians, the Mississippi rural to urban areas leaves many remote forested River Basin, and the western Texas and Oklahoma areas without much political representation. While Panhandle. Incomes have increased in the South, this phenomenon is more characteristic of Western Southern Forest Science: 236 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic but theroleof scienceinthedecisiondiffers decisions are and mustbemadeateachlevel, defines fourlevelsofuncertainty. Conservation likely toeverknowallthat much. Yearley (2000) little,andwe are not about it,wenowknowvery changing) thatrelativetowhat mightbeknown and howitworksissoutterly complex(chaoticand compelling exampleofthislimitation.Theworld uncertainty infutureconditionsprovidesjustone management (RobertsonandHull2001).The is limitedinwhatitcanoffernaturalresource longest time(Lee1993,Stankey2000).Science the greatestgoodfornumber tomaximize solutions usingunbiasedinformation decisionmaking approachesthatseekoptimal science,and of positivist,bureaucratic,modernist More CollaborationandCitizenScience on forestedlandswillincrease. diversity ofviewsaboutwhatshouldhappen with someconfidencethatthenumberand activities willdeclineorincrease,butwecanstate andotherconsumptive hunting, timberharvesting, values,andwhether replace orevolveintorural about forestlandmanagementissues. in providingprofessionalexpertiseandscience andwildlifebiology that nowjoinwithforestry restoration ecologyarejustafewofthedisciplines industrial ecology, biology, conservation and ecological economics,environmentalengineering, forested areas.Planning,landscapearchitecture, professions involvethemselvesindecisionsabout so isthecastofprofessionals.Moredisciplinesand the ownersandneighborsofforestsdifferent,but decisions (Fortmann andKusel 1990).Notonlyare mechanismsformaking on theuseofformal and tendtobepoliticallysavvymoreinsistent owners havenewideasaboutforestmanagement forest landownerwillown<15acres.These holdings, sothatadecadefromnowtheaverage and morepeopleownsmaller estates. Trends inforestownershipshowmore traditional suburbstoliveonsmall,forested neighbors andnewowners.People arebypassing different setofchallengesinthatforestsgetnew residentsandindustries. the needsofrural ofurbanandsuburbanconstituentsover concerns redirected bylegislatorstofavorthevaluesand is thatStateandFederal agencieswillbe forestry growing urbanandsuburbancounties.Theresult Texas countiesarestilllosingpopulationtofast- Appalachianandwest States, someSouthern People areincreasinglyawareofthelimitations One candebatewhetherurbanvalueswill areaspresentsa Migration fromurbantorural These terms areimportantbecause (1)theydirect These terms what isandprescribeconditions thatshouldbe. prescriptively anddescriptively. They describe Environmental Quality Politically Viable Indicators of (Holling 1978,Lee1993,Norton1998). and adapttochangingsituationsastheyemerge from scientists, managers,andthepublictolearn management approachthatmakesiteasierfor less rigid,self-conscious, andmore adaptable 2000, Shutkin2000).Otherresponsescallfora (Fischerone possibleresponsetotheseconcerns of theknowledgegenerationprocess,isofferedas duringkeystages and respectscitizenconcerns with anyauthority. Citizenscience,whichinvolves all decisions,andincreaseddisenchantment uncertainty, of growingdemandforscrutiny science, increasedrecognitionofscientific in other hand,thereisdecliningpublictrust based onthe“bestavailablescience.”On andmanagementdecisions policy formation position. Ontheonehand,publicasksfor to changeinunanticipatedways. efficiency arenotonlyunknownbutlikely tastes, andtechnologicalimprovementsin which energyconsumption,wasteproduction, and sustainabilityofhumanizedecosystemsin is thecasewith the scopeofscientificprediction.For example,this change inthefutureand,thus,isentirelyoutside in largepartonhumanbehaviorthatislikelyto will workbecausethesystem’soperationdepends is impossibletoknoworpredicthowsomesystems is thehighestlevelofuncertainty.indeterminacy It on forestproductivity.global warming Lastly, know themainparameters;e.g.,impactof what wedon’tknow. Inotherwords, is ignorance.Incasesofignorance,wedon’tknow for mostecosystems.Thethirdtypeofuncertainty and keystonespeciesareimportantparameters we knowthatenergyflows,populationdynamics, dynamism andtheirindefiniteboundaries,but as ecologicallysignificantunitsduetotheir For example,ecosystemsaredifficulttodefine parameters likelytoaffecttheoutcomeareknown. properties canbequantified,butmostofthemain system isnotunderstoodwellenoughsothatits next levelinvolvesmoreuncertaintybecausethe estimates oferror, reliability, andprecision.The and characterizedthroughsciencewithstatistical At thefirstlevelofuncertainty, riskisestimated dramatically dependingonthelevelofuncertainty. Indicators ofenvironmental qualityareused Scientists findthemselvesinanawkward

estimations of the long-term health estimations ofthelong-term

we don’teven scientific inquiry, (2) they are used to set policy to forests. As illustrated by the first section of goals and evaluate management outcomes, this chapter, forests are valued as much more than and (3) they both inform and reflect public sources of water, wood, wildlife, recreation, timber, perceptions and expectations of current and and range. Indicators of forest quality that serve possible environmental conditions. Indicators as guides for management should reflect the of environmental quality are powerful tools deeper symbolic meanings attributed to diverse, for environmental management (see Bergquist sustainable, forest ecosystems as well as the and Bergquist 1999, Rapport and others 1995). property value, community identity, and sense Indicators are the qualities of the environment of stability that living near forests provides. that science monitors; e.g., “acid” producing gases for air quality, threatened and endangered species The Preservation-Intervention Dichotomy for biodiversity loss, and site index for forest Preferences for management often polarize productivity. Indicators trigger corrective around the role of humans in nature, and around management action when they exceed some the extremes of preservation and intervention. 237 negotiated level. Their use also enhances The preservationists have characterized the accountability by providing measurable evidence interventionists as environmental rapists of progress towards agreed future conditions. promoting irresponsible development. They Developing indicators requires a sophisticated argue that humans can only soil nature’s combination of social and natural sciences. Social goodness. The interventionists have characterized sciences are necessary because effective indicators the preservationists as privileged urbanites who Chapter 21. Chapter must reflect the values, norms, and goals of the do not understand or value the role of human society for which the environment is being culture in nature. They argue that humans managed. They must reflect the qualities of can improve upon nature’s randomness and the environment that society cares about and is inefficiencies. Disagreements regarding the willing to allocate its limited resources to maintain. appropriate role of humans in the natural Natural sciences are necessary to make indicators landscape are a key factor polarizing discussions descriptively precise, reliable, and theoretically about natural resource management (Callicott rigorous representations of environmental and others 1999, Dizard 1994, Hull and other and Attitudes Values Forest conditions. For example, when a community 2001, Ingerson 1994, Senecah 1996). decides that it wants to manage water quality, it Bioculturalism offers an alternative. It selects indicators of water quality, such as amount encourages stakeholders to recognize human of surface water retention and nutrient load, to society as an integral component of ecological direct management and gauge success. These systems and seeks ways for people to interact indicators prescribe desired future conditions with and live sustainably in nature. Bioculturalism (the community wants more water retention and is increasingly accepted by the international less nutrient load). The community could have conservation community, which has long selected other indicators (ground-water pollution recognized the limited effectiveness of or water turbidity) and, thus, prescribed different preservation strategies that favor biological future conditions. diversity over cultural diversity (Droste and The Environmental Monitoring for Public others 1995, West and Brechin 1991, Zimmerer Access and Community Tracking (EMPACT) and Young 1998). Another place to look for project at the U.S. Environmental Protection inspiration and direction is in the innovative ideas Agency provides an important illustration of of contemporary bioculturalists such as William this approach (http://www.epa.gov/empact/) as Jordan, Frederick Turner, and Michael Pollan do certification programs that develop and assess (Jordan 1994, Pollan 1991, Turner 1994). These indicators of sustainable forestry. The current three thought-provoking writers are among a international Montreal Process on the Criteria and growing contingent of biocultural activists who Indicators for the Conservation and Sustainable are designing creative approaches to the human- Management of Temperate and Boreal Forests nature relationship based on the belief that (http://www.mpci.org) represents one of the most humans can be artful agents of landscape comprehensive efforts to integrate social and change. “Sunflower forests,” the biocolonization biophysical indicators in addressing forest of neighboring planets, and “the cultivation of a management in the South and elsewhere. These new American garden” are among bioculturalists’ indicators of environmental quality must reflect an ideas for a better, more democratic, sustainable, increasingly diverse set of values being attributed and desirable future. 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Massachusetts Press.182p. contested meaningofnature.Amherst, MA:Universityof and NaturalResourceConference. 54:415–425. . 1999.RoadsontheU.S.national th NorthAmericanWildlife Lee, K.N.1993.Compassandgyroscope: integratingscience Kellert, S.R.;Berry, J.K.1987.Attitudes, knowledgeand Jordan, W. 1994.Sunflowerforest:ecologicalrestorationas Jacobson, M.;Jones,E.;Cubbage,F. 1996.Landowner Ingerson, A.E.1994.Tracking andtestingthenature-culture Hull, R.B.;Stewart,S.I.2002.Socialconsequencesof Hull, R.B.;Robertson,D.P Holling, C.S.,ed.1978.Adaptive environmentalassessment Hodge, S.S.;Southard,L.1992.AprofileofVirginia NIPF Hansbrough, T., forestsandsouthern ed.1963.Southern Fortmann, L.;Kusel, J.1990.Newvoices,oldbeliefs:forest Fishbein, M.;Ajzen,I.1975.Belief, attitude,intention, Fischer, F. 2000.Citizens,experts,andtheenvironment: Dunlap, R.E.;Scarce,R.1991.Thepolls–polltrends: Dunlap, R.E.1991.Trends inpublicopiniontoward Droste, B.;Plachter, H.;Rossler, M.1995.Culturallandscapes Press. 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Attitudes dimensions of wildlife management: basic concepts. toward wildlife species protection: assessing moderating and In: Knight, R.L.; Gutzwiller, K.J., eds. Wildlife and mediating effects in the value-attitude relationship. Human recreationists. Covelo, CA: Island Press: 17–32. Dimensions of Wildlife. 2: 1–20. Manning, R.; Valliere, W.; Minteer, B. 1999. Values, ethics, and Tarrant, M.A.; Cordell, H.K. 1997. The effect of respondent attitudes toward national forest management: an empirical characteristics on general environmental attitude-behavior study. Society and Natural Resources. 12: 421–436. correspondence. Environment and Behavior. 29: 618–637. Mobily, M.D.; Hoskins, R.N. 1956. Forestry in the Tarrant, M.A.; Overdevest, C.; Bright, A.D. [and others]. 1997b. South. Atlanta: Turner E. Smith and Co. [Number The effect of persuasive communication strategies on rural of pages unknown]. resident attitudes toward ecosystem management. Society and Natural Resources. 10: 537–550. Norton, B.G. 1998. Improving ecological communication: the role of ecologists in environmental policy formation. Tarrant, M.A.; Porter, R.P.; Cordell, H.K. 2002. Public Ecological Applications. 8: 350–364. attitudes toward forests and forest management in the South. In: Wear, D.; Greis, J., eds. Southern forest resource Pollan, M. 1991. Second nature: a gardener’s education. assessment. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–53. Asheville, NC: U.S. New York: Dell. [Number of pages unknown]. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern 239 Purdy, K.G.; Decker, D.J. 1989. Applying wildlife values Research Station: 175–188. information in management: the wildlife attitudes and values Theodorson, G.; Theodorson, A. 1969. A modern dictionary scale. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 17: 494–500. of sociology. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell. [Number of Rapport, D.J.; Gaudet, C.L.; Calow, P. 1995. Evaluating and pages unknown]. monitoring the health of large-scale ecosystems. Berlin, Turner, F. 1994. 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[Number of pages unknown]. and Attitudes Values Forest Survey Research Center. [Number of pages unknown]. Rolston, H.; Coufal, J. 1991. A forest ethic and multivalue forest management. Journal of Forestry. 89: 35–40. West, P.C.; Brechin, S.R., eds. 1991. Resident peoples and national parks: social dilemmas and strategies in Senecah, S. 1996. Forever wild or forever in battle: metaphors international conservation. Tucson: The University of empowerment in the continuing controversy over the of Arizona Press. [Number of pages unknown]. Adirondacks. In: Muir, S.A.; Veenendall, T.L., eds. Earthtalk: communication empowerment for environmental action. Williams, M. 1989. Americans and their forests: a historical Westport, CT: Praeger: 95–118. geography. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. [Number of pages unknown]. Shutkin, W. 2000. The land that could be: environmentalism and democracy in the twenty-first century. Cambridge, Williams, R.A.; Voth, D.E.; Hitt, C. 1996. Arkansas’ NIPF MA: MIT Press. [Number of pages unknown]. landowners’ opinions and attitudes regarding management and use of forested property. In: Learning from the past, Stankey, G.H. 2000. Future trends in society and technology: prospects for the future: a symposium on nonindustrial implications for wilderness research and management. private forests. [Place of publication unknown]: [Publisher RMRS–P–15. [Place of publication unknown]: [Publisher unknown]. [Number of pages unknown]. unknown]. [Number of pages unknown]. Vol. 1. Xu, Z.; Bengston, D.N. 1997. Trends in national forest values Steel, B.S.; List, P.; Shindler, B. 1994. Conflicting values about among forestry professionals, environmentalists, and the Federal forests: a comparison of national and Oregon publics. news media. Society and Natural Resources. 10: 43–59. Society and Natural Resources. 7: 137–153. Yearley, S. 2000. Making systematic sense of public discontents Steel, B.S.; List, P.; Shindler, B. 1997. Managing Federal with expert knowledge: two analytical approaches and a case forests: national and regional public orientations. In: Steel, study. Public Understanding of Science. 9: 105–122. B.S., ed. Public lands management in the West. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing: 17–46. Zimmerer, K.S.; Young, K.R., eds. 1998. Nature’s geography: new lessons for conservation in developing countries. Steel, B.S.; Lovrich, N.P. 1997. An introduction to natural Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press. [Number resource policy and the environment: changing paradigms of pages unknown]. and values. In: Steel, B.S., ed. Public lands management in the West. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing: 3–15.

Chapter 22. Nonindustrial Forest Landowner Research: A Synthesis and New Directions

Gregory S. Amacher, INTRODUCTION M. Christine Conway, onindustrial private forest (NIPF) landowners and J. Sullivan1 are an extremely important group of forest N owners, accounting for about 70 percent of land ownership in many States. Not surprisingly, the behavior of nonindustrial landowners has been 241 Abstract—In this chapter, we review recent one of the most frequently visited topics in forest empirical work related to the economics of economics, rural sociology, and policy research. Several books and hundreds of papers have been nonindustrial forest landowner behavior, discuss written about this subject, and there are several emerging problems involving these landowners, good surveys of the early literature. The purpose and suggest topics for future research. Before of this chapter is to review the voluminous recent the late 1980s, most work in this area was aimed literature, and then propose new directions for at identifying variables affecting reforestation future research. or harvesting decisions. Recently, researchers have studied a broader range of subjects, including RECENT LITERATURE the relationship between nontimber preferences onindustrial landowners are of interest to and decisions, such as bequests, examination forest economists because of their relatively of the influence of type of landowner on N low timber productivity. Given that these decisionmaking, and use of landowner-level landowners control the majority of timberland responses in spatial landscape models. We in the South and elsewhere in the United States, propose that future research characterize the decisions they make are critical to future reservation prices for various activities, evaluate timber supplies. Many landowners are reluctant the extent to which a landowner’s behavior to invest capital in long-term ventures such as timber production. The lack of insurance covering influences that of adjacent landowners, such investments can also be a deterrent to timber investigate the substitution between various investment by landowners. Furthermore, types of decisions, and integrate landowner-level landowners are thought to place considerable models into spatial landscape models. value on nontimber benefits associated with standing forest stock. Much recent work has been directed to explaining these preferences. The Government has responded to timber supply concerns by offering a variety of incentive programs to landowners, most taking the form of cost-share payments for reforestation efforts following harvest, or incentives for afforestation of lands held in other predominantly agricultural uses. Most program funding has gone to southern landowners, as detailed by Goodwin and others (2002).

1Associate Professor, Doctoral Candidate, and Associate Professor, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Department of Forestry, Blacksburg, VA 24061, respectively. Southern Forest Science: 242 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic (Binkley 1981, Birch1992,Boyd1984,Conway and a majorreason forprivateownershipofforest land management decisionsmade bytheselandowners. ownership, andmarketfactors drivethevarious whatspecificland, todetermine it isnecessary maximization. However, healsoconcludes that interest ratesinawaythatisconsistentwithprofit NIPF landownersrespondtoprices,costs,and Scandinavia duringthe1980s,showingthat econometrics studiesintheUnitedStatesand Hultkrantz (1992)comparedresultsfrom maximizers, whohavepreferencesforamenities. NIPF landownerscanbecharacterizedasprofit As aresult,NewmanandWear concludedthat stocks fortheamenityvaluestheyprovide. with regardtothevalueattachedgrowing owners differedfromtheirindustrialcounterparts similarly toinputandoutputpricechanges,NIPF the twoownershipgroupswerefoundtorespond the CoastalPlainregionofSoutheast.While function forNIPFandindustriallandownersin Newman andWear estimatedarestrictedprofit Dennis (1989)andNewmanWear (1993). from NIPFlandquitedifficult,asnotedfirstby does;thismakespredictingtimbersupply industry respond topricesinthesamewaythatforest decisions. NIPFlandownersmaynotalways the differenceintimehorizonsformanagement of themultiobjectivenaturetheirownershipand behavior,less predictablethanindustry because literature asitisrelatedtoNIPFlandowners. for anexcellentreviewofthetimbersupply landowners, andtoPattanayak andothers(2002) discussion oftheearlierliteratureonnonindustrial Hyde (1989)andNewman(1991)fora toBoydand on here.Readersarereferred 1980s literaturethatweprimarilyconcentrate Lehman 1988).Itisthisutility-orientedpostmid- 1984, HybergandHolthausen1989,Max one ofmaximizingprofits(Binkley1981,Boyd problem asoneofmaximizingutilityratherthan believe thatnonindustriallandownersviewtheir bequests. Twenty yearsagoresearchersbeganto or thedecisiontoleavetimberandlandas to participateinreforestationcost-shareprograms researchers increasinglyexaminedthedecision programsgrewinscope, As Government andreforestationinvestmentbehavior.harvesting oflandowner the mostimportantdeterminants Early on,researchersattemptedtoidentify literature reviewisneededbeforeproceeding. econometric studies.However, awordaboutour Nontimber managementgoals arethoughttobe The behaviorofprivatelandownersisfar In thissection,wediscussacoreofrecent harvest andreforestation modelsbasedonsurvey harvest Hyberg andHolthausen(1989) presentedboth occupation,andeducation. of landholding,farm included stumpageprice,technical assistance,size predictor. Variables significanttoharvesting share paymentisnotasignificant harvesting decision,andfoundthatthecost- on theharvest investigated theeffectofreforestationcostsharing than theincomeeffect(Dennis1989).Boyd(1984) substitution effectofapriceincreaseisstronger behavior,of harvest and thissuggeststhatthe that stumpagepricewasasignificantpredictor NIPF landownersinNewHampshire.Hefound behaviorof Binkley (1981)modeledtheharvest and landownerdemographicspreferences. costs, interestrates,physicallandcharacteristics, will undertakesomeactivityisrelatedtoprices, In thesemodels,theprobabilitythatalandowner explored bymeansofqualitativeresponsemodels. participation decisionsoflandownersareoften HarvestingDecisions Landowner (deSteigeur 1984). such assharingofcostsfortreeplanting as welltaxbenefitsandinputsubsidies for research,extension,andtechnicalassistance, offunds Recent incentiveshavetakentheform from the1930s(Goodwinandothers2002). Many oftheseprogramsforreforestationdate ofothercountries. much morethangovernments hasreliedonincentives The U.S.Government (Amacher1997). has beenanongoingconcern 1989), anddesignoftaxincentiveprograms timber (Bellandothers1994,BoydHyde to inducelandownersmanagetheirlandfor timber productiongoals,andlow-profitpotential. knowledge, incompatibilityofnontimberand amenities successfully. Theseincludelack of overcome iftheyaretoproducetimberand (1975) listdifficultiesNIPFlandownersmust Pattanayak andothers2002).Worrell andIrland Kline andothers2000,NewmanWear 1993, amenities (Conwayandothers2003,Egan1997, an interestinjointproductionoftimberandforest appeartohave Nevertheless, landownersoften had onthedesiretoproducenontimberbenefits. an others(1990),istheeffectincreasingwealthhas and Graves1974).Oneexplanation,notedbyAlig others 1990,HodgesandCubbageMarler for thepurposeofproducingtimber(Aligand owners donottypicallyownforestlandprimarily 1993, Pattanayak andothers2002).Nonindustrial others 2003,Hartman1976,NewmanandWear Harvest, reforestation,andprogram Harvest, viewedasnecessary isoften Public intervention data collected in Georgia. Several variables were prices from written contracts with the individual found to be significant in predicting harvesting, landowners for the years in which the landowner including income and land values, which were made a sale, and regional prices for the years in inversely related to the probability of harvesting. which the landowner did not sell. Not surprisingly, This suggests that wealthier landowners forego there has been considerable debate about the role harvest for the amenity values their forest that prices play in harvesting decisions. Dennis land provides. Stumpage price was negatively (1989) argues that stumpage price increases correlated with harvesting, while tract size, induce both income and substitution effects, and knowledge of cost-sharing programs, technical this implies that the effect of price on probability assistance, and farming as an occupation were of timber harvesting depends on the relative positive predictors. Dennis (1989, 1990) found that strength of each effect. He further suggests that harvesting decisions were influenced by income, the influence of price on harvesting is necessarily education, and relative values landowners place ambiguous. Other work has supported this, on amenities and consumption, as represented finding a lack of responsiveness of landowners 243 by standing stock. The negative coefficient he to stumpage prices in various management obtained for the income variable also suggests, decisions (Alig 1986, Brooks 1985, Conway and like others, that affluent landowners might be others 2003, Dennis 1989, deStiegeur 1984, less interested in timber production. In a similar Klosowski and others 2001, Newman and Wear study of Finnish landowners, Kuuluvainen and 1993). While these studies are numerous, others others (1996) concluded that high stumpage prices, have identified a significant influence of price on Chapter 22. Chapter standing stock, and forest growth are all important management decisions, particularly for sawtimber indicators of timber harvesting by NIPF owners. harvests (Binkley 1981, Cohen 1983, Hyberg and Conway and others (2003) investigated the Holthausen 1989, Kuuluvainen and others 1996, behavior of NIPF landowners in Virginia, Royer 1985). The price influence is positive in observing that risk perception associated all but Hyberg and Holthausen (1989). with growing trees and tract size are important predictors of timber harvesting, and that absentee Landowner Reforestation Decisions ownership (defined by location of residence The decision to reforest land following > 50 miles from the land parcel) negatively harvesting may be important for meeting long- Nonindustrial Forest Landowner Forest Nonindustrial influenced harvesting. term softwood timber production goals. In the It is suggestive that the estimated coefficient South, most tree planting takes place on cutover of the tract size variable has been positive for all timberland (Royer 1985, 1987). Royer (1985) of the harvest probability models discussed here. modeled the reforestation behavior of southern In fact, Dennis (1989) predicted that changes NIPF owners. His results suggested that in timber supply would be attributed to changes pulpwood prices, knowledge of cost sharing, in total land area in production, rather than to income, and contact with professional foresters increases in per-acre volume. A higher probability were important predictors of pine (Pinus spp.) of harvesting on larger tracts also is consistent tree planting on cutover timberlands. Higher with observed higher net prices; i.e., the market reforestation costs and farming as an occupation price net of logging costs (Conway and others reduced the likelihood of reforestation. Brooks 2003, Dennis 1989, Hyberg and Holthausen 1989). (1985) found that cost-sharing payments The current trend towards parcelization of NIPF significantly increase the likelihood of tree land into smaller land units, as urbanization and planting. Similarly, higher reforestation costs economic growth spreads from city centers, negatively influenced tree planting in the may, therefore, have important implications Southcentral United States. Stumpage prices for policy. The bulk of research suggests that had no effect on reforestation in his study. Romm parcelization may reduce timber availability and others (1987) relate forestry land investment over a range of prices. in northern California to a variety of owner and ownership characteristics. High income and full- The treatment of timber prices differs among time residence emerged as significant predictors these studies. Dennis (1989, 1990) and Hyberg of investment behavior, (e.g., reforestation) in their and Holthausen (1989) used aggregate prices model. Midrange income, absentee ownership, in their models, while Conway and others (2003) and greater landowner age preclude forestry used actual returns for those who harvested investment. Hyberg and Holthausen (1989) found and predicted prices for those who did not. that knowledge of cost sharing not only increases Kuuluvainen and others (1996) used annual likelihood of harvesting, as mentioned above, Southern Forest Science: 244 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic and others(1996) studiedcost-sharingprogram withincome.Nagubadi negatively correlated experience,andwas assistance andforestry with involvementoflandowners intechnical (CRP) participationwaspositively correlated Program Reserve found thatConservation forest management.Esseksandothers(1992) amount ofcostsharing,ifthegoalistopromote promoting education,ratherthanincreasingthe shouldconcentrateresourceson a Government landuses.Bellandothersconcludedthat primary and hadunmanagedforest,pasture,orcroplandas programs orpractices,supportedconservation, regardinglanduse actively soughtinformation or greater, hadpreviousexperiencewithforestry, to participatehadahouseholdincomeof$50,000 Stewardship Program.Individualsmostlikely landowner participationinTennessee’s Forest others 1996).Belland(1994)analyzed 1998, Esseksandothers1992,Nagubadi 1990s (Bellandothers1994,Crabtree assistance programswereundertakeninthe in Programs DecisionstoParticipateLandowner education, andownedmoreland. belong toorganizations,hadhigherlevelsof with higherincomes,andweremorelikelyto reforest weremoreventuresomeandinnovative, those whodonot.Theyfoundthatlandowners regenerate aremorelikelytobeinnovativethan was whetherownerswhospendresourcesto with research questiontheywereconcerned reforestation amongNIPFowners.Thespecific therateof Their modelisusedtodetermine how individualsdecidetoacceptorrejectit. or practiceiscommunicatedtoindividuals,and aboutanewproduct to assesshowinformation used inagriculturaltechnologyadoptionstudies, “diffusion ofinnovations”model,akindwidely example, StrakaandDoolittle(1988)developeda also beenusedtostudylandownerdecisions.For have reforestation behaviorbasedoninformation Virginia landowners. important predictorsofreforestationfor the ratiooflandownerdebttoincomewere to theresource,timberbequestintentions,and and Amacherothers(1998)foundthataccess tree planting.Finally, Conwayandothers(2003) while higherreforestationcostsledtodecreased assistance alsopositivelyaffectedtreeplanting, Stumpage prices,householdincome,andtechnical but alsoaffectstheprobabilityofreforestation. Many studiesofparticipationinforestry Models oftimbermanagementand (1985) foundthat planstosellforestland within incentives, accordingtoHultkrantz (1992).Royer timberinvestment thanGovernment term actually bemoreimportant inpromotinglong- bequests fromonegeneration toanothermay the continueduseofforest land. Infact,timber importantto bequest decisionswillbecomevery retirement age(Aligandothers1990),their NIPF landownersintheSouthareapproaching and others2003,Hultkrantz1992).Sincemany in thisarea(Amacherandothers2002,Conway There hasbeensome,butnotextensive,progress the futurecontiguityandsizeofforestcover. demand, sincetimberandlandbequestsaffect Bequest motivesarealsocriticaltomeetingtimber comprehensive lookatthelandownerbehavior.” decisionstoprovideamore other forestry that “additionalmodelingeffortsshouldaddress landowners. Royer(1985)argued,forexample, important managementdecisionsmadebyNIPF assistance programparticipationarenottheonly BequestDecisions Landowner they wouldalreadymakewithoutthetaxrelief. investments landowners formakingforestry argue thatsuchtaxprogramssimplyreward faced withpressurestodeveloptheirland.They behaviorofNIPFlandowners to affectlong-term Gephard concludethattaxincentivesaretoosmall than inits“highestandbest”use.Brockett use,rather land isthenvaluedinitscurrent landowners whodonotdeveloptheirland.Their provides preferentialpropertytaxtreatmentfor Tennessee GreenbeltProgram.Thisprogram Brockett andGephard(1999)studiedthe programs havenotkeptrealpricesfromrising. production fromNIPFland,andthatcost-share donotleadtoadditional incentive paymentsoften Kluenderandothers(1999)feelthat harvesting. for timberproduction,reducingtheirfuture increases, landownersmaysubstituteamenities supply. Theyarguethataslandownerwealth incentive programscanactuallyreducetimber Hyberg andHolthausen(1989)believethat unless theprogram’spurposeisdefinednarrowly. cannotbetargetedeffectively private forestry suggest thatpublicprogramsfornonindustrial respond topublicpoliciesandprograms.They or landowner propensitytoinvestinforestry program participation. of the landemergedasimportantdeterminants organizations,age,andresidenceon in forestry participation inIndiana.Tract size,membership Harvesting, reforestation,andforestry Harvesting, Romm andothers(1987)investigatedNIPF the next 20 years resulted in a 22-percent decline Predicting the Intensity of Forest Practices in probability that a landowner would reforest Most of the above studies were efforts aimed following a timber harvest. Conway and others at estimating the probability that a landowner (2003) and Amacher and others (2002) related undertakes an action. There are some studies that timber bequest intentions (plans to leave a timber have examined the intensity of either harvesting bequest to heirs in the future) to a variety of land, or reforestation. For example, deSteigeur (1982, owner, and market parameters. They determined 1984), Cohen (1983), and Hardie and Parks (1996) that stumpage price, time spent in nonconsumptive examined the levels of reforestation landowners recreational activities, absentee ownership, and undertake on their land. Cohen (1983) found tract size are significant predictors, among others. that reforestation implemented by Southern Except for tract size, each of these variables U.S. landowners was positively correlated with positively affected the probability of bequests. stumpage prices, cost sharing, and household Increasing tract size negatively influenced the income, but reforestation costs and interest rates likelihood of leaving timber to heirs. did not emerge as significant factors. De Steiguer 245 (1984) considered whether Government payments Landowner Participation in (specifically the Forestry Incentive and Nontimber Activities Agricultural Conservation Payment) programs Recent NIPF research has examined in more substituted for private investment through detail the nontimber amenity tradeoffs that forest changes in tree planting. He showed that planting

landowners face. In particular, researchers have investment level was influenced positively by 22. Chapter become interested in the substitution between income and negatively by interest rates. harvesting and nontimber preferences (Conway Government cost-share payments were not and others 2003, Pattanayak and others 2002) significant, supporting his hypothesis that cost- and willingness to accept payments to postpone share payments have not significantly altered harvesting and capture wildlife benefits (Kline reforestation investment by NIPF landowners. and others 2000). Conway and others assumed Goodwin and others (2002) also finds this to that harvesting and reforestation decisions are be the case using aggregate time series cross- not determined independently of nontimber section data for several Southern U.S. States. activity and bequest decisions; i.e., that they

Finally, Hardie and Parks (1996) examined the Landowner Forest Nonindustrial are not separable (e.g., see Koskela 1989). The intensity of reforestation in response to CRP nontimber activity decision is modeled explicitly payments in the South. Their results indicated as an endogenous variable by considering the that sawtimber price, cost-share payments, choice of activity and the time spent in an activity. household income, size of landholding, technical In other studies, forest inventory or land area assistance, and inheritance of the property in forests has been used as a proxy for amenity have highly significant positive coefficients. preferences (Binkley 1981, Pattanayak and others 2002). Conway and others (2003) examined actual Sociological Studies use, finding that nonconsumptive activities such Although this section has focused on as hiking, camping, and observing wildlife were econometric studies, one cannot ignore the large positive indicators of timber bequest intentions, body of literature that seeks to identify sociological but recreational activities were not correlated factors associated with NIPF ownership. This line with harvesting or reforestation behavior. Kline of research developed in the 1970s (Egan 1997) and others (2000) conducted a telephone survey and stemmed from the heightened awareness that of NIPF owners in western Oregon and western forest landowners often hold land for nontimber Washington to determine willingness of benefits and embrace multiple ownership landowners to accept incentive payments and objectives. Some recent studies have appeared in forego harvesting (for the sake of protecting the forestry literature. These include a paper by wildlife habitat). Willingness to accept was Bliss and others (1997), who found that the views related to ownership objectives, socioeconomic of nonindustrial owners regarding forestry and characteristics, and incentive offered. Landowner environmental issues are similar to those of the age, education, income, multiobjective ownership, general public, contrary to previous conjectures. and incentive payment were positive predictors Bourke and Luloff (1993) also provided evidence of willingness to accept, while size of landholding, that NIPF landowners and the public have sales income, and plans to cut trees were common concerns with respect to forests and negative predictors. management policies. Johnson and others (1997), Southern Forest Science: 246 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic to entertimbermarketsin the future. pricesandhencetheir propensity reservation oftheir landowners areimportantdeterminants at anyonetime.Thepreferences ofthese orreforesting not activelyengagedinharvesting these landownersareusuallyabsentee,or urbanization orforestparcelization.Manyof for landownersandmarketsaffectedby collection oflandowners.Thisisespeciallytrue supply obtainedfromanygivenlandowneror might beimportanttopredictingfuturetimber nonindustrial landowners.Yet, suchresearch pricesamong and estimationofreservation reforestation andafforestationefforts. agricultural usestoforestproductionthrough as sellingland,orconvertinglandusefrom apply tootherlandownermarketactivities,such priceapproachshouldinprinciple reservation decisions,the appeal forthetimberharvesting timber. priceshaveintuitive Althoughreservation and selling hisorher receive beforeharvesting represents anofferorpaymentalandownermust each landowner. priceforharvesting Areservation price”isestablishedfor existence ofa“reservation review ofthisliterature].Inwork,the activities [seeFina andothers(2001)forarecent approach thedecisiontoparticipateinharvesting theoretical literaturedescribeshowlandowners orreforestation.Aseparate setof harvesting focused onestimatingprobabilitiesandlevelsof empirical landownerbehaviormodelshavelargely of Landowners Investigate thePriceAcceptanceBehavior have importantpolicyimplications. several topicsthathavenotbeenstudiedbut NEW RESEARCH DIRECTIONS many objectivesofNIPFlandowners. programs isdependentonunderstandingthe assistance arguing thatthesuccessofforestry on landownersasindividuals.Egan(1997)agrees, timber supplyquestionandshouldinsteadfocus researchers tendtofocustooexclusivelyonthe decisions.Bliss(1994)arguedthat harvest were notimportantinlandowners’mostrecent regulations, foundthatpossiblefutureregulations who consideredhowNIPFownersviewforest T To date,therehasbeenlittleempiricaltesting Although therearesomeexceptions,previous research. Inthissectionwecommenton areasforlandowner many newandfruitful he precedingreviewofrecentworkhintsat sales inalready fragmentedareasmaybe use decisions.Itiswellknown thatfrequentland considers theparticipation of landownersinland of landowners.Asimilarproblem ariseswhenone pricesfordifferenttypes affecting reservation we needtoidentifythemost importantfactors decisions oflandownerstoenterthemarket, understand howvariouspolicieswillaffectthe or types oflandownerswilleventuallyharvest, depend onvariablessuchasthese. timber andthedecisiontoswitchlanduseshould The decisiontoacceptanypriceforharvesting prices. substantial influencesonreservation management preferences)mayalsohave ownership objectives(landspeculationorforest Ownership type(absenteeoronsiteowners)and timber. pricesforharvesting influence reservation about thepathoffutureprices(pricerisk)may establishing forests.Inaddition,expectations benefits, orthosewhoassociatehigherriskwith higher incomes,attachvaluestonontimber prices mightbethosewhohave high reservation landowners. For example,landownerswithvery pricesacross differences inreservation management activitieswillberealizedthrough andotherforest in attitudesaboutharvesting and incomeorwagepossibilities.Thus,differences preferences fortimberandnontimberproducts pricescapitalizelandowner prices. Reservation prices areabovethepracticalrangeofmarket their preferencesaresuchthatreservation prevailing marketpricesandoffers,orbecause price pathovertimeisconsistentlyhigherthan will neverdoso,eitherbecausetheirreservation and agriculturalactivities. characteristics, andincomederivedfromforest depend onpreferencesofthelandowner, market price,itwill and likethetimbersalereservation pricefor landuseactivities, to areservation uses. Thiswillingnesstoacceptisequivalent or sheiswillingtoacceptforthechangeinland if thepaymentisgreaterthanminimumhe the landownerwillundertakesuchanactivityonly openoragriculturalland, plant treesoncurrently landowner isofferedsomepaymentorincentiveto Similarly,landowner choosetoharvest. ifthe price,willthe exceeds hisorherreservation amarketprice)that is offeredabid(orobserves market parameters.Onlywhenthelandowner functions ofbothlandownerpreferencesand andobviously challenge, astheyareunobserved To understandhowlikelyitisthatdifferent In somecases,landownerswhodonotharvest pricesrepresentsa Estimating reservation contributing to increased parcelization and have not harvested in the past, are often treated decreased prospects for sustainable forest in different ways with respect to the prices they management, or production of amenities that are assumed to face. require contiguous forest blocks. As with timber, How does one estimate reservation prices for a landowner’s reservation price for land will give harvesting or for converting land to forest use? some indication of whether the landowner will One way is to use a revealed or stated preference participate in the land sale market. Reservation approach in which landowners are given various prices for land sales are also important indicators offers for undertaking a harvest or land use of landowner behavior and market outcomes with activity, and then asked to indicate whether they respect to timber harvesting. would accept or reject the offer. Two versions A comparison of reservation prices and market of this method have been applied recently. One prices for landowner activities is also needed. version employs referendum voting—a single Landowners are price takers. If an individual price is offered and landowners can either accept landowner’s reservation price for harvesting or reject this price. Kline and others (2000) 247 is higher than the prevailing market price, then make use of this approach to determine when the landowner will not enter the market. landowners will choose to preserve forests over Understanding the difference between the two, a certain time period. The other version is one of which is observed and the other of which to use a payment table to offer a range of prices, has to be estimated, will, therefore, give some and then allow landowners to indicate how likely indication of how much markets need to change they are to accept these prices if offered them. 22. Chapter before landowner harvesting changes by certain This approach is taken by Amacher and others amounts. The difference between reservation (2001). The advantage of these methods is that prices and market prices should reflect costs they can be used to identify thresholds for prices incurred searching for buyers, differences in that landowners would accept to undertake some information possessed by landowners and timber activity. They can also be used to determine buyers, and specific characteristics of forest tracts market prices a given landowner would be that are valued in the market. Identifying the gap willing to accept for harvesting under varying between reservation prices and market prices will probabilities. Thus, both methods can be used

improve the prediction of future land and timber to identify the most important predictors of Landowner Forest Nonindustrial sale activity, in that it will provide a means to reservation prices. determine what type of landowners exist at Empirical analysis of reservation prices could the economic “margin,” that is, are closest to be used to improve targeting of Government participating in sale activities. It will also indicate policies in new ways. For example, suppose that how far certain landowners are from participating a policymaker wished to achieve a certain acreage in the market. These landowners would not target for land in forests, perhaps in response to a typically be included in a sample of landowners carbon sequestration goal. Estimated reservation who harvest in any given period. prices for land use decisions would indicate the It is this predictive capacity of empirical minimum payment landowners would need to reservation price work that might be the next receive in order to achieve the land use target. contribution to timber supply modeling, or to Typically, economists assert that the compensation forecasting changes in timber availability. Most for converting a unit of land to forests should landowners in a given sample may not harvest. In equal returns from the current use foregone by some cases, this may be because their reservation switching. The importance of reservation prices prices do not coincide with market prices, or in in this decision is often overlooked, but it is other cases their timber may not be mature important when the landowner attaches a value enough to harvest. In the former case, without to the nontimber benefits produced by forests. knowing how far landowners are from the margin For example, a landowner’s preference for of activity, there is no way of knowing how far nontimber goods could lower the reservation landowners are from participating in forest price for shifting land to the extent that it is harvesting. The harvesting and reforestation smaller than the foregone returns from the choice models reviewed earlier require substantial current use. A landowner for whom this is true data about landowners who have recently would be willing to accept a payment that harvested. Landowners who do not intend to is smaller than the foregone financial returns harvest at the time of data collection, i.e., at in order to switch land from a nonforest use prevailing market conditions, and those who to forests. Any Government program seeking Southern Forest Science: 248 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic on otherlandownersisunknown, butitisan account theeffectsofhisor hermanagement as speciesconservation. stand interdependenceinother contexts,such recentliteratureon stand. Thereisalsovery assumption ofapurelyexogenousadjacent makes decisionsforasinglestandunderthe the rotationagedecisionforalandownerwho stands. Koskela andOllikainen(2001) evaluated nontimber amenitybenefitsbetweentwoadjacent explicitspatial interactionsfor first toformulate (1993) andSwallowothers(1997)werethe owner.a single(Government) SwallowandWear the rentsassociatedwithmultiplestandsunder a linearprogrammingapproachformaximizing (1985,1989), whoproposed Bowes andKrutilla interdependence wasoriginallydiscussedby the economicsofstandinterdependence.Stand of managementdecisionsadjacentlandowners. adjacent landownersinmind,oranticipation their forestswiththeeffectofdecisionson that landownersmaymakedecisionsconcerning landowners. Itis,therefore,reasonabletoexpect depend importantlyondecisionsmadebyadjacent from forests,suchaswildlifeamenities,should that thequalityofnontimberbenefitsobtained holding adjacentstands.Onecaneasilyimagine stand canaffectthewelfareofotherlandowners management decisionsmadebytheownersofone a factofnonindustrialforestmanagementthat the interdependenceamongstands,butitis or coordinatedmanagementofseveralstands. forest areasmaybedependentontheinteraction the recreationalopportunitiespresentedbylarger linked byhumanneedsandactions.For instance, Foreman 1987,Giles1978).Forest standsarealso habitat forcertainanimalspecies(Franklin and ofbiodiversityorcontiguous for conservation many ageclassesandspeciesmixesarenecessary long knownthisandhavearguedthattreesof that constituteanyforestunit.Biologistshave Adjacent Landowners Investigate Importanceof land use. better reflecttheopportunitycostofswitching prices asreservation and notjustonlostreturns, prices, should, therefore,focusonreservation to influencelandusebehavioratminimumcost The extenttowhichalandowner takesinto fewanalyticaltreatmentsof There arevery Economic modelshaverarelyacknowledged Forest ecosystemscutacrossthemanystands to policiestargetinguseof their forestland. will helpusunderstandhow landownersrespond landowners reacttooneanother, ifthey doatall, each person’spreferences. Understanding how priceisspecificto reservation each landowner’s such anunderstandingisreached.Thisbecause after one landownermaybeinclinedtoharvest wildlife species.However, inperiodsofhighprices, landowners arehuntersoflate-successional committed todoingso,andbecauseboth habitat becauseanadjacentlandownerhasalso aspecificareaofwildlife may agreenottoharvest his orherneighbors.For example,alandowner to effectivelycommitanactionwithregard ability coordination maycomefromalandowner’s Most ofthesocialcostsassociatedwithlack reforestation,andland use decisions. harvesting, anticipate thebehaviorofotherswhenmaking to adjacentlandowners,andhowmuchthey what extenttheyviewtheirdecisionsasimportant to targeted atgroupsoflandowners,determining decisions. Thismightbeachievedthroughasurvey andplannedlandowner stand effectstoobserved research wouldseemtoinvolvelinkingadjacent coordinate actions.Themostpromisinglineof or partial)affectincentivesforlandownersto (full how variouspropertyrightsarrangements coordination amonglandownerscanbe,andalso howseriouslackof be directedatdetermining understanding oflandownerbehavior. atthisstagegivenourcurrent instrument It certainlyseemsdifficulttoidentifysuchan ownership andmanagementofforestland. governing of propertyrightsarrangements wouldalsodependonthetypes instrument implement inpractice.Themostefficient landowner and,thus,itmaynotbefeasibleto would obviouslyneedtotargettheindividual his orherstandsinconcert.Suchaninstrument as ifheorshewereasoleowner, managingallof thatencourageseachlandownertoact instrument challenge forpolicy, therefore,becomesfindingan conditional onitsimpactsallotherstands.The economically efficientrotationageofeachstand, as awholewouldhaveincentivestosolveforthe social plannerwhomanagedtheforestecosystem associated withprivateforestmanagement.Onlya can representatypeofeconomic“externality” the forestecosystemusedbyanotherlandowner decisionon In fact,theimpactofonelandowner’s of otherlandowners,couldbesociallycostly. who donotcoordinate,oranticipateactions important question.Thebehavioroflandowners In lightofthisdifficulty, empiricalworkshould Investigate Substitution Between landowner response models into larger scale Landowner Decisions landscape models that can be used for Existing literature suggests that we have policy analysis. considerable understanding about the harvesting Landscape models may be used to understand and reforestation decisions of nonindustrial forest forest fragmentation. Fragmentation of parcels landowners, and some emerging understanding into smaller units has been associated with of other decisions and substitution between changing landowner characteristics and the various decisions. What this newer work teaches current structure of estate taxation. Arguments us is how other decisions impact harvesting and are often made that parcelization of land into reforestation, and why it is important not to smaller pieces will eventually decrease timber examine one decision, such as harvesting, in supplies through reduced land access and higher isolation from other decisions. Timber supply wood costs. Fragmentation may also reduce depends on the interaction of all relevant decisions nontimber benefits by disrupting wildlife landowners make. Take, for example, the case of corridors. These changes would also lead to a 249 nontimber activities. Interest in those that are different type of forest industry organization, complementary with harvesting influence behavior and could also lead to changes in landowner very differently than would interests in nontimber composition on large land area scales. Recall activities viewed as substitutes by the landowner. that recent work also establishes that landowner If we do not know how landowners choose characteristics are changing. Increasingly, between nontimber activities, then we will have nonindustrial private landowners are absentees, 22. Chapter an incomplete picture of harvesting behavior. and absentee landowners are known to have The problem becomes even more complicated different preferences for land and timber when one considers the interaction of land use, sales than the historically abundant resident nontimber activities, and timing of harvesting. For landowners. As we noted earlier, landowner example, landowners may consider it equivalent to differences are often realized through either forego harvesting for amenities, or simply differences in reservation prices for harvesting bring more land into forest production. Stand or the willingness to leave timber as a bequest. interdependency is also potentially important. If a landowner can substitute nontimber goods Clearly, fragmentation and parcelization can Nonindustrial Forest Landowner Forest Nonindustrial on adjacent land for production of these goods be understood by first integrating models for on their own land, such as hunting or maintenance predicting landowner behavior into spatial land of wildlife habitat quality, then this will also affect use models. Landowner decisionmaking would harvesting decisions. Obviously, an important then be an endogenous factor driving the spatial factor here is the timing of decisions. Provencher realization of land use change. The benefits from (1997) provides some support for the existence greater integration of landowner responses into of this substitution. He argues that linearity landscape predictions will be better prediction of in econometric specifications of nonindustrial landscape change in response to market changes timber harvesting decisions is a troublesome or demographic changes in landownership, and assumption, as it imposes certain restrictions better prediction of the pattern and size of on substitutability across decisions and activities environmental benefits and costs associated for a landowner and, thus, may not give a complete with landowner and market-driven change. picture of the relationships between landowner Expand Our Understanding of Information decisions and important variables. Asymmetries Involving Landowners Integrate Landowner Models into One assumption made in nearly all empirical Large-Scale Policy Models work is that markets are “perfect” in terms of the Many studies have sought to estimate the information available to landowners. For example, probability that landowners undertake some it is implicitly assumed that landowners have the activity, such as harvesting or reforestation. same information as timber buyers regarding There is now a growing literature about landscape prices for harvesting, and they know with models (e.g., Wear and Bolstad 1998). Many of certainty the market desirability of their land. these models are not based on actual landowner However, new evidence suggests that landowners data defining responses of land use to external may not have perfect information. Hardie and market changes. The challenge now is to integrate Larson (1994) discuss a model in which buyers Southern Forest Science: 250 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic LITERATURE CITED inthesecases. intervention understanding ofthescopeforGovernment asymmetries,andabetter information understanding ofthesocialcostsassociatedwith timber supply. Suchworkwillgiveus abetter differencestolandownerbehaviorand information empirical workexaminingtheimplicationsof be flawed.Thereismuchscopeforfuture may information, decisions onthebasisofperfect variables, whichassumesthatlandownersmake literature onlandownerresponsestoexternal competitive timbermarketsare.Thus,theexisting variables, suchasprices,willdependonhow timber marketsrespondtochangesineconomic Theimplicationsforhow information. perfect identify thecoststolandownersofnothaving markets. Empiricalworkshouldcontinueto maybepresentintimber externalities information timber buyer. forest landcharacteristicsinthetimberpricebya elicited bids,affectsthemarginalvaluationof sale, i.e.,whetheritwasnegotiatedorbasedon concluded thatthecompetitivenessofatimber (2002), whostudiedasampleofactualtimberbids, representation. Mostrecently, Sullivanandothers thanthosewhodonothavesuch harvesting consultants tendtoobtainhigherpricesfortimber (1994) showedthatlandownerswithaccessto with regardtothemarket.MunnandRucker and sellersoftimberhaveasymmetricinformation Amacher, G.;Conway, M.Christine; Sullivan,J.[andothers]. Amacher, G.;Conway, pricesand C.2001.Reservation Amacher, G.1997.Thedesignofforesttaxation:asynthesis Alig, R.J.;Lee,K.J.;Moulton,R.J.1990.Likelihoodoftimber Alig, R.J.1986.Econometricanalysisofthefactorsinfluencing (SOFAC). [Notpaged]. Forestto Southern Resource AssessmentConsortium an empiricalexamplefromVirginia. 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Washington, DC:Resources th annualhardwood .; Risbrudt, Dennis, D.F. 1990. A probit analysis of the harvest decision Kline, J.; Alig, R.; Johnson, R. 2000. Fostering the production using pooled time-series and cross-sectional data. Journal of of nontimber services among forest owners with Environmental Economics and Management. 18: 176–187. heterogeneous objectives. Forest Science. 46: 302–311. de Steiguer, J.E. 1982. Capital substitution in government cost Klosowski, R.; Stevens, T.; Kittredge, D.; Dennis, D. 2001. share programs: modeling investment behavior. In: Southern Economic incentives for coordinated management of forest economics workshop conference proceedings. [Place of forestland: a case study of southern New England. publication unknown]: [Publisher unknown]: 30–42. Forest Policy and Economics. 2: 29–38. de Steiguer, J.E. 1984. Impacts of cost share programs Kluender, R.A.; Walkingstick, T.L.; Pickett, J.C. 1999. The use on private reforestation investment. 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Appalachian landscapes:spatialanalysisandforecast Management. 25:103–120. ofEnvironmentalEconomicsand stand. Journal andsubstitutionwealtheffectsforthesingle forestry . 1998.Land-usechangesinSouthern Chapter 23. Recreation and Nontimber Forest Products

H. Ken Cordell and INTRODUCTION 1 James L. Chamberlain nlike recreation research, the study of nontimber forest products (NTFP) is a U relatively new topic in forestry in the South. Abstract—Research on forest recreation over The products of concern are forest plant materials the last 60 years has been voluminous. Research that may include fungi, mosses, lichens, herbs, 253 on nontimber forest products (NTFP) has been vines, shrubs, trees, or parts thereof. Only a much less voluminous. In this chapter the history modest amount of research dealing with NTFPs of these two tracks of research has been has been undertaken over the last 50 years. Most reviewed. Not all studies are mentioned; rather, of this research has focused on describing the varied uses of the plants, their site requirements, a representative selection of the subject matter and other botanical factors. Until very recently, is discussed. Forest recreation research had within the last decade, NTFPs were not well its beginnings in the late 1950s within a few recognized as a management concern or as southern universities and with two Federal a recreational or commercial pursuit. Much Agencies—the U.S. Department of Agriculture of the early research focused on defining Forest Service and the Economic Research and understanding how people used these Service. In these beginnings the challenge was products. Currently, more university and to shed more light on who recreates, where agency scientists are looking at NTFPs from recreation occurs, what impacts it has on the management, recreational, commercial, and resource, and whether recreation and tourism ecological impact perspectives. is one way to address persistent poverty in This chapter covers research over the last some areas of the South. Through the 1960s five decades in the South regarding two related and 1970s, research expanded tremendously, but mostly distinct forest uses. The first is forest with greater participation among universities recreation. The focus is to overview the research and public agencies. Not only were practical applied to understanding recreation in forest problems being addressed, but also advances settings. The author listed first for this chapter in theory and methods were being forged is principally responsible for the text covering forest recreation, which, because of the vast as the science of forest recreation matured. volume of this research, is limited to brief Through the 1980s and 1990s, many topics overviews of what has been accomplished. The of management concern and of scientific second topic is gathering and using NTFPs. concern were addressed as outlets for These products are mostly plant based and do recreation and leisure sciences grew and the not include lumber or pulpwood. While gathering needs for scientific information for recreation forest products is often recreational, it is different management expanded. This recreation than almost all other recreational activities research is reviewed in brief in the chapter in that it involves removal of natural materials. that follows, as is research on NTFPs. The second author is principally responsible for covering research on this topic.

1 Senior Scientist and Scientist, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Athens, GA 30602, and Blacksburg, VA 24060, respectively. Southern Forest Science: 254 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic issues, andhow toincluderecreationinforest sites, hunting andfishinguse,privateland access NC, covereduseimpactson developedrecreation Station (SEFES)withheadquarters inAsheville, Forestprimarily theSoutheastern Experiment beginning toemergefromthe Forest Service, in thecountry. Thefewscatteredpublications in theSouth(vanderSmissen1963)andelsewhere early toestablishrecreationresearchprograms were andEconomicResearchService Service) Department ofAgricultureForest (Forest Service institute recreationresearchprograms.TheU.S. agencieswerejustbeginningto Government use estimationprocedures(Graves1963). evaluations ofnationalforestsandtorecreation areastomanagement outdoor recreationinrural potentialsof topics rangedfromincomeearning Polytechnic InstituteandStateUniversity. The Arkansas, UniversityofGeorgia,andatVirginia at theUniversityofFlorida, outdoor recreationresearchwasunderway within someofthem.Intheseearlyyears, programs andtobuildingresearchcapacity gave energyandjustificationtotheseemerging The nationalvisibilityoftheORRRCreports and Texas AgriculturalandMechanicalUniversity. State University, theUniversityofArkansas, included ClemsonUniversity, NorthCarolina throughouttheregion.Examples curricula departments werecreatingoutdoorrecreation park andrecreationadministrationacademic in theSouth.At thattime,anumberofuniversity by universityfacultyandgraduatestudents outdoor recreationresearchstudiesinprogress of thisfast-growingphenomenon. for researchtobetterunderstandtheimplications ORRRC anddrewnationalattentiontotheneed rapidly. Thatgrowthsparkedcreationofthe taking outdoor-orientedfamilyvacationsgrew impacts, participatinginoutdooractivitiesand as theU.S.economyreboundedfromwar’s thewaryears,however,recreation grewafter and lands, publicorprivate.Asdemandforoutdoor research, appliedtorecreationalusesofforest little policyormanagementemphasis,letalone South. Infact,priortoWorld War II,therewas done anywhereinthecountry, especiallyinthe littleforestrecreationresearchhadbeen very its workin1958andpublishedresults1962, Review Commission(ORRRC),whichstarted Recreation Research Historical OverviewofOutdoor As withtheuniversitiesinSouth, As oftheend1962,thereweresixknown Prior totheOutdoorRecreationResources use, aswell incommercialtrading. settlers, whoused theproductsforpersonal knowledge wassharedwith earlyEuropean (Hamel andChiltoskey1975). Thistraditional used bytheCherokeehave beendocumented centuries, morethan400medicinal forestproducts United States(Ody1993).Over thecourseofthree todayinthe of theherbalmedicinalindustry gained fromNativeAmericansisthefoundation to theirpersonallives.Muchoftheknowledge products werefullyintegratedintoandessential and otherhouseholdproducts.Plantsplant for utensilsandtools,woodcontainers They usedbarkforhousing,branchesandstems medicine, andreligiousceremonialimplements. Native Americansusedforestplantsastools,food, is notreflectedinthescientificknowledgebase. Appalachia gathered fromtheforestsofsouthern used theseproducts. focused ondefiningandunderstandinghowpeople ecological distribution.Muchoftheearlyresearch use, botanicalidentification,taxonomy, and of researchontheseproductshasbeenhuman from theforests.Historically, focus theprimary recognized asnaturalresourcesbeingharvested recently, withinthelast decade,NTFPs werenot and resin,inadditiontothewood.Untilvery tubers, leaves,bark,twigs,branches,fruit,sap, includingtheroots, plant partsareharvested, trees,orpartsthereof.vines, shrubs, Many and mayincludefungi,mosses,lichens,herbs, fromforests defined asplantmaterialsharvested aretypically in theSouth.Theproductsofconcern Historical OverviewofNTFPResearch areas intheregion. low-income communitiesandpovertyinsome issue drivingthisworkwastheprevalenceof development, includingforestrecreation.The outdoorrecreation incomefromrural earning primarily focusedonexaminingthepotentialfor intheSouthwas Economic ResearchService private land.Researchofthisperiodbythe recreation issuesonindustrialandnonindustrial University. Itsmissionwastostudyoutdoor the SchoolofForestry atNorthCarolinaState was locatedinRaleigh,NC,andaffiliatedwith aesthetic valuesinforestenvirons.Asecond use, mitigatinguseimpacts,andassessing methods formeasuringandpredictingrecreation objectivesthe developmentof had asitsprimary principal onewaslocatedinAsheville,NC,and researchlocationsintheSouth. The Service management planning.ThereweretwoForest The long history ofusingnontimberproducts The longhistory Research onNTFPs isanewtopic inforestry During the 1800s, the United States and the Onsite Use Estimation NTFP industry changed dramatically. The political This area of recreation research was one of turmoil in the United States during the mid-1800s the earliest topics of emphasis in the South, and increased the need to explore the forests for new elsewhere in the country. In the 1950s, very little and substitute products. By 1863, due to port was known about the amount, type, and location blockades, the South was in dire need of most of forest recreation use. The most notable of the medicinal products that previously had been early work to help fill this knowledge gap was done purchased from abroad. A field surgeon, pulled by the Forest Service recreation research work from his duties to explore the forest resources unit in what was then known as the SEFES (now of the Confederate States, reported finding more known as the Southern Research Station). The than 400 substitutes for medicinal plants that project was located in Asheville, NC, and George had been imported from Europe (Porcher 1970). A. (Jim) James was the first of this unit’s project Porcher (1970) reported that species “to be leaders. His work in recreation use estimation collected by soldiers while in service in any part methods became very well known and used 255 of the Confederate States” included dogwood nationally. His research focusing on use estimation (Cornus spp.) as a quinine substitute, tulip poplar was done cooperatively with national forests, State (Liriodendron tulipifera L.) for fevers, sweetgum agencies, and the Washington Office of the Forest (Liquidambar styraciflua L.) for diarrhea, and Service. The work progressed along two main mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum L.) as a lines—estimating use on developed recreation laxative. Beyond this cursory examination to

sites and estimating use in dispersed forest areas. 23. Chapter identify potential medicinal uses, more advanced The term “dispersed forest areas” refers to the Recreation research on these products was lacking throughout general forest area accessible by trail, road, or most of the next century. overland, but having no other development.

FOREST RECREATION RESEARCH IN THE Estimating use on developed sites—Research SOUTH THROUGH THE 1980S to develop reliable and cost-effective methods for estimating recreation use at developed sites The following sections cover the history and received much attention in these early years of accomplishments of recreation research in the Forest Service recreation research (James 1971). South from the late 1950s through the 1980s. Researchers designed and tested methods for Five major recreation topic areas are overviewed, estimating the amount of use, by activity, on starting with onsite use estimation. The other developed sites such as campgrounds and on day- four topics include visitor profiles and preferences, use sites such as swimming beaches. Correlated use impacts and carrying capacity, large-scale measures such as traffic flow counts or water assessments, and a variety of other topics such metering were monitored to allow updates of initial as economic impacts and private land recreational onsite count estimates. Some of the earliest work access. A primary source for these descriptions is drew attention to the use of pneumatic traffic the proceedings of the Southeastern Recreation counters to derive estimates of recreation visits Research Conference (SERR), an annual regional and use (James and Ripley 1963). Monitoring conference first convened on February 6–7, 1979. traffic flows or other use indicators along with The senior author of this chapter was one of sampling actual use and users is a technique the original organizers and sponsors of this that became known as double sampling. It is conference. Although the SERR does not capture an approach still much used in use estimation the full complement of recreation and related or other onsite studies, and it is currently being publications done in the South or by southern applied by the Forest Service nationally. researchers, it is a good sampling and is used here as the major source. SERR was the first of Advancements in these early years included a number of annual outdoor recreation research correlating traffic flows using one or more traffic conferences now held in several regions of the counters with simultaneous samples of different country. The 24th annual SERR was held in Athens, recreation activities and affiliated sites for GA, on February 20–22, 2002. Scientists known to ultimately deriving estimates of total use by type have been engaged in recreation research in these and site. Traffic counts were obtained using single- earlier years were sent a request to forward their location counters devoted to monitoring traffic career publication list for use in developing the flows at the entrance to a single site. As well, history in this chapter. monitoring proceeded using two or more traffic counters in tandem on trunk routes to a number Southern Forest Science: 256 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic monitoring (Tarbet andothers 1982).Inthe1970s state-of-the-art indevelopedsiterecreation use James andothershavepersisted astheaccepted the doublesamplingtechniques developedby engineered forestimatingdeveloped-site useand settings. For themostpart,however, themethods for estimatingrecreationuse inmunicipal reported oninstant-countsamplingasatechnique settings. For example,Tyre and Siderelis(1979) recreation usesamplingsystemstomunicipal focused onextendingapplicationoftestedforest Department oftheInterior1986).Somework at subregional,regional,ornationallevels(U.S. maintaining andreportingrecreationusestatistics 1980s focusedonestablishingsystemsfor others 1982).Additional workinthe1970sand (Tarbetmisapplications andresultingerrors and Forest andfoundanumberof System(California) applied across34sitesinRegion5oftheNational study lookedatdoublesamplingasitwasbeing various samplingtechniques.For example,one studies soughttoevaluatefieldapplicationsof estimation (Ericksonandothers1980).Afew data collectionandmanagement,analysis, technology toassistinmoreefficientsampling, to takeadvantageofemergingcomputer (e.g., MischonandWyatt 1979). and guidesforapplicationofsamplingtechniques for synthesisofearlierworktocreatehandbooks accomplishment hadbeenreachedwhichcalled (Coughlinandothers1978).Alevelof Service the NationalPark and theForest Service, was donebytheU.S.CorpsofEngineers, into theearly1980s,limitedtestingoftechniques (Siderelis andTyre 1975).Duringthe1970sand estimating useofdevelopedsiteshasoccurred research todevelopmoreefficienttechniquesfor and someworkintheearly1980s,littleadditional a fewothersinthe1960sand1970s(James1971), visitors flowingthroughasiteorarea. known tobeafunctionofthenumberrecreation sales, centerentrancecounts,andothervariables sites, trafficcounts,volumeofshuttlebusticket among useofavisitorcenter, useofitsperipheral regression wasusedtoestimaterelationships (Cordell andothers1970).Inthisapplication, centers to estimationofuseatvisitorinformation sampling ondevelopedsiteswasitsapplication road.Anextensionofdouble only onetrunk developed sitesbasedontrafficcountsalong by activitycouldbederivedforuptoeight 1966). Tests showedthatestimatesofvisits of developedrecreationsites(JamesandRich A modestamountofnewworkwasunderway Since theearlyworkbyJames,Cordell,and open range,and generalforestareas.Use ofsuch recreation roadsandtrails, naturallakes,rivers, includelargebodiesofwater,wilderness) and interpretivetrails. such ascampgrounds,visitor centers,picnicareas, dispersed use,asopposedtouseindevelopedsites percent oftheusepubliclandsatthattimewas other publiclands.Itwaswidelythoughtthat70 most oftheacreagenationalforests,and areas. Dispersedareasthenandnowconstituted sampling andestimatinguseindispersedforest was thatofconceptualizingapproachesfor The mostchallengingproblemfacingthisunit methods forestimatingforestrecreationuse. assigned theleadindevelopingandtesting unitattheSEFESwasultimately newly formed for MeasuringForest RecreationUse.”The ofTechniqueswas “Determination andProcedures Smissen 1963).Ofthese14problemareas,one priority fortheseresearchworkunits(Van der Fourteen problemareaswereidentifiedashigh recreation researchworkunitsaroundthecountry. organizedandstaffedanumberofforest Service wilderness— Estimating useindispersedareasand within theSEFES. of itbuildsupontheresearchdoneinearlieryears and dispersedareas,liketheguidebook,much and others2002).Itincludesbothdevelopedsites use acrosstheNationalForest System(English national systemisdesignedtoestimaterecreation ResearchStation.That Southern Service’s national forestsandiscomanagedbytheForest system hasbeendevelopedforapplicationon associates attheSEFES.Mostrecently, anational research doneintheSouthbyJamesandhis 1995). Thispublicationwasbasedlargelyonearly Use DataonRecreationSites”(Yuan andothers “Techniques andEquipmentforGatheringVisitor The Forest assembledaguidebookon Service use bytypeofactivityandseasontheyear. management area,regional,andnationalscale have inplaceadvancedsystemsforestimating U.S. CorpsofEngineers,andForest Service South andnationwide,theNationalPark Service, by theForest andotherAgencies.Inthe Service produce mandatednationalandregionalreports of useestimationfornationalapplicationsto sites hasfocusedonapplyingexistingtechniques dispersed recreationuse. tothemoredifficultjobofestimating to shift and 1980s,attentioninterestwasbeginning Dispersed areas(including designated Recent workpertainingtouseofdeveloped In thelate1950s,Forest areas is typically of low intensity and highly at three universities across the country. One of dispersed and, thus, is difficult and costly to the emphasis areas of this growing branch was the sample. Examples of dispersed activities include characterization of forest recreation visitors and hiking, backpacking, birding, driving forest roads, their preferences for recreation sites, facilities, and fishing. One of the first published studies of and services. dispersed use was done by Cushwa and McGinnes The need to know more about the visitor (1964). This study revealed that a stratified underlay many of the studies in outdoor recreation random sampling approach produced good in the late 1950s and 1960s. National studies, such estimates of dispersed uses within an area of over as those done by the ORRRC, pointed out just how 100 square miles in a portion of an eastern national little was known about the recreation participant forest. A second study (James and Harper 1965) of that time (Outdoor Recreation Resources extended these methods to an entire eastern Review Commission 1962). Use estimation studies national forest. Further extensions of such work usually devoted some peripheral attention to included multiple dispersed areas, large bodies describing the visitors being sampled and to 257 of water, trout streams, trails and designated describing generally their preferences for wilderness areas (James 1971, James and amenities, facilities, and services. But the results Schreuder 1972). Because wilderness is often quite were far from adequate, especially in probing remote and unmonitored otherwise, affordable visitor preferences for site attributes, facilities, methods successfully tested included use of self- and other characteristics important in planning registration systems and a variety of devices for and managing a recreation setting. 23. Chapter

counting trail use. There was relatively little work Recreation in development of estimation techniques after the The SEFES established a number of studies retirement of James in 1974. H. Ken Cordell, who to learn more about visitors, their characteristics, took over as project leader in 1976, carried on the and their preferences. Included were onsite work begun by James. One advancement was surveys of campers and users of other types of testing and refining the use of directional traffic developed forest sites. Campers in that period circuits using dual-input, time-interval recorders were predominantly family or extended family in forested areas with multiple entry and exit groups on weekend camping trips. Some were roads (Erickson and Liu 1982). Research vacationing for 2 to 3 weeks and camping at sites sponsored by the SEFES provided an evaluation being studied as part of their multisite travel of use sampling on the Arapaho and Roosevelt agenda. Camping was a fast-growing activity in National Forests and the Pawnee National the 1960s, growing nationally by 35 percent Grassland (Saunders 1982). Current applications between 1960 and 1965 (Cole and Wilkins 1971). were evaluated, and updated estimates were Most southern campers were middle to upper- provided to these administrative units of the middle income, white, and suburban, and they National Forest System. Technology for worked mainly in white-collar jobs. estimating recreational use in dispersed forest Campers’ preferences for the makeup and settings is currently being applied nationally, location of a campsite included features such as employing independent regional samples by the adequate space between campsites for privacy, Forest Service through the Agency’s National and shaded sites close to restrooms, trails, and Visitor Use Monitoring System (English and swimming opportunities (Cordell and James 1971, others 2002). National forests sampled in Region 8 Cordell and Sykes 1969, James and Cordell 1970). up to the time of this writing include the National Other visitor profile studies done by the Forest Forests of Florida, the Caribbean National Forest Service covered day users, water users, and in Puerto Rico, the Ouachita National Forest in general forest area users. Then, as today, males Arkansas, and the George Washington and were much more prevalent in these types of Jefferson National Forests in Virginia. outdoor recreation pursuits, and most recreation Visitor Profiles, Preferences, and visitors tended to be people living within 50 miles Behavior Studies of the areas they were using. When the Forest Service established a Other agencies doing work in the South at that national branch of Forest Recreation Research in time in the area of forest visitor characteristics 1957, its staff was limited and budgets were small. and preferences included the National Park But the new branch was viewed as important, and Service, the Tennessee Valley Authority, the U.S. with considerable field support it began to grow. Fish and Wildlife Service, the U.S. Corps of Cooperative research work units were established Engineers, and numerous State agencies. While Southern Forest Science: 258 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic populations; andabsenceof crowding. water access;well-managed wildlifeandfish good road,trail,and recreationists preferred largely anagrarianregion. Both groupsofforest inpreviousdecades,whentheSouthwas be rural the majorityofhuntersandanglerswereknownto were urban.Thisisahighlysignificantchange; ofthattime,asnow,most huntersandfishermen of thepopulationwasurbaninlate1960s,and communitiesintheiryouth.Seventypercent rural these activitiesasyouthsandmosthadlivedin Most huntersandanglershadparticipatedin while theanglersaveragedintheirearly40s. game hunters’ageaveragedintheirlate30s, others (1969)reportedthatinthe1960ssmall- prominence inforestmanagement.Jamesand forest recreationactivitiesandweregiven were viewedastwoofjustahandfulprimary decades andinearlierdecades,huntingfishing demand (BondandWhittaker1971).Inthese prominentandmuchin and anglerswerevery agencies inthe1960sand1970s,studiesofhunters landscape preferences. on theeffectsofregionalfamiliarityforest Buhyoff (1980a)alsoexaminedandreported forestlandscapes.Wellmanin southern and beetle ( pine to reportontheaestheticeffectsofsouthern the studyofpreferencesandperceptionsfurther preferences, andBuhyoffothers(1979)took and Wellman (1979a)studiedenvironmental evaluation ofinterpretiveprograms.Buhyoff experiment thatprovidedausablemethodfor growing. Roggenbuck(1979)conductedafield Seashore, aproblempersistingtodayandperhaps use andsocialconflictatCapeHatterasNational (1980b) reportedonastudyofoff-road vehicle and absenceofcrowding.Wellman andBuhyoff on someprominentnaturalorhistoricalfeature, development, destinationsforthehikethatfocused well-groomed trails,naturalsettingsdevoidof college education.Hikersthenasnowpreferred middle income,andwhite,withahighschoolor males andfemales,theytendedtobeyoung, Hikers tendedtobeaboutevenlydividedbetween between 1miletojustafewmiles(Lucas 1971). 1960s. Mostofthosewhohikedcoveredadistance about 7percentofthepopulationhikedin management. Studiesofhikersindicatedthat implications forforestrecreationplanningand recreation, theynonethelesshaddirect these effortsdidnotalwaysfocusonforest For Federal andStateresourcemanagement Dendroctonus frontalis Zimmermann) conflicts. Roggenbuckandothers to areasandfacilities,lackofinteruser settings withminimalcrowding,goodaccess cleanandsaferecreation users, preferred 1982). Riverusers,likeotherforestrecreation recreation experiences(Townsend andTarbet occupations, andhadanumberofpreviousriver college education,weremostlyinwhite-collar that theyaveragedaround30yearsold,hadsome thirds ofChattoogaRiverusersweremalesand Forest Anotherstudyfoundthattwo- Service. Appalachiansforthe recreation intheSouthern analyzed socialconflictsassociatedwithriver (1979) studiedthestatusofexistingresearchand (Howard andothers1977).Wellman andKilleen management preferencesofChattoogaRiverusers study lookedatthecharacteristicsandwildriver inner-tube floaters,andswimmers.Onesuch river floatersincludingkayakers,canoers,rafters, and intothe1980s.Anumberofstudiesexamined wasafast-growinginterestinthe1970s running, Paul, MN55108. Central Forest ExperimentStation,1992 Folwell Avenue, St. North CentralForest ExperimentStation.Onfilewith: North Report toU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture Forest Service, behavior amongVirginia canoeists.109p. Unpublishedreport. Specialization, displacementanddefinition ofdepreciative in theoverallrecreationexperience.For example, identifiedtheimportanceofseeingwildlife surveys edge settings. to identifyfactorsassociatedwithpreferencefor Hammitt (1987)studiedvisitorstoaStatepark quality managementandresearch.Ruddell and scope andaccomplishmentofforestvisual of forestsettings.Hull(1988)reportedonthe viewpoints ofinteriors,edges,andexteriors varying ravines andthatotheruserspreferred seeingsmallstreamsand trail userspreferred Tennessee. Inthesestudies,itwasfound that overlooks, andalongedgeenvironmentsin preferences alongforesttrails,atscenic research onvisitors’visualperceptionsand example, Hammittandothers(1984)reported aspects offorestrecreationexperiences.For visitors inthe1970sand1980sfocusedonvisual in managingrecreationresources,suchasrivers. ofchoices of experiencelevelasadeterminant and McDonald(1982b)studiedtheinfluences among canoeistsonVirginia rivers.Hammitt displacement, anddepreciativebehavior on therelationshipsbetweenspecialization, 2 Roggenbuck,J.W.; Wellman, J.D.; Smith,A.C.1980. Water recreation,especiallyriverfloatingand In otherstudiesdealingwithvisualpreferences, Finally, anumberofstudies offorestrecreation 2 reported Hastings and Hammitt (1985) reported that “hardening” sites with pavement, stone, or other viewing wildlife was secondary in importance only materials is a better approach for developed sites to viewing scenery. In addition to seeing wildlife, such as campgrounds (Cordell and others 1974). visitors also wanted information on the wildlife Other work focused more on the effects of they saw. An example of the range of other visual use on trails and forest conditions in general. quality research is work that examined the Saunders3 studied the effects of recreational aesthetic qualities of forest trees (Cook 1972). disturbance on the Southern Appalachian spruce- Another example was a study of the influence that fir (Picea spp.-Abies spp.) forests, which were then remnants of tree cutting had on overall visual and continue to be under pressure from a variety quality of a forest setting (Cook and others 1985). of insect, disease, air pollutant, and recreation use It was found that controlling the visibility of limbs, factors. Saunders (1979) further studied vegetation tops, and other evidence of timber thinning by cover differences among randomly selected forest mechanically lowering their profiles improved plots with and without recreation use. Plots visual quality as perceived by forest visitors. with use showed impacts on vegetation and soil 259 Bryan explored more broadly what Americans condition. Lockaby and Dunn (1977) also examined wanted in the way of aesthetic qualities from the impacts of sustained recreation use, but mostly their forests (Bryan 1976). Buhyoff and others they focused on forest soil properties in the (1978) worked to clarify land-space architectural eastern Piedmont. Whittaker (1978) compared the interpretations of people’s landscape preferences, surface impacts of hiking and horseback riding in experimented with manipulating dimensionality the Great Smoky Mountains National Park and 23. Chapter

in landscape preference judgments (Buhyoff and Recreation found that they differed significantly in magnitude Riesenmann 1979), and noted seasonality bias in on a per-unit-of-use basis. Another study in the landscape preference research (Buhyoff and Great Smoky Mountains National Park (Bratton Wellman 1979b). and others 1979) looked at trail erosion patterns Use Impacts and Carrying Capacity Studies and overall level of severity of foot traffic impact. (Sites, Trails, and Rivers) Kuss (1982) studied the effects of footgear and boot-tread design on trail wear and this led Use impacts on recreation sites—As Federal and to reconsideration of tread design by boot State agencies became more and more engaged in manufacturers. Subsequent work focused on forest recreation management through the 1950s monitoring processes (Klein and Burde 1991), and 1960s, and as use levels rose, greater attention including monitoring of impacts at backcountry was being paid to the impacts of increasing and campsites and shelters in the Great Smoky repeated use on the vegetation, soils, and other Mountains National Park. conditions of forest recreation sites. In a number of studies, mostly by Forest Service scientists, Use capacity and management—Beyond site both the deteriorating condition of developed use impact research, little work was done on site campsites and results of tests of rehabilitation and area capacity in the South in the decade of the options were examined. In one study (Cordell and 1960s. For practical management at that time, the Talhelm 1969), trial plantings of various species essential ingredients of capacity decisions were of turf grass indicated that such practice would knowledge of the interrelationships between be ineffective in widespread application aimed at management objectives, user attitudes, user improving deteriorated recreation sites. Soon after preferences, and site use impacts (Lime 1976). the test sites were reopened to use, all varieties Although not based on research done in the South, of planted grasses were suffering badly from some of the most definitive work on carrying trampling associated with site use. In another capacity, as applicable in the South as anywhere, study, small trees and shrubs were planted on was that synthesized by LaPage (1963) and Wagar recreation sites to see if they would grow and (1964). Not until the late 1960s and 1970s did work provide visual barriers and vegetative cover on recreation carrying capacity again assume a (Cordell and James 1971). Results were mixed, high profile. but mostly the study showed that the benefits of planting heavily used sites are marginal because ongoing site use continues to have damaging 3 Saunders, P.R. 1977. The effect of recreational disturbance effects. Because tests showed that plantings had on the Southern Appalachian spruce-fir forests. 25 p. Unpublished report. Paper presented at the third annual little effect, researchers generally agreed that conference on science and research in national parks, southeastern region, Gatlinburg, TN. On file with: H. Ken Cordell, Southern Research Station, 320 Green Street, Athens, GA 30602–2044. Southern Forest Science: 260 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic and others1981). across sites,conditions, andcultures(Chilman widely conditions,whichcanvary preferred of personsperunit,itmust includevisitors’ and space,butthatinaddition tosomerange upper limitonrecreationvisits perunitoftime understanding thatcapacity wasnotsomemagical country, theconceptofcapacityevolvedtoan As aresultofthesestudiesandothersaroundthe needs forusemanagementcontrolsandstrategies. (1982a) examinedperceptionsamongusersof capacity andotheruseissues.Hammittothers Appalachiansthatcenteredoncarrying Southern priorities forriverrecreationmanagementinthe Smith andothers(1983)studiedreportedon recreation asaconsiderationincapacityplanning. published onpotentialsofuseconflictsinoutdoor (1979)studied and recreation environment.Bryan off-road vehicleuserswithinamanagedseashore activationamong responsesandnorm normative recreation areas.Noeandothers(1982)examined capacityofforest of socialpsychologicalcarrying perceptions ofcrowdingasrelatedtothenotion the influenceofexperienceexpectationson Schreyer andRoggenbuck(1978)examined and itstheoreticalfoundations.For example, capacity on betterdefiningtheconceptofcarrying developed thathavesubsequentlybeenadopted. capacity questions.However, approacheswere applying standardsandquantitativeanalysisto guidelines andpointedoutthecomplexityof management this researchprovidedreservoir Symposium inMinneapolis.Overallfindingsfrom the RiverRecreationManagementandResearch published in1977(Cordell1977)proceedingsof loadings. Followup applicationofthisworkwas is significantlyalteredbyincreasingsystemuse use, satisfactionandspatialdistributionofuse it becameclearthatbeyondsomethresholdof apparent displacementofusers.From thiswork satisfactions underdifferentuselevels,and between spatialdistributionofuse,user year. Theyexaminedtheinterrelationships on water-basedrecreationsystemsthefollowing (1975) publishedthefinalpartoftheirresearch (Hammon andothers1974b).Cordell management ofwater-recreationsystems of thecapacityliteratureasitappliedto a synthesisandsystems-approachinterpretation in theSoutheast.Later1974,theypublished management works forapplicationtoreservoir on reviewinganddigestingexistingpublished recreation systems.Initiallythisworkfocused publishing theirworkoncapacityofwater-based Other, morebasicresearch wasbeingconducted In 1974,Hammonandothers(1974a)began State University(Proctor1962). in theSouthbyCharlesProctor atNorthCarolina between demographicsand participationwasdone analysisthatdealtwithrelationships survey portion ofthe1960ORRRC nationalparticipation fully discussinthischapter. Interestingly, that are usedbecausethisworkistoovoluminousto described intheparagraphsthatfollow. Examples the assessmentworkundertakeninSouthare efforts tobuildforecastingmodels.Examplesof supply studies,demandandneedsanalyses, regional, andnationalparticipationsurveys, source andinspirationfornumerousState, comprehensive assessments,whichwerethe Both theStateandnationalplansrequired Congress anationwideoutdoorrecreationplan. were alsorequiredtoconductandsubmitthe (SCORP). Thebureauanditssuccessoragencies Comprehensive OutdoorRecreationPlan to conductandsubmittheBureauaStatewide for matchinggrantsfromtheLWCF, aStatehad (LWCF) werecreated inthe1960s.To beeligible and theLandWater Fund Conservation recommendations, aBureauofOutdoorRecreation 1980. OnthebasisofORRRC’s the yearsafter recreation researchscientistsintheSouth were tofollow, manyofwhichweredoneby and supplyintheUnitedStates.Several scale assessmentofoutdoorrecreationdemand commission wasthefirstcomprehensive,national Review Commission1962).Theworkofthis ORRRC in1958(OutdoorRecreationResources RecreationAssessments Large-Scale mid-Atlantic regionfortheNationalPark Service. appropriate riverrecreationusepoliciesforthe of managerialperspectivesindetermining (1989) reportedonthenatureandimportance Seashore (Absher1989).Wellman andBelcher considerations ontheCumberlandIslandNational managementandcapacity wilderness and foundvalidapplicationofLACinplanning (Stankey andothers1985).Absherstudied concept oflimitsacceptablechange(LAC) system. Thisworkwaslinkedtotheevolving capacityanalysis published arevisedcarrying emphasize qualityfactors.Hedevelopedand that capacityisadesiredsetofconditions and others1989).Hisworkadvancedtheconcept of toolsforanalyzingcapacityquestions(Chilman in advancingtheprinciplesofanddevelopment spotty throughthe1980s.Chilmanwasaleader U.S. PublicLaw85–470establishedthe Further capacityresearchintheSouthwas Examples of research done at the State level in private recreation supply trends, an examination the South include work reported by Howard (1968) of potential conflicts between private recreational of Clemson University. Howard did a statewide property developments and forest land ownership survey of outdoor recreation facilities for the State and management in the South was conducted of South Carolina. Siderelis, at North Carolina (Cordell and others 1982). Wellman and others State University, conducted a modeling study to (1980) studied response rates and patterns to develop computerized (mainframe) techniques for mailed questionnaire surveys and identified the forecasting recreation participation (Siderelis and reluctant respondent as an important survey Hassel 1975). Jarvis and others (1978) developed target by examining the differences between models and forecasts of recreation demand for early and late respondents. Wellman and Marans the Upper Savannah River Basin as a part of their (1981) looked at the use of time budgets as an work to better assess future outdoor recreation aid to research, assessments, and planning for demand in South Carolina. Roggenbuck (1978) recreation. Wellman (1987) wrote a book on conducted the outdoor recreation demand survey wildland recreation policy, and this book included 261 for the State of Virginia as a part of that State’s a discussion of the need for assessments in making SCORP assessment. Roggenbuck and Kushman policy and planning decisions. (1980) studied riparian landowners’ attitudes For the 1985 RPA Assessment update, Cordell toward a State wild river program. Senter and and Hartmann (1984) studied trends in outdoor McLellan (1982) examined the compatibility of recreation in the two decades since the original data used in SCORP to describe private recreation

nationwide assessment done by the ORRRC 23. Chapter

providers for use in statewide planning. There Recreation between 1958 and 1960. In examining ways to were numerous SCORP or other statewide assess the overall effectiveness and adequacy of assessment projects in the South in the 1960s, supply of recreation opportunities, Cordell and 1970s, and 1980s. Unfortunately, most of these English (1985) studied recreational trip distances followed ad hoc formats so there was little State- as a criterion for defining relevant supply to-State compatibility of data. inventory radii. Roggenbuck and Ham (1986) Regarding national recreation assessment examined the methods and kinds of information research originating in the South, in 1977, the used in recreation management and planning as a SEFES was assigned by the Washington Office contribution to the nationwide assessment for the to conduct nationwide and region-by-region President’s Commission on Americans Outdoors. assessments of recreation demand and supply Much of the above assessment work was under the authority of the 1974 Forest and summarized and used as background material Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning for the 1989 RPA Assessment (Cordell and Act (RPA). The first report resulting from this others 1990b). Papers covering work in the areas assigned research was published in the 1980 of supply conditions and trends, participation RPA Assessment report (U.S. Department of trends, demand forecasting, international demand, Agriculture, Forest Service 1980). Stemming from wilderness, and social factors in recreation trends that work was publication of a follow-on national were published in the 1988 National Outdoor assessment report published by the American Recreation Forum (Watson 1989). Forestry Association (Cordell and Hendee 1982). The Forest Service’s southern research work In the 1990s, statewide, subregional, southern unit reported its regional and national outdoor region, and national assessment work in the South recreation and wilderness assessment work in continued and even accelerated. The sophistication the “Third Nationwide Outdoor Recreation Plan” of this research has also improved. In 1996, results published by the Department of the Interior in of an assessment for the Southern Appalachians 1979, the Rockefeller Outdoor Recreation Policy were published (Cordell and others 1996). In 1999, Review group report “Outdoor Recreation for the Third Nationwide RPA Assessment of Outdoor America” in 1983, reports by the President’s Recreation and Wilderness was published (Cordell Commission on Americans Outdoors in 1986, 1999). In 2002, the “Southern Forest Resource and proceedings of the 1988 National Outdoor Assessment” was published, and included a Recreation Benchmark Symposium (Siehl 1989). Southwide assessment of recreation demand and supply (Cordell and Tarrant 2002). These and In continuing to build data and research other research efforts over the last 2 1/2 decades capacity for future rounds of recreation have led to development of a system of data, assessments, and to improve coverage of Southern Forest Science: 262 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic of publiclandmanagedbyfour Federal Agencies. (NWPS) hasgrowntomore than106millionacres System Preservation the NationalWilderness and aninitialtotalsizeofaround 9millionacres, Wilderness research— in Georgia. development impactsofoutdoorrecreation economic (1989) examinedandestimatedrural generated fromthePARVS, Bergstromandothers recreationsites.Fromdesignated reservoir data fromplacesoutsideformally accessing areservoir of accountingforspendingassociatedwithusers Engineers water-resourceprojects,andmethods economic impactsofrecreationatU.S.Corps (1989) reportedonadvancesinmeasuringthe competing, usesofnaturalresources.Fritschen outdoor recreationrelativetoother, sometimes as ameansfordemonstratingtheimportanceof discussed useofeconomicimpactassessments tourism development.Watson andCordell(1988) economic impactassessmentasatoolforregional Paterson (1988)examinedtheusefulnessof at U.S.CorpsofEngineersprojectsintheSouth. of economicimpactsassociatedwithrecreationuse Jackson (1988)evaluateddifferentmeasurements and attheChincoteagueNationalWildlife Refuge. regional economicimpactsofvisitorspendingnear are stableovertime.Aiken(1988)lookedatthe expenditures toseeifvisitorexpenditureprofiles studying trendsinoutdoorrecreationconsumer (1986) beganapplyingupdatedtechnologyby positiveresult,Propstandothers that very output economicaccountingmodel.Following (PARVS)Survey and improvementoftheinput- including thePublicAreaRecreationVisitor approaches, of numerousonsitesurveying of thatmeetingfeddevelopmentandimprovement capacity forrecreationandtourism.Theresults technology andtoimproveinput-outputmodeling and otherorganizationstodevelopdatacollection National AssociationofStatePark Directors, Tennessee Valley Authority, NationalPark Service, the Forest U.S.CorpsofEngineers, Service, 1985). From thatmeetingcameacoalitionbetween of recreationandtourism(Propstothers to evaluateabilitiesassesstheeconomicimpacts researchers meeting wasconvenedbysouthern Assessing economicimpacts— of the1980s Additional RecreationResearchTopics other countries. andinmany is usedthroughoutthecountry models, andreportingtechnologiesthat From itsgenesisin1964 In 1984,anational summarized the knowledgeofthecharacteristics system assessment.Watson and others(1989) values asacontributiontoongoing wilderness usesand optimizing nonrecreational wilderness research. Reedandothers (1989) wroteregarding assessmentsandrelatedfuture wilderness Watson (1987)conceptualized aframeworkfor flowingfromthisresearch. the information extent nationallyhasbeenmuchinfluencedby intheregionandtosome and policyforwilderness managementoptions.Management wilderness visitors,and use,wilderness about wilderness these andotherstudies,muchhasbeenlearned visitors.Fromthe Southandfocusedonwilderness areasin such studieswereofparticularwilderness areasintheSouth.Most national forestwilderness visitor characteristicsandpreferencesonthree in Tampa, FL.Watson andothers(1989)studied Outdoor RecreationBenchmarkmeetingheld situation intheregionandnationallyfor recreationuse summarized thewilderness were small.RoggenbuckandWatson (1989) research refinement.Region-to-regiondifferences users andtheimplicationsforfurtherpolicy wilderness users withanemphasisoneastern regional comparisonsofForest wilderness Service chapter. Hartmannandothers(1987)conducted dispersed-use methodsdescribedearlierinthis useestimates,usingsomeofthe wilderness examined techniquesforproducingaccurate intheEast.Watsonwilderness andothers(1987) studies ofvisitorneedsanduserimpactsin in theearly1980s. Appalachians it waspracticedintheSouthern managementas (1982b) studiedwilderness capacity.carrying Roggenbuck andothers role ofinterpretationinmanagingrecreational Roggenbuck andothers(1982a)lookedatthe campers,andinrelatedwork wilderness communication techniquesfordispersing in thischapter. in theSouth.Someofthatworkissummarized and thestatusofNWPShasbeenconducted management of researchregardingwilderness studyareas.Amodestamount as wilderness buthas17millionacressetaside of wilderness, of LandManagementhasonly5millionacres status.TheBureau are indesignatedwilderness lands, and18percentofForest lands Service 20 percentofU.S.Fish andWildlife Service Fifty-six percentofNationalPark lands, Service Based inpartonthisearlierwork,Cordelland Cordell andothers(1986)summarizedprevious (1981)studied Roggenbuck andBerrier of wilderness users. Cordell and others (1989) In the South, this diminishing access was found summarized research on marketing based on in part to be offset by increased leasing by persons research pertaining to wilderness experiences. unrelated to the owner. Private land recreational access—As in the Behavior, perceptions, and motivations— North, industrial and nonindustrial private land A significant number of scientists studying forest dominates in the South, relative to public land in recreation in the South have been trained in social Federal or State ownership. Most of the forest psychology theory and methods. A more limited science dealing with private owners and lands number are grounded in either sociology or has focused on timber supply potentials and the economics. The makeup of studies of behaviors, effectiveness of a variety of incentive programs perceptions, and motivations among outdoor for nonindustrial owners. In more recent studies, participants reflects the disciplinary backgrounds reference is given to the increasing recognition of the scientists who conducted those studies. given by landowners to the amenities of their land, Some examples of the numerous examinations relative to the income-earning potentials of these and rich literature on behaviors, perceptions, 263 lands. The rising relative importance of amenities and motivations follow. One notable early has been acknowledged by its assuming a much publication was written by Bryan (1977); it higher profile in private land research (Amacher concerned specialization among trout fishermen and others 2004). Research from the mid-1980s and the implications of the findings for resource on has typically given full recognition to the rising management. Groves and others (1975) presented importance of amenity values (Boyd and Hyde a multiframe reference approach to studying 23. Chapter 1989, Hyde and Newman 1991). and better understanding leisure motivations. Recreation McLellan and Gahan (1976) studied recreation Little of the early research on private lands and user characteristics and behaviors on Hartwell owners focused specifically on the issue of public Reservoir in South Carolina. Hull and Buhyoff recreational access or use. Of the limited research (1982) reported on the effects of distance on the that was undertaken, prominent was research perception and rating of scenic beauty. Wellman on landowner liability (Kaiser and Wright 1985, and others (1981) studied the accuracy of Kozlowski and Wright 1988) and access rights predictions by park managers of the motivations (Gramann and Bonnicksen 1985). Other studies of visitors to two National Park Service areas. examined the relationship between timber or other Burrus-Bammel and others (1982) reported on income-earning motives and recreation, (e.g., a study of the perceptions of hunting and hunters Jones and Self 1991). by various groups. Burrus-Bammel and Samuel As part of the RPA national assessment of (1984) also studied the sources of introduction to outdoor recreation, work was begun in the South and motivations for wild animal trapping. cooperatively with Clemson University to develop There were a wide array of places and a national database on recreational use and access recreation settings where behavior, perceptions, to private lands. The first resulting national and motives were studied. In 1982, Mulligan and survey to determine public outdoor recreation others reported on the interactive effects of opportunities on nonindustrial private forest outdoor noise and visible aspects of vegetation on and rangelands was conducted in 1975–76, behavior in urban settings. Noe and others (1982) cooperatively with Clemson University and the examined perception of conflict between off-road Soil Conservation Service (Cordell and Stevens vehicle and non-off-road vehicle users in a leisure 1984). Based in part on this work, a study of trends setting. Ruddell and Hammitt (1985) studied in recreational access to private rural lands motives for visiting a South Carolina State was reported in 1985 (Cordell and others 1985), park and provided interpretations for visual and a study to validate procedures for the next management of park edge environments. English nationwide survey of private landowners, to occur and Cordell (1985) conducted a cohort-centric in 1985–86, was conducted in 1984 (Sale and others analysis of outdoor recreation participation 1987). Results of that next national survey, done by trends and found significant cohort effects on the SEFES, were reported in several sources and participation behavior changes. A comprehensive used in the 1990 RPA Assessment (Cordell and coverage of studies done on behaviors in the Wright 1989, Wright and others 1989). In all these South in the 1980s is too voluminous to cover in studies, access for persons not associated with the this chapter, but suffice it to say that this work owner by way of family or other close personal has had profound impacts on forest recreation relationship was quite limited and found to be management in the region. diminishing over time in all regions of the country. Southern Forest Science: 264 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic F RESEARCH INTHE1990s hold. Oneofthe earlyworkswasbyChubb and recreation planningandassessment wastaking Systems(GIS)inoutdoor Geographic Information adequacy ofsupply. Intheearly1990s,useof indexing, animportantstep inassessingthe concept ofeffectiverecreation opportunity (1993) examinedtheutility of theMarionClawson public recreationaccess,andEnglishCordell landsubdivisionon studied theeffectsofrural RPA Assessment,Cordellandothers(1993) in consumermarketing.Asupdatestothe1990 environmental attitudescalesandtheirutility and Milesothers(1993a)reviewing the marketdemandforwildlifeviewingsites, markets, Baylessandothers(1994)assessing segmentation frameworkforoutdoorrecreation Miles andothers(1993b)studyingaproposed reporting onregionalmarketprojections, Examples includeEnglishandothers(1993) marketing andmarketsforoutdoorrecreation. fisheries managementandfishing. implications ofdemographicchangefor Murdock andothers(1992)studiedthe consequences ofthesechanges.For example, and studieswerebeinginitiatedtolookatthe unprecedented socialchangetakingplace, before, therewasgrowingawarenessofthe (Burkiewicz 1991).Inthe1990sasnever approaches forbroad-scaledatabasedevelopment (Peterson andCordell 1991),andinventory Bergstrom 1991),estimatingdemandfunctions for assessingdemandandsupply(Cordell to technicalaspectssuchasmethodsanddata supply assessmentworkprogressed,focusmoved In 1991,asnationalandregionaldemand different regions,andbetweenactivities. different ratesamongethnicgroups,in that participationisgrowingatsignificantly in theUnitedStates.Animportantfindingwas rapid andcontinuingrecreationdemandgrowth demand andsupplytrends.Findings indicated assessment ofoutdoorrecreationandwilderness others (1990b)producedtheirthirdnationwide RPAService’s assessmentwork.Cordelland continuing, mostlystemmingfromtheForest Broad-Scale Assessments agencies, andotherbyprivateinterests. sponsored byFederal Agencies,somebyState A numberofassessmentstudiesdealtwith In 1990,broad-scaleassessmentworkwas ollowing is an overview ofsometheoutdoor ollowing isanoverview between 1990and2002.Muchofitwas recreation andrelatedresearchpublished Recreation and theEnvironment(NSRE) data; on United States, basedontheNationalSurvey substantial growthinpopularity ofbirdinginthe Cordell andothers(1999)describing therapidand spinoff studieswerepublished. Theyincluded participation fortheRPA assessment, several others 2000). and applicationofforestaesthetics(Hull has writtenextensivelyabouttheconcept in naturalareasrecreationmanagementand others 1999).Hull(2000)lookedatromanticbiases as beingpublishedinotherplaces(Teasley and and usedinthe2000RPA Assessment,aswell ofprivatelandownerswasdonein1996 survey land managementintheEast.Thethirdnational recreation andtheirimplicationsforprivate others (1998a)describedtrendsinoutdoor States foroutdoorrecreation,andCordell studied theuseofprivatelandsinUnited in theUnitedStates,Teasley andothers(1997) and wildlife-relatedoutdoorrecreationalactivities and others(1997b)profiledparticipantsinfish- flow ofbriefleisureexperiences.In1997,Cordell and others(1996),whichdealtwiththeebb recreation marketsusingbehavioraldata,andHull Lewis andothers(1995),whichsegmentedoutdoor resources. Otherstudiesin1995and1996included AppalachianAssessmentofforest Southern This lastworkwaspartofthecomprehensive Appalachianregion. and supplyintheSouthern others (1996)assessingoutdoorrecreationdemand Appalachians,andHayden in theSouthern the demographicandeconomicchangesunderway activities, Cordellandothers(1996)assessing anticipated trendsinwildlife-relatedrecreation (1995) publishingananalysisofhistoricaland participation trends,FlatherandCordell outdoorrecreation reporting onlong-term work continued,withCordellandothers(1995) base ofthepopulationtothoseenvironments. environments asawayofintroducingbroad gettingthenoviceintonatural wrote concerning to effectivemarketing.Bixlerandothers(1995a) essential potential participantsareasinformation identifying whotherecreationparticipantsand number ofstudieswerereportedthatdealtwith in theForest During1995and1996,a Service. recreation amongmanagersandpolicypersonnel potential futureoftheRPA assessmentsofoutdoor Bergstrom andothers(1994)examinedtheuse additional broad-scaleassessmentworkby manual fortheBlueRidgeParkway. In1994, Hammitt (1993),whodevelopedaGISprocedural As a result of the nationwide surveying ofpublic As aresultofthenationwide surveying In 1995and1996,broad-scaleassessment Cordell and Super (2000) describing trends (1999) compared onsite wildland activity choices in Americans’ outdoor recreation participation among African-Americans and white Americans across a wide range of activities; and Fly and in the rural South and described the management others (2000) looking at knowledge of and implications of their findings. Bowker and others attitudes, which were mostly favorable, toward (1999) conducted a national assessment of the use wilderness in the Southern Appalachian ecoregion. and predicted effects of user fees for recreation Followup studies of recreation participation, and services on public lands, including equity especially participation in birding, included considerations. English and others (2000) estimating recent trends in participation by continued to study economic effects of dependence Cordell (2001) and by Cordell and Herbert on tourism on communities in the rural South and (2002). Fedler and Ditton (2001) looked at factors elsewhere. Bixler and Morris (2000) identified associated with taking up or dropping out of factors differentiating participants in water-based recreational fishing participation. Other broad- wildland recreation from nonparticipants and scale research included Robertson and Hull (2001), interpreted the implications of this work for 265 which reported a case study of the nature of recreation activity instruction provided to different landscape perceptions at Whitetop Mountain. social groups. Porter and Tarrant (2001) conducted It also included publication of work to assess a case study of environmental justice related to public understanding of nature, especially local Federal tourism sites in southern Appalachia; knowledge of what constitutes natural forest Cordell and others (2002) examined cultural conditions (Hull and others 2001). emphasis on recreation and the environment; Hunt and Ditton (2002) described freshwater 23. Chapter Recreation Social Group Differences fishing participation patterns among racial and The growing diversity of the population ethnic groups in Texas; Krause (2001) described in the region prompted a number of studies of the roles played by dogs in solo recreation by social group differences. Recreation participation women; and Johnson and others (2001) examined differences by race were studied by Brown (1994) constraints on outdoor recreation by race, gender, and Miles and others (1994) who studied African- and rural dwelling across regions of the country. American participation patterns in forest and other wildland outdoor recreation activities. Bixler Economic Studies and others (1995b) looked at negative perceptions As a follow-on to the important work of the of natural environments among various social 1980s to improve data and models for economic groupings, especially by race, and how these impact research, a number of secondary economic perceptions related to preferences for outdoor effects studies were reported. These included activities. Floyd and others (1995) studied the Bergstrom and others (1990b) who looked at effect of race on environmental and recreation economic impacts of State parks on State preferences, and Ditton (1996) reported on economies in the South; Clonts and others work aimed at understanding diversity among (1991) who studied economic impacts of hunting largemouth bass anglers. Betz and others (1998) land access; and Cordell and others (1990a) compared amenity uses and recreational access who estimated the economic effects of river among social strata making up U.S. private recreation use on local economies in the Southern landowners, Bowker and Leeworthy (1998) Appalachians. Bergstrom and others (1990a) studied the effects of ethnicity in recreation looked at the economic impacts of recreational demand estimation, and Johnson and others spending on rural areas of the South. All of these (1998) examined marginality and ethnicity in studies found modest income and employment outdoor recreation in the rural South, and multipliers and modest overall income and compared inner city and rural residents. Tarrant employment impacts. and Shafer (1998) compared preferred experiences Economic impact research continued in and setting conditions of eastern and western the early 1990s, and began to focus more on wilderness areas. applications of technological improvements In the later 1990s, Tarrant and Cordell (1999) brought about by the work done in the 1980s. helped bring more visibility to the issue of Examples include Cordell and others (1991), who environmental justice in recreation management looked at the effects of outdoor recreation on State by looking at the spatial distribution of outdoor and local economies in the South; Lee and Propst recreation sites relative to residence locations (1994), who studied the benefits of segmentation to of different social groups. Johnson and Bowker reduce variance in estimates of spending profiles; Southern Forest Science: 266 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic Cordell (1992), whichreportedonamenity, of outdoorrecreation intheUnitedStates, and reported ananalysisofthe demand forandvalue such asBergstromandCordell (1991),which based onresultsfromthe1990 RPA Assessment, and sites.Prominentexamples includedwork and valuationofoutdoorrecreation experiences effects arealmostalwaysmodest. is reasonablydiverseandwelldeveloped,those the restofyear, andunlessthelocaleconomy sustained throughouttheheavy-useseasonand unless therecreationvisitationissubstantialand found tobeimportantlocaleconomies;but economic impactandinterdependencyeffectswere as withnumerousotherstudiesnotcoveredhere, America. Inalloftheabovecitedstudies, in rural examined tourismdependenceamongcounties on theestimates.Englishandothers(2000)also estimates donotconsiderconfidenceintervals a muchneededadditionsincemostimpact recreation bybootstrappingvisitorexpenditures, forregionaleconomicimpactsof intervals sites. English(2000)calculatedconfidence spending associatedwithuseofForest Service Appalachians ofoutdoorrecreationalvisitsand regional economiesoftheRockyMountainsand (1997a) estimatedtheeconomiceffectson dataarelimited.Cordellandothers survey economic impactsofrecreationtravelwhere (1996) assessedmethodsforestimatingregional recreation.English andThill associated withrural economic growthbecauseoflimitedimpactsoften based recreationwasamajorsolutionforrural questioned thewidespreadbeliefthatresource- North Carolina.In1995,English in western the sameapproachesusedinearlierresearch and regionaleconomicactivity, again usingsomeof plant managementonrecreationalexpenditures aquatic (1996) studiedtheeffectsofreservoir North Carolina. in assessinglakerecreationimpactswestern usingapproachesdeveloped California northern local economicimpactsoflakerecreationin impacts. HawksandBowker(1994)estimatedthe recreation sitedevelopmentandregionaleconomic and Bergstrom(1994)studiedthelinksbetween development.English amenity resourcesinrural included BetzandPerdue (1993),ontheroleof Other economicimpactstudiesintheearly1990s growth stimulusfromStateparkmanagement. Cordell andothers(1992),whoestimatedeconomic of resource-basedtourismonlocaleconomies;and Watson andothers(1991),whostudiedtheimpacts Other economicstudiesfocusedondemandfor Later inthe1990s,Bergstromandothers in theoutdoors continuedasanimportant topic perceptions, andotheraspects ofparticipation Motivations, Perceptions, andBehaviors somewhat pricesensitive. methods reliable,andrecreation demandoverall benefits werefoundtobesubstantial,valuation of theabovedemandandvaluationresearch,net quality intorecreationtravelcostmodels.Inall for incorporatingperceptionsbyusersofsite Siderelis andMoore(2000)developedapproaches wildlife-associated recreationparticipation,and travel costanalysistoexaminenonconsumptive cost models.Zawackiandothers(2000)useda studied benefitstransferandcountdatatravel recreation demand.Bowkerandothers(1998) the influenceofsitepreferencevariableson and SiderelisMoore(1998),whoestimated and water-basedrecreationintheUnitedStates; approach totheeconomicvaluationofland- and others(1998),whotestedanecoregional environmentally sensitiveFloridaKeys; Bhat nonmarket economicuservaluesinthe Leeworthy andBowker(1997),whoestimated demand analysisofoff-road motorizedrecreation; Bowker andothers(1997),whoconducteda important resourceissues.Examplesincluded indicated progressinmethodsandattentionto Economics researchduring1997and1998 choice modelforthevaluationoflakeaccess. Siderelis andothers(1995)developedaboating rivers,and tripsonsouthern guided rafting Bowker andothers(1996)estimatedvaluesfor net benefitsofrecreationuserailtrails. studies. SiderelisandMoore(1995)estimatedthe area importantinvaluationandotherbehavioral variables inrecreationsubstitutiondecisions,an (1994) studiedtheinfluenceofvariousintervening Choiandothers for riveroutfitterservices. techniqueforestimatingthedemand alternative and EnglishBowker(1994)examinedan recreation tripstotheelicitationapproachused, sensitivity ofcontingentvaluationestimates 1993). Bowkerandothers(1994)lookedat management scenarios(CordellandBergstrom water-level reservoir values foralternative (Bowker andothers1993),recreationuse the questionwhetherpaymentvehiclematters recreation benefitsusingcontingentvaluationand (Teasley andothers1993),measurementof at revenuecapturepotentialsfromchargingfees United States.Other“demand”studieslooked andenvironmentalvaluesinthe conservation, Studying recreationuse,users, motivations, In thesecondhalfofdecade1990s, in the 1990s. Roggenbuck and others (1990a) (1997), who examined the effects of situational and studied the learning benefits from leisure. Hull personal factors in measuring perceived crowding (1990) studied mood as a product of leisure, its for high-density river recreation; Tarrant and causes and its consequences. Chilman and others English (1996), who developed a crowding-based (1991) reported on design of recreation monitoring model of social carrying capacity for application to systems using participant observers. Cornell and recreational boating; and Hammitt and Lin (1997), Leary (1991) examined family participation in who examined the literature on establishing use- developed camping. Patterson and Hammitt (1990) level standards for river recreation. Onsite use studied back-country encounter norms, actual studies included Symmonds and others (1999) encounters, and their relationship to wilderness on recreational carrying capacity for managing solitude. Van Cleave and others (1991) looked at mountain bike use in the Southern Appalachians, attitudes of summer visitors to the Great Smoky and Thigpen and Siderelis (2001) on the use of Mountains region. Roggenbuck and others (1991) paddle trails in coastal North Carolina. Walker and applied encounter norms in a study of river float others (1998) studied onsite optimal experiences 267 trips and as a result questioned the use of the and their relationship to offsite benefits. Tarrant social norms concept. Hull (1991) contributed and others (1999) provided a summary of onsite research on mood as a product of leisure and as research on motivations, attitudes, preferences, a predictor of visitor satisfaction. Caldwell and and satisfactions among outdoor recreationists. others (1994) studied zoo visitors’ satisfactions. Onsite studies included Schuster and Hammitt Bixler and others (1992) examined restrictive (2000) on stress experienced by visitors and and nonrestrictive approaches in recreation 23. Chapter

reported hassles in the Shining Rock Wilderness Recreation management. Hammitt and Shafer (1992) Area and Schuster and others (2001) on rock analyzed visual dimensions for parkway planning. climbers’ attitudes toward the management and Stewart and Hull (1992) compared the post hoc use of bolts. Siderelis and Moore (2000) studied and real-time construct validity of the concept and modeled the effects of perceptions of site of satisfaction. Adams and Hammitt (1993) quality as a determinant of recreation trip choices. reported on behavior in relationship to interpretive encounters with wildlife. Hammitt Wilderness Research and Patterson (1993) looked at use patterns and Wilderness continued as a topic of focus in the solitude preferences of shelter users in back 1990s. Roggenbuck and others (1990b) examined country. Shafer and Hammitt (1993) examined the wilderness classification process and its effects of management conditions on wilderness application to land management. Hammit and recreation experiences. In 1994, Fedler and Ditton Patterson (1991) considered coping behaviors reported on angler motivations in fisheries in relation to wilderness users’ desire for greater management. Hammitt and others (1994) studied privacy. Hammitt and Dulin (1991) reported on approaches to identifying and predicting visual the significance of encounters with wildlife during preferences for Southern Appalachian forest wilderness visits. Roggenbuck and others (1993) recreation vistas. Hull and Michael (1994) looked reviewed relevant research on defining acceptable at the relationship between nature-based use, resource, and other conditions for wilderness. recreation, mood change, and stress restoration. Hammitt and Rutlin (1995) developed use Rutlin and Hammitt (1994a) examined functions of encounter standards and estimated relational privacy in the Ellicott Rock Wilderness. Rutlin and curves for evaluating achieved privacy in Hammitt (1994b) also surveyed users and use wilderness. Tarrant and others (1995) identified patterns of Ellicott Rock Wilderness visitors. factors affecting visitor evaluations of the noise Schneider and Hammitt (1995) studied visitor and visual intrusiveness of aircraft overflights response to outdoor recreation conflicts. Shafer of wilderness. and Hammitt (1995) examined congruency among In 1997 and 1998, a moderate amount of wilderness experience dimensions, condition wilderness research was done in the South. indicators, and user coping behaviors. Examples of Tarrant and Shafer (1997) looked for uniformity later visitor studies included Frauman and others of condition indicators used in wilderness (1997) on the application of means-end theory to management; Walker and others (1998) studied understanding interpretive service users, and the relationship between onsite experiences and Noe and others (1997) on park user perceptions offsite benefits; Hammitt and Rutlin (1997) wrote of resource and use impacts. Research covering concerning how well visitors achieved privacy river recreation included Tarrant and others in wilderness; and Johnson and Bowker (1997) Southern Forest Science: 268 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic of expertvisual assessmentapproaches. (1995), whichexaminesthe validity andreliability and visualaspectsincluded Buhyoffandothers Research evaluatingrecreation opportunities where qualitydeermanagement ispracticed. of satisfactionforparticipants determinants 1992). Wood andothers(1996)identifiedthe constraints andspecialization(Norman investigation oftherelationshipbetween 1992). Further workonspecialization included social conceptualization(Dittonandothers that examinedrecreationspecializationasa concept ofsatisfaction;andworkwascompleted validityofthe examination oftheconstruct and Stewart(1992)alsoreportedontheir reported byHullandStewart(1992); of photo-basedscenicbeautyjudgmentswere by Choiandothers(1992);testsforthevalidity werereported across wavesofmailsurveying and theory. For example,testsforhomogeneity park operations. developed optimalstrategiesformanaging resources; andSiderelisRoise(1991) (1994) reportedoninventoriesofrails-to-trails off-road vehicleridingareas;Janiskeeandothers (1994) developedapproachesformonitoring of qualitativedatamethods;Chilmanandothers Henderson (1994)reportedonthegrowinguse for integratingmultiplemanagementdatasets; (1991) reportedonworkusingGIStechnology research tools.For example,Chubbandothers Methods Forest researchgroupinAthens, GA. Service beganin2003andisbeingledbythe wilderness region. Anationalassessmentofthevalues Appalachian among personslivingintheSouthern knowledge ofandattitudestowardwilderness Flyandothers(2000)examined uses ofwilderness. on thebenefitsofnonfacilitated,i.e.,individual, Roggenbuck andDriver(2000)providedanarticle useinthenext100years. growth ofwilderness and Schuster(2000)speculatedonpotentialfor broadly acrosstheU.S.population,whileHammitt asasocialvalueheld the importanceofwilderness the NSRE.CordellandStokes(2000)wroteabout using estimated recreationaltripstowilderness, ness. CordellandTeasley (1998)reportedon results indicatinghowthepublicvalueswilder- Cordell andothers(1998b)examinedsurvey across diversesocialgroups.Inotherresearch, recreation potential participationinwilderness awarenessand presented dataonwilderness Also beingreportedwereadvancesinmethods Studies werealsoprogressingtodevelop NTFP RESEARCH INTHESOUTH Federal Appalachia. tourismsitesinsouthern studying environmentaljusticerelatedto our understandingoftheusefulnessGISin Appalachians. Porter andTarrant (2001)extended of outdoorrecreationsitesintheSouthern justice implicationsofthespatialdistribution GIS technologytoanalyzetheenvironmental attitudes. Tarrant andCordell(1999)employed outdoor recreationasapredictorofenvironmental Tarrant and Green (1999),onthevalidityof variability ofaperceivedcrowdingscale,and methods studiesincludedTarrant (1999),on in recreationresearch.During1999and2000, studied theuseofverbalreportsbystudysubjects andothers(1998) values oflandscapes.Borrie expert systemforassessingvisuallyperceived forests. BuhyoffandMiller(1998)evaluatedan mapping andplanningforplacevaluesonnational (1997) operationalizedplaceattachmentthrough assessing riparianrights.Overdevestandothers recreation benefitstoneighboringsitesfor and Perrygo (1996)appliedtheconceptof recreational boatingmanagement.Siderelis capacitytobeappliedriver carrying estimated acrowding-basedmodelofsocial out.Tarrantwere carried andEnglish(1996) within andon theedgesofnatural,manipulated, other biologicalmaterialsthat areharvested Defining NTFPs on ecosystemsustainability. of NTFPs andtheeffectsofincreasingharvesting aboutthesustainability been growingconcern Because ofthisincreaseddemand,therehas of nontimberproductshasincreasedsignificantly. Over thelastdecade,demandforandcollection critical componentsofhealthyforestecosystems. communities. But,inaddition,theplantsarealso householdsand of Appalachianandothersouthern of theseproductsareimportanttotheeconomies several generations.Thecollectionandtrade heritage andrelationshipwithNTFPs back few. Today, manylocalcollectorscantracktheir studies ofnontimberproductsanduseswere products expandedgreatlyduringthe20 andmanagingforestsfor wood harvesting for varioususes.Whileresearchontimber timber, peoplecollectednaturalforestmaterials S Later inthe1990s,severaladditionalstudies NTFPs areplants,partsof fungi,and before advancedtechnologyexistedtoharvest are plantbased,butthatnottimber. Long forestsprovidemanyproductsthat outhern th century, or disturbed forests. They may include fungi, A modest amount of research has focused moss, lichen, herbs, vines, shrubs, or trees. Many on personal use and recreational collection of different plant parts are harvested, including nontimber products. Prominent among recent roots, tubers, leaves, bark, twigs and branches, work is the 2000–01 NSRE conducted by the fruit, sap and resin, and wood (Chamberlain and Forest Service. Specific questions were asked others 1998). One useful method of classifying of respondents to the NSRE concerning their these products organizes them into four major gathering of products from forests (Cordell and product categories: Tarrant 2002). The specific trigger question asked was, “During the past 12 months, did you gather 1. Culinary products include mushrooms, ferns, mushrooms, berries, firewood, or other natural and the fruits, leaves, and roots of many plant products?” In the South, 31 percent of the species. Perhaps the most important of the respondents reported that they gather natural Southeast’s culinary forest products are ramps products. Of these, almost 54 percent did their (Allium tricoccum Ait.). Another important gathering activity in a forest setting. Over 96 269 culinary species, black walnut (Juglans nigra percent did their gathering for personal use and L.), which is native to the Eastern United only 2 percent did it for income. Nine percent of States, also is used in the medicinal and gatherers collected mushrooms, 47 percent picked dietary supplement industry. berries, 73 percent collected firewood, 35 percent 2. Wood-based NTFPs are produced from collected rocks and minerals, 43 percent tree trees or parts of trees, but not commercially materials, and 43 percent herbs and flowers. Among the many miscellaneous things gathered 23. Chapter sawn wood. Some of the more important wood- Recreation based NTFPs include the stems of sassafras were insects, feathers, walnuts, arrowheads, gold, (Sassafras albidum Nutt.) for walking sticks, moss, pine needles, Spanish moss, water, wild willow (Salix L.) stems for furniture, and the honey, and sea shells. Over the last 12 months, knees of cypress (Cupressus L.) for carvings. 29 percent had gathered on 3 or fewer days; 34 percent had gathered on 4 to 10 days; and about 3. Floral and decorative products include 11 percent had gathered on 30 or more days. crooked-wood [Lyonia ferruginea (Walt.) Nutt.] from the forests of Florida to The demographics of people collecting for compliment dry flower arrangements, personal use are enlightening. Forty-two percent grapevine for wreaths and baskets, and galax of the people gathering were male and 58 percent (Galax urceolata L.) for a variety of uses. were female. Thirty percent were under age 35 Moss harvested from hardwood forests of and 20 percent were 55 years or older. Eighty-six Appalachia is used domestically and exported percent were white, 9 percent black, 3 percent to the European floral industry. Hispanic, 2 percent American Indian, and the remaining < 1 percent Asian Americans. By 4. Medicinal forest products include roots and income, the largest group (36 percent of gatherers) herbaceous materials from more than 50 plant earned between $25,000 and $50,000 per year. species, and are used for a variety of medicinal The next largest group earned between $50,000 or dietary applications. and $75,000 (about 17 percent). Those earning < $15,000 per year made up just over 1 percent Research of all gatherers in the South. Forty-one percent A modest amount of research dealing with of gatherers live in rural areas and 59 percent in NTFPs has been undertaken over the last 50 urban areas. Almost 12 percent of gatherers had years. Most of this research has focused on less than a high school education; and 59 percent describing the varied uses of the plants, their site had some college, up to a doctorate. requirements, and other botanical factors. Some of the more popular products have had extensive Other research has looked at the major research, although most of the research focuses products resulting from gathering. The large on areas tangential to forestry and forest number and diversity of plant species that yield management. For example, there is a large NTFPs make this research challenging. Krochmal body of knowledge about the medicinal uses and others (1969) identified more than 125 of plant species, but forest managers lack basic medicinal plant species specific to Appalachia. knowledge about the population biology and Botanists of the Forest Service estimate that ecology of many of the plants that are harvested approximately 35 species of medicinal plants are as nontimber products. collected for commercial purposes in the National Forests in North Carolina (National Forests Southern Forest Science: 270 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic products, suchasginseng( decisionmaking. Someofthemorepopular has becomeavailabletoaidforestmanagement basic taxonomicidentification,littleinformation stems ofnumerousspecies. groundcovers,vines,andtwigs of berries, than 50speciesofmossandlichen,several grow intheregion.Floralproductsincludemore andvinesthat number ofspeciestrees,shrubs, wood-based nontimberproductsisequaltothe toproduce The numberofforestspeciesharvested andleavesofmorethanadozenspecies. the fruits tubers,e.g.,ramps;and include mushrooms;ferns; forestproducts commonly collected.Culinary approximately 50speciesnativetotheareaare medicinal plantdealersintheregionrevealthat in NorthCarolina2000).Discussionswith 1650 RambleRoad, Blacksburg,VA 24060-6349. ResearchStation, Québec àMontréal. Onfilewith:Southern Groupe derecherché enécologieforestière.Université du of ScientificAuthority oftheU.S.Fish andWildlife Service. population. 27p.Unpublishedreport. Final reporttotheOffice biology ofgoldenseal,andprotocols formonitoringits 1650 RambleRoad,Blacksburg,VA 24060-6349. ResearchStation, Québec àMontréal.Onfilewith:Southern Groupe derecherchéenécologieforestière.Universitédu Scientific Authority oftheU.S.Fish andWildlife Service. solutions. 53p.Unpublishedreport.Final reporttotheOfficeof fromthewild: theproblemandpossible ginseng harvesting makeup oftheplant(BurtonandHusband1999, 2001). Severalstudieshaveexaminedthegenetic 1997–2000, Hathaway2002,Horticopia2001,Reed distribution, range,andhabitat(Evans2000,Fern theecologyofgalaxfocuses onits concerning background foliage(Noland1997).Mostliterature as infloralarrangements leaves arepreferred United States.Thesingleroundorheart-shaped portionofthe weed, isnativetothesoutheastern products, havereceivedmuchlessresearch. Mill straw ( bloodroot ( wild populations.Otherspecies,suchasgalax, provides recommendationsformonitoringof and goldenseal( Gagnon reports totheU.S.Fish andWildlife Service, In regulations, andtheneedforconservation. of ginseng,butemphasizesmarkets,trade, 1997). Robbins(1998)providesanoverview (Davis1997,Hankins2000,Hufford folk history this workhascenteredmostlyoncultivationand L.), havebeenthefocusofsomeliterature.But 5 4 Gagnon,D.1999.Areviewofthe ecology andpopulation Gagnon,D.1999.AnanalysisofthesustainabilityAmerican Overall, researchonNTFPs ismodest.Beyond Galax, alsoknownaswandflowerandbeetle- . ), allofwhichareimportantnontimber Pinus elliottii 4

5 examinesthesustainabilityofginseng Sanguinaria canadensis Hydrastis canadensis Englem.and Panax quinquefolium P. palustris L . ), andpine L . ) and (Damm andothers1999). an activeingredientinacommercial toothpaste 1991). Intheearly1990s,bloodroot wasusedas 1989, Harperandothers1990, Kopczyk andothers gingivitis (e.g.,Drisko1998, Hannahandothers of bloodrootproductstoinhibitplaqueand of clinicalstudieshavedebatedtheeffectiveness may helpincombatingheartdisease.Aprofusion doses havebeenusedtostimulateheartrateand Haughton (2003),andPlyler(2001–2002),small 1988, Sanders1995).According toGrieve(1931), (Miller made bymixingrootsapandmaplesyrup 2003, Plyler2001–2002).Coughlozengescanbe its medicinalvalues(Fern 1997–2000, Haughton amount ofliteratureaboutbloodrootconcerns Virginia-Pennsylvania border. ingredients thanthosefoundalongtheWest forests havehigherconcentrationsofactive Appalachian that plantslocatedintheSouthern (Russell 1997).Bennettandothers(1990) found causing nausea,vomiting,anddizzinessorfainting alkaloids foundinthesapcanbepoisonous, roots ofbloodrootisthedesiredproduct, 1980). Whilethebrightredsapexudedfrom others 1971,Heithaus1981,Pudloand and access toessentialnutrients(Czerwinski can avoidcompetitionwithparentplants,andhave are “planted”inthenestssafefrompredation, 1982, Handel1976,Hendershot2002).Seedsthat and reproductionoftheplant(BeattieCulver underground nests,whichincreasesgermination viable remainingportionoftheseedintheir the elaiosome,antsdiscardintactand appendage calledanelaiosome.After consuming and others1979)thatfeedonalipid-rich a symbioticrelationshipwithants(Marshall The dispersalofbloodrootseedsisbasedon of thestamensinaprocessknownashomeosis. Sattler (1993),theseextrapetalsreplacesome and Sattler1993).According toLehmannand species inthePapaveraceae family (Lehmann petals, significantlymorethanthoseofother aspects. Theflowersofbloodroothave8to10 important medicinalplanthasfocusedonbotanical this on galax,mostoftheliteratureconcerning Appalachianforests.Liketheliterature Southern herbaceous perennial,isfoundthroughout of theodorisstillunknown. yet accordingtoAmoroso(2002),thesource characteristics ofgalaxisitsdistinctodor; Nesom 1983).Oneofthedistinguishing As iscommonwithmostNTFPs, thegreatest Bloodroot, anephemeralspring-blooming Ramps are perhaps the most common spring (Hauslohner 1997). A volunteer fire department in edible among NTFPs. Several studies have western North Carolina generates approximately examined soil factors, mycorrhizal status, root 35 percent of its budget from its annual ramp anatomy, and the phenology of ramps and related festival. Based on 2001 prices, the average species (Andersson 1993, Brundrett and Kendrick wholesale value of ginseng harvested from the 1988, DeMars 1996, Whanger and others 2000). southern forests exceeds $18.5 million. Certainly, Other research has looked at the chemistry of the the aggregate value of NTFPs to the Appalachian edible portion to identify the active ingredients economy far exceeds these examples. (Calvey and others 1997, Carotenuto 1996). Although ginseng can be found growing Botanical observations, demographic studies, naturally from north Georgia to Southern Canada, and examination of ecological patterns of wild this popular medicinal plant is collected primarily populations have been undertaken (Hanes 1953, from the Appalachian region. Based on data Hanes and Ownbey 1946, Jones and Shildneck from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, wild 1980, Nault and Gagnon 1993). Some aspects ginseng harvested in seven States accounted 271 of the plant’s pollination ecology and biomass for approximately 82 percent of the harvest production have been examined (Nault and from 1978 through 1998. Of those States, West Gagnon 1987, 1988). Rock6 and Nantel and others Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and North Carolina (1996) have studied population viability and the account for approximately 47 percent of all forest- impact of harvesting. harvested ginseng. The others, i.e., Indiana,

Research on pine straw is better developed Ohio, and Virginia, account for approximately 23. Chapter than that on many other nontimber products. 35 percent. Recreation Silvicultural guidelines for pine straw management These States also have higher than average in the Southeastern United States are readily unemployment rates and proportions of people available (Duryea and Edwards 1992, Morris below the poverty level. For example, the and others 1992, Woodland Owner Notes 1995). proportion of people in Kentucky below the A significant amount of research has looked poverty level exceeds the national average by at the impact of pine straw raking on associated 3 percentage points (U.S. Census Bureau 2002). vegetation (Kelly 1996, Litton 1994, Wild 1993, The unemployment rate in that State is almost Wolters 1972). While Litton (1994) and Kelly (1996) three times the average for the entire country. focused their research on the impact of removing In North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, and longleaf pine straw on plant populations, Wild Virginia, the average unemployment rate is more (1993) examined the effects of removal on slash than 3 percentage points above the national pine (P. elliottii Englem.) growth and soil average. Clearly with such high unemployment, productivity. Wolters (1972) found no significant the possibility of supplementing family income effect of pine straw mulch on southern bluestem by collecting and selling NTFPs must be attractive (Andropogen spp.) production. Other research to local inhabitants. has examined the potential of pine straw in agroforestry systems (Blanche and Carino 1997, Research regarding forest management for Blanche and others 1997, Brauer and others 2002). NTFPs is in its infancy. Chamberlain (2000) and Chamberlain and others (2002) have examined Collection as a commercial activity has been management of national forests in the Eastern studied only lightly and, thus, little exists in the United States for these products. The goal of this way of formal estimates of the value of the various research was to broaden understanding of issues NTFP markets in this region. There are some data affecting management. Only 7 of 32 forest that illustrate the economic importance of these management plans for eastern national forests products. In 1996, collectors of black walnut were addressed NTFPs. Of the eastern national forests paid more than $2.5 million.7 One company located with management plans for NTFPs, only the in rural southwest Virginia and specializing in pine National Forests in Florida are located in the roping had sales in excess of $1.5 million in 1997 South. The management plan for Florida’s national forests acknowledged the need for research to 6 Rock, J. 1996. The impact of harvesting ramps (Allium develop a system to deal with the increasing tricoccum Ait.) in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. demand for gathering products .8 [Not paged]. Unpublished manuscript. On file with: Great Smoky Mountains National Park, 107 Park Headquarters Rd., Gatlinburg, TN 37738. 8 U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1985. Land and resource management plan. [Not paged]. On file with: National Forests 7 Personal communication. 1998. J. Jones, Manager, Hammons in Florida, 325 John Knox Road, Suite F-100, Tallahassee, FL Products Company, 105 Hammons Drive, Stockton, MO 65785. 32303. Southern Forest Science: 272 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic 10 NC 28802. National Forests inNorthCarolina,P report.Onfilewith: season. [Notpaged].Unpublished internal VA 24060–6349. ResearchStation, 1650RambleRoad,Blacksburg, Southern galax removalstudy. 4p.Unpublished report.Onfilewith: harvesting galaxleaves.Ulrey harvesting toexaminetheimpactof actually underway to bemodified. iftheseasonneeds in thespringtodetermine off. Theyrecommendannualchecksbemade leaves andprovidetimeforlargertoharden season shoulddecreasethetramplingofyoung and Danley faster thantherateofregeneration.Kauffman patches ofgalaxarebeingstrippedlargeleaves that years. Becauseofthis,thereareconcerns overthelast5 in theissuanceofgalaxpermits is recognitionthattherehadbeenamajorincrease has beenundertaken.Thefoundationforthestudy monitoring no resultsareavailable,butinformal galax (Kauffmanandothers2001).At thistime, growth andyieldofseveralNTFPs, including Carolina hasproposedastudytodetermine The officeoftheNationalForests inNorth impactongalaxpopulations. examine harvesting lands inNorthCarolinahaveinitiatedprojectsto products. Federal Agenciesthatmanageforest tobetterunderstandthese initiatives underway management efforttowardNTFPs, thereare will remainadhoc,atbest. obstacles areovercome,NTFPs management resources toassignmanagement.Untilthese knowledge, and(4)insufficientpersonnelfiscal and theircollectors,(3)aseverelackofmarket originate, (2)thediversenatureofproducts and ecologyoftheflorafromwhichtheseproducts These are(1)lackofknowledgeaboutthebiology problems impedeeffortstoimprovemanagement. forest products.Fundamentally, fourcritical constraints onimprovingmanagementofthese at severaladministrativelevelstoestimatethe the attitudesandperspectivesofforestmanagers removing asmanylargeleaves(>3inches) (3) well-developedpatch.Treatments included of collection,(2)someevidenceand selected basedonthreecriteria:(1)noevidence established in2001.Locationsfortheseplotswere Parkway. Inall,thirty-two1-msquareplotswere sampleplotsalongtheBlueRidge permanent 9 Kauffman,G.;Danley, D.2001.Restrictionon galaxgathering Ulrey, offirstyear(2001)resultsfrom C.2001.Summary The NationalPark hastheonlystudy Service Although Chamberlainfoundalackof Chamberlain andothers(2002)alsoexamined 9 arguethattherestrictedharvesting .O. Box2750, Asheville, 10 established encounters withotherusers. of crowdingandacceptable orunacceptable provided goodunderstanding ofthephenomenon ofuseandactivitysituationshas broad spectrum capacities. Indeed,researchappliedacrossa management withinsocial,physical,andecological to developreasonablygoodprinciplesguide of crowdedorenvironmentallysensitivesites systems.Weand information didenoughstudies measures react toavarietyofuse-regulatory their opinionsaboutfeesandhowtheymight under differentcircumstances.We understand want tohaveandsee,howsatisfiedtheyare of whoforestrecreationvisitorsare,whatthey those toolsmorebroadly. if onlywehadthewillanddollarstoimplement recreation useatdevelopedanddispersedareas, hold up.And,wehavetoolsforestimating andothervegetationdoesnot grasses, shrubs, and visitorflowmanagementbecauseplanting in forestrecreationsitesrequiressitehardening economies.Managinguseimpacts for mostrural effective—tooseasonalandtooleaky is notvery an economicdevelopmenttooltoaddresspoverty address them.Forest-based outdoorrecreationas and haveresearch-providedtoolsorknowledgeto areas, weprettymuchunderstandtheproblems have shownthatforallthreeoftheseproblem over theyearssince1960,researchandapplication estimating recreationusewerefocalareas.Indeed use impactsonforestrecreationsites,and of economicdevelopmentinimpoverishedareas, have beenundertaken.Inthebeginning,problems highly importantandintriguingareasofinquiry part bytheORRRCofthattime,anumber R Recreation Research TO PONDER PARTING OBSERVATIONS ANDPOINTS is insignificant. onpopulations that theimpactofharvesting the principalinvestigatorofthisprojectindicate to providedefinitiveresults,discussionswith in eachplot.Althoughinsufficienttimehaspassed leavestothenumberofretained harvested Removal rateswerecalculatedbycomparing and counted,remainingleaveswerecounted. leaveswereweighed as possible.Harvested Research hasprovidedaprettyclearpicture highly productive.Since1960andinspiredin scientists employedintheSouthhasbeen ecreation researchdoneintheSouthby To assist planners, policy analysts, policy applied this knowledge? Likely, the answer is setters, and legislators at all levels, including no. At least we feel we have not. There is a crying private investors and business managers, research need to synthesize, interpret, and make more has provided a succession of broad-scale recreation accessible our research findings. It is a fact that demand and supply and social assessments to help managers, planners, business managers, and make visible recent and likely future trends. Tools, others in provider roles will not conduct literature data, and findings measuring the effectiveness of reviews, nor are they likely to read research the spatial distribution of supply, forecasting likely papers. Let us not kid ourselves. The most likely future demand, and examining the social equity scenario with most research publications is that aspects of different potential management three peers read it in the beginning, and since scenarios have been provided. Long- and short- then six graduate students read them for use in term trends have been described in laborious dissertations. Overall, maybe a total of 10 ever detail, as have participation patterns across read the typical research article, including the different parts of the region, and different regions one that the author sent to mom. A priority for 273 of the country. Access to private lands, as well as the near future in recreation research, then, is to public lands, has been examined and described, to assemble, organize, study, interpret, and design as have trends in access. a delivery system to put our research to work. Dr. Michael Rauscher has developed and is Methods for and studies estimating the implementing the idea of a research encyclopedia. value of sites and site attributes contributing Look up a concept, such as fees, and via to outdoor recreation also are among the benefits 23. Chapter

hyperlinks, access relevant research written Recreation of recreation research in the South. Tradeoff at a level applicable broadly. As well, research analysis and cost-benefit analysis are the literature should be interpreted collectively processes in which these values estimates are to ascertain broadly applicable principles most appropriately applied. A spinoff benefit of and guidelines. valuation research is the ability to predict effects on visitation of different pricing policies (a hot The existing body of research literature, then, topic now) and predict who might be impacted is highly valuable and contemporarily applicable. most or least by pricing. Another spinoff benefit is But forest recreation is not static. New problems being able to predict revenue likely to occur with arise, the face of the user changes, and the social different pricing policies. Underlying all the above and economic environment within which research, which is worthy of far more description everything operates evolves. We see a number and praise than is offered here, is a continuous of research problem areas needing attention flow of new and improved methods for doing (and funding). These are: research. Better and more realistic assumptions, • Democracy and a free country is better better measurement scales, more sensitive than any of the alternatives. However, with input-output models, and a plethora of other this freedom and with free enterprise and advancements have made recreation research resulting differentials of wealth and income more effective and more credible. But what of the can develop inequities in access to forest future? Where does recreation research need to go recreation opportunities, public and private. from here? The following are points to ponder as Associated with access are any number of we set sail into the 21st century. cultural, legal, or physical barriers that differ There is a wealth of research-based knowledge in type and degree across southern society. on hand concerning a variety of forest recreation Some of these barriers involve fear, such as topics and problem areas. Not everything that is women may feel in solo recreation. needed and certainly not all that will be needed to • New forms of recreation participation and fully address the mass of emerging new problems burgeoning development of new equipment for and complexities will be found in the literature of forest recreation participation feeds conflicts the past. But, contained between the title on page already extant between uses and users. A vivid 1 and the last publication listed in the literature example is motorized uses of forest roads and cited section on the last page of a large and rich trails. Walking, biking, and horseback riding volume of literature, estimated at roughly 6 to 8 users are not compatible and cannot compete times the number of recreation publications cited with motorized users. Walkers cannot compete in this chapter; i.e., 1,200 to 1,500 journal articles, with bikers. Bikers cannot compete with proceedings articles, book chapters, books, etc., is horseback riders. And so on. More use, more a huge amount of knowledge. Have we adequately Southern Forest Science: 274 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic sometimes the ecosystemfunctioning,and management choicesaffect thecharacter, Ceaseless developmentand sometimesinsensitive andnaturallandscapes. see andexperiencerural largepart,to placesinpart,maybevery rural or 10yearsdowntheroad. management decisiontablethisyear, nextyear, voice wouldsayifitwereinvitedtositatthe toguesswhatthepublic managersareleft Often recreation hasnotkeptpacewiththesechanges. with forests,forestmanagement,and regarding publicattitudesandvaluesassociated of immigrantsfromothercultures.Research with thetimesandchangingasaresultoftide mentionedby Oneoftheneedsmost often • Avirtualexplosionofnew outdoorclothing, • Growinguse,useinareaswhereitnever • Recreation seekerscometo forestedareasand The populationoftheSouthischanging is neededtoguidethatintegration. education needtobeintegrated,andresearch programs, interpretation,andconservation association withrecreationvisits.Information education opportunitiesoffsite,onsite,andin growing inpriorityisprovidingconservation in demandbytherecreatingpublic.Especially number ofotheraspectsforestareasishigh and historicalaspectsofforestsites,any of placesinterest,interpretationnatural onhazards,locations Information information. recreation usersisthatofaccesstobetter and expectations. needs arenotwellmatchedtomodern often flows,andaccommodations information Nation. Sitedesigns,managementguidelines, inthis regionandinthe been occurring and othertechnologicaldevelopmentshas vehicles, meansoftraversingthelandscape, sports equipment,transportandsport as aproblembeggingforresearchattention. and understandingcapacitieswillcontinue features, suchasrockcliffs.Managinguse and animalspecies,fragileorpristine habitats forthreatenedandendangeredplant at certaintimesoftheyear, riparianareas, Especially sensitivearewildlifepopulations increasing impactsonforestrecreationsites. among thefactorsthatwillcontributeto areas, andshrinkingplacestorecreateare used tooccur, concentrateduseincertain will onlyheighteninthefuture. users willensurethatthisproblemofconflict ofuse,andgreaterdiversity varied forms of the plant species being harvested. Second, the of theplantspecies beingharvested. scientific knowledge oftheecologicaldynamics achieved withoutaconcerted efforttoimproveour on thoseresources.Sustainability cannotbe forest resourcesandthecommunities thatdepend areas. Thefirstrelatestothe sustainabilityof NTFPs Research management, investment,andplanning. systemsfordirectapplicationin information dataand research needstoprovideturn-key partnering isneeded.And,moreandthis research withminimalduplicationandmaximum accomplishing theircharge.Highlyfocused tocomeanywherenearfully information have thebackground,resources,data,and Many chargedwithrecreationplanningdonot needed muchmorethanatanyprevioustime. and managementismuchneeded—inourview, and trendsintheseaspects. economic, andwelfareaspectsofwilderness understanding ofthevalueandsocial, in theeyesofanecologist.Neededisbetter represents muchmorethananecosystemas is muchmorethanarecreationresource.It of aNWPSforthisregion,andNation.Wilderness there areincreasingquestionsabouttheplace and associationwiththelandseemtodiminish, fitness andhealth,areincreasinglyimportant. recreation toimprovingotheraspectsoflife,e.g., in motivationsandexpectationslinking priorities offorestvisitors.Understandingtrends there isanongoingevolutioninthemakeupand of otherpersonalityshapingfactorsensurethat travel,different cultures,andahost international regional levels. and understoodatlocal,subregional, is assurancethatthepublicheardfrom are needed.Acriticalaspectofsuchplanning and usinglargedemandsupplydatabases, procedures forplanning,includingaccessing and policyoptions.Simplifiedframeworks ofmanagement planning acrossabroadspectrum tostepback toconductcomprehensive necessary challenging. Thisisespeciallysowhenit and decisionmakingcanbelaborioushighly these impactsandperceptionsofthem. of theselandscapes.Researchcanshedlighton sometimes, intheeyeofvisitor, thequality Research forNTFPs isneededinthreemain In forestrecreation,science-basedplanning As societychangesandourknowledgeof Exposure tomedia,entertainmentfantasies, The processesofforestrecreationplanning long-term maintenance of household and local To improve the science-based knowledge economies that depend on nontimber products will concerning NTFPs to a level where sufficiently be in jeopardy unless the true value and impact reliable information is available to forest managers of harvesting is understood. Third, the social and will require a shift in institutional commitments. cultural threads of community fabric that have This institutional transformation will involve evolved through generations will be lost if research nurturing collaboration between varied disciplines, is not undertaken to find ways to sustain this way such as getting botanists, ecologists, foresters, and of life while improving forest management. forest products marketing professionals to work together to determine standardized protocols and Ecological issues, if not addressed, could result management approaches. To ensure that research in long-term or permanent decline in biological is grounded in the social fabric and that diversity. The science-based knowledge does not subsequent protocols and policies are socially exist to ensure that current harvest levels are acceptable, sound social science and improved ecologically sustainable. Research is needed to institutional arrangements also are needed. examine and determine the effects of harvesting 275 on local plant populations, as well as the impact LITERATURE CITED on associated forest ecosystems. Basic knowledge of the population dynamics of most NTFPs is he recreation and wilderness research required. Further, baseline inventory data and literature cited in this paper is listed. regular monitoring of populations are essential T Following separately later is the nontimber products literature. in developing sustainable forest management 23. Chapter strategies. Standardized protocols for inventory Recreation Forest Recreation Research Literature and monitoring for nontimber products is severely lacking. Current supplies, as well as regeneration rates, are key elements in determining sustainable Absher, J.D. 1989. Applying the LAC model to National Park Service wilderness. In: Proceedings of the southeastern harvest levels, and yet remain unknown. recreation research conference. Athens, GA: University of Management decisions will continue to be based Georgia, Institute for Behavioral Research: 143–152. on incomplete and perhaps inaccurate information Adams, A.E.; Hammitt, W.E. 1993. Visitor behavior in until the science has been done to answer some relationship to interpretive encounters with wildlife. Journal very fundamental questions. of Interpretation. 4(5):18–23. In general, NTFP economies remain a mystery. Aiken, R. 1988. Regional economic impact analysis for the Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge. In: Proceedings of Unlike timber, the economic value of NTFPs is the southeastern recreation research conference. Athens, not defined nor fully understood. The volumes and GA: University of Georgia, Department of Recreation and values of NTFPs are not reported, documented, Leisure Studies: 2–3. or monitored, although the overall value of some Amacher, G.S.; Conway, M.C.; Sullivan, J. 2004. Nonindustrial sectors, e.g., herbal medicines, is partially forest landowner research: a synthesis and new directions. documented. Economic and market data are In: Rauscher, H. Michael; Johnsen, Kurt, eds. Southern essential for setting fair and equitable rates for forest science: past, present, and future. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–75. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, collection permits. Knowledge of the value to rural Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 241–252. communities and households also is lacking, and Bayless, D.S.; Bergstrom, J.C.; Messonier, M.L.; Cordell, H.K. yet this information is needed to influence policies 1994. Assessing the demand for designated wildlife viewing for sustainable forest management. Policymakers sites. Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing. 2: and decisionmakers need to be knowledgeable 75–93. about the economic importance of NTFPs to rural Bergstrom, J.C.; Cordell, H.K. 1991. An analysis of the demand communities. Accurate and reliable data on the for and value of outdoor recreation in the United States. supply and demand for NTFPs is essential to Journal of Leisure Research. 23(1): 67–86. determine sustainable economic harvest levels. Bergstrom, J.C.; Cordell, H.K.; Ashley, G.A. [and others]. 1989. Rural economic development impacts of outdoor Traditional ecological knowledge is critical recreation in Georgia. Res. Rep. 567. Athens, GA: The in understanding the fundamentals of NTFP Georgia Agricultural Experiment Station, University management. Many collectors have a long of Georgia. 10 p. history and strong cultural ties to these products. Bergstrom, J.C.; Cordell, H.K.; Ashley, G.A.; Watson, A.E. Research is needed to document collection 1990a. 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Chapter 24. Timber Market Research, Private Forests, and Policy Rhetoric

David N. Wear and now that timber production from public forests— Jeffrey P. Prestemon1 more strongly influenced by policy shifts and administrative process—is much less reliable or Abstract—The development of the profession stable than private timber supply. Policy concerns and practice of forestry in the United States can regarding southern timber markets have evolved be linked to urgent concerns regarding timber partially in response to an improved understanding 289 shortages in the late 19th century (Williams 1989). derived from timber market research. Current These were based largely on perceived failures of concerns focus on the ability of forests to provide forest landowners to protect or invest enough in a broad range of resource values, and improved the productive capacity of their forests (Manthy understanding of how timber markets operate is 1977). The South, as the only major timber- required for a full understanding of the ultimate producing region of the United States in which sustainability of forests, their functions, and their private interests have almost exclusively controlled derivative benefits. forests and where unfettered interaction between private buyers and sellers has determined timber INTRODUCTION prices and harvests, provides the clearest example he workings or failings of timber markets of the way the private sector manages forests. It are core issues at the foundation of the provides a setting for evaluating core assumptions T conservation movement in the United States. The rhetoric of timber famine, which dates back at regarding markets, market failure, and conservation least to the 1500s in North America (Hyde 1980), rhetoric, and for examining the potential role obtained strong public currency in the late 1800s of various policy approaches for attaining and eventually led to the establishment of Federal conservation goals. We examine the history of forestry programs and creation of the national research into private timber management and the forests. Regulation of forestry activities by some function of private timber markets in the South. States also resulted. The profession and practice In particular, we examine research that provides of forestry in the United States likewise can be insights into the behavior of private forest owners linked to these urgent concerns regarding timber and the structure of private timber supply. We shortages in the late 19th century (Williams 1989). also examine how this body of research has been Timber shortages can be viewed as resulting influenced by and in turn may have influenced from market failures with several potential causes. policy perspectives regarding forests in the United Overharvesting—that is, harvesting without States. Research on the function and structure of adequate provision for future needs—implies timber markets, especially in the South, has clearly either (1) an insecure timber resource or illustrated that the private sector can generate an (2) a lack of information regarding overall timber orderly market for a commodity (timber) with inventories. Without secure property rights, a long production period. Investment responses timber owners cannot be certain about future to scarcity signals in the South demonstrate that access to their timber, and have a strong incentive to harvest soon. The same outcome would result timber capital is viewed as a reasonably liquid from timber being harvested from a common asset and that market failure with respect to property resource. Without information on overall intertemporal allocation does not hold. In an inventories, timber owners cannot anticipate interesting reversal of rhetoric, it appears clear oncoming shortages, and so fail to recognize the potential for additional returns from delaying their harvests. Both cases would lead to departures 1 Research Forester and Project Leader, and Research Forester, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, from the economically optimal allocation of Southern Research Station, Research Triangle Park, NC harvesting over time, pushing harvest rates 27709, respectively. beyond socially optimal levels. Southern Forest Science: 290 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic prices and harvests throughoutthe20 prices andharvests timber private buyersandsellershasdetermined forests andwhereunfetteredinteractionbetween interests havealmostexclusivelycontrolled region oftheUnitedStatesinwhichprivate underinvestment inforests. been raisedasexplanationsforaperceived have investment risk.Allfiveoftheseconcerns sometimes calledcapitalilliquidity, or(5)excessive up capitalforunreasonableperiodsoftime— (4) alongproductionperiodthateffectivelylocks oranticipatedfutureprices, regarding current potential, (3)alackofmarketinformation regardingproduction (2) alackofinformation (1) alackofaccesstoinvestmentcapital, but isnotundertaken,thereasonscouldbe grounds. Incaseswhereinvestmentiscompetitive timber failtojustifytheinvestmentonfinancial from investments; thatis,expectedreturns are notcompetitivewiththosefromalternative fromforestinvestments is simplythatreturns could resultfromseveralpotentialcauses.One 1977). Investmentbelowsociallyoptimallevels productive capacityoftheirforests(Manthy landowners toprotectorinvestenoughinthe markets hasbeenaperceivedfailureofforest United States. policy perspectivesregardingforestsinthe mayhaveinfluenced influenced byandinturn examine howthisbodyofresearchhasbeen ofprivate timbersupply.structure We also the behaviorofprivateforestownersand examine researchthatprovidesinsightsinto timber marketsintheSouth.Inparticular, we timber managementandthefunctionofprivate ofresearchintoprivate we examinethehistory goals.Inthischapter,attaining conservation potential roleofvariouspolicyapproachesfor rhetoric,andforexaminingthe and conservation assumptions regardingmarkets,marketfailure, forests. Itprovidesasettingforevaluatingcore example ofthewayprivatesectormanages industry. TheSouthprovidestheclearest 2002). Twenty percentisheldbytheforest forest land)intheregion(ConnerandHartsell of timberland(productiveorpotentiallyproductive control89percent Private landownerscurrently The Southistheonlymajortimber-producing regardingtimber Another relatedconcern th century. destruction andeventualshortage. destruction ownership wastherootcauseofresource scarcity andtheassumptionthatprivate regarding timber implicitly recognizedconcerns of AgricultureForest (Forest Service Service) oftheU.S.Department forests) andtheformation (eventuallythenational of theforestreserves 1976). Publicownershipofforestsintheform within theU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture(Steen to theestablishmentofDivisionForestry the attentionofPresidentGrant,andledin1876 the issueforFederal attracted Government, (Hough, ascitedbySteen1976)initiallyformalized A treatiseonemergingtimberscarcityin1874 United States(Pinchot1947,Williams 1989). and emergenceofa“timberfamine”intheyoung offorestlands forests wouldleadtodestruction the argumentthatprivate-sectormanagementof movementsofthelate19 wilderness and late 1800s,andtheresultingconservation of timberinexhaustibilitybegantowanebythe productivity oftheirforests.Thenationalillusion private timberownerswouldfailtosustainthe to follow, wasstronglyrootedinthebeliefthat of timberfaminethen,andformanydecades Movement intheUnitedStates. motivation fortheAmericanConservation and wasteofprivateforestswastheprimary in theUnitedStates. seen astherootofnaturalresourceproblems timber, haslongbeencontentiousandisoften enterprise, bothinsupplyingandconsuming of privatepropertyrights.Therole sustained economicexpansion,andthestructure long- domain, establishmentofforestreserves, of, amongotherfactors,divestiture ofapublic of forestuseintheUnitedStatesisanoutcome technological changeandadoption.Thehistory underlyingbiologicalproductivity,reserves, and P PRIVATE FORESTS HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVESON (see Nash1967). advocates movement ledbyforestry odds withtheconservation movement, ledbyJohnMuir, at wasseparatefromandoften forest lands.Evenatthisearlydate, however, the wilderness of regardingthelossanddestruction motivated byconcerns butbothcanbeviewedas motivated byotherconcerns, 20 2 The related wilderness movementofthedaywasclearly Therelatedwilderness th At ofthecentury, theturn perceivedabuse centurieswerebasedalmostexclusivelyon of socialorganizationwithinitialresource and spacearedefinedbytheintersection ofresourceutilizationacrosstime atterns 2 Therhetoric th andearly Until the 1960s, forest policy in the United scarce.” However, the availability of this ore States was driven almost exclusively by this for human uses is determined not by its total timber scarcity rhetoric,3 and resulted in efforts quantity (which is generally not known), but by to expand the Federal forest estate and Federal the known quantity (the information part) that programs to support State and private forest can be extracted by affordable means (the management. The latter initiative dates from the technology-driven cost part). Clarke-McNary Act of 1924, which authorized The available quantity of this ore can actually funding for, among other things, forest nurseries be increased in two ways. One is through and technical advice to woodlot owners to support discovery of additional deposits, i.e., by improved reforestation, and extended authority to acquire information. The other is through technological private land for national forests for the purpose advances that either allow more efficient use of of providing timber. the ore extracted from existing deposits, i.e., The antipathy toward private ownership through utilization of lower quality grades, or had other results. Into the 1940s and especially enable substitution of other materials for the ore 291 in the 1930s, conservation leaders, including in the production of the relevant goods. With a some Chiefs of the Forest Service, argued for renewable resource such as timber, stocks may national regulation of timber harvesting and also be directly enhanced through investment. management on private lands (e.g., U.S. Information and technology, therefore, play Department of Agriculture Forest Service 1941). important roles in defining resource scarcity.

National private harvest regulation was never 24. Chapter Resource economists use trends in resource approved—the responsibility for forest regulations prices (rents) or in the marginal costs of extraction remaining with the States—and disappeared to gauge changes in economic scarcity. With good from the Agency’s rhetoric by the late 1940s. Still, market information, producers will internalize private land continued to be viewed as a primary their expectations regarding future returns (based source of resource problems and increasing on inventories and technology) and current and resource scarcity in the United States. Research Timber Market anticipated demands into decisions regarding what to produce now vs. what to produce in the future. ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVES ON Therefore, sustained increases in price provide a RESOURCE SCARCITY strong signal that the resource is becoming scarcer he belief that private ownership resulted in as producers withhold material from the market in timber scarcity was essentially taken as self- anticipation of higher future returns. Conversely, T evident and remained untested until the 1970s, a sustained decline in prices signals decreasing when research into the limits of growth began to scarcity. Erratic price movements or discrete focus broadly on material scarcity. Motivated in jumps in price paths might indicate that producers large part by concerns regarding oil supplies, a were surprised by a change in market conditions major thrust of resource economics in the 1970s impossible to foresee or an information failure. and the 1980s was the study of resource scarcity. This body of work focused especially on how to Analyses of price trends were the first studies measure changes and trends in resource scarcity to directly challenge the premises of historical in a way that provided information about the scarcity rhetoric. Studies by Libecap and Johnson potential for and limits of economic growth. (1978) and Berck (1979) failed to reject the hypothesis that wood product prices in the late Economic scarcity is not strictly a physical 19th and early 20th centuries increased at rates quantity concept but is influenced by information, consistent with the prevailing, risk-free interest technology, and quality. To illustrate, consider rates. This pattern of price growth is predicted that a mineral ore is scarce only if it is needed by economic theory for the optimal use of an (demanded) in some form for the production of exhaustible resource. That is, these findings goods and services. It seems logical that as the ore offered evidence that refuted the notion that is extracted and used it would become “more historical timber harvesting had been completely indifferent to future implications.

3A clear exception to this claim is concern and debate Evaluation of 20th-century price paths also did regarding the impacts of forest removals on the condition of not suggest market failure. In the 1960s and 1970s, navigable streams and on potential for flooding that dominated the debate regarding the Weeks Act of 1911. As specified by the researchers beginning with Barnett and Morse Weeks Law and until revised by the Clarke-McNary Act of (1963) evaluated trends in resource rents (in situ 1924, property for eastern national forests could only be prices) for various natural resources to look for acquired to protect navigable streams (Steen 1976). Southern Forest Science: 292 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic general prognoses. 1970s seemtobeconsistent withthese management intheUnited States sincethe resource scarcity. Timberproduction andforest anticipate andadjusttimber stockstoameliorate transition,landowners timber production.After tosecond-growth competitive ratesofreturn when thepriceishighenoughtowarrant is timberprice.Investmentinforestscommences of timberproduction.Thetriggermechanism in atransitiontosustained,agriculturalstyle would eventuallytriggeraninvestmentphase market wouldstartwithaminingphasethat control theory, hefoundthatanorderlytimber explored inastudybyLyon (1981).Usingoptimal and second-growthmanagementhavebeen The interactionsbetweenold-growthharvesting as relativelyinexpensiveoldgrowthisavailable. to produceandisnotfinanciallyattractiveaslong growth timber. Secondgrowthisalsoexpensive conditions donotpromotetheproductionofold- is essentiallynonrenewable,sinceeconomic resources. Itcanbearguedthatoldgrowth different growth ormanagedtimberaretwovery resource isthatold-growthtimberandsecond resource wouldbeutilizedasanonrenewable expected forminingofanonrenewableresource. timber pricetrendsappearedconsistentwiththose early portionsofthe20 managed asarenewableresourcethroughthe important, theysuggestthattimberwasnot perspective.Most a strictlytimberharvest offorestresources,evenfrom conservation regarding they donotcompletelyallayconcerns toanother.one regionofthecountry However, from shifted decisionsevenasharvesting harvest failed toaccountforthefuturewhenmaking i.e., theydonotsupportthenotionthatproducers failureintimbermarkets; been aninformation depletion pattern. were, however, notinconsistentwithanoptimal increase fortimberrents(stumpageprices) an unambiguousincreaseinscarcity. Ratesof away fromscarcitywastimber, whichshowed studies, however, themajorexceptiontotrend stocks inthe20 credited witheffectivelyaugmentingresource changes coupledwithnewdiscoverieswere evaluated, evenmineralresources.Technological emerging scarcityfornearlyallresources popular sentiment,evidencesuggestedno evidence ofincreasingscarcity. to Contrary One explanationofwhyapotentiallyrenewable These resultssuggestthattherehasnot th century. Throughoutthese th century. Onthecontrary, analysis thatwasunavailableduringtheearly20 anddata viewed throughalensofeconomictheory were overstated.However, thesefindingsare regardingtimberfamineperhaps that concerns SOUTHERN TIMBERMARKETRESEARCH andfunctionoftimbermarkets. the structure of workclarifiedasethypothesesforstudying where nomarketfailureoccurs.Overall,thisbody scarcity canemerge—timberpricesrise—even production wouldoccur, and(3)illustratedthat torenewableagriculture-style anticipated shifts scarcity, openthequestion of whether (2)left necessarily proceededwithoutanticipatingfuture rejected thenotionthatprivatetimberproduction of resourceeconomistsandpolicyanalysts.It(1) scarcity hadimportantinfluenceonthethinking conditions providedbyforests. relatetothehabitatorecosystem concern rhetoric completely. Scarcitiesofcontemporary scarcity haddisappearedfromforestpolicy Bythe1990stimber policyconcern. contemporary economists, thattimberfaminewasnotarelevant path, itbecameclearbythe1980s,atleastto before policyactionsdid.Whateverthecausal Movementmayhaveledtochange Conservation producers. Thatis,therhetoricofAmerican signals—that modifiedthebehavioroftimber mayhaveprovidedinformation—scarcity century Movementinthelate19 American Conservation century. Inaddition,theactivitiesspawnedby based onhighly aggregatedataforavery private production. Theseinitialanalyses were incomplete understandingof timbermarketsand forest economicsresearchbut providedonlyan scarcity changedtheframe ofreferencefor increasingly greaterprecision. production, prices,andforestincentiveswith forecasting thefutureevolutionofforest the researchfocusedfullyonmodelingand nonpriced benefitsfromforests.Inothercases, might shapeallocativeproblemswithother timber tounderstandinghowmanagement problems withtheintertemporalallocationof fromaddressing some research,thefocusshifted behavior couldinfluenceforestconditions.For tounderstandinghowmarket the focusshifted market failures.From however, the1980sforward, at understandingthemagnitudeofassumed R Taken together, thesestudiesmightsuggest The neteffectofthisresearchintoresource The resourceeconomicsresearch intomaterial Until thistime,muchresearchwastargeted foundation offoresteconomicsresearch. esearch into material scarcity shifted the esearch intomaterialscarcityshifted th th heterogeneous resource, and the findings left been used to construct normative, simulation several questions regarding market mechanisms approaches for investigating individual unaddressed. For example, Can local “scarcities” behavior and have been the theoretical basis appear and drive spatial redistribution of demand? for constructing models for positive statistical Do prices for some species increase at the risk-free analysis of harvest choices. We explore these rate of interest until it becomes profitable to shift two approaches in turn below. to a substitute species? How are timber markets related spatially? Why should (or do) timber prices NORMATIVE TIMBER MANAGEMENT MODELS increase in the long run if the timber resource uch early research into forest economics is in its “sustained production” phase? If they do involved comparing actual timber increase over time, is this the result of information M management with the behavioral norms failure or market failure? Forest economics defined by optimal rotation models. “Normative” research in the South and elsewhere applied research approaches prevailed from the 1950s multiple approaches to develop a better through the 1970s. In the South, this research 293 understanding of the specific working of timber focused on investment behavior across landowner markets in the region, but these questions types to investigate the potential for increasing to some extent remain unanswered. timber supply from private land. Economic research generally targets either the Research on individual investment behavior behavior of individual agents, e.g., producers or has directly addressed whether landowners consumers, or the operation of highly aggregate were pursuing optimal management regimes— 24. Chapter markets, e.g., the interaction between price and as defined by the economist—within their quantity on a large scale. Forest economics forests. Differences between optimal and actual research has focused both on the behavior of investment levels were viewed as an untapped individual forest landowners and on aggregate potential to produce timber from private lands. timber markets, mainly for softwood products. These foregone investments were labeled timber Both approaches have been exploited in the South investment opportunities (TIO). Suboptimal Research Timber Market to develop insights into the ultimate outcomes management was attributed to various market of forest management on private lands. failures, including information failures with respect to technical knowledge of forest ANALYSIS OF HARVEST CHOICES management, but more importantly with respect he central conceptual construct of forest to timber prices and timber price trends, and due economics is the optimal harvest model. to prohibitive upfront costs, failure of markets to T The first correct formulation is credited to reflect the future value of standing timber, and Faustmann in 1849 and still serves as a point limited access to capital (Adams and others 1982). of departure for research into landowner behavior The results of TIO analysis were used to argue (Faustmann 1849). Indeed, Newman (1988) for various forest policies to address these failures. identifies more than 85 derivative publications in In particular, TIO results were central arguments the modern literature. Extensions of the optimal for programs that subsidize forest planting, rotation literature address the influence of including cost-share programs such as the nonmarket values (Hartman 1976), spatial Forestry Incentives Program and the Agricultural configuration (Swallow and Wear 1993), and price Conservation Program. In effect, these programs dynamics (Brazee and Mendelsohn 1988, Clarke were designed to overcome the “front-end loading” and Reed 1989, Forboseh and others 1996, Gong of costs that discourages investment in long-run 1999, Haight and Holmes 1991, Lohmander timber production. Assessments of timber markets 1988, Thomson 1992). These studies explore through the 1980s identified TIOs on private lands management choices (mainly harvest) that would as clear evidence that information and capital result from a given set of production functions, failures impeded timber supply and as a strong objectives, and constraints. indication that public assistance could leverage The intertemporal structure of forest additional timber supply from the private lands. production is what defines forest economics as In addition, the gap between actual investment a unique endeavor, and the many variants of and modeled optimal investment was used as an optimal harvest models provide the theoretical indication that the lack of a widely available price foundation for nearly all of the work that is forest reporting system was retarding the efficient economics, especially work on individual harvest expansion of timber investment in the South— and management choices. These models have Southern Forest Science: 294 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic POSITIVE HARVEST CHOICEMODELS choices couldbetesteddirectly. choices. Asaresult,varioushypothesesregarding landowner choiceswitheconomicallyrational capacity, allowedresearcherstocompare observed with thedevelopmentofcomputationalspeedand of individualchoiceeconometricmodels,coupled to challengethesepremises.Thedevelopment Beginning inthe1970s,however, researchbegan to measuretheimplicationsofmarketfailure. market failuresdidoccur;analysiswasused research onindividualbehaviorwasthatthese influence hisorherdecisions. catastrophic loss,althoughsmall,couldstrongly with asingleholding,theprobabilityof land. Still,fortherisk-aversesmalllandholder and biologicallydiversified)holdingsofforest effectively mitigatedbymixed(geographically are perhapsnotashighoncethoughtand Subsequent researchsuggeststhatrisklevels private timberinsuranceisavailabletoday. of thissorthavenotdeveloped,althoughsome the TIOuntappedpotential.Insurancepolicies timber productionwasalsoproposedtoaddress the region set thestageforforestinvestmentactivitiesin through firepreventionandsuppressionefforts ice, orwind.Ithasbeenarguedthatriskreduction catastrophic losscausedbyinsects,disease,fire, investment heavilyinfluencedbyphysicalriskof risk. Someperceiveforestmanagementasarisky forest (NIPF)marketfailurediscourseaddresses coveringtheentireSouth. price reportingservice ofa ledeventuallytotheformation information failure.Thedemandforprice an information consistency withmarketbehavior. astests for the relevantvariablesareconstrued based onmarketbehavior. Tests ofsignificance are constraint. Inbothcases,the modelstructures forests inthecontextofahousehold budget maximizing theutilitythattheyderivefrom behavior, modelinglandownersasindividuals timber andperhapsotherproducts,orconsumer producers seekingtomaximizetheprovisionof of producerbehavior, modelinglandowners as ofthemodel,canbedevelopedbytheory form The selectionofvariables,aswellthefunctional E The premiseofmuchearlyforesteconomics Another elementofthenonindustrialprivate conometric modelsofindividualchoices function of relevant explanatory variables. function ofrelevantexplanatory examine theprobabilityofachoiceas . Government-sponsored insurancefor Government-sponsored ANALYSIS OFTIMBERMARKETS values arealsoproducedfromtheforest. in awell-functioningmarket,ifotherprivate departures maybetheresultofrationalbehavior not beproofofmarketfailure.Instead,such ownership objectiveoftimberproductionmay from theexpectedbehaviorunderasingle from forestholdings.Inotherwords,departures derived linked tonontimbergoodsandservices preferences areheterogeneousandmaybe Dennis 1990).Thisimpliesthatharvest choices(Binkley1981, in explainingharvest education, andownershiptype,weresignificant certain demographicvariables,includingage, choicestudiesconsistentlyshowed that harvest holding standinginventory. Also,findingsfrom the relativelyhighvaluesuchlandownersplaceon profit-maximizing behaviorbutrathertoreflect private landownersnottobeinconsistentwith Wear (1993)foundmanagementbynonindustrial modeltoforestlandowners. Newman and theory (1989) challengedtheapplicationofproduction products. AstudybyHybergandHolthausen need notonlyembracetheprovisionoftimber theideathatrationalbehavior began tocrystallize responsestorelativeprices. optimality ofharvest thus, leaveunansweredquestionsregardingthe behaviorand, the relativeefficiencyofharvest sensitive. However, thesestudiesdidnotaddress arenotprice the nullhypothesisthatharvests timberand,therefore,reject propensity toharvest betweentimberpricesandthe correlation Dennis 1990).Allofthesestudiesfindapositive choicestudies(Binkley1981, collection ofharvest hypothesis hasbeenuniversallyrejectedbya expression ofthetimberfaminehypothesis.This allocate timberefficientlyacrosstime.Thisisone of timberprices,thenthemarketwouldfailto were indifferenttoscarcitysignalsintheform signals fromtimbermarkets.Iflandowners into theresponsivenessoftimberownersto techniques have beenappliedtothisarea of the privatesectortoscarcity signals.Various demand andsupplyindefining theresponseof for evaluatingthefeedbacks betweentimber regions. Aggregateanalysis providesaframework supply responseofrelatively homogeneous of aggregation,buthasfocused mainlyonthe oftimbersupply atvariouslevels the structure E The econometric harvest choiceliteraturealso The econometricharvest choicemodelsprovidedirectinsights Harvest conomists alsostudythebehaviorof timber markets,muchresearchhasaddressed production ataggregatelevels.Inthecaseof investigation. As with harvest choice modeling, spite of the limitations implicit in any attempt to the discussion may be split into two parts dealing fully simulate market interactions and short-run with normative and positive approaches. behavior, they provided an early mechanism for exploration of the potential welfare implications of NORMATIVE TIMBER SUPPLY MODELS various management and policy strategies. These he original applications of normative models studies, therefore, framed a set of questions that to timber supply were simply aggregations would eventually be addressed by the use of T of normative harvest choice models. They increasingly sophisticated analysis. defined the optimal rotation for each quality class Extensions of this mechanistic or engineering of forests for a given price and then summed the approach, especially using linear programming, average annual harvest implied for each forest expanded their usefulness. Dynamic adjustment class to define total harvest. By solving the processes can be modeled to address short-run problem for a large number of prices, the responses. Quadratic programming can be used aggregate supply relationship could be defined. to simulate the interaction of supply and demand 295 Such analyses were constructed for the State of (Greber and Wisdom 1985, Samuelson 1952). Georgia by Montgomery and others (1975), for Entropy constraints can be used to simulate the east Texas by Hickman and Jackson (1981), and variability of observed market responses (Sallnas for Louisiana by Hotvedt and Thomas (1986). This and Eriksson 1989). The strength of this modeling approach implicitly models the supply that would approach is its rich supply specification, which flow when each forest class has achieved a uniform allows for analysis of the economic and welfare 24. Chapter age distribution between zero and its optimal implications of new technologies and new or harvest age (the forester’s “normal” forest), hypothetical policy instruments (Wear 2003). an outcome that could result in a long-run static equilibrium for the given price. Accordingly, this POSITIVE TIMBER MARKET ANALYSIS approach defines only a long-run supply, because ositive analysis of timber markets departs it does not explicitly address the existing age from normative models’ focus on supply Research Timber Market structure of forests. This approach can provide potential to address expected supply insights into the maximum potential timber P responses. Positive models of timber supply output by modeling the output consequences implicitly link the biological model of timber of strict adherence by landowners to maximum production to a behavioral model of harvest choice profit objectives. and are developed by applying statistical methods Normative models can, however, provide an to observed behavior. Their strength is the extremely rich supply specification and, as shown calibration to observed behavior, while the by Hyde (1980) and Jackson (1980), can provide challenges of this modeling approach have been a tractable approach to examining the market statistical methodologies and access to adequate consequences of various forest sector policies; data. Methodological concerns have largely been for example, public land management strategies resolved; i.e., through the development of and timber taxes. The detailed supply specification simultaneous equation and other estimation also allows for analysis of market effects of techniques and improvements in computational technological or environmental changes. power that allows their application. Data Normative models can also be implemented to availability and quality can still stand between address conversion of land from forest use to theoretical development and application. nonforest uses and vice versa. These strengths There are two core motivations for estimating derive from the explicit linkage between individual positive timber market models. One is to test behavior and aggregate outcomes, which hypotheses regarding the structure and function can account for heterogeneous forests and of timber markets and the effects of forest policies. forest owners. For example, such models provided the first Normative supply models provided an empirical tests for simple price responsiveness of important and explicit bridge from stand-level timber supply, i.e., that forest owners harvest analysis to market-level assessment. They more timber when prices rise. More sophisticated provided the first economically grounded approaches have permitted more refined testing estimates of timber supply and credible measures which addresses increasingly refined hypotheses of maximum supply potential for a region; Vaux regarding investment response, policy effects, (1954) is credited with the first application. In market structure, and market extent. Southern Forest Science: 296 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic timber market forecastingmodels.Timber fordeveloping the centralbehavioralconstruct on timbersupply. characterized theimplications ofjointproduction timber supply. PrestemonandWear (2000)further of thestructure products mayplayindetermining part thatthejointproductionofdifferenttimber significantly, thisstudyclarifiedtheimportant as ownersjointlyproducebothgoodsand,more to beaweakcomplementpulpwoodsupply in theregion.Newmanfoundsolidwoodtimber substitution possibilitiesbystumpageproducers in theSouth.Thisallowedfordelineationof pulpwoodandsolidwoodmarkets the southern timber demandandsupplyequationstomodel He usedaprofit-maximizationapproachtoderive for differentproductsintheSouthconcurrently. woodproductssectorinNorthCarolina. softwood) and demandmodeltothetotal(hardwood Daniels andHyde(1986)appliedaregionalsupply supply functionsfortwosubregionsoftheSouth. sawtimber Haynes (1980)specifiedsouthern timber marketanalysisforRPA, Adams and by subsequentresearch.Aspartoftheirnational elasticity oftimbersupply)thatwereaddressed of thesupplyresponse(quantifiedbyprice raised asetofquestionsregardingthemagnitude Northwest fortheperiod1947to1967.Hisstudy and lumbermarketsfortheSouthPacific Robinson (1974)examinedregionalstumpage positive analysisofaggregatetimbermarkets. component. McKillop(1967)providedtheinitial market markets orcontainedasouthern and demand. Forest toassessfuturetimbersupply Service Act (RPA) of1974explicitlyrequiredthe and RangelandRenewableResourcesPlanning required timberpriceforecasts,andtheForest planning regulationsdevelopedinthelate1970s forest management.Inaddition,national for theencouragementofoptimalinvestmentin condition of futureprices,wasseenasanecessary includingforecasts in theSouth.Priceinformation, underinvestment byNIPFlandowners,especially about at atimewhentherewasmuchconcern of positivemarketmodelsinthe1970stookplace quantities andtimberprices.Initialdevelopments private plannersneedforecastsofbothharvest develop forecastsofmarketactivity. Publicand motivation forthisareaofresearchhasbeento These positivetimbermarket modelsprovide Newman (1987)wasthefirsttomodelmarkets timber Several studiesfocusedonsouthern The second,andperhapsthemorecompelling, and Holmes2000) definingasetofquestions others 2003,Nagubadiand others 2001,Prestemon market integrationhypotheses (Binghamand stumpage marketshavenot generallysupported and Wear 1998,Uriand Boyd 1990).Studiesof regions (JungandDoroodian 1994,Murray supports marketintegration,evenbetweenbroad finished materialssuchaslumber)generally for materialsathigherstagesofproduction(e.g., at variousspatialgrains.Analysisofmarkets conducted forvariouslevelsofproductionand locally. Tests of“marketintegration”havebeen andshockswouldbeborne of localpolicyshifts other hand,wouldimplythattheconsequences regions. Incompletepricetransmission,onthe mill closures,etc.,arerapidlysharedacross damage,large and marketshocks,e.g.,hurricane another region,implyingthattheeffectsofpolicies in oneregiontorespondimmediatelyshocks transmission betweenmarketsallowsproduction efficiency. For example, efficient price linkages canalsobeusedtoevaluatemarket regional models.Researchonspatialprice respond attherelativelyfinespatialscalesof essential forcharacterizinghowtimbermarkets effects ofpoliciesaretransmittedacrossspaceis of oneprice.Understandinghowshocksandthe separated markets;ineffect,thisteststhelaw of marketsandthelinkagesbetweenspatially through the1990sinvolvedtestingextent and Abt2002). have beenusedforthiswork(e.g.,Prestemon South, modelsdevelopedbyAbtandothers(2000) anchored bytimbermarketforecasts.Inthe ornationalmodels,islikewise by international of spatialspecificitythanisgenerallyprovided Regional analysis,whichdemandsahigherdegree tradescenarios. programs andinternational forest sectorpoliciesincludingcost-share been usedtosimulatetheimpactsofvarious RPA (e.g.,Adams andHaynes1996)has timber marketassessmentsconductedforthe Haynes (1980)isstillthecenterpieceofnational production. ThemodeldevelopedbyAdams and policy approachestoorimplicationsofforest critical rolesinanticipatingchangeanddiscussing change andtimberinvestmentbehavior. timber growth,aswellmodelsoflanduse and timberdemandtomechanisticmodelsof by linkingempiricalestimatesofsupplyresponse empirical andsimulationapproaches,constructed forecasting modelsaregenerallyhybridsofboth An importantareaofresearchthatdeveloped Timber marketforecastingmodelshaveplayed regarding not only the structure of stumpage (2002) also use the forest inventory and analysis markets, but also the linkages between markets inventory to model supply responses from at various stages in the production chain. partitions of the inventory defined by ownership, location, and quality. Both approaches provide ONGOING INITIATIVES promise for building spatial, ownership, and imber market research continues to address productivity detail into market forecasting models. questions regarding the current and future Another aspect of understanding the T use and conditions of southern forests. spatial structure of timber markets is a more However, these questions have shifted away from comprehensive understanding of individual choices core behavioral questions and aggregate outcomes regarding uses of forest land. This requires and toward understanding the spatial structure addressing the linkages among all interrelated and ecological implications of timber market decisions regarding land and resources, including activities. The integration and cointegration land use, investment, and harvest choices. A line of research continues to investigate the better understanding of the influence of landowner 297 communication of prices between subregions of characteristics on management choices is also the South, exploring the spatial extent of markets needed. This would be required, for example, for various products. In addition, research is to forecast how changing demographics could beginning to model the supply response of influence the area of forest as well as the supply private landowners in spatially explicit fashion. of timber from forests. For example, the Southern

Increased spatial definition is required to Forest Resource Assessment describes a future 24. Chapter address questions regarding the effects of forest in which the area of pine plantations will rapidly uses on ecological and environmental conditions. expand southwide (Prestemon and Abt 2002). Increasingly, concerns are being raised regarding But as the South becomes more populated, the so- the effects of timber market activity on the called accessibility question regarding timber structure of forested ecosystems and on the ability inventories, i.e., defining how much inventory would be accessible to timber harvesting in of these systems to sustain ecological integrity and Research Timber Market a variety of benefits beyond timber products (Wear the future, becomes more important. Newman and Greis 2002). A key concern with respect to and Wear (1993) modeled timber supply and the ecological structure of southern forests is the investment in a common analytical framework. extent, location, and management intensity of pine However, while several investigators have studied plantations. These are determined as the outcomes land use, investment, and harvesting separately, of investment decisions by private landowners. none have yet linked all three into a common Clearly, the answers to these types of questions analysis to address the accessibility question. require insights into where, within the South, production and investment will respond to CONCLUSIONS expanding demands for southern timber. orest economics research often addresses issues at the core of forest policy debates, Spatially refined forecasting requires aggregate and it has had a strong influence on policy models with the spatial and production detail F rhetoric, perspectives, and, at least indirectly, used to construct normative supply models and policy outcomes. Research on the function and individual choice models in the past. Research structure of timber markets, especially in the into supply responses at finer scales has begun South, has clearly illustrated that the private to explicitly bridge from the findings of individual sector can generate an orderly market for a choice models to the implications at regional commodity (timber) with a long production period. levels. The key to this research is linking harvest Investment responses to scarcity signals in the behavior to supply responses through a forest South demonstrate that timber capital is viewed inventory. Prestemon and Wear (2000) accomplish as a reasonably liquid asset and that market this by modeling harvest choices for individual failure with respect to intertemporal allocation inventory plots, based on a general optimal does not hold. In an interesting reversal of harvest choice framework, and then estimating rhetoric, it appears clear now that timber supply impacts by applying a harvest probability production from public forests—more strongly to the area expansion factor of each plot; this link influenced by policy shifts and administrative between a behavioral model and the area frame process—is much less reliable or stable than structure of an inventory was first developed by private timber supply. Hardie and Parks (1991). Pattanayak and others Southern Forest Science: 298 Past, Present, and Future Socioeconomic ACKNOWLEDGMENTS benefits inthefuture. of forests,theirfunctions,andderivative understanding oftheultimatesustainability timber marketsoperateisrequiredforafull urgent, andimprovedunderstandingofhow are concerns timber marketresearch.Current to animprovedunderstandingderivedfrom markets haveevolvedpartiallyinresponse isanexception. timbermarketstructure southern (1995)analysisof underdeveloped—Murray’s presence andeffectsofmarketpowerisgenerally combinations ofthesefactors.Researchintothe riskperspectives,or constraints, taxstructure, investmentissuboptimalduetocapital observed choices hasnotyetfullyaddressedwhether regard. Researchintoindividuallandowner inthis integration studiesraisesomeconcerns markets, findingsofinefficiencyderivedfrom welfare costsonconsumers.Inthecaseoftimber However, inefficiencies canimposesubstantive competitivecase. similar totheperfectly exhibit aggregatebehaviorthatisqualitatively markets thatarenotcompletelycompetitivecan research intoindustrialorganizationshowsthat an indicationofafullyefficientmarket.Indeed, presence ofanorderlyprivatetimbermarketas derivedfromforests. desired goodsandservices sustainability thataddressestheprovisionofall one ofthekeystounderstandingoverallforest private sectorwillorganizetimberproductionis function inthefuture.Understandinghow and resources willinfluenceecosystemstructure human occupationandutilizationofland ofunderstandinghow the South.Thisiscrux offorestswithin reshape theextentandstructure in attemptstopredicthowmarketactivitywill tounderstandinghowthesemarketswork shifted have beenanswered.Theemphasishasnow to provideasustainableleveloftimberharvests whether ornotprivatetimbermarketswillwork and withPeter Parks (Wear andParks 1994). W Policy timber regardingsouthern concerns Researchers shouldnot,however, mistakethe regarding The publicandpolicyconcerns ear’s approach tothetopicofthischapter ear’s David Newman(NewmanandWear 1990) reflects explorationsofsimilartopicswith Gong, P Forboseh, P Faustmann, ofthevalue Martin.1849.Onthedetermination Dennis, D.F. decision 1990.Aprobitanalysis oftheharvest Daniels, B.;Hyde,W.F. 1986.Estimationofsupplyanddemand Conner, R.C.;Hartsell,A.J.2002.Forest areaandconditions. Clarke, H.R.;Reed,W.J. 1989.Thetree-cuttingproblemina with Brazee, R.;Mendelsohn,R.1988.Timberharvesting Binkley, C.S.1981.Timbersupplyfromnonindustrialforests. Bingham, M.;Prestemon,J.P Berck, P J.;Morse,C.1963.Scarcityandgrowth:theeconomics Barnett, Adams, D.M.;Haynes,R.W.; Dutrow, G.F. [andothers].1982. Adams, D.M.;Haynes.R.W. timber 1980.The1980softwood Adams, D.;Haynes,R.1996.The1993timberassessment Abt, R.C.;Cubbage,F.W.; Pacheco, G.2000.Southernforest LITERATURE CITED 5: 413–439. ofForestautoregressive priceprocess.Journal Economics. prices. Forest Science.42(1):58–66. for multiproductstandmanagementwithuncertainfuture Institute. 54p. discounted cashflow. Pap. 42.Oxford,England:Oxford In: Gane,M.,ed.MartinFaustmann andtheevolutionof which forestlandandimmaturestandspossessforforestry. Environmental EconomicsandManagement.18:176–187. of using pooledtimeseriesandcross-sectionaldata.Journal Management. 14:59–67. elasticities forNorthCarolinatimber. Forest Ecology and ResearchStation:357–402. Southern NC: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Service, resource assessment.Gen.Tech. Rep.SRS–53.Asheville, In: Wear, DavidN.;Greis,JohnG.,eds.Southernforest ofEconomicDynamicsandControl.13:565–595. 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8(3): 199–223. Biodiversity Southern Forest Science: 302 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity Natural SouthernYellow PineForests Population Growth andtheDeclineof Chapter 29. over Large Spatial andTemporal 335 Scales...... Monitoring Tree SpeciesDiversity Chapter 28. to Forest Management: AReview...... 319 Amphibians andReptiles Chapter 27. as aMeasure 307 of Forest ...... Sustainability. Population Viability Chapter 26. Biodiversity Chapter 25.

Responses of Southeastern

n otenFrss ...... 303 ...... and SouthernForests...... 347 ...... Chapter 25. Biodiversity and Southern Forests

Eric T. Linder1 Gordon (2001) provides an excellent overview of some of the key issues related to forest management and its effects on biodiversity. Gordon highlights four important iological diversity encompasses all levels issues: (1) some details about species dependency of natural variation and includes molecular, in relation to southern forests, (2) the history B genetic, and species levels. All of these of forestry in the South and its implications for 303 factors contribute to diversity accumulated at diversity, (3) what changes have recently occurred the landscape scale. However, biodiversity is not in forestry, and (4) what lies ahead in the next equally dispersed across the landscape, but rather century. Furthermore, scientists continue to clustered in pockets. The Southeastern United discuss the relative merits of an intensive States supports several biodiversity hotspots production-based or conservation-based approach including the Southern Appalachians, the for future forestry. Agricultural forestry seeks Panhandle of Florida and Alabama, and the to simplify the landscape in terms of structure, Everglades. As landscapes continue to be modified pattern, and product. The benefit of this approach by habitat fragmentation, loss, degradation, and is the intense use of smaller plots of land. The conversion, many species cannot adapt and will drawback is the reduction of biodiversity in and eventually be extirpated. While the Southeast around those managed stands. Contrast this with remains relatively forested, much of the region’s the conservation-based approach, which focuses current forest exists as tree plantations. Some on maintaining a complex landscape and supports plantations have replaced agricultural land and a greater diversity of species. Gordon provides constitute additional habitat for many forest examples of each approach and concludes that we species. Other plantations have been created need to utilize both approaches in the next century from natural forested systems, and this kind while further investigating how to balance them. of conversion has likely resulted in a less diverse and structurally simplified landscape— Rather than focus on current research issues, one that is less beneficial to most native species. Wigley and others (2001) provide a historical Additionally, changes in the frequency and perspective on how research on biodiversity, and source of disturbance have severe implications particularly wildlife diversity, has evolved in the for many southeastern ecosystems. For example, Southeast. Early research focused on game pine forests, pine savannas, and prairies all species, but currently includes threatened and depend on fire for their persistence, albeit at endangered species, nongame species, biodiversity, varying frequencies. landscape ecology, and sustainable forestry. Participants in this research include universities, South and Buckner (2004) argue that most Government agencies, nonprofit organizations, of the major landscape changes were a direct consultants, and industry. Several principles result of human population growth over the past have emerged from this research: stand structure 200 years. During that period, the population is important; larger spatial scales need to be of the area that is now the United States grew considered; habitat associations may be complex from 6 million to the present estimate of 275 but must be understood; landscape diversity million. Fire and field abandonment have helped can increase biodiversity; abiotic factors, e.g., maintain stands of yellow pine. However, current disturbance and site quality, can have profound silvicultural practices and social attitudes toward influences on biodiversity; and silvicultural fire have resulted in a 65-percent reduction in treatments can be used to enhance habitat quality natural yellow pine stands in the Southeast. for a variety of species. Wigley and others suggest Unfortunately, present trends suggest that that future research needs to continue to conservation of such stands, and species assoc- iated with them, will be difficult if silvicultural practices and public attitudes do not change. 1 Assistant Professor, Mississippi State University, Department of Biological Sciences, Mississippi State, MS 39762. Southern Forest Science: 304 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity techniques formeetingbiologicalobjectives. also needtoproposeaffordableandpractical on managedforests,butthatresearchers issues,especially investigate wildlife-forestry 60-year period. Thisapproachcouldbeapplied to natural disturbances,at10-year incrementsovera and based ondifferentlevelsof timberharvesting study, theygeneratedfivedifferentvirtualforests, and projectvirtualforestsin thefuture.Inthis type, Linderandotherswere abletogenerate such aselevation.Byincludingforestageand the physicalcharacteristicsofareainquestion, age, foresttype,andasuiteofmeasurements variables includedstand while theexplanatory was presenceorabsenceofthetargetspecies, the extentofstudyarea.Theresponsevariable usingwidelyavailabledatathatcover constructed conduct spatiallyexplicitanalyses.Modelswere System,whichmakesitpossibleto Information inaGeographic These modelsareconstructed relatively largespatialscales,e.g.,nationalforests. (PVA) over toassess managementalternatives of habitat-basedpopulationviabilityanalysis may containrareorendangeredspecies. decisions andusedtodetectassemblagesthat which canbelinkedtospecificmanagement landscape scaletoidentifyspecificlandunits, species. Thisapproachcanbeusedatthe system, eachwithauniqueassemblageofplant variables, theyidentifysevenlandtypesinthis andsoil a combinationofvegetation,landform, loamhillsofsouthAlabama.Using in thesouthern of multivariatetechniquestoidentifylandtypes zones, caves,mines,andbridges. of snags,large-diameterhollowtrees,riparian and managementshouldfocusonbats’use However, doesexist, some habitatinformation management forthisgrouppotentiallyhaphazard. for batsislargelylacking,andthismakes protocols andtechniques.Baselineinformation partitioning, and(5)developingeffectivesampling resource management practices,(4)determining effectsof and associations,(3)determining habitatrequirement and status,(2)determining distribution should include:(1)determining 2001).Researchprioritiesforthisgroup Krusac they respondtoforestmanagement(Loeband about theecologyofmostbatspeciesandhow stressors. Unfortunately, littleisknown very are relativelyvulnerabletoanthropogenic characteristics, and duetoseverallife-history Bats ( Linder andothers(2004)proposetheuse Carter andothers(2001)describetheuse Myotis spp.)occupyauniqueniche contained species notrecordedduringsurveys. andtheseedbanksfrombothsites germinated, seed bank.Over35species and 1,000individuals the seedlingemergencetechnique toexaminethe andused She conductedvegetationsurveys stands ontheCoastalPlain ofNorthCarolina. to loblollypineplantations,andexistinglongleaf Walker (2001)examined suchsites,sinceconverted as seedbanksforotherrareorthreatenedspecies. stands mayalsobeusedbyrestorationecologists historical ecosystemconditions. managers howtorestorecommunitiesand Experiments likethisonecanbeusedtoshow the needle-fallaccumulationonforestfloor. Prescribed fireisalsobeneficialinreducing limiting theencroachmentofhardwoodsorshrubs. of maintaininglow-stockinglevelspinesand of pineneedlefall.Theirresultsshowthevalue smothering, mulching,ornutrientcyclingeffects then comparedtheseconsequencestothepotential of competitionforlight,water, andnutrients, plantations. Theyquantifiedtheconsequences inlongleafpine( understory abundance anddiversityoftheherbaceous detail howtheyexperimentallyrestoredthe ofthosespecies. aid inthepreservation species werehistoricallyadapted,whichshould compositional featuresofecosystemstowhich and structural of thisapproachistodetermine forests.Thegoal resemble thoseofcontemporary andlitterlevelsofhistoricalforests the understory forests,but historical foreststhancontemporary heterogeneity wasalsomuchmorecomplexin than nowoccurinold-growthforests.Thespatial previously thought,butwithmorelargetrees that historicalbasalareawasmuchlowerthan stand conditions.Earlyevidencesuggests historical photographs,hedelineatesreference and travelers, scientificreports,landsurveys, sources includinglumberoperationrecords, Arkansas.Usingavarietyofinformation southern Mill.) andloblollypine( it wouldbeappliedtoshortleaf( demonstrates thisapproachbyshowinghow ofbiodiversity.and theconservation He offorests conditions toaidinthereconstruction offorest using ahistoricalreconstruction management decisions,Bragg(2001)proposes impacts ofvariousmanagementstrategies. such asspeciesrichnesstoassesspotential additional speciesorusediversitymeasures Sites formerly occupiedbylongleafpine Sites formerly andEdwards(2001)explainin Harrington Rather thanusingfuturescenariostoaidin P. taeda P. palustris L.)standsin Pinus

echinata Mill.) Of the 35 species, many were weedy, but many of a complex corridor system. These assemblages were also indicative of stable longleaf communities. were consistent with those on other sites in the This study suggests that seed banks remain viable Southeast in terms of diversity and relative in highly disturbed longleaf pine communities, abundances of the groups under consideration offering one more tool for the restoration ecologist. (anurans > salamanders > reptiles > turtles). Despite the apparent consistency between sites, Experiments may provide additional small differences in abundance were found, which insight into how forest management can affect could lead to misleading conclusions without biodiversity. For example, Rosson and Amundsen pretreatment sampling. (2004) examined the impact of harvest disturbance on tree species diversity at the landscape scale. Haskell and others (2001) examined how Timber harvesting has been a major disturbance the avian community varied across habitats on in the South over the past century, and with recent the Cumberland Plateau in southern Tennessee. reductions in harvesting in other regions of the Species richness was consistently lower in loblolly country, more pressure has been put on southern pine plantations than in oak-hickory (Quercus 305 forests. Rosson and Amundsen examined data spp.-Carya spp.) forests, and abundance was lower collected in Mississippi by the Forest Inventory in most plantations. Plantations had fewer cavity- and Analysis Research Work Unit of the U.S. and tree-nesting species, and fewer Neotropical Department of Agriculture Forest Service. Tree migrants, than did oak-hickory forests. Thinned species richness in plots where no harvesting forests seemed to have higher avian species occurred was compared with tree species richness richness, evenness, and abundance than oak- 25. Chapter

for harvested and unharvested plots combined. hickory forests had. Haskell and others also Biodiversity Tree species richness decreased by 11 percent studied how avian communities change with from 1977 to 1994 for all plots combined, but respect to human development. They found it increased by 44 percent from 1967 to 1994 that residential and rural areas exhibited higher on the plots that were not harvested. Other species richness, evenness, beta diversity, and factors have certainly contributed to the decline abundance than did oak-hickory forests. Using in species richness across forests in the South, Partners in Flight priority scores, which were but harvesting is suggested to be a significant assigned to each species, they quantified and factor in this study. ranked the conservation value of each habitat type considered. This approach appears to Southeastern forests house a rich herpetofauna, support results from direct comparisons, yielding but declines in populations of many species have a conservation ranking (from greatest to least) prompted ecologists to examine how management of residential-rural areas, thinned forests, oak- activities may be affecting this group (Russell and hickory forests, and pine plantations. others 2004). Lanham and others (2001) studied the herpetofauna in recently harvested gaps in Many habitats in the Southeast—and in bottomland hardwood forests in South Carolina. other parts of the world—are threatened by Specifically, they compared herpetofaunal use degradation, fragmentation, conversion, invasion of ephemeral, skidder-created ponds with use by nonnatives, loss, and other problems. If recent of natural depressional wetlands. Salamanders demographic trends continue, more stress appeared to be affected negatively by skidder will be placed on the habitats and biodiversity trails and gap creation. Response of frogs was of the Southeast. Although there is interest in mixed, with hylid abundance greater in gaps afforestation (conversion of nonforest land to but Rana spp., Nerodia spp., Chelydra sp., and forest), application of afforestation in the areas Eurycea sp. more abundant in skidder-created where this is most economically suitable may ponds. Species diversity also appeared to increase actually reduce regional biodiversity (Matthews along skidder trails. Results suggest that overall and others 2002). Consequently, it is likely that abundance did not differ between treatments, pressure on our forest resources will continue but community composition may be changed if to mount. The scientific community has a habitat suitability for some species is changed. responsibility to provide landowners and the public with information that help us to meet demands on Baughman and Guynn (2001) studied our natural resources while maintaining native herpetofauna assemblages in intensively managed biodiversity. The creation and refinement of tools loblolly pine plantations in South Carolina. The used by ecologists, e.g., PVA gap analysis, and goal of this study was to assess the baseline is one such contribution. Furthermore, because herpetofauna assemblages before installation many of the threats to biodiversity involve Southern Forest Science: 306 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity Lanham, J.D.;Cromer, R.B.;Hanlin,H.H.2001.Functional Haskell, D.G.;Evans,J.P T.B.;Harrington, and Edwards,M.B.2001.Overstory Gordon, D.2001.Impactsofforestmanagementonbiodiversity. Carter, R.E.;MacKenzie, M.D.;Gjerstad,D.H.2001. biologicaldiversitythrough Bragg, D.2001.Conserving Baughman, W.M.; Guynn,D.C.,Jr. 2001.Herpetofauna LITERATURE CITED private landowners,andpubliclandmanagers. organizations, universities, nongovernmental tohavecooperationbetween will benecessary ecosystem processesorlargespatialscales,it [Date accessed:July20,2004]. conference. http://www.southernforestscience.net/. forestscience J.B., eds.Proceedingsofthesouthern In: Johnsen,K.H.;Rauscher, M.;Hubbard,W.G.; Jordin, bottomlandhardwoodforest. wetlandsinasouthern rut gapsand skidder- response ofherpetofaunatoharvested July 20,2004]. www.southernforestscience.net/. [Dateaccessed: forestscienceconference.http:// of thesouthern M.; Hubbard,W.G.; Jordin,J.B.,eds.Proceedings Cumberland Plateau.In:Johnsen,K.H.;Rauscher, a casestudyofbirdsandsalamandersonthesouthern 2001. Vertebrate communitiesinachanginglandscape: July 20,2004]. http://www.southernforestscience.net/. [Dateaccessed: forestscienceconference. Proceedings ofthesouthern K.H.; Rauscher, M.;Hubbard,W.G.; Jordin,J.B.,eds. implications forcommunityrestoration.In:Johnsen, interactionsinlongleafpineplantations: understory accessed: July20,2004]. conference. http://www.southernforestscience.net/. [Date forestscience J.B., eds.Proceedingsofthesouthern In: Johnsen,K.H.;Rauscher, M.;Hubbard,W.G.; Jordin, [Date accessed:July20,2004]. science conference.http://www.southernforestscience.net/. W.G.; forest Jordin,J.B.,eds.Proceedingsofthe southern south Alabama.In:Johnsen,K.H.;Rauscher, M.;Hubbard, Landscape scaleclassificationoflongleafpineecosystemsin July 20,2004]. http://www.southernforestscience.net/. [Dateaccessed: forestscienceconference. Proceedings ofthesouthern K.H.; Rauscher, M.;Hubbard,W.G.; Jordin,J.B.,eds. ofhistoricalforestconditions.In:Johnsen, reconstruction 20, 2004]. http://www.southernforestscience.net/. [Dateaccessed:July forestscienceconference. eds. 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W.G.; forest Jordin,J.B.,eds.Proceedingsofthe southern for management.In:Johnsen,K.H.;Rauscher, M.;Hubbard, ResearchStation:347–358. Southern Service, Asheville, NC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest science: past,present,andfuture.Gen.Tech. Rep.SRS–75. Rauscher, H.Michael;Johnsen,Kurt, forest eds.Southern yellowpineforests.In: the declineofnaturalsouthern 319–334. Agriculture, Forest ResearchStation: Southern Service, Gen. Tech. Rep.SRS–75. Asheville,NC:U.S.Departmentof Kurt, forestscience:past,present,andfuture. eds.Southern management: areview. In:Rauscher, H.Michael;Johnsen, amphibiansandreptilestoforest Responses ofsoutheastern ResearchStation:335–345. Southern Service, Asheville, NC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest science: past,present,andfuture.Gen.Tech. Rep.SRS–75. Rauscher, H.Michael;Johnsen,Kurt, forest eds.Southern species diversityoverlargespatialandtemporalscales.In: sequestration inforests.EcologicalEconomics.40:71–87. the impactsonbiodiversityofpolicesforcarbon July 20,2004]. http://www.southernforestscience.net/. [Dateaccessed: forestscienceconference. Proceedings ofthesouthern K.H.; Rauscher, M.;Hubbard,W.G.; Jordin,J.B.,eds. critical researchandmanagementneeds.In:Johnsen, ResearchStation:307–317. Southern NC: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Service, past, present,andfuture.Gen.Tech. Rep.SRS–75.Asheville, H. Michael;Johnsen,Kurt, forestscience: eds.Southern viability asameasureofforestsustainability. In:Rauscher, Chapter 26. Population Viability as a Measure of Forest Sustainability

Eric T. Linder, Nathan A. INTRODUCTION 1 Klaus, and David A. Buehler uring the late 1800s and early 1900s, the forests of the Southern United States Dwere overexploited and mismanaged in ways that resulted in depletion of timber resources, extensive erosion, degradation of water quality, 307 Abstract—Many forest managers work to balance and negative impacts on wildlife habitat and timber production with protection of ecological wildlife populations. The latter half of the 20th processes and other nontimber values. The century saw the emergence of new attitudes preservation of biodiversity is an important regarding land use by private and public nontimber value. When a suite of management landowners. Legislation such as the Multiple- options is being developed, it is difficult to estimate Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960 and the National quantitatively the impact of the various scenarios Forest Management Act of 1976 requires that on biodiversity. We suggest population viability national forests be managed for both timber analysis (PVA) as a tool for estimating the and nontimber values. Today, forest managers quantitative impact of landscape modifications are beginning to work to achieve ecological sustainability on both public and private lands on species. Using a habitat-based approach to (Kohm and Franklin 1997). Pursuit of ecological PVA, we examine the potential effects of five sustainability includes efforts to maintain management alternatives on the chestnut-sided ecosystem functions and processes, timber warbler (Dendroica pensylvanica), a management- production, and nontimber values. Biological indicator species, on the Cherokee National Forest diversity, or biodiversity, is an important in Tennessee. This analysis shows that population nontimber value. Biodiversity is diversity at the size is positively correlated with disturbance. genetic, species, landscape, and ecosystem level It also appears that without active management, (Noss and Cooperrider 1994). However, it can be this species, which is dependent upon early difficult to assess the success of management for successional forests, may not find enough suitable biodiversity (Botkin and Talbot 1992). Managing habitats to maintain viable populations over the for biodiversity requires the development of next 50 years. Although habitat-based PVA strategies for monitoring the flora and fauna of the area in question (Lindenmayer and others is demonstrated here for a single species, it 1999). Only a few researchers have described has been modified to assess large biota. Habitat- organized approaches to planning for biodiversity based PVA is a useful tool for those who must as an objective of multiple-use management assess the potential impact of landscape (Kuusipalo and Kangas 1994, Millar and others modification on biodiversity. 1990, Probst and Crow 1991). Management to conserve biodiversity or to avoid species extinction is generally addressed at the scale of a species geographic range, which may extend across many political boundaries, ecoregions, or even continents. Species that are widespread and abundant are generally of little management concern, although nonnatives and

1 Assistant Professor, Mississippi State University, Department of Biological Sciences, Mississippi State, MS 39762; Wildlife Biologist, Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Forsyth, GA 31029; and Professor, University of Tennessee, Department of Forestry, Wildlife, and Fisheries, Knoxville, TN 37901, respectively. Southern Forest Science: 308 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity 1986). Population persistenceissubject to persistence ofpopulations(Gilpin andSoulé examination offactorsthat canaffectthe PVA wasbroadenedtoincludeacomprehensive in PVA. In1986,theconceptualframework of populations, thismarkeda dramatic improvement of thestochasticeventscharacteristicsmall 1983). Sincethesemodelsaccountforaportion were developed(Menges1990;Shaffer1981, demographic andenvironmentalstochasticity 1974). Later, population modelsthatincorporated solely ondemographicanalyses(MillerandBotkin management ofendangeredspeciesandrelied modelsthatexaminedthe employed deterministic elsewhere (MaceandLande1991).EarlyPVA used insuchanalyseshavebeendiscussed Soulé 1987).Therelativemeritsofthecriteria period (Boyce1992,NunneyandCampbell1993, of asinglespecieswillpersistovergiventime used topredictthelikelihoodthatapopulation others 1995). habitat modelsisonesuchtool(Dunningand particularly valuable.Theuseofspatiallyexplicit tools thatassesslandscapechangecanbe are modifiedoverlargeareas.For thisreason, predict theconsequenceswhenhabitatconditions Itcanbedifficultto and prescribedburning. modify foresthabitatconditionsincludethinning the landscape.Othersilviculturalpracticesthat stand-age classesandstand-sizeacross can beenhancedbymaintainingadiversityof L.). Biodiversityinthesemanagedforests a singlespecies;e.g.,loblollypine( large (>50ha)even-agedstandsoftrees Industrial forestlands,forexample,maysupport produce profoundlydifferenthabitatconditions. scale. Differentmanagementpracticescan offoreststandsatthelandscape arrangement generally affectsthecompositionandspatial with greaterbiodiversity. Forest management diversity ofhabitattypesispositivelycorrelated 1990, Pimmandothers1988). persist, theymustbeadequatelylarge(Menges at riskofextinction.Thus,ifpopulationsareto other uncertaintiesandareconsequentlymore subject toenvironmentalstochasticityandmany populations.Smallpopulationsare preserving biodiversityisreallyamatterof preserving is smallrelativetoaspeciesglobaldistribution, since mostmanagersworkonaspatialscalethat however,species areofmanagementconcern, and Mostrare pests arenotableexceptionstothisrule. Population viabilityanalysis(PVA) hasbeen It isgenerallyacknowledgedthatagreater Pinus taeda (Morris andothers 1999). Whenthespatialscale (Morris the typeandquantityofdata underconsideration butisaffectedby is relativelystraightforward consideration, demographic modeldevelopment guarantee success. analysis, buttheuseofthismethoddoesnot can plantheiractionsinaccordancewithsuch impact onthepopulationgrowthrate.Managers birthrate,hasthegreatest e.g., juvenilesurvival, whichdemographicparameter,used todetermine others 1987,Millsand1999),whichcanbe of demographyissensitivityanalysis(Crouseand Westphal 1998).One especiallyinterestingaspect and age-specificdemographics(Beissinger models thatincludeheterogeneouslandscapes projections tospatiallyexplicit,individual-based these analyseshaverangedfromsimplepopulation PVA hasbeenconductedfordozens ofspecies,and there arerelativelyfewpopulations.Demographic when speciesabundanceisrelativelylow, and model speciesdemography. Thisusuallyoccurs summarized byBurgmanandPossingham (2000). The variousrolesplayedbyPVA havebeen and McCullough2002,Young andClarke2000). genetic, andspatiallyexplicitmodels(Beissinger toolandnowincludesdemographic, conservation power. PVA hascontinuedtoevolveasa genetic variability, matingsystem,reproductive acrosstaxaandwithcircumstances,e.g., will vary whattheMVPis,andtheseaspects determine must beconsideredwhenworkersattemptto Thomas 1990).Manyaspectsofspeciesbiology MVPs andothers1987,Henriksen1997, (Harris considerable debateaboutthecharacteristicsof can persistforagiventimeperiod.Therehasbeen individuals requiredtoconstituteapopulationthat An MVPisanestimateoftheminimumnumber andothers1987). population size(MVP)(Harris persistence istheconceptofminimumviable 1998, Ludwig 1999,Taylor 1995,White2000). 1995, Dennisandothers1991,GroomPascual Burgman andothers1993,Conroy (Akcakayaandothers1997, model performance studied parameterestimationanditsinfluenceon such processes.Anumberofresearchershave an accurateestimateofthevariationinducedby One challengeassociatedwiththeuseofPVA is individual, andotherprocesses(White2000). stochastic, demographic,temporal,spatial, variation arisingfromseveralsources,including When asinglepopulationis under The mostcommonapproachtoPVA isto One outcomeofquantifyingpopulation is sufficiently large or when multiple populations rarely addressed in PVA because of the difficulty are under consideration, a new approach may of collecting the necessary data and incorporating be useful. For example, one can include a spatial them into analyses (Boyce 1992). component in the model. This component can be In response to criticism surrounding the explicit (Lindenmayer and Possingham 1996) or use of only demographic-based PVA for land nonexplicit (Hanski and others 1996). Both of these management decisions (Harrison 1994, Taylor approaches have merits, and both are consistent 1995), researchers attempted to develop a habitat- with the use of PVA to make specific spatial based approach (Roloff and Haufler 1997, White decisions. This makes PVA an extremely valuable and others 1997). Two approaches have been conservation and management tool. However, a developed, and both are based upon concepts major drawback of spatially explicit models is that rooted in community and population ecology. it takes additional data to construct and run them. Community ecologists have developed the concept Also, the use of additional model parameters may of minimum area requirements, while population negatively impact predictability (Ruckelshaus biologists have emphasized minimum population 309 and others 1997). It is up to the modeler to decide size (Soulé 1987). Both approaches quantify the whether a more complex model, which typically habitat available in a given landscape and then represents a more biologically realistic depiction, estimate the sustainable population size. Both is preferable to a simpler model that requires less assess a landscape’s potential (the amount of time and effort to construct. suitable habitat available for the target species)

Because count data are easily collected and but differ in their assessment of the detail of 26. Chapter relatively inexpensive, they are commonly data required to conduct risk analysis. White and available to land managers. Count data can be others (1997) use general habitat relationships used to construct simple time-series models for to determine habitat suitability, while Roloff and

the projection of population estimates (e.g., Boyce Haufler (1997) use an empirically derived, spatially Viability Population and Miller 1985, Dennis and others 1991). It is explicit habitat model. Both approaches utilize important to know whether a population trajectory presence and absence data, which can be collected is based on data for a single population or for with considerably less time and effort than several populations. Because a species may be demographic data. declining in some populations while increasing The use of PVA is important in mitigating in others, it can be very helpful to incorporate the negative effects of landscape change on spatial structure into population models (Stacey biodiversity (Burgman and others 1993). Habitat and Taper 1992, White 2000). Another factor to loss and fragmentation continue to challenge be considered is the adequacy of the time span conservationists. PVA models have evaluated employed. Morris and others (1999) suggest the impacts of habitat fragmentation or loss that a minimum of 10 years be used. However, (Lindenmayer and Possingham 1994, McCarthy even when a long-term dataset, e.g., 26 years, and Lindenmayer 1999, Noon and McKelvey is employed, conclusions about population 1996), established area requirements (Goldingay persistence can become outdated quickly when and Possingham 1995), and aided in optimizing the populations change abruptly (Boyce 2001, Dennis design of nature reserves (Burgman and others and others 1991). Finally, although time-series 1993, Lindenmayer and Possingham 1994). models are useful in determining population However, PVA has limitations that should be trajectories, they offer no insight into the recognized (McCarthy and others 1996, Taylor processes driving the population decline. 1995). The most useful products of a PVA may not Another approach to PVA is to examine the be the absolute numbers or statistics generated, ecological factors associated with population but rather the relative values generated under decline or population stochasticity. Loss or various management scenarios (Boyce 1992). degradation of habitat is the most significant Relative impacts of various management threat facing species (Pimm and Gilpin 1989, scenarios have been assessed for a handful of Wilcox and Murphy 1985). Habitat loss is species (Drechsler 1998, Haig and others 1993, listed as a significant threat for 82 percent of Lindenmayer and Possingham 1996, Pfab and endangered bird species (Temple 1986). Other Witkowski 2000). In the present case study, factors that can reduce the viability of a population we use habitat-based PVA to examine the impact include predators, nonnative species, parasites, of various management scenarios on the viability and disease. However, ecological variables are of forest songbirds. Southern Forest Science: 310 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity and canopylevels. Thisapproachresults inforests diverseattheunderstory,structurally midstory, group-selection cutsthatresult inaforestthatis may predominateinthefuture. TheCNFuses to clearcutting,uneven-aged management 30 years.However, becauseofpublicopposition regeneration systemonthe CNFforthepast in area.Clearcuttinghasbeenthepreferred of relativelysmallclearcutsaveraging10ha (CNF), recenteven-agedmanagementconsists OntheCherokeeNationalForestharvesting. this casestudy:even-agedanduneven-agedtimber in habitatconditions(Newbold1996). change dramaticallyinresponsetothesechanges andcomposition. Birdcommunities structure intensity, andtypeofdisturbanceaffectforest 200 years(Smithandothers1996).Thefrequency, North Americanforestcommunitiesforthepast silviculture, hashadanimportantroleinshaping communities; anthropogenicdisturbance,e.g., the managementofhabitatforsomesongbirds. maybeaviableoptionfor that timberharvesting From amanagementperspective,thissuggests benefit fromit(Thompsonandothers1992). andthatotherspecies by timberharvesting concluded somespeciesarenegativelyimpacted Mostsuchstudieshave harvests. before andafter This isdonebyexaminingthebirdcommunity of aparticulartreatmentoncommunitystructure. and timbermanagementexaminedtheimpact study, wefocusonimpactsforestsongbirds. on avarietyofplantandanimalgroups.Inthis have examinedtheimpactofforestmanagement 1997).Manystudies (Harwood timber harvests fauna havebeencitedasreasonsforlimiting our nationalforests.Impactsonnativefloraand role oftimbermanagementinthe Forest 1997).Onecontentiousissueisthe Service land itmanages(U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture, on lawsuitsregardingproposedsalesoftimber Forest spendsover$5millionannually Service Forall partiesconcerned. example,theUSDA to resolvetheseissuescanbeexpensivefor vs.timberproduction.Attemptse.g., wilderness importance, andconflictsovervariousissues, of pastpractices,growingawarenessecosystem employed onpubliclandstodayareanoutgrowth T CASE STUDY We consideredtwosilvicultural methodsin Natural disturbancehasalwaysshapedforest Most studiesassociatedwithbirdcommunities the UnitedStates.Themanagementpractices element ofnationalenvironmentalpolicyin he managementofpubliclandsisacentral products into an estimateofthepotential to is equalto1ha ofsuitablehabitat.To convertthe model (Schroeder1983),which forthiscasestudy, habitat units(HU)inaHabitat SuitabilityIndex stand’s acreage.Theproducts aresimilartothe foreachstandbythat likelihood ofoccurrence of suitablehabitatontheCNF, wemultipliedthe ranging fromzerotoone.To estimatetheamount ofbreedingterritories likelihood ofoccurrence thatreflectedthe creating aprobabilitysurface model wasthenappliedbackontotheCNF, ofCSWAs.to predicttheoccurrence Thehabitat with a regression (PROCLOGISTIC)(SAS/STAT 1990) for ourtargetspecies.We usedstepwiselogistic METHODS associated withearlysuccessionforests. scenarios onCSWA, aspecies thatistypically used toassesstheimpactofvariousmanagement strategybest Whattimberharvesting 3. Whatistheimpactofnaturaldisturbance 2. levelsadequateto harvest Arecurrent 1. ask threebasicquestions: (CSWA), aforestsongbird.To achievethis,we chestnut-sided warbler ontheviabilityof management alternatives case studyaretoassesstheeffectsofvarious 2001, Twedt andothers2001).Thegoalsofthis (Annand andThompson1997,Kingothers evaluated itspotentialasamanagementtool approach and,consequently, fewstudieshave isarelativelyrecentsilvicultural harvesting 1997, Thompson1993).However, uneven-aged of old-growthforests(AnnandandThompson attributessimilartothose that havestructural resolution of30m System, andouranalysiswasconductedatapixel databases existinaGeographicInformation site index,andelevation(table26.1).Both included foresttype,conditionclass,standage, Appalachian Assessmentdatabase.Variables Conditions (CISC)databaseandtheSouthern Forest ofStand ContinuousInventory Service’s 1996). Habitatvariableswerederivedfromthe census methodswereemployed(Hamelandothers P We showhowahabitat-basedPVA canbe on theCNF? promotes theviabilityofCSWA in providinghabitatfortheCSWA? support viablepopulationsofCSWAs? construct ahabitatmodel.Standardizedavian construct the 1992–96breedingseasonswereusedto oint-count datacollectedintheCNFduring P <0.10leveltobuildahabitatmodel 2 , whichisascaleappropriate (Dendroica pensylvanica) Table 26.1—Habitat variables and descriptions used to construct chestnut-sided warbler model

Habitat variable Description Range

Age (years) Current age of stand 0 – 172

Forest type Yellow pine Yellow pine forest 0 – 1 White pine-hemlock White pine or hemlock forest 0 – 1 Cove hardwood Cove hardwood forest 0 – 1 Northern hardwood Northern hardwood forest 0 – 1 Mixed hardwood-pine Mixed hardwood and pine forests 0 – 1 Oak-hickory Oak-hickory forest 0 – 1 311

Stand-condition class Seed Seedling-sapling 0 – 1 Pole Poletimber 0 – 1 Saw Sawtimber 0 – 1 Chapter 26. Chapter Site index (feet) Site index 1 Site potential, dominant 4 – 130 tree height in 50 years Site index 2 Site index < 70 0 – 1 Site index 3 70 < site index < 80 0 – 1 Viability Population Site index 4 80 < site index < 110 0 – 1

Elevation (m) Elevation 1 Elevation 231 – 1530 Elevation 2 Elevation < 475 0 – 1 Elevation 3 475 < elevation < 872 0 – 1 Elevation 4 Elevation > 872 0 – 1 support a given breeding population, we summed intensities and harvesting methods were based the products across the study area and multiplied on past harvesting practices and expert opinion the total by the average breeding density of CSWA of the district silviculturists. Since our target from Hamel (1992). We used a minimum viable species is associated with early succession habitat, population size of 250 breeding pairs, a very we also considered the rate at which forests were optimistic estimate, as the critical threshold restoring themselves naturally. Consequently, we below which the species would not persist. To modeled five natural disturbances on the basis avoid overestimation of available habitat on the of existing literature and historical averages for strength of marginal probabilities of occurrence, this region. Natural disturbances included fire, we stipulated that habitat would not be considered ice, wind, southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus suitable where the probability of occurrence was frontalis Zimmermann), and hemlock woolly < 75 percent. Habitat patches that were less than adelgid (Adelges tsugae Annand). Each was one territory in size were not considered suitable. assigned randomly to forest stands that could be affected by the type of disturbance; e.g., southern In this exercise, we projected figures from pine beetle did not impact northern hardwood CISC databases 60 years into the future. This was stands. For each simulation, virtual forests were accomplished by using a SAS-based forest model updated every 10 years. to simulate even-aged and uneven-aged timber harvests. The management alternatives developed Five scenarios were simulated, each with a varied with forest type, total area harvested per different intensity of disturbance: no timber 10-year interval, relative proportion of even-aged harvesting or natural disturbance, no harvesting to uneven-aged harvesting (area basis), group size, but natural disturbance, harvesting at expected and intensity of harvest. Specific variation of level (based on recent average harvests on the Southern Forest Science: 312 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity hickory, areaofdisturbanceby iceandorwind, inoak- importance) areaofeven-aged harvesting of disturbance,including(in orderofdescending habitat waspositivelyassociated withmosttypes HUs), andhemlock-whitepine (34HUs).CSWA mixed pine-hardwood(113 HUs), yellowpine(48 (520HUs), (662 HUs),followedbyoak-hickory providing thegreatestbreedingopportunities hardwoods across thelandscape,withnorthern forests atelevations>1000m. habitatconsistedofyoungproductive preferred at indicated thatthefitofdatawasacceptable goodness-of-fit test(HosmerandLemeshow1989) which isrelativelyhigh.TheHosmer-Lemeshow classification percentage(concordance)was95.6, max-rescaled R-square)was0.6484.Thecorrect (table 26.1).Variation explained(indicatedby condition class,siteindex,andseveralforesttypes associations withelevation,seedlingand/orsapling RESULTS acrossforesttypes. of managementalternatives approach wasalsousedtocomparetheinfluence the relativeabundanceofeachforesttype.This the importanceofeachvariableindependent GLM) (SAS1990).Sensitivityanalysisquantified using thegenerallinearmodelprocedure(PROC HUs toeachhabitatvariablewasthentested of iterationsnecessary. Theresponse oftotal variable settings,andthisreducedthenumber (SAS 1990)wasusedtoidentifyasubsetof level.TheOPTEXprocedure below eachharvest levelandatlevels30percentabove harvest systematic manipulationofinputvariablesateach repeatedly,Each forestsimulationwasrun with habitat variablestotesttheirrelativeimportance. disturbance scenarioscouldbecomparedeasily. andsothatthehabitatpotentialsfor interval of habitatunitswascalculatedforeach10-year of eachhabitatpatchforsimulation.Number Research Institute1996),wecalculatedthearea Analyst extension(EnvironmentalSystems disturbance rates.UsingtheArcView Spatial management practicescomparedtonatural and allowedustoassesstheimpactofvarious scenarios offeredarangeofdisturbanceintensities at300-percentexpectedlevels.These harvesting and CNF), 200percentofexpectedharvest, T P Characteristics ofhigh-qualityhabitatvaried We alsoconductedsensitivityanalysisonthe >0.05.TheCSWA modelindicated that points. TheCSWA modelincludedpositive on14percentofcensus study area,occurring he CSWA isrelativelyuncommoninour alternatives over a60-year timehorizon. on theCherokee National Forest underfive management Figure 26.1—Habitat potential for thechestnut-sided warbler Breeding pairs (number) inthelatteryearsofthis simulation. harvesting areasandalackofstands suitablefor harvested resulted frommaturationoftreesinthepreviously last twodecades.Thedeclineinsuitablehabitat the firstthreedecadesanddeclinedover number ofHUsavailableincreaseddramatically scenario,the 250). Inthe300-percentharvesting adequate habitattoensureviability(MVP= disturbance scenariosconsideredprovided withdisturbance(fig.26.1).Thusall correlated pairs in2053,withsuitablehabitatbeingpositively landscapes couldsupportfrom250to790breeding Based onthevariousdisturbancescenarios, could supportapproximately416breedingpairs. ha (Hamel1992),theinitiallandscapein1993 breeding densityof11.9pairsper40 percent) from1993to2053.Basedonanaverage of suitableCSWA habitatincreasedslightly(8 that wereofmuchimportance,however. disturbance wastheonlynaturaldisturbances in generatingsuitablehabitat.Iceand/orwind of disturbance wereextremelyimportant forms forest age.Sensitivityanalysisindicatedthatmost with habitatavailabilitywastheassociation surprisingly, thestrongestnegativeassociation related tohabitatavailabilityforCSWA. Not beetle, andhemlockwoollyadelgidwerenot pine hardwoods. Disturbancebyfire,southern inmixedpine- and areaofeven-agedharvesting inoak-hickory,area ofuneven-agedharvesting incovehardwoods, area ofeven-agedharvesting 1,000 1,200 At expected levels of harvesting, theamount At expectedlevelsofharvesting, 600 800 200 400 1993 0321 032033 2023 2013 2003 Expected cut 200 percentcut 300 percentcut Year No disturbance No cut 032053 2043 DISCUSSION effects of several different landscape isturbance is vital to the maintenance of configurations. Researchers have developed habitat for CSWA. However, sensitivity decisionmaking tools for assessing scenario Danalysis suggests that natural disturbance outcomes in studies that yield results that are contributes relatively little to the creation of less clear (Burgman 2000, Drechsler 2000). habitat suitable for CSWA on the CNF. If viable Several potentially conflicting ecological, populations of CSWA are to be maintained, it may social, and economic factors must be accounted be necessary to create additional suitable habitat for when planners attempt to formulate the best by means of active management. land use plan for a tract of land. Various pressures Only habitat variables found in the CISC are causing researchers, managers, and the database were employed in this study. The virtual general public to devote more attention to the forests regenerated by timber harvesting were problem of preserving biodiversity (Kuusipalo very similar, in terms of CISC variables, to forests and Kangas 1994, Lindenmayer and others 1999). regenerated by natural disturbance. For example, The preservation of biodiversity implies the 313 simulated clearcuts and wildfires reset condition maintenance of viable populations of all species class and age to identical values. In actual systems, deemed desirable. While PVA is a useful disturbances of these types are likely to produce management tool, it is not possible to conduct dissimilar biological results. Schulte and Niemi intensive analyses for each species within the (1998) found that key habitat characteristics of area of interest. It may be necessary to conduct logged and burned sites differed significantly, and analyses only for indicator species. The use 26. Chapter that this resulted in avian richness and abundance. of indicator species is meant to make it possible Similarly, there were structural differences to estimate the responses of multiple species between forests that had been disturbed by to a variety of alternatives without addressing tornadoes and those that had been clearcut the requirements of each species individually. The Viability Population (Newbold 1996). Again there were differences appropriateness, advantages, and disadvantages of in avian community composition, but diversity using indicator species in planning for sustainable did not vary with source of disturbance in this forestry has been addressed elsewhere instance. Natural disturbance should be (Lindenmayer and others 1999). incorporated into habitat models systems There are several criticisms of demographic- in which it can play a significant role. based PVAs (Harrison 1994, Taylor 1995). Habitat for CSWA can easily be created However, a recent retrospective analysis of the through forest management. It is possible predictive accuracy of PVAs clearly demonstrated to manage for species associated with late- their value as a management tool (Brook and successional forest by allowing forest stands others 2000). One study that made use of spatially to age, but it may take decades for high-quality, explicit models and specific management plans was late-successional habitat to develop. It may be conducted by Liu and others (1995) who examined necessary to use silvicultural treatments to the potential effects of several management promote development of structural characteristics, practices on Bachman’s sparrow (Aimophila e.g., snags, cavities, or den trees, important to aestivalis). This species breeds in open, mature species dependent on this habitat. The challenge pine stands, which are also being managed for managers is to provide the balance of habitat for the endangered red-cockaded woodpecker types, seral stages, and landscape configurations [Picoides borealis (Vieillot)]. In their analysis, that is most suitable for the desired diversity Liu and others (1995) considered several aspects of species. of management, including thinning, burning, and harvesting. Results indicated that certain The results of this particular study are harvesting practices, such as clustered harvesting, relatively clear with respect to CSWAs, as the produced a landscape more favorable to juvenile management alternatives evaluated were distinct dispersal and subsequent survival. Age-specific and only the intensity of harvesting varied among thinning and burning of some stands made them simulations. Because the approach we employed suitable as habitat at an earlier age. One of the is spatially explicit, we could have compared important findings of this study is that Bachman’s the relative effects of several scenarios while sparrow and red-cockaded woodpecker apparently maintaining consistent harvest volume. A spatially require very different management, although both explicit approach can also be used to assess the species are associated with mature pine stands. Southern Forest Science: 314 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity generated, with varying amountsofeachhabitat generated, withvarying type. Sixpossiblefuturelandscapes were the quantityofeachhabitat then todetermine area requirementsofeachindividual speciesand potential impactonbiodiversityweretoestimate the restrictions. Thefirststepsindetermining subject tocontrolbycounty-levelzoning largely socioeconomicinoriginandthuspartly in aparticularcounty. Landscapechangeswere vertebrates of landscapechangeforallterrestrial assessment; theyattemptedtoquantifytherisk (1997) developedahabitat-basedapproachtorisk of mostthebiotainquestion.Whiteandothers thus capturingthediverseecologicalrequirements is todevelopthesemodelsforasuiteofspecies, the useofasinglenonindicatorspecies.Oneoption associatedwith some, butnotall,oftheconcerns Using somesortofindicatorspeciesmayalleviate is theyareusuallydevelopedforasinglespecies. possum. forLeadbeater’s satisfactory more andsmallerhabitatpatchesare Possingham foundthatlandscapes contain on old-growthforest,butLindenmayerand moresuitableforspeciesthatdepend are often that containfewerbutlargerpatchesofhabitat important factorsinextinctionrisk.Landscapes andsizeofhabitatwere spatial arrangement variation inhabitatquality. Resultsindicatedthat submodel toaccountforthespatialandtemporal usefulness oftheirPVA modelbyincorporatinga possum.Theyincreasedthe of Leadbeater’s needs of theissuesrelatedtoconservation and Possingham (1996)attemptedtoaddress some PVA (Possingham andDavies1995),Lindenmayer uncertain. UsingALEX,acomputerprogramfor which makesfutureviabilityofthespeciesquite this speciesisdesignatedfortimberharvesting, others 1991).Themajorityofsuitablehabitatfor are severalhundredyearsold(Lindenmayerand Australia andpreferstonestinlargetreesthat is associatedwithashforests( ( possum study oftheendangeredLeadbeater’s Lindenmayer andPossingham’s (1996) management andpopulationviabilitywas (Shaffer andSamson1985). of extinctionbecausepopulationsizeissmall and Watts 1991),whichincreasesthelikelihood from stochasticeventsisrelativelyhigh(Dunning In thissystem,thethreatofhabitatresulting Gymnobelideus leadbeateri A possibleobjectiontotheuseofhabitatmodels Another excellentanalysisofforest ) . Thisspecies Eucalyptus ) in SUMMARY on theentirebiota. when workersareattemptingtoassesstheeffects many others,andthiscanmakeitaviableoption model, itundoubtedlyrequireslessdatathan lacks theprecisionofasingle-specieshabitat to biodiversitythanothers.Whilethisapproach land useplanswereconsiderablymoredetrimental each landscapeplan.Resultsindicatedthatsome each species.Speciesrichnesswascalculatedfor capacityofeachpatchfor to estimatecarrying andthismadeitpossible could bedetermined, in aspatiallyexplicitframework,patchsize type ineachscenario.Becausethiswasdone where itisapplicable. of habitat-basedPVA inmanagement planning Karl andothers2000).We advocatetheuse addressed elsewhere(Beutel andothers1999, related totheuseofhabitatmodelshavebeen species (RoloffandHaufler1996).Otherconcerns as wellreliabledistributiondataonthetarget and thusanappropriatesetofhabitatvariables based PVA doesrequiresound habitatmodels, landscape changesonanentirebiota.Habitat- intensive foruseinassessingtheimpactoffuture 1988). Demographicmodelsmaybetooresource 1991) andpopulationsize(Pimmothers viability areareaofsuitablehabitat(Laurance Two factorsthatstronglyinfluencepopulation is wellsuitedformeetingmanagementobjectives. based onestablishedecologicalprinciplesand suitable habitatforlate-successionalspecies. successional specieswiththeneedtomaintain the needforadditionalhabitatearly historicallevels.Managersmustbalance normal and intensityofdisturbanceincreasebeyond habitat continuetoincreaseunlessthefrequency succession habitatarelikelytoseeavailable than CSWA. Speciesassociatedwithlate- early successionalhabitatandarelessabundant provide suitablehabitatforspeciesthatutilize may havetoactivelydisturbthelandscape sustain aviablepopulationofCSWA. Managers habitat maynotbecreatedrapidlyenoughto rates forthenext50years,earlysuccessional data. Ifnaturaldisturbancecontinuesathistoric money makesitimpracticaltocollectdemographic O The approachwehaveoutlinedisfirmly ur studyillustratestheuseofPVA toassess alternatives, especiallywhenlackoftimeor alternatives, the relativemeritsofvariousmanagement ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Dennis, B.; Munholland, P.L.; Scott, J.M. 1991. Estimation of growth and extinction parameters for endangered species. e thank Randy Dettmers and Arnold Saxton Ecological Monographs. 61: 115–143. for help with the forest simulation models Drechsler, M. 1998. Spatial conservation management of employed and the field assistants who have W the orange-bellied parrot Neophema chrysogaster. Biological helped gather data over the years. We also thank Conservation. 84: 283–292. the Forest Service, Laura Mitchell of the Forest Drechsler, M. 2000. A model-based decision aid for species Service, and the silviculturists assigned to the protection under uncertainty. 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Chapter 27.

Responses of Southeastern Amphibians and Reptiles to Forest Management: A Review

Kevin R. Russell, INTRODUCTION T. Bently Wigley, William orests of the Southeastern United States M. Baughman, Hugh G. support a rich diversity of amphibians and Hanlin, and W. Mark Ford1 F reptiles (herpetofauna). Of the more than 450 species of herpetofauna native to North America, approximately half occur in the 319 Abstract—Forest managers in the Southeast Southeast and roughly 20 percent, are endemic. increasingly need information about amphibian Over 100 species (45 amphibians, 59 reptiles, excluding sea turtles) have been reported and reptile responses to silvicultural practices from the Coastal Plain of South Carolina alone in order to guide sustainable forestry programs. (Zingmark 1978). Herpetofauna often are the A review of existing literature indicates that effects most abundant vertebrates in forest ecosystems of silvicultural practices on herpetofauna often (Burton and Likens 1975, Congdon and others are region- and species-specific, with individual 1986); in the Southeast, they comprise up to 45 taxa responding positively, negatively, or not at percent of vertebrate species, excluding fish all in the short term. Responses of herpetofauna (Vickers and others 1985). to forestry likely are influenced by adaptations Several interrelated factors account for of taxa to historical disturbance regimes. Few this regional herpetofaunal diversity, including studies have evaluated long-term population tremendous variability in habitats related to a or landscape-level implications of silvicultural complex matrix of physiography and disturbance practices for herpetofauna. Furthermore, many regimes (Sharitz and others 1992). Moreover existing studies lack pretreatment data, replication, many species of southeastern herpetofauna or appropriate reference conditions. We suggest exhibit biphasic life histories, occupying both that future research focus on manipulative and terrestrial and aquatic habitats during annual retrospective studies designed to identify forestry cycles (Gibbons and Semlitsch 1991). practices that successfully blend economic Increasingly, forest managers are challenged objectives with herpetofaunal conservation. to balance production of forest products with maintenance of environmental quality, management of wildlife habitat, and conservation of biodiversity (Moore and Allen 1999, Sharitz and others 1992). Concerns about even-aged management, and particularly clearcutting, have prompted considerable research on effects of timber harvesting on wildlife. Most research has focused on mammals and birds, and other vertebrates such as amphibians and reptiles have received less attention (deMaynadier and Hunter 1995, Gibbons 1988, Moore and Allen 1999).

1 Assistant Professor of Wildlife Ecology and Management, University of Wisconsin – Stevens Point, College of Natural Resources, Stevens Point, WI 54481; Forest Wildlife Manager, National Council for Air and Stream Improvement, Inc., Clemson, SC 29634; Southern Region Wildlife Biologist, Westvaco Corporation, Summerville, SC 29484; Professor of Biology, University of South Carolina Aiken, Department of Biology and Geology, Aiken, SC 29801; Research Wildlife Biologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, Parsons, WV 26287, respectively. Southern Forest Science: 320 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity Southeastern UnitedStates. Southeastern practicesinthe populations to forestry about responsesofamphibian andreptile available ofinformation an up-to-dateoverview 2000). Thepurposeofthischapter istoprovide (Gibbons andStangel1999, Gibbonsandothers andmanagement perspectives both conservation will continuetobeconsideredcollectivelyfrom tetrapods 2000), itislikelythattheseectothermic and reptilesaresubstantial(Gibbonsothers and ecologicaldifferencesbetweenamphibians Although evolutionary, morphological,behavioral, and Christman1982,Welsh andLind1991). generally wereneutralorpositive(Campbell impactsonreptiles perception thatforestry (Gibbons andothers2000),orthehistorical because ofthefocusonglobalamphibiandeclines did notaddressquestionsaboutreptiles,perhaps (1995)review Also deMaynadierandHunter’s andherpetofauna. forestry about southeastern additional studieshaveprovidednewinsights regions (deMaynadierandHunter1995). specifictotaxaor were complexandoften amphibian responsestoforestmanagement 1995). Thisliteraturereviewrevealedthat practices(deMaynadierandHunter to forestry previously thought,or(3)respondedpositively than harvesting (2) recoveredmorerapidlyafter relatively insensitivetoforestmanagement, other workindicatedthatmanyspecies(1)were amphibians, especiallysalamanders.However, impactsonsome prescriptions hadshort-term that clearcuttingandotherforestmanagement American amphibians.Severalstudiessuggested onNorth literature abouteffectsofforestry presented acomprehensivereviewofavailable deMaynadierand Hunter(1995) these concerns, habitats (Dunsonandothers1992).To evaluate sensitive tochangesinbothaquaticandterrestrial and skinofamphibiansmakethempotentially forests. Inparticular, eggs,gills, thepermeable degraded oreliminatedinintensivelymanaged and aquatichabitatsformanyspeciesmaybe thatbothterrestrial driven largelybyconcerns ofherpetofaunalbiodiversityare and conservation (deMaynadier andHunter1995). considered inforestmanagementdecisions arenotfully and others1991),herpetofaunaoften about globalamphibiandeclines(e.g.,Pechmann quality (Dunsonandothers1992),controversy 1986), potentialvalueasindicatorsofhabitat (Burton andLikens1975,Congdonothers Despite theirpresumedroleinforestfoodwebs Since deMaynadier and Hunter’s (1995)review,Since deMaynadierandHunter’s Questions aboutthecompatibilityofforestry the diversityand abundanceofplethodontid (2001) alsoreported thateffectsofdisturbance on 60 yearsathigh-elevationsites. HydeandSimons population levelstookupto topreharvest recovery clearcuttingandthat Appalachian forestsafter plethodontid salamandersdisappeared from Petranka and others(1993,1994)foundthat be foundonclearcutsites(Ash1988).Similarly nosalamanderscould harvesting, fourth yearafter of thoseinundisturbedforestedplots,andbythe salamanders inrecentclearcutswere40percent In NorthCarolina,populationsofplethodontid hardwood communities(Ford andothers2002). Plethodon composition ofplethodontidsalamanders,e.g., explaining theabundanceandcommunity Georgia, standagewasanimportantfactor Petranka andothers1993,1994).Innorthern Harpole andHaas1999;Knappothers2003; Buhlmann andothers1988;Ford andothers2002; most pronouncedonsalamanders(Ash1988,1997; diversity andabundance,withnegativeeffects clearcuttingreduce amphibian and climateafter the contentionthatchangesinmicrohabitats Appalachiansappeartosupport of theSouthern Amphibians— adapted toearlysuccessionalhabitats. reptiles create favorablehabitatsforheliothermic regimesoften clearcutting andotherharvesting and others1994,Welsh andLind1991)that (e.g., CampbellandChristman1982,Greenberg However, ithas beensuggestedbyseveralauthors activities (deMaynadierandHunter1995). disturbanceduringintensiveharvest soil surface in temperatureandhumidity, andtoincreased areas alsoaresubjecttogreaterdailyfluctuations site preparationactivities(Hunter1990).Clearcut be reducedfollowingclearcuttingandassociated vegetationmay debris (CWD),andunderstory Cover, ofleaflitter, intheform coarsewoody loss ofwaterfromthesoilandunderstory. higher soiltemperaturesandmoreevaporative causes increasedlightpenetrationthatresultsin removesforestcanopy,Timber harvesting andso with amphibianspeciesrichnessandabundance. onmicrohabitatscorrelated effects ofharvesting and Hunter(1995)reviewedpotentialnegative temperature-sensitive amphibians.DeMaynadier create unsuitableconditionsformoisture-and P Harvesting andSilviculture AND SOUTHEASTERN HERPETOFAUNA OVERVIEW OFLITERATURE ONFORESTRY harvesting, andclearcuttinginparticular,harvesting, timber changesthatoccurafter and structural resumably themicroclimatic,vegetational, and Desmognathus Several studiesinhardwoodforests spp.,incove salamanders in the Great Smoky Mountains 1988, Perison and others 1997, Russell and others National Park were still evident after 60 years. 2002b). Perison and others (1997) reported that Petranka and others (1993) hypothesized that the overall abundance of amphibians was lower during the last century, clearcutting reduced in clearcuts than in forested stands in the upper plethodontid salamander abundance by 70 percent Coastal Plain of South Carolina, but they found in western North Carolina alone, with current that certain species, such as green treefrogs (Hyla harvest-related losses approaching 14 million cinerea Schneider) and eastern narrowmouth salamanders per year. toads (Gastrophryne carolinensis Holbrook), were more abundant on clearcut sites. In Alabama, Three recent studies have evaluated effects Clawson and others (1997) found that clearcutting of uneven-aged harvesting techniques on of forested floodplains along blackwater streams Appalachian salamanders. Harpole and Haas had little impact on the total abundance of (1999) compared abundance of plethodontid amphibians, but species evenness changed almost salamanders before and after application of immediately after harvesting. Significant declines seven treatments (understory removal, group 321 of two-lined salamanders (Eurycea cirrigera selection, two variants of shelterwood, leave Green) and gray treefrogs (H. chrysocelis Cope) tree, clearcutting, reference) in low-elevation on clearcut sites were offset by increases of several hardwood forests in southwest Virginia. They species, including southern cricket frogs (Acris found that salamander numbers were lower after gryllus LeConte), southern toads (Bufo terrestris eptiles harvesting on the group selection, leave tree, and Bonnaterre), and eastern narrowmouth toads. clearcut sites, but no postharvest differences were 27. Chapter Abundance and richness of several frogs and detected during the same period on reference toads (anurans) increased at temporary wetlands or understory removal sites. However, Ford in Florida (O’Neill 1995) and South Carolina and others (2000) detected no differences in (Russell and others 2002b) after clearcutting of abundance of plethodontid salamanders among surrounding upland pine plantations. Foley (1994) group selection treatments, two-aged timber reported that clearcuts in eastern Texas supported harvests, and uncut control stands in high- Amphibians and R fewer marbled salamanders (Ambystoma opacum elevation, Southern Appalachian hardwood forests Gravenhorst) than did unharvested controls, of North Carolina. Bartman (1998) did not find but timber harvesting had no effect on numbers that shelterwood harvesting affected salamander of smallmouth salamanders (A. texanum Matthes). populations in the North Carolina Appalachians. In a manipulative experiment, Chazal and Although it appears likely that diversity and Niewiarowski (1998) found no significant abundance of plethodontid salamanders would differences in the number of captures, body mass decrease after clearcutting, Ash and Bruce (1994) and length, or clutch size of pond-breeding mole and other authors (Ash 1997, Johnson and others salamanders (A. talpoideum Holbrook) after 6 1993) argue that available data do not indicate that months exposure to a 4-month-old clearcut and a the long-term losses predicted by Petranka and 40-year-old pine stand (animals were captured at others (1993, 1994) have occurred. For example, an isolated wetland breeding site and placed in Ash (1997) determined that plethodontid 100-m2 pens installed after timber harvesting). salamander populations on previously clearcut Limited evidence suggests that species sites in the mountains of western North Carolina composition and structure of stands influence returned to 100 percent of those in nearby diversity and abundance of amphibians in southern unharvested forests within 24 years of cutting, forests. Means and others (1996) speculated rather than the 60 years reported by Petranka and that conversion of natural longleaf pine (Pinus others (1993). Harper and Guynn (1999) also palustris Mill.) stands to slash pine (P. elliottii reported that plethodontid salamanders appeared Engelm.) plantations in Florida eliminated to recover relatively quickly from clearcutting, populations of flatwoods salamanders (A. with salamander densities in stands 13 to 39 years cingulatum Cope). In the Coastal Plain of South old (χ = 21 years) equal to those in older (≥ 40 Carolina, Bennett and others (1980) and Hanlin years) stands. and others (2000) found that the density of Responses of amphibians to forest management amphibians was significantly higher in natural oak- in other physiographic regions of the Southeast hickory habitats than in previously clearcut even- are more complex, with studies reporting aged slash pine plantations. Some researchers individual species increasing, decreasing, or not have speculated that because habitat features changing in abundance after clearcutting (Clawson which affect the abundance of amphibians, such and others 1997, O’Neill 1995, Pais and others as soil acidity, leaf litter depth and type, hardwood Southern Forest Science: 322 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity intensively managedloblollypine( (8yearsold) plantations, withintermediate-aged amphibian diversityinCoastalPlainpine others (1994)alsoreportedrelativelyhigh diversity thandidhardwoodstands.Grantand plantations actuallysupportedhigheramphibian Hanlin andothers(2000)foundthatpine Hunter 1995,Pough andothers1987).However, (Bennett andothers1980,deMaynadier inhospitable formanyspeciesofamphibians in coniferplantations,thesestandtypesmaybe abundance,andCWD,maybereduced shrub southeastern CoastalPlainpresumably are southeastern 2001, Sharitz and others1992),amphibians inthe intensity naturaldisturbances (Broseandothers forests shapedbyrelatively small-scaleandlow- plethodontid salamandersinhabiting Appalachian (deMaynadier andHunter 1995). Unlike stands conditionsfoundinharvested warmer characteristics mayexplaintheirtoleranceto body mass(DuellmanandTrueb 1986).These of waterinthebladder, e.g.,20 to30percentof the abilitytostoreandreabsorblargequantities temperatures thandosalamanders,andtheyhave (deMaynadier andHunter1995). thanothergroups timber harvesting experience greaterpopulationdeclinesafter support thesuppositionthatplethodontidsmay studies fromotherregionsofNorthAmerica (deMaynadier andHunter1995).Resultsof harvesting microclimate andmicrohabitatsafter these traitsmaymakethemsensitivetochangesin (DuellmanandTruebentirely terrestrial 1986)and Plethodontid salamandersarelunglessand inCoastalPlainforests. favorably toharvesting respond butanuransoften timber harvesting, declineafter plethodontid salamandersoften elsewhere intheSoutheast.Populations of Appalachiansandthoseconducted in theSouthern divergence betweenresultsofstudiesconducted physiographic regionslargelyexplainthe amphibians andhabitatdifferencesamong but thishypothesisremainstobetested. communities inmanagedforestsoftheSoutheast, diversity iscriticalforsustainingherpetofaunal suggested thatmaintenanceofstandstructural explain differencesinspeciesdiversity. They stands, particularlyneargroundlevel,could vegetational complexityofintermediate-aged and hypothesized thatthegreaterstructural stands (26yearsold).Grantandothers(1994) recently clearcut(1to3yearsold)andolder stands havinghigheramphibiandiversitythan Anurans havehigheroperatingandtolerance We believethattaxonomicdifferencesamong P. taeda L.) clearcutting adjacent toCoastalPlainisolated 1991). Russell andothers (2002b)alsofoundthat hardwood-pine forests(Gibbons andSemlitsch objectsinmesichardwoodor or othersurface reptiles associatedwithdeeplitter southeastern cover, ringnecksnakesareamongthose 1997). Seldomencountered inhabitatslacking plots(Perisonabundant onunharvested andothers ( punctatus two reptilespecies,ringnecksnakes( stands (Perison andothers1997).However, atleast relative torichnessandabundanceinforested increased richnessandabundanceofreptiles Coastal PlainofSouthCarolinagenerally to bottomlandhardwoodstandsintheupper other reptiles(Foley 1994).Clearcuttingadjacent Texas, nochangesweredetectedforseveral increased followingclearcuttingineastern others 1994). such aspatchesofbaresand(Greenbergand appears tocreateimportantmicrohabitatfeatures diminished byforestmaturation,andclearcutting reptilecommunitiesis of theseopen-scrub successional habitatsforreptiles.Theintegrity use canberecommendedformaintainingearly of historichigh-intensitywildfiressothatits clearcutting issufficientlysimilartotheeffects authors tosuggestthatproperlymanaged 1982, Greenbergandothers1994),leadingthese forest management(CampbellandChristman reptile speciesrespondfavorablytoeven-aged habitatshaveshownthatmany Sarg.] -scrub pine [ a cohesiveassemblage.StudiesinFloridasand as in realitytheydonotrespondtoharvesting and Christman1982,Welsh andLind1991),but habitats createdbyforestmanagement(Campbell thought tobenefitfromtheearlysuccessional Reptiles— Russell andothers2002b). 2002, O’Neill1995,Perison andothers1997, (Clawson andothers1997,Cromer stands clearcuts thanareattractedtounharvested heavy rains,apparentlyattractmoreanuransto numerousafter fish-free pools,whichareoften O’Neill 1995,Perison andothers1997).These water inclearcuts(Cromerandothers2002, createstanding skidding, andbeddingoften createdbytreeremoval, saturation, andruts Plain, elevatedwatertables,increasedsoil characterize thisregion.InmuchoftheCoastal that e.g., stand-replacingfires,hurricanes, adapted tothehigh-intensitynaturaldisturbances, Sternotherus odoratus Sternotherus Although numbersofseverallizardspecies P. clausa Linnaeus) and eastern muskturtles Linnaeus) andeastern Terrestrial reptilesgenerallyare (Chapm. exEngelm.)Vasey ex Latreille), weremore Diadophis wetlands temporarily reduced numbers of several However, salamander abundance, especially turtle and snake species, including black racers for pond breeding Ambystoma spp., was (Coluber constrictor Linnaeus), but no effects negatively correlated with pronounced rutting were evident by 2 years after harvesting. Although from skidder trails. The characteristic ephemeral black racers are common in early successional hydrology of bottomland depressions was altered habitats, clearcutting temporarily eliminated or in the harvested gaps and along skidder trails to disturbed understory vegetation and woody cover produce perennially flooded ponds. This created that served as refugia and nest sites. permanent habitat for several aquatic and semiaquatic species of amphibians and reptiles Although effects of forest management on that dispersed from bottomland depressions southeastern reptiles have not received the same during periods of drought. However, the skidder- attention as those on amphibians, available data trail ruts also supported fish and invertebrate suggest that reptile responses also are species- predators whose populations in the natural and region-specific. The response of an individual depressions typically are controlled by reptile species to harvesting is influenced by a 323 annual droughts. variety of factors including the degree of habitat specificity, the spatial scale at which the organism Although selective harvesting techniques selects its habitat, the morphology and physiology have been recommended as an alternative to of the organism, and numerous other biotic and clearcutting as a means of protecting forest abiotic factors. Thus clearcutting may be sufficient herpetofauna (deMaynadier and Hunter 1995), eptiles to create the open habitats favored by many these approaches may require repeated stand 27. Chapter southeastern reptiles, but insufficient to create entries with additional ground disturbance and habitat suitable for others unless forested patches may create more roads and ruts than do even- or CWD are retained. aged regeneration methods. The artificial aquatic habitats created by these activities may have Roads and Skidder Ruts significant implications for habitat selection, and

Many forestry operations incidentally create effects on reproductive success and survival of Amphibians and R aquatic habitats that are used by herpetofauna herpetofauna should be evaluated. for reproduction, foraging, and cover. Examples of such habitats include pools along logging roads Site Preparation and machinery ruts within stands. However, these Mechanical treatments—As deMaynadier activities can alter hydrological processes and and Hunter (1995) noted, generalizations about damage natural aquatic habitats (deMaynadier the effects of clearcutting on herpetofauna and Hunter 1995). Because the reproductive can be misleading because a wide range of site strategies, e.g., timing, of many amphibian species preparation techniques are associated with are adapted to fluctuating hydrology, an increasing even-aged management. For example, intensive concern is that these artificial aquatic habitats may mechanical site preparation is used extensively act as population sinks for amphibians if seasonal in the Coastal Plain to expose seedbeds and drying occurs too rapidly (reproductive failure) remove competing vegetation prior to replanting, or not at all (permanent habitat for predators). but is rarely employed in Appalachian forest To date, only two studies have evaluated effects management. Unfortunately, few studies have of roads and harvest skidder ruts on southeastern specifically examined effects of postharvest herpetofauna. Adam and Lacki (1993) documented mechanical site preparation on southeastern widespread use of forest road-rut ponds for amphibians and reptiles. The available literature breeding by eight species of salamanders and suggests that these activities can, at least anurans in Kentucky. Road-rut use was positively temporarily, reduce habitat complexity and affect associated with surface area, depth, and water some herpetofauna negatively. Although direct clarity, but negatively associated with detrital mortality is likely for selected species (Dodd 1991, coverage. More recently, Cromer and others (2002) Russell and others 2002b), mechanical treatments compared herpetofaunal communities in recently typically are applied only once during stand harvested gaps, skidder trails, and undisturbed initiation, and intensive mechanical treatments, depressional wetlands to assess effects of group such as raking, harrowing, disking, chopping, selection harvesting and skidder traffic on bedding, probably do greater harm by removing herpetofauna in a South Carolina bottomland leaf litter, CWD, herbaceous vegetation, root hardwood forest. Total species richness and channels, and other important microhabitats abundance were similar among gaps, skidder for herpetofauna (Enge and Marion 1986, Whiles trails, and undisturbed bottomland depressions. and Grubaugh 1993). Southern Forest Science: 324 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity Moler (1982) observed tortoisesemerging from Moler (1982)observed Landers andBuckner(1981) andDiemer others 1992,Tanner andTerry 1981),although 1982, LandersandBuckner 1981,Marshalland other mechanicaltreatments (DiemerandMoler polyphemus destruction ofgophertortoise( destruction herpetofauna. Severalstudieshavedocumented refugiaoffossorial and othersubsurface mechanical sitepreparationmaydestroyburrows application. detected inthesecondyearafter no effectsofsitepreparationonreptileswere cover. Theseeffectswereshortlived,however, and disturbance ofnestsitesandreductionsinground treatment,possiblyinresponsetophysical after were lessabundantwithinthefirst6months treatment.Snakes,includingblackracers, after stands inhighernumbersthesecondyear migrated intowetlandsfromsite-prepared fact, bronzefrogs( influence amphibiansbreedingattheponds.In Carolina CoastalPlaindidnotappeartonegatively of sitesadjacenttoisolatedwetlandsintheSouth and referencestands,mechanicalsitepreparation (2002b) foundthatwhencomparedtoclearcut-only Russell andothers from thoseofharvesting. is thateffectsofsitepreparationwerenotisolated Linnaeus), alizardthatprefersopensandyareas. ( racerunner to benefitatleastonespecies,thesix-lined However, intensive sitepreparationappeared asrefugiaandnesting sites. objects thatserved clearcut toeliminationofCWDandothercover abundance inthemaximumsitepreparation snakes. Theauthorsattributedlowerreptile species, withthelargestimpactonfossorial reduced abundanceandrichnessofmostreptile the referencestand.Intensivesitepreparation in bothsitepreparationtreatmentstandsthan three stands,butamphibianabundancewaslower significantlyamongthe richness didnotvary treatment orreferencestands.Amphibian percentage ofexposedsoil,thandidtheminimum- and herbaceousvegetation,hadagreater site preparationstandhadlessleaflitter, CWD, treatments. After treatment,themaximum windrow, harrow, bed,plant)sitepreparation bed, plant)andmaximum(stumpremoval,burn, chop, clearcuts receivingminimum(roller-drum stands inFlorida:a40-year-oldpinestandandtwo herpetofaunal populationsofthreepineflatwoods In addition to removing surface cover,In additiontoremovingsurface A limitationofEngeandMarion’s(1986)study Enge andMarion(1986)compared Daudin) burrows bychoppingand Daudin)burrows Cnemidophorus sexlineatus Cnemidophorus Rana clamitans Gopherus Latreille) standards, and liabilityhaveledtofireexclusion tree productivity, smokemanagement,airquality others 2001).Unfortunately, overcrop concerns and others1994,Jones others2000,Littand on abroaderscale(Greenberg 2002,Greenberg conditionsshould increasediversity structural a heterogeneousmatrixofstandagesand herpetofaunal diversitywithinaparticularstand, induced disturbancemaytemporarilydecrease 1981, Russell andothers1999).Although fire- desired habitatfeatures(MeansandCampbell is lowandpresumablyoutweighedbymaintaining mortality ofherpetofaunafollowingfiretypically Floridasandhills. southern to maintaindiverseherpetofaunalcommunitiesin cycle recommended a5-to7-yearprescribedburn 1985). Basedontheseresults,Mushinsky(1985) for20years(Mushinsky protected fromburning (1,2,7years)thaninareferenceplot intervals pine plotssubjectedtothreedifferentburn herpetofauna consistentlywerehigherinslash Florida, richnessandabundanceof southern in Russell andothers1999).For example,in andaquatichabitats(citations both terrestrial andplantspeciescompositionsin structures, an historicmosaicofsuccessionalstages,habitat to benefitCoastalPlainherpetofaunabyrestoring practices fire incombinationwithotherforestry However, itmay beappropriatetouseprescribed overall herpetofaunalabundanceanddiversity. Coastal Plainleadstoconcomitantdeclinesin associations, e.g.,hardwoods,inthesoutheastern fire-adapted vegetationwithfire-intolerant isprovidedhere.Generally,summary replacing by Russell andothers(1999)onlyabrief herpetofaunawasconducted on southeastern literature reviewoffireeffects(andexclusion) diseases, andcompetingvegetation.Adetailed for seedbedpreparation,andcontrollinginsects, exposing mineralsoil,releasingavailablenutrients including controllingheavyfuelaccumulation, to achieveavarietyofsilviculturalobjectives Prescribed fire— inAlabama(Dodd1991). burrows salamander ( ofRedHills also hasbeenlinkedtodestruction (Lips 1991).Soildisturbancefromsitepreparation including severalrareamphibiansandreptiles ofgophertortoises, known touseburrows other species;atleast332wildlifespeciesare tositepreparationcanindirectlyaffect burrows or excavatingnewsites.Lossofgophertortoise andeitherreopeningthem destroyed burrows Available evidencesuggeststhatdirect Phaeognathus hubrichti Prescribed burning isused Prescribed burning Highton) policies that may have significant long-term prescribed fire to restore and maintain aquatic consequences for herpetofauna in Coastal Plain habitats of herpetofauna threatened by hardwood forests and elsewhere (Russell and others 1999). succession (Russell and others 1999). Even within fire-adapted southern forests some Herbicides—In forestry, herbicides are used for species of herpetofauna may depend on climax site preparation, for release of crop trees from vegetation (Greenberg 2002). Means and Campbell herbaceous and woody plants, for managing (1981) examined herpetofaunal communities in species composition and structure, and for timber longleaf pine and shortleaf pine (P. echinata Mill.) stand improvement (Miller and Mitchell 1994). stands in peninsular Florida that had been Herbicides may be broadcast across a stand, burned annually for 60 to 70 years and in an sprayed in bands centered on rows of trees, unburned forest that had succeeded to a closed- or applied to individual woody stems. Individual canopy hardwood association. Three species of stems usually are treated by directly spraying amphibians [tiger salamander (A. tigrinum foliage, applying the herbicide to the tree bole (or nebulosum Holowell), oak toad (Bufo quercicus to wounds on the bole), or applying a soil-active 325 Holbrook), ornate chorus frog (Pseudacris ornata herbicide to the ground near the tree. Holbrook)] and six-lined racerunners were Documented adverse effects of herbicides captured predominantly from the burned on some herpetofaunal life stages include pine stands, whereas three amphibian species

mortality, reduced body mass, failure to eptiles [marbled salamander, mole salamander, and slimy metamorphose, decreased stimulatory response salamander (Plethodon glutinosus Green)] were 27. Chapter of neuroepithelial synapses, chromosomal captured almost exclusively in the hardwood fragmentation, deformities, and DNA profile forest. The authors suggested that these abnormalities (citations in Pauli and others 2000). differences in distribution reflected adaptations It has been suggested that herbicides are among (or lack thereof) of individual species to fire the causative factors explaining global declines (Means and Campbell 1981). of amphibian populations (citations in Fellers Almost all studies of fire effects on southeastern and others 2001). However, these effects generally Amphibians and R herpetofauna have been conducted in Coastal Plain have occurred at exposure levels above those forests (Russell and others 1999), and caution must likely to occur in normal forestry operations. be exercised when extending conclusions to other Furthermore, several literature reviews have areas. Until recently, fire was not considered an concluded that commonly used forestry herbicides important or desirable disturbance regime in are not acutely toxic to wildlife because they have mixed-hardwood forests of the Appalachian relatively low mutagenicity, have no or very weak and Piedmont regions (Brose and others 2001). oncogenetic effects, are rapidly eliminated by However, it has been hypothesized that periodic, animals, do not bioaccumulate, and have a short low-intensity surface fires were crucial for environmental half life (McComb and Hurst perpetuating these oak-dominated forests for 1987, Miller and Witt 1991). Forestry herbicides millennia and are necessary to restore such forests also are used infrequently, i.e., many even-aged (Brose and others 2001). To date, only two studies stands receive only one or two applications during have investigated prescribed fire-herpetofauna a typical rotation, and most herpetofauna likely relationships in these areas. Ford and others are shielded from direct exposure, i.e., by being (1999) found that prescribed fires in the Southern underground or under vegetation, leaf litter, Appalachians had little effect on herpetofauna and or CWD. concluded that concerns about negative effects of Because herbicides are designed to kill prescribed burning on plethodontid salamanders vegetation, they can affect herpetofauna indirectly probably were unwarranted. An ongoing study by altering habitat. Herbicide effects on habitat evaluating the use of prescribed fire to restore oak vary with soils, structure of the pretreatment forests in the South Carolina Piedmont also has plant community, herbicide product used, not found dramatic negative impacts (Floyd and application rates, timing of application, weather others 2002). conditions, and other factors. However, herbicide Other topics needing attention include (1) application to individual trees in midrotation or the combined effects of fire frequency, intensity, maturing stands often promotes canopy gaps and and seasonality on herpetofauna; (2) the use of understory biomass production (McComb and herbicides as a substitute for prescribed fire Hurst 1987). When broadcast in regenerating (Litt and others 2001); and (3) the use of stands, herbicides often temporarily reduce biomass production for one to several growing Southern Forest Science: 326 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity however, abouteffectsofriparian loggingon isavailable, Hunter 1995). Littleinformation radiation onstreamhabitats (deMaynadierand other negativeimpactsofsoil transportandsolar increases inwatertemperatures, andmitigate of finesedimentsinstream substrates,limit Riparian bufferspresumably lessenaccumulation 1989,Welsh and Bury (Corn andLind1991). amphibians fromeffectsoftimberharvesting for protectingstream-andriparian-associated riparianbuffersareimportant that unharvested studies conductedinthePacific Northwestsuggest andVollerdebated strategy(Harrison 1998).Some biodiversitycontinuesto beawidely of conserving management zones(SMZsorbuffers)asameans Riparian buffers— and Terrestrial Corridors Riparian Buffers,IsolatedWetlands, purposes (Wigley andothers2002). temporal availabilityofhabitat;andforother vegetation;manage thespatialand and overstory ofunderstory,composition andstructure midstory, plant species;createsnags;manipulatethespecies Managers canuseherbicidestocontrolnonnative maintaining qualityhabitatforgophertortoises. + triclopyr)werecompatiblewiththegoalof evaluated (hexazinone,imazapyr, andpicloram that anyofthethreeherbicidetreatmentsthey example, Brooksandothers(1993)concluded for herpetofaunaandotherwildlifespecies.For applied tomeetselectedmanagementobjectives practices, e.g.,prescribedfire,herbicidesmaybe and otherfactorspreviouslydescribed. of treatedstandsandthebroaderlandscape, treated withherbicides,thevegetationstructure 1999), theextentofareasimultaneously disturbance regimeofthelandscape(Huston probably dependontheproductivityandnatural herpetofaunal speciestoherbicideapplications others 2001).Landscape-levelresponsesof Lautenschlager andothers1998,Yahner and (Cole andothers1997,HarpoleHaas1999, or notchanginginabundanceatthestandlevel with individualspeciesincreasing,decreasing, Lautenschlager 1993,McCombandHurst1987), are species-specific(Howellandothers1996, wildlife taxa,suggestthatherpetofaunalresponses Results ofthosestudies,andstudiesforother response toherbicide-inducedhabitatchanges. (Miller andWitt 1991). vegetation fromwoodytoherbaceousplants thedominantunderstory seasons, andshift Whether usedaloneorwithothermanagement Few studieshavedocumentedherpetofaunal Retention ofstreamside and others1993, Rudolph andDickson1990). America rangefrom30toover 100m(McComb for herpetofaunainotherregions ofNorth of thefloodplain. the unaffectedriparianzoneinfaunalrecovery (2000), theseresultshighlighttheimportanceof in thecorridor. According toBowersandothers and individualswithintheriparianzonethan and therewerealsosignificantlymorespecies braids withintheimpactedfloodplaincorridor, on vegetatedislandslocatedbetweenstream riparian zonewassignificantlyhigherthan diversity ofherpetofaunaintheunaffected bottomland hardwoodspeciesin1993.Species restoration oftheareabeganwithplanting system withagreatlyexpandeddelta,and Subsequent erosioncreatedabraidedstream vegetation inaportionofthestream’sfloodplain. ofmostriparian this resultedinthedestruction from anuclearreactorforover30years,and effluents Carolina. Thisstreamreceivedthermal order streamontheSavannahRiverSiteinSouth Branch corridor, whichisassociatedwithathird- response todifferentplantingregimesinthePen and others(2000)examinedherpetofaunal recolonization ofadjacentdisturbedareas.Bowers habitat capableofharboringpopulationsforfuture strips couldalsoprovideanintactstripofforested to protectingaquaticamphibians,riparianbuffer and Hunter1995)havesuggestedthatinaddition reference stands.Heandothers(deMaynadier diversity ofherpetofaunathandidunharvested retained inclearcutsactuallysupportedhigher of theaffectedpopulations. alsomight altergeneticdiversity that harvesting in recentlyloggedAppalachianwatersheds,and quadramaculatus dwelling blackbellysalamanders( (1988)speculatedthatstream- Stiven andBruce of disturbedhabitatwithinriparianbufferzones. abundance ofsalamandersandthepercentage they foundnorelationshipbetweentherelative disturbed habitatatthewatershedscale,but inversely proportionaltothepercentageof abundance ofstream-dwellingsalamanderswas Willson andDorcas(2003)foundthattherelative PiedmontofNorthCarolina, In thewestern areas(Petrankaharvested andothers1993). more abundantinSMZsthanadjacent Appalachians, salamanderswere50percent (Pauley andothers2000).IntheSouthern streamamphibiancommunities southeastern Recommended streamside buffer widths Texas,In eastern Foley (1994)foundthatSMZs Holbrook)werelessabundant Desmognathus It has been recommended that riparian buffer salamander species from isolated wetlands widths be adjusted proportionally with stream to adjacent upland forests, Semlitsch (1998) width, intensity of adjacent harvest, and slope hypothesized that a buffer zone encompassing (deMaynadier and Hunter 1995). However, 95 percent of the populations using those upland we agree with Wigley and Melchiors (1993) stands would extend approximately 164 m from that we know too little about empirical the wetland’s edge. Burke and Gibbons (1995) relationships between forest management estimated that an upland buffer 275 m in width effects and riparian habitat functions to justify would be necessary to protect 100 percent of the our recommending specific stream buffer widths nest and hibernation sites of two aquatic turtle for southeastern herpetofauna. species associated with isolated wetlands. Isolated wetlands—Although little effort has In contrast, Wigley (1999) reported that been devoted to research and management of retention of an adjacent forested buffer was stream-associated herpetofauna in southern correlated with the presence of only 1 of 40 forests, protection of isolated wetland habitats amphibian species and 37 reptile species sampled 327 in the southeastern Coastal Plain has received from 444 temporary isolated wetlands across increasing attention. Carolina bays, cypress ponds, the southeastern Coastal Plain—the pine woods and other isolated wetlands, i.e., those with no treefrog (Hyla femoralis Bosc). Russell and others permanent connections to aboveground stream (2002a) also found that 5 small isolated wetlands or river systems, are critical habitats for (0.38 to 1.06 ha) surrounded by 18- to 25-year-old eptiles herpetofauna adapted to seasonal hydroperiods loblolly pine plantations in the Coastal Plain of 27. Chapter and the absence of predatory fish. Of 29 anuran South Carolina were used by at least 56 species species native to the southeastern Coastal Plain, of herpetofauna, suggesting that these aquatic 20 breed primarily or exclusively in isolated habitats within managed forests are capable of wetlands (Moler and Franz 1987). Several species supporting high herpetofaunal diversity. Although of salamanders, e.g., Ambystoma spp., also retaining forested buffers around isolated

migrate to isolated wetlands for mating and egg wetlands is widely recommended, to date only Amphibians and R deposition but return to upland habitats for the Russell and others (2002b) have experimentally remainder of the year (Gibbons and Semlitsch evaluated management of upland forest buffers 1991). In contrast, many Coastal Plain turtles and on southeastern wetland herpetofauna. They snakes seek food and cover in isolated wetlands or examined immigration and emigration of their peripheries but migrate to adjacent uplands herpetofauna from isolated wetlands in the for egg laying and hibernation (Gibbons and South Carolina Coastal Plain before and after Semlitsch 1991, Russell and Hanlin 1999). clearcutting and mechanical site preparation of adjacent upland forests. Although harvest Most species of herpetofauna associated with treatments significantly altered overstory and isolated wetlands in the Coastal Plain also use ground cover characteristics of upland stands, no adjacent upland forests, and several authors treatment-related changes in the overall richness, have recommended, on the basis of anecdotal or abundance, or community similarity of amphibian retrospective data, that closed-canopy forested and reptile communities at the wetlands were buffers or complete exclusion of upland forest observed. Only short-term negative effects were management activity is necessary to protect observed for turtles and snakes. These taxa were these aquatic habitats and maintain landscape less abundant only within the first 6 months after connectivity among wetlands (see citations clearcutting and site preparation, possibly in in Russell and others 2002b). For example, response to physical disturbance of nest sites and Pechmann and others (1991) speculated that the temporary changes in ground cover. No amphibian initial absence and then presence of marbled species showed negative responses to treatments, salamanders at an isolated wetland in South and the number of bronze frogs at the wetlands Carolina resulted from regeneration of increased after treatments. The authors noted that surrounding upland forests that previously were although it is premature to suggest that upland clearcut and burned. Raymond and Hardy (1991) forested buffers surrounding southern isolated reported that a clearcut 156 m away from a wetlands are unnecessary, assumptions about breeding pond in Louisiana appeared to influence effects of forestry operations on isolated wetland the migratory movements and survivorship of the herpetofauna, and management based on such pond’s breeding population of mole salamanders. assumptions (Semlitsch 1998, 2000), must On the strength of data on movements of several be tested in the field. Southern Forest Science: 328 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity it isdifficultto collectdataindicativeoftrue appropriate marking andrecapturingtechniques, clearcutting. Also,without the samerateafter classes ofplethodontidsalamanders declinedat whereas Ash(1988)reported thatsexandage ofmales followingclearcutting, than survival offemalemolesalamanders waslower survival sites. RaymondandHardy(1991)suggestedthat fewer juvenilefrogswerecapturedonharvested frog biomassinforestedplots,clearcut although therewasnodifferencebetweenoverall specific. EngeandMarion(1986)reportedthat practicesareage-or sex- responses toforestry whether collected demographicdatatodetermine and dispersalofherpetofauna.Few studieshave consequences forreproductivesuccess,survival, and changesinhabitatscouldhavelongerterm predictors ofhabitatquality(Van 1983), Horne arenotgood management, suchmeasuresoften and abundancemaynotbeaffectedbyforest Demographic ResponsestoManagement forests oftheSoutheastcanbedetermined. forherpetofaunainmanaged corridors terrestrial monitoring isneededbeforepotentialbenefitsof Baughman (2000)emphasizedthatlong-term closed-canopy forestacrossthestudylandscape, providedacontinuouswebof Although corridors werecreated. stands fromwhichthecorridors weresimilartothoseforthe rates forcorridors that herpetofaunaassemblagesandmovement areas,and of herpetofaunacapturedinharvested didnotdifferfrommeannumbers within corridors numbers ofherpetofaunacapturedenteringor reference. Baughman(2000)foundthatmean and onesitewasassignedasanunharvested traversingthelengthofaclearcut, forest corridor selected forretentionofa100-mwideunharvested South Carolina,threesiteswererandomly or elsewhere(Baughman2000).Inthisstudyfrom forherpetofaunaintheSoutheast forest corridors of onlyonestudytheeffectsretainingupland has beenadvocated(Semlitsch2000),weareaware tomanageamphibians Although useofcorridors andVollerHarrison 1998,Ford andothers2000). isstilldebatedwidely(citationsin corridors valueofupland The functionandconservation birds (Bennett1990,Wegner 1979). andMerriam ofmammalsand examined movementpatterns have Moststudiesofcorridors would linkreserves. that remedy wastomaintaincontinuouscorridors wouldbecomeisolated,andthattheonly preserves Prestonspeculatedthathabitat habitat corridors. benefitsofupland to suggestpossibleconservation Corridors— Although short-term measuresofrichness Although short-term Preston (1962)wasamongthefirst intensively managed watershedhadlower had similarreptilecommunities, buttheleast high (Fox andothers2004).Thewatersheds were negligible,andcommunity similaritieswere to-watershed differencesin amphibianrichness to intensiveeven-agedmanagement. Watershed- rangingfromlargelyunmanaged “fragmentation,” managed atdifferentintensities,andthuslevelsof 4000 haeach)intheOuachitaMountainsthatwere and reptilesinfourforestedwatersheds(1500to Shipman andothers(2004)censusedamphibians and Hunter2002).Fox andothers(2004) patches byadultamphibians(citationsinGuerry habitatinsuch influence occupancyofterrestrial suggest thatisolationofforestpatchesmay birds. However, alimitednumberoffieldstudies as haveresponsesofothervertebrates,such fragmentation havenotbeenstudiedasoften and others1997). sincethe1950s(Gibbons sampling hasoccurred the SavannahRiverSite,wherecontinuous in SouthCarolina,withtheexceptionof recorded richnessofamphibiansandreptiles on rangemaps).Thisrepresentedthehighest inthelandscape(based potentially occurring of 73102speciesamphibiansandreptiles thepresence Leiden andothers(1999)confirmed classes,includingpineplantations. structural The landscapecontainedstandsinvariousstand landscapeinSouthCarolina. industry-managed ofherpetofaunaacrossan a broadsurvey level. Leidenandothers(1999)conducted herpetofaunal communitiesatthelandscape Some recentstudieshavecharacterized andHunter2002). are atlargerscales(Guerry is important,perhapsthemostpressingquestions responses ofherpetofaunatoforestmanagement Responses Landscape-Level 1994,deMaynadierandHunter1995). Bruce activitiesremainpoorlyknown(Ashand forestry clearcuttingandother of herpetofaunaafter Appalachian forests,butfates(deathvs.dispersal) logginginNorthCarolina immediately after dispersalofplethodontidsalamanders observe andstrongsitefidelity. Bartman(1998)didnot salamanders exhibitpoordispersalcapabilities are basedontheassumptionthatthese salamander mortalityresultingfromclearcutting by Petranka andothers(1993)ofplethodontid 1994).For(Ash andBruce example,estimates practices herpetofauna inresponsetoforestry population sizesortomonitormovementsof Responses ofherpetofaunatoforest Although characterizingstand-level per-plot abundance, species richness, and (Sharitz and others 1992). Prior to human diversity of reptiles than the others (Shipman and influence, natural disturbances, e.g., fire, others 2004). This was attributed to dominance by hurricanes, windthrow, ice storms, occurring at two reptile species in the least intensively different frequencies, intensities, and extents managed watershed. depending on physiographic region, controlled the character of southern forests and maintained the Because many aquatic and semiaquatic stand and landscape diversity essential to support herpetofauna use adjacent terrestrial habitats for the flora and fauna of the region (Brose and others dispersal, foraging, and refuge, both the proximity 2001, Myers and Van Lear 1998, Sharitz and others of wetlands to terrestrial habitat and the area of 1992). Unmanaged southern forests were not a terrestrial habitat may influence habitat homogeneous blanket of “intact” or “continuous” occupancy. If populations of wetland-associated closed-canopy forest, but rather a heterogeneous herpetofauna exhibit metapopulation structure, mixture of stands of different ages and structural reduced immigration and emigration rates types. Many vertebrates in the South, including resulting from disconnection of habitat patches 329 herpetofauna, have tolerated and adapted to may negatively influence viability (Guerry and disturbance events throughout much of their Hunter 2002, Joyal and others 2001). In Maine, evolutionary histories (Campbell and Christman Guerry and Hunter (2002) found species-specific 1982, Greenberg and others 1994, Russell and responses of pond-breeding amphibians to area

others 1999). Thus the complexity and regional eptiles and proximity of adjacent terrestrial forests. nature of herpetofaunal responses to forest Although the presence and abundance of some 27. Chapter management should not be surprising. As Means species were positively related to forest area and and Campbell (1981) point out, it is illogical pond-forest adjacency, other species exhibited to conclude that herpetofauna associated with negative or no associations with one or both of southeastern forests are not themselves adapted these factors. However, we are unaware of any to local patterns of disturbance. We have found, studies that explicitly evaluate effects of forest however, that few studies or management

fragmentation on either terrestrial or aquatic Amphibians and R recommendations (Semlitsch 2000) involving amphibians in the Southeast. responses of herpetofauna to forest management have fully considered the spatial and temporal MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF complexity of forest habitats, including NATURAL DISTURBANCE REGIMES disturbance scales and intensities that species urrently available evidence suggests that and communities are adapted to. It is absolutely southeastern herpetofauna respond in a necessary that we understand this context if Ccomplex manner to changes in climatic, we are to predict how southeastern herpetofauna vegetational, and structural features of stands and will respond to forest management, and if landscapes after the implementation or exclusion we are to develop efficacious and cost-effective of specific management practices (such as fire conservation strategies. For example, are suppression). DeMaynadier and Hunter (1995) recommendations for closed-canopy buffers argue that herpetofauna generally benefit when around isolated wetlands consistent with the forest management prescriptions retain sufficient existence of the exposed and sparsely vegetated microhabitat and microclimate elements within nest sites selected by many turtle species (Kolbe stands, and ensure a diversity of habitat types and Janzen 2002)? Management and recovery across larger areas. They also suggest that strategies for herpetofauna that do not recognize identifying and then minimizing differences the dynamic rather than static nature of southern between forest management practices and forests, or those that provide one-size-fits-all historic patterns of natural disturbance, e.g., solutions, are likely to fail. retention or creation of microhabitats, will improve conservation of herpetofauna in our CONSIDERATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH managed forests. ncreasingly, researchers and resource We suggest this historic context has often been managers are recognizing the importance overlooked by those considering the effects of I of herpetofauna within the context of forest forest management on southeastern herpetofauna. management (deMaynadier and Hunter 1995, Current forest management regimes are only the Dunson and others 1992). However, much remains latest in a continuum of forest clearing, intensive to be learned concerning effects of forestry agriculture, prescribed burning, forest regrowth, practices on southeastern herpetofauna. Currently and timber harvesting across the Southeast available data suggest that herpetofauna are Southern Forest Science: 330 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity studies thatexplicitly examinerelationships to aviancommunities. However, quantitative diversity the importanceofvegetational structural MacArthur and (1961)demonstrated remain poorlyunderstood. Pioneering workby forests abundance ofherpetofauna insouthern the causalfactorsthatshape thedistributionand silvicultural effectsonherpetofaunaisincreasing, Although documentationofthemagnitude and Hunter1995,Grantothers1994). components ofregeneratingstands(deMaynadier prescriptions thatretainsignificantnatural of herpetofaunabyidentifyingsilvicultural cultural objectiveswiththoseforconservation effects tosuccessfullyblendingeconomicand beyond simplydocumentingtherangeofharvest relationshipshasmoved herpetofauna-forestry effectsonfitness. from long-term immediate populationresponsestoharvesting studiesthatseparate needed arelonger-term and others2003,Russell andothers2002b). Also and others1997,HarpoleHaas1999,Knapp 1997, ChazalandNiewiarowski1998,Clawson spatialandtemporalreferences(Ash or true and posttreatmentdata,treatmentreplication, employed manipulativedesignswithpretreatment herpetofaunahave management onsoutheastern Only sixstudiesinvestigatingeffectsofforest changes. of sitesandtheextentpostharvest ifwearetoassessthecomparability necessary sites. Baselinedataonhabitatparametersare those ofpopulationspresentonforestedreference characteristics, e.g.,abundance,identicalwith sitesonceexhibited populations ofharvested This approachassumesthattheherpetofaunal sites. andunharvested attributes ofharvested of retrospectivecomparisonsherpetofaunal managementeffectsonthestrength inferred Russell andothers1999).Moststudieshave deMaynadier andHunter1995,Petranka 1999, on herpetofauna(AshandPollock 1999, has limitedconclusionsaboutimpactsofforestry referenceconditionsinmanystudies and true (deMaynadier andHunter1995). a varietyofstudydesignshavebeenemployed because ofmethodologicallimitationsand herpetofauna arestilldifficulttoassess,though, management activitiesonsoutheastern The populationandcommunityeffectsofforest regions, taxa,andmanagementprescriptions. forests, andresponsesarespecifictoindividual occasionally notatall)bymanagementofsouthern influenced bothpositivelyandnegatively(and The challengeforfuturestudiesof The absenceofpretreatmentdata,replication, developed that relatedistribution,abundance, others 2000). Then quantitativemodelscan be (Gibbons andothers1997,Wigley and management historieswithin largerlandscapes characteristics and with variablestructural abundance ofherpetofauna inforeststands thedistribution and approach istoinventory shaped theregion’sforests.Oneresearch of naturaldisturbanceeventsthathistorically accomplished byapproximatingtherange of herpetofaunalbiodiversity. Thiswillbe of theseforestswiththeprotectionandpromotion communities canbeusedtointegratemanagement management practices,andherpetofaunal diversity,among standstructural forest manipulative studiesthatelucidaterelationships obtained bymeansofretrospectiveand for economicbenefit.We thinkthatinformation of theseforestswillcontinuetobemanaged of Agriculture,Forest 1988),andmost Service forests areprivatelyowned(U.S.Department site preparation. or with differentmethodsofharvesting 1996), particularlyacrossregionsandownerships Hunter 1995,1990,OliverandLarson development(deMaynadierand structural be anaccuratedelimiteroftransitionsinstand species (Hunter1990).Thusstandagemaynot may increasediversityandbiomassofunderstory roller chopping,oroccasionalprescribedburning, applications thatonlyslightlydisturbthesoil,e.g., species, whereasless-intensive and understory byeliminatingculltrees,snags,CWD, structure windrowing, mayretarddevelopmentofstand site preparationtreatments,e.g.,beddingor (Oliver andLarson1996).For example,intensive proximity toaquatichabitats,andotherinfluences disturbance history, climate,soils,elevation, variability relatedtonaturalandsilvicultural stand age,thereisagreatdealofstand-specific CWD andleaf-litter increasewith depthoften others 1987). 1995, McCombandothers1993,Pough and 2000,deMaynadierandHunter diversity (Aubry ofherpetofaunalabundanceand correlates vegetation,areimportant moisture, understory ground level,e.g.,CWD,leaflitterdepthand and componentsofforests,particularlythoseat characteristics Northeast suggestthatstructural 1994). StudiesfromthePacific Northwestand United Statesarelacking(Grantandothers herpetofaunal populationsintheSoutheastern attributesofforestsand among structural Approximately 90percentofsoutheastern Although microhabitatvariablessuchas and demographic characteristics of species to Burke, V.J.; Gibbons, J.W. 1995. Terrestrial buffer zones and specific habitat elements found in managed wetland conservation: a case study of freshwater turtles in a Carolina bay. Conservation Biology. 9: 1365–1369. forests, and eventually integrated into sustainable landscape models that would predict herpetofauna Burton, T.M.; Likens, G.E. 1975. Salamander populations and biomass in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, responses to different management scenarios New Hampshire. Copeia. 1975: 541–546. (Wigley and others 2001). Campbell, H.W.; Christman, S.P. 1982. The herpetological components of Florida sandhill and sand pine scrub LITERATURE CITED associations. In: Scott, N.J., Jr., ed. 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Responsesofisolatedwetlandherpetofaunatoupland 33: 343–347. ofHerpetology.isolated wetlandsinSouthCarolina.Journal population ofthemolesalamander, 11: 17–29. Coastal Plainsflatwoods.Forest Ecology andManagement. herpetofauna resultingfromditching ofcypresspondsin quality. ofWildlife Management.47:893–901. Journal Rep. 24.Washington, DC.246p. forthefuture.For.South’s fourthforest:alternatives Resour. Council. 2:66–73. Proceedings oftheAnnualMeetingGopherTortoise Florida. insouthern web plowingongophertortoiseburrows cluster.reserve Biology. Conservation 2:194–205. Appalachianbiosphere disturbed watershedsintheSouthern .A.; Fox, S.F.; Thill,R.E.[andothers].2004.Reptile Desmognathus quadramaculatus Carphophis amoenus Ambystoma talpoideum ) associatedwithsmall from , Zingmark, R.G.1978.Anannotatedchecklistofthebiota Yahner, R.H.;Bramble,W.C.; W.R. Byrnes, 2001.Effectof Willson, J.D.;Dorcas, M.E.2003.Effectsofhabitatdisturbance Wigley, T.B.; Mitchell,M.S.;Van Deusen,P Wigley, T.B.; Miller, K.V.; deCalesta,D.S.;Thomas,M.W. 2002. Wigley, T.B.; Melchiors,M.A.1993.Wildlife habitatand Wigley, T.B.; Baughman,W.M.; Dorcas,M.E.[andothers]. Wigley, T.B. CoastalPlainamphibian 1999.Southeastern J.W.Whiles, M.R.;Grubaugh, 1993.Importanceofwoody Welsh, H.H.,Jr.; ofthe Lind,A.J.1991.Thestructure Wegner, J.F.; G.1979.Movementsbybirdsandsmall Merriam, South CarolinaPress.364 coastal zoneofSouthCarolina.Columbia,SC:University Arboriculture. 27:24–28. of way onreptileandamphibianpopulations.Journal vegetation maintenanceofanelectrictransmissionright-of- Biology.watershed management.Conservation 17:763–771. on streamsalamanders:implicationsforbufferzonesand wildlife andnaturalresourcesconference.66:61–76. on privateforestlands.Transactions oftheNorthAmerican 2001. Tools forblendingeconomicandecologicalobjectives Forest ResearchStation:124–138. Northeastern Service, Newtown Square,PA: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture, traditional usesandnewdirections.Gen.Tech. Rep.NE–288. nongame wildlifemanagementandcommunityrestoration: Russell, C.E.,eds.Theroleoffirein K.R.;Moorman, achieving wildlifemanagementobjectives.In:Ford, W.M.; for toprescribedburning Herbicides asanalternative Districts:100–121. Conservation management. Washington, DC:NationalAssociationof ecosystems inthehumidU.S.:functions,valuesand UnitedStates.In:Riparian review fortheEastern communities instreamsidemanagementzones:aliterature [Date accessed:August 4,2003]. assessment. 45p.http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/sustain/conf/. forests:thescienceofforest Sustaining southern sustainability ofwildlifecommunitiesintheSouth.In: 2000. Contributionsofintensivelymanagedforeststothe Available from:NCASI, P Council forAirandStreamImprovement,Inc.119p. survey. NCASI Tech. Rep.97–074.Clemson,SC:National Experiment Station:94–100. Department ofAgriculture,Forest Forest Southern Service, forests.Gen.Tech.southern Rep.SE–94.Asheville,NC:U.S. Crossley, D.A.,eds.Biodiversityandwoodydebrisin forestherpetofauna.In:McMinn,J.W.;debris tosouthern Station: 394–413. of Agriculture,Forest Pacific Service, NorthwestResearch fir forests.PNW–GTR 285.Portland, OR:U.S.Department tech. coords.Wildlife andvegetationofunmanagedDouglas- In: Ruggiero, L.F.; Aubry, K.B.;Carey, A.B.;Huff, M.H., Oregon. andsouthwestern California forests ofnorthwestern herpetofaunal assemblageintheDouglas-firhardwoods ofAppliedEcology.Journal 16:349–357. habitats. mammals betweenwoodandadjoiningfarmland .O. Box340362,Clemson,SC29634. .C.; Lancia,R.A. Chapter 28. Monitoring Tree Species Diversity over Large Spatial and Temporal Scales

James F. Rosson, Jr. and INTRODUCTION 1 Clifford C. Amundsen uestions about, concerns about, and interests in biological diversity have reached high Qlevels of priority with academics, research Abstract—The prospect of decline in biological scientists, resource conservationists, political diversity has become a central concern in the decisionmakers, civic leaders, and interested 335 life sciences, both around the world and across members of the general public (particularly the United States. Anthropogenic disturbance has those in the environmental community). Though been identified as a major factor affecting species biological diversity has been of interest to diversity trends. An increase in the harvesting ecologists for many decades, broader popular interest in the subject developed in the 1980s in of naturally diverse timber stands in the South response to the highly publicized exploitation and has become an important issue. The ultimate deforestation of tropical rain forests (Wilson and impact of this high, and increasing, level of Peter 1988). This disturbance takes the form of disturbance on tree species diversity in forests intensive and extensive timber harvesting and land of the Southern United States is uncertain. We clearing. Heightened public interest in biological offer a brief review of literature related to major diversity and the decline of tropical forests was points in the development of species diversity reflected in the 1986 National Forum on concepts over the last 100 years. This is followed Biodiversity (Wilson and Peter 1988). by a case study that makes use of periodic U.S. Anthropogenic disturbance on forest land in the Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Forest United States, and its long-term effects on forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) data from Mississippi. biology, has also received considerable attention Our interest, for southern forests, is whether tree (Hunter 1999, Kimmins 1997, Kohm and Franklin species richness has declined, increased, or 1997, Maser 1994, Noss and Cooperrider 1994, remained essentially stable over the last 35 years. Perry 1994, Szaro and Johnston 1996). The types We find that tree species richness has declined by of disturbance range from permanent clearing, 11 percent across Mississippi since 1977. However, as in the conversion of forest land to urban in FIA plots that had no evidence of harvesting, or agricultural use (in this context permanent may mean only a few years to many decades), tree species richness increased by 44 percent since to intense and repeated harvesting activity. 1967. It is difficult to determine what constitutes a Increases in timber harvesting in the Southern healthy level of tree species richness for particular United States has raised concerns about the long- sample designs and large-scale State surveys. term sustainable (both productive and ecologically Additional analytical complexity comes from the sound) use of the forest resource. The concept of lack of documentation and knowledge concerning sustainable use is different from its predecessor, various levels of richness dynamics for large spatial sustainable yield, in that equal weight is given to and temporal scale studies. biological, social, economic, and political components, whereas sustainable yield matches levels and rates of harvesting with maximum rates of species production. See Campbell (2002) for more background on sustainability.

1 Research Forester, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Knoxville, TN 37919; and Professor, University of Tennessee, Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Knoxville, TN 37996, respectively. Southern Forest Science: 336 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity decisionmakers willneedreliableinformation UnitedStates continuestoincrease, Southern independently orincombination. species. Anyofthesefactors mayoccur stable speciespopulationsto moreendangered to fewerhotfires,fewroadsmanyroads,and to increasinglyisolatedpatches,frequentcoolfires proximity toeachother(orarecontinuouswith) fragmented patches,foreststandsthatareinclose stands, largecontinuousforeststosmaller and compositionallycomplexstandstosimple are: olderstandstoyoungerstands,structurally bymoreintensemanagement.Thechanges shifted as thedynamicsofnaturalforestprocessesare These canbethoughtofastrajectorieschange seven typesofbioticimpoverishmentinforests. biological diversity. Noss(1996)hasidentified in speciescomposition,andimpactsonoverall old-growth area,age-classimbalance,changes standfragmentation,declinesin interruptions, successional alteration, changesinstandstructure, and to, soildeterioration,habitatdestruction biology. Thelatterinclude,butarenotlimited impactsreflecttheintegrityofforest long-term impacts wouldbetimbersupplyshortageswhile impacts.Anexampleofshort-term long-term involvebothshort-and sustainable forestry volume(Powellharvested andothers1993). when theSouthcontributed55percentofall 2001). Thisisasubstantialincreasesince1992, intheUnitedStates(Smith andothers harvested accounts for65percentofalltreevolume lands. Currently, UnitedStates the Southern andnonindustrialprivateforest on forestindustry timberproductionbyincreasingharvests western United Statesismakingupmuchoftheshortfallin lands, particularlyintheWest. TheSouthern timber isbeingremovedfromnationalforest (Kohm andFranklin 1997).Theresultisthatless amount oftimeandmoneyexpendedinlitigation reductions inbudgetandstaff, andincreasesinthe UnitedStates), spotted owlintheNorthwestern issues relatedtohabitatprotection(asforthe timber beingofferedforsalecanbeattributedto (ForestService Thesereductionsin Service)]. sale onnationalforestsbytheUSDA Forest sale quantity[theamountoftimberofferedfor The latterfollowsfromreductionsintheallowable lands timberbeingofferedforcontractsales. demands andreductionsintheamountofpublic- primarily fromacombinationofconsumer UnitedStateshaveresulted land intheSouthern As forest harvesting activity inthe As forestharvesting The issuesofsustainableforestsand onprivate Increases intimberharvesting to theaccumulation ofspeciesovertime (Fischer was regardedasahistorical phenomenonrelated andAagaard2002). considerably (Diserud to thesamesamplepopulation havediffered obtained fromapplyingdifferent sampledesigns diversity measure)isobtainedbecauseresults how therichnessmeasure(oranyotherspecies be smallorlarge.Itisimportanttounderstand inaspecificarea.Thisareamay species occurring has traditionallybeendefinedasthenumberof 1988,Pielou1974).Richness diversity (Magurran measurement attributedescribingspecies but werecognizethatrichnessisonetypeof richness andspeciesdiversityinterchangeably, some confusion.Inthischapter, weusetheterms maycause standardization intheterminology to thatsubject.Additionally, agenerallackof the broadrangeofstudiesdevotedexclusively diversity assessments.Thisreviewdoesnotcover CONCEPT INTHEUNITEDSTATES HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OFTHEDIVERSITY method oftrackingtreespeciesrichnessovertime. ofMississippiisusedtoillustratea surveys A casestudybasedondatafromrecentforest such assessmentsoverlargegeographicregions. considerations thatareimportantwhenapplying UnitedStates,alongwith area intheSouthern diversity assessmentforanextensiveforest findingsofalarge-scale discuss preliminary the UnitedStatesoverlastcentury. We then of thediversityconceptasithasdevelopedin This chapterpresentsabriefchronologicalreview conditions andprocessesoverlargespatialscales. about provide adequateandreliableinformation scale, independent,andscatteredstudiesdonot smaller areas.However, extrapolationsfromsmall- ecological studieshaveinmostcasesdealtwith diversity trendsmustbeavailable.Traditional aboutspecies to beeffective,reliableinformation Foris arelatedconcern. strategies conservation species diversityoveralargearea,suchasState, artificially regeneratedforeststandswillhaveon be affected.Theeffectanincreasingareaof diversity andoverallforestcompositionmay decisionmakers needtoknowhowtreespecies impactofintensetimberharvesting, long-term resource integrity. Inordertoevaluatethe onforest that trackstheimpactofharvesting M Earlier, theconceptofspeciesdiversity The studyofbiologicaldiversityisnotnew. uch ofthespeciesdiversityworkafter mathematical methodsforquantifying the 1950swasaimedatdevisingnew 1960, Wallace 1876, Willis 1922). What is now predictable compositions (at least at the guild called the study of species diversity was level) and structures (Gleason 1922; Preston 1948; considered as part of the study of species Williams 1944, 1953). Many early works showed abundance and species populations. Much of the that a majority of species were rare and less interest and early work in species abundance was abundant, and that only a few species were by animal ecologists (Kingsland 1985). The early dominant or very abundant. Ecologists soon found part of the 20th century also saw the beginning of it was not possible to conduct a census of an entire development of techniques for describing plant biotic community and that patterns of dominance communities in quantitative terms. Examples and species abundance would have to be detected include the works of Clements (1905), Gleason by sampling (Golley 1993). Graphing the number (1920), Cain (1932), and Braun (1935). Oosting of species observed against the number of (1956) described the difference between two individuals on a logarithmic scale often produced approaches to analysis—descriptive (analytical) a straight line. Supposedly, the slope of this line statistics and qualitative (synthetic) statistics. was a measure of the species diversity of the 337 Descriptive statistics involved measures of community (Fisher and others 1943). Pielou individual stands (the actual concrete community (1977) states that this approach to species that could be visualized on the ground); qualitative diversity analysis was first introduced by Fisher statistics were estimates of measures of several in 1943. Margalef’s later work (1958) was stands in aggregate (the abstract community instrumental in the popularization of the phrase type composed of disjunct stands). “species diversity” among ecologists (Green Chapter 28. Chapter 1979). Although much work had been done Jaccard (1912) was the first to demonstrate on species diversity up through the 1950s, that there was an increase in the number of no ecology textbooks of the 1940s and 1950s, species with an increase in area (Goodall 1952). with the exception of Odum’s textbook (1959), This was later expressed mathematically by even mentioned the term “diversity” (Schluter Arrhenius (1921). Application of the terms “rich” and Ricklefs 1993). and “poor” is usually credited to Baker (1918), who recorded the number of species on lake In 1969, the famous Brookhaven Symposia bottoms. Thienemann, a limnologist in Europe, in Biology maintained that the continuity and identified three important species-abundant sustainability of life systems appeared to be principles: (1) the greater the variety of habitats, associated with the number of species per unit Species Diversity Tree Monitoring the larger the number of species; (2) the more of area (Wolda and others 1969). This meeting that conditions deviate from the normal optima also ensured the popularization of the term for most species, the smaller is the number “diversity.” By the late 1960s the study of diversity of species that occur and the greater the number was expanding, involving not only the number of individuals that do occur; and (3) the longer a of species but also the proportionate distribution habitat has been in the same condition, the richer of individuals (evenness) and the consequent and more stable is the community (Goodman 1975, development of a myriad of diversity indices. This Hynes 1972). The third of these principles is now period also marks the beginning of a significant known as the stability-diversity hypothesis, and number of diversity study contributions to the is still studied and strongly debated today. literature. Lloyd and Ghelardi (1964) are credited with introducing use of the term “evenness” Elton (1927) and others realized that species in the context of diversity (Krebs 1989). numbers and diversity were most likely a part of important principles in plant and animal ecology, The beginning of the modern era of but Elton observed that it was not clear what quantitative ecology has been attributed to these important principles entailed (McIntosh MacArthur (McIntosh 1985). Building on Preston’s 1985). Publication of Thienemann’s first two work (Preston 1948) concerning the canonical principles led other workers to conduct a long distribution of species, MacArthur and Wilson series of studies involving species-area relations. expanded upon Preston’s idea as the basis for their Cain (1938) and Preston (1948) were early seminal book “Theory of Island Biogeography” investigators of species-area curves. The early (1967). Ideas developed in this book essentially set work dealing with mathematical properties of the stage for much of the ecological work over the species-area relations has been reviewed by next two to three decades. Many workers in either Connor and McCoy (1979). By carefully plant or animal ecology borrowed and built upon counting species, several investigators were able MacArthur’s ideas and work related to species- to demonstrate that species were organized into area and species-distribution phenomena. Southern Forest Science: 338 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity Millbrook, NY (Pickettandother1997); and in May1995attheInstitute ofEcosystemStudies, Conference, held Johnston 1996);theSixthCary in Sacramento,CA, inJuly1992(Szaro and andPractice,held Managed Landscapes:Theory others 1997);theSymposium onBiodiversityin place inKyoto, Japan,inDecember1993(Abeand Ecological Perspective ofBiodiversity whichtook Symposiumof These includetheInternational other importantconferenceshavebeenheld. unanswered (Reaka-Kudla and others1997). and aseriesofkeyquestionsthatremain status ofexistingknowledgeaboutlifeonEarth, such topicsashowscientistsstudydiversity, the “Biodiversity II”hasbeenpublished,covering through extinction.Sincethenafollowupvolume diversity andtheultimatelossofspecies to thepotentialproblemofdecliningspecies attention brought nationalandinternational this meetingweredistributedwidelyandquickly and Peter 1988).Thepublished proceedingsof in Washington, DC,inSeptember1986(Wilson National Forum onBiodiversity, which tookplace global threatstodiversity. Thisresultedinthe held in1982(CooleyandCooley1984). An importantworkshopaddressingthisissuewas into theNationalForest ManagementAct of1976. naturaldiversitywaswritten the needtopreserve To languageidentifying addressthisconcern, the conversionofhardwoodstandstopinestands. was of nationalforests.Oneparticularconcern questions wereraisedaboutthemanagement ecosystem diversity. IntheUnitedStates, habitat diversity, landscapediversity, and in speciesdiversityalongwithgeneticdiversity, environmental movementstimulatedinterest in tropicalforestlandclearingandgrowthofthe the1960s,andincreases ecological studiesafter by Dennisandothers(1979). literature, priorto1979,hasbeenprepared ofthediversity A comprehensivesummary 1975), Peet (1974,1975),andHurlbert(1961). species diversitydata.ExamplesarePielou(1969, to theproblemsofmeasuringandanalyzing helped clarifyandresolvecertainissuespertaining papers andbooksareconsideredseminal new andimprovedmeasuresofdiversity. Several the literaturehavedealtwithdevelopmentof several decadesisvoluminous.Manypapersin studies andtechniquedevelopmentoverthelast Since theNationalForum onBiodiversity, Prominent biologistswerequicktoaddress Diversity analysiswasincorporatedintomany The literaturerelatedtospeciesdiversity forests atasmallscalecan be foundinGrime responses toanthropogenic disturbancein and prohibitive. Examplesofplant patterns areas largerthanafewhundred hectaresisoften The costintimeandmoney ofsamplingacross sites hadunusualbioticorabioticcharacteristics. investigators’ attention,mostlybecausethese were doneinsmallareasthathadattracted Forester 1996). analysis arevaluableandrare(Machlis evaluations. Studiesdealingwithcomparative rather thandetailedsystematicandanalytical based largely torealworldproblems.Theliteratureis theory little hasbeendoneontheapplicationofthis andconceptsof biological diversity,the theory but providesanentranceintotheliterature. covers 98pages.Thelistaboveisnotcomplete reference sections.Huston’ssection comprehensive inscopeandincludesizeable and Difference”(Gaston1996).Allare 1992), and“Biodiversity:ABiologyofNumbers of theEarth’sLivingResources”(Groombridge (Heywood 1995),“GlobalBiodiversity:Status (Hubbell 2001),“GlobalBiodiversityAssessment” ofBiodiversity Unified Theory 1988),“The and itsMeasurement”(Magurran Ecosystems” (Hunter1999),“EcologicalDiversity 1994), “MaintainingBiodiversityinForest Restoring Biodiversity” “Saving Nature’sLegacy:Protectingand in theUnitedStates” “Precious Heritage:TheStatusofBiodiversity 1993), “BiologicalDiversity” Ecological Communities”(RicklefsandSchluter (Rosenzweig 1995),“SpeciesDiversityin include “Species published overthelastfewyears.Examples maintaining economicviability(Powledge 1998). biologicaldiversitywhile ecosystems topreserve examples offailuresandsuccessesinmanaging knowledge inparticulardisciplines,andprovided of biodiversity, stateof describedthecurrent on educatingthepublicaboutimportance meetings andpublishedproceedingsfocused “Bioscience” journal issueofthe in thepublicationofasupplementary at Knoxville,TN,inAugust 1994.Thelastresulted of theAmericanInstituteBiologicalSciences sessionsofthe45 the plenary Most ofthestudiesthathavebeenundertaken Although muchworkhasbeencompletedon Several booksaboutdiversityhavebeen

on incidental observations orreports on incidentalobservations

Diversity inSpaceandTime”

(Bioscience 1995).These

(Stein andothers2000),

(Noss andCooperrider

(Huston 1994), th annualmeeting

and Biogeography” (1979), Oliver (1981), and Hunter (1990). Certain begun, no adequate historical data are available. workers, such as Sites and Crandall (1997) and Therefore, trend analysis of species diversity is Skov (1997), have implemented novel approaches very limited at this time with these datasets. to biodiversity studies. Quantitative studies using Beyond the timber supply issue, concerns systematic and analytical techniques on a large have been raised about the sustainability of the regional scale (an area the size of a State or larger) entire biotic and abiotic forest base. Several recent are lacking (Langer and Flather 1994, LaRoe and books have documented the urgent need to alter others 1995). There have also been requests for forest management practices to achieve certain the establishment and application of rigorous conservation goals (Hunter 1980, Huston 1994, standardized sampling and analytical techniques Kohm and Franklin 1997, Noss and Cooperrider for biodiversity assessments (Debinski and 1994, Szaro and Johnson 1996). The Forest Service Humphrey 1997, Solomon 1979). has adopted and implemented the concept of Because of the cost and complexity of sampling ecosystem management in order to protect and large continuous geographic areas, very little, and provide sustainability for all attributes of forests. 339 very limited, data (usually addressing only specific Foremost in these new approaches to forest resource and conservation issues) are available management is the concept of managing forests in for large regional studies. Some investigators a way that protects and fosters the establishment have taken several local studies and extrapolated of natural biodiversity. With the establishment the results to a larger area or continental region. of the biosphere initiative, the Ecological Society

One example is a study by Glenn-Lewin (1977) of America has brought the biodiversity problem 28. Chapter in which richness information data from six to the public forum and to the attention of temperate forest communities across North policymakers (Lubchenco and others 1991). America were analyzed for correlations across Additionally, the dialog has gone beyond the large spatial scales in species diversity within biological aspect of the diversity issue to include ecosystem and community structure. Other studies and quantify the economic benefits of a diverse have also followed a similar approach, either natural world (Freeman 1998). by aggregating several local studies scattered There has been much speculation about the across a region or by using abstract information impact of timber harvesting on forest biology, from flora listings by county (Currie 1991, Currie

most of it based on studies of small stands. Species Diversity Tree Monitoring and Paquin 1987, Monk 1967). Although such Application of a probability-based sample would efforts provide much-needed information, these provide meaningful insight into the status of any studies lack rigor because they are based on State’s forests. Some investigators have concluded nonprobability samples and because they have that the status of species diversity in U.S. forests too few plots (from a regional perspective). has improved dramatically during the last century Additionally, the data come from studies that (Salwasser and others 1992). Others are convinced poorly represent the whole of vegetation that the degradation of entire ecosystems is conditions and complexes across large areas. continuing (Noss and others 1994). No studies There have been few definitive descriptions or rigorous statistics that accurately document of diversity of temperate tree species in relation the status of biodiversity over large areas to disturbance over areas as large as a State. in the United States are available (LaRoe Only one study has attempted to evaluate these and others 1995, Noss and Cooperrider 1994, relationships over large geographic areas; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Stapanian and others (1997) used data from Forest 1990). Therefore, neither claim can be Service Forest Health Monitoring plots, but these supported rigorously. data were incomplete because only 14 States were Resources for tightly focused large-scale included in the program at the time of the study research efforts to evaluate trends in diversity are and because there were fewer than 150 forested lacking. Therefore, it seems appropriate to adapt plots (on average) for each State. It is questionable and employ existing large-scale data, particularly whether this small number of initial sample plots is if it is rigorously assembled, for the analysis of sufficient to represent an area as large and diverse diversity dynamics. Such data, although originally as a State. Additionally, such a small number of assembled for use in timber inventory studies and plots severely limits any attempt to poststratify quantitative interpretation, exist in the continuous the data. Since implementation of the Forest forest inventory records of the Forest Service, Health Monitoring Program has only recently Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA). These data, Southern Forest Science: 340 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity IN ASOUTHERNFOREST A CASESTUDY OFDIVERSITYTRENDS of Mississippi. of time.Below, weanalyzesuchdatafortheState a largespatialscaleoverconsiderableperiod demonstrate diversitytrendsanddynamicsover allow theirvaliditytobetested,canused which havebeencollectedunderconditionsthat of analyzingtherichnesscount bysampleunitwas onallofthesampleunits.Anadvantage occurring count istypicallythesumof differentspecies traditional practice,inwhich thespeciesrichness unit (fieldplot).Thiswasa departure from sample oneachsurvey different speciesoccurring species richness,definedasthetotalnumberof Rosson (2001).Thediversitymeasureusedwas design usedinMississippihasbeendescribedby sample oftheforestsurvey analysis. Anoverview diameter atbreastheightwereincludedinthe significance establishedatthe0.05-percentlevel. variance procedurewasusedforthetests,with statistics. Therepeatedmeasuresanalysis-of- and theundisturbedplotdatasetwithparametric and 1994,wastestedforboththetotalplotdataset measurementsmadein1967,1977,1987, survey difference intreespeciesdiversityoverthefour considered. Thenullhypothesis,thattherewasno measurementswere covered bythefoursurvey duringtheperiod that hadnotbeenharvested compared. Inthesecondphase,onlysampleplots measurementswere diversity forthefoursurvey poststratification criteria.Levelsoftreespecies sample wereconsideredwithoutanyregardto first phase,alloftheplotsinstatewide (Hairston 1989,Scheiner1993). experiment it isimpracticaltoconductatrue experiment—is usefulinsituationswhich disturbance asthemanipulationstageofan that oftreatingnaturaloranthropogenic were consideredthecontrol.Thismethodology— measurements duringthefoursurvey harvesting manipulation; plotsinwhichtherewasno considered ashavingundergoneexperimental were occurred plots inwhichtreeharvesting measurements (1967,1977,1987,and1994).Field collected overthelast35yearsduringfoursurvey FIA Programandconsistedoffieldplotdata D Only treeslargerthanorequalto12.7cmin The studyconsistedoftwophases.Inthe diversity overtime.Thedatawerefromthe aboutchangesintreespecies information ata forMississippiwereusedasasourceof Disturbance Background RESULTS ANDDISCUSSION and notabiologicalevent. reflect onlyauniquenessofthesampledesign, of onespeciesononlysampleplotmay ornonoccurrence a State.Theoccurrence across richness measuresreflectoverallshifts large-scale assessmentsitisimportantthat that theywillnotbedetectedbysampling.In percentage ofspeciesthatoccursoinfrequently ofspecies.Therewillalwaysbea entire spectrum (1948) hasshownhowsamplingfailstocapturethe species.Preston rare orinfrequentlyoccurring sampledesigndoesnotadequately survey intensity overalargescalemeansthattheforest important inthisstudybecausethelowsampling the lossofoneortwospecies.Thiswasespecially methodology reducedtheeffectofoverweighting parametric statisticaltests.Additionally, this that thisproceduremadeitpossibletoutilize Pike, Knoxville,TN 37919. Station, Forest and Analysis,4700OldKingston Inventory Research Manuscript inpreparation.Onfile with:Southern between1977 and1994.21p. Mississippi timberlandharvested State (fig.28.1)(seefootnote 2).Between1977and acreage waslowerinthenorthwestportionof across Mississippi,withtheexceptionthatclearcut may becomeshorterandshorter. cycles species inplantations.Inaddition,harvest Management programstypicallyfavoronlyone plantations. replaced withmonospecificsoftwood arefrequently natural standsthatareharvested on alteringtreespeciesdiversity. Thisisbecause hasthegreatestpotentialeffect Clearcutting often 1.6 millionhawereclearcut(seefootnote2). stand improvement. standtreatment suchasthinningor intermediate cuttinginan million haoftimberlandunderwent areas,another0.9 In additiontotheseharvested asdefinedbySmith(1962). and clearcutharvests, high-grade, methods), seedtree,shelterwood, (whichwouldincludevarious selection harvests arepartial rotation. Examplesoftypesharvests thereby markingthebeginningofanewstand proportion, ofthemanageablestandwasremoved, activityinwhichall,orahigh as anyharvesting B 2 Rosson,JamesF., Jr. standcharacteristics of Current The clearcutacreagewasspreadfairlyevenly inMississippi, Of the4.1millionhaharvested etween 1977and1994,4.1millionhaof form ofharvesting. form some Mississippi timberlandunderwent 2 A harvest wasdefined Aharvest In contrast, tree species richness means for sample units without any harvesting disturbance were 4.73, 5.86, 6.49, and 6.80 species per sample unit for 1967, 1977, 1987, and 1994, respectively (fig. 28.3). The increase in richness between 1967 and 1994 was highly significant (df = 552, p < 0.0001). Tree species richness for all sample units combined increased between 1967 and 1977. Thereafter, richness declined in every survey

5.2 341 n = 2,806 5.0

n = 2,958 4.8 Chapter 28. Chapter 4.6

n = 2,990 n = 3,180 Figure 28.1—Spatial distribution of clearcut 4.4 timberland in Mississippi. Each dot represents 500 ha of clearcut timberland, harvested Mean number of species per sample unit between 1977 and 1994. During this period, 4.2 1.6 million ha were clearcut. 1967 1977 1987 1994

1987, 0.6 million ha of new softwood plantations Field measurement (year) Monitoring Tree Species Diversity Tree Monitoring were established; another 0.4 million ha were Figure 28.2—Mean species richness per sample unit established between 1987 and 1994. Currently, for Mississippi, by survey year, for all sample units. The there is a total of 1.7 million ha in softwood error bars represent 2 standard errors of the mean. plantations throughout Mississippi.3 The direct effect of these monocultural plantations was to 8 reduce average tree species diversity in the State.

Tree Species Diversity Dynamics Mean tree species richness estimates, across 7 Mississippi, for all sample units combined were n = 553 4.53, 5.02, 4.82, and 4.49 species per sample unit n = 553 for survey years 1967, 1977, 1987, and 1994, 6 respectively (fig. 28.2). There was not a significant difference between richness in 1967 and richness n = 553 in 1994 (df = 2,805, p < 0.0617). The change in richness from 1977 to 1994 was highly significant 5 (df = 2,805, p < 0.0001); note that significant is (0.05 ≥ p > 0.01); very significant is (0.01 ≥ p > n = 553 0.001), and highly significant is (p ≤ 0.001) (Sokal Mean number of species per sample unit and Rohlf 1995). 4 1967 1977 1987 1994 Field measurement (year)

Figure 28.3—Mean species richness per sample unit 3 Rosson, James F., Jr. The status of forest plantations in for Mississippi, by survey year, for sample units that Mississippi, 1994. 30 p. Manuscript in preparation. On file with: had no evidence of harvesting disturbance during the Southern Research Station, Forest Inventory and Analysis, four survey measurements. The error bars represent 2 4700 Old Kingston Pike, Knoxville, TN 37919. standard errors of the mean. Southern Forest Science: 342 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity variation asmuch aspossibleimprovesthe rigorof biologicaldifferences, soreducingthis some true populations. Highlevelsof variation canmask of thevariationthatisinherent innatural for furtherdetails. of lessereconomicimportance).SeeRosson(1999) (when therewaslessemphasisontallyingspecies tomatchthoseofoldersurveys detailed, surveys grouping somespeciesfromtherecent,more periodswerethesame.Thismeant survey importantthat thespecieslistsforall also very basal-area prismfactorwasusedthroughout.Itis sample unitpointswereremeasuredandthesame throughout allfourmeasurements.Thesame importantly, thesampledesignremainedsame year.during eachsurvey Second,andmost First, thesamesampleunitswereremeasured statistically significant,basedonthefollowing. species richnesstobebothbiologicallyand 1993). Inourstudy, weconsiderthechangeintree andMangel1996,Krebs1989,Scheiner (Hilborn between biologicalandstatisticalsignificance has emphasizedtheimportanceofdistinction of thedifferencemaybetrivial.Recentliterature means withoutconsideringtheecologicalrelevance successional species. richness becausetheycontainearly, mid,andlate- midsuccessional stagesmayhavethehighest per plot.Someforeststandsthatarein succession willalsoaffectthenumberofspecies site, andstandhistory. Moreover, thestageof might includeownership(andownerobjectives), have affectedrichness.Examplesofsuchfactors could recognize thatfactorsotherthanharvesting species richnessinMississippi,andoneshould only applicablebenchmarkforpotentialtree design. Theundisturbedsampleunitswerethe of treespeciesrichnessforthisparticularsample healthylevel not knowwhatconstitutesanormal, baseline datawithwhichtocompareresults.We do complex becausethereisnoadequatesourceof of declineinspeciesrichness.Theanalysisis periodandthebeginningofanew recovery in 1977(fig.28.2)mayindicatetheendof began. Thepeakofmorethanfivespeciesperplot and 1970sthatanewwaveoftimberharvesting followed thatcutting.Itwasduringthelate1960s likely, beenincreasingthroughthedecadesthat that endedinthe1930s.Speciesrichnesshad,most period, wererecoveringfromtheheavycutting was thattheforestsofMississippi,within measurement. Onepossibleexplanationforthis Use ofremeasuredplotshelps eliminatemuch Demonstrating asignificantdifferencebetween LITERATURE CITED meaningful manner. monitoring canbeutilizedinarigorousand before theresultsoftreespeciesrichness Further workneedstobedoneintheseareas disturbances towhichtheyarebeingexposed. about theresiliencyofmixedforeststandsto richness variesnaturally. Finally, littleisknown do notknowthedegreetowhichtreespecies is toolowforanareaaslargeaState.Also,we whatleveloftreespeciesrichness for determining probably amajorcontributingfactor. disturbanceis harvesting time andthatconcurrent species richnesshasdeclinedsignificantlyover richness. Thestudyonlypointsoutthattree designed to,findacausalagentofdeclinein important tonotethatthestudydidnot,norwasit decline oftreespeciesrichness.However, itis disturbance isthemajorcontributingfactorin supportsthepremisethatharvesting harvesting increased significantlyonsampleunitswithout measurement. the 1977survey the overalldeclineintreespeciesrichnesssince all thesampleunitscombinedempiricallysupports comparison oftheundisturbedsampleunitswith intreesspeciesrichness.Finally,shifts the further supporttheevidenceofrealbiological lowstandarderror,size ofthesampleandavery (usually morethan3percent),togetherwiththe 1989). Second,themagnitudesofrichnesschange remeasuredsampleunits(Bonham of permanent, as densityandbasalarea,areprovidedbytheuse estimates ofvariablesusedtodetectchange,such others 1982).Inmonitoringstudies,thebest the study(HayekandBuzas1997,Husch Braun, E.L.1935.Thevegetation of PineMountain,Kentucky. vegetation. 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Chapter 29.

Population Growth and the Decline of Natural Southern Yellow Pine Forests

David B. South and INTRODUCTION 1 Edward R. Buckner opulation growth is the principal factor placing pressure on forest lands (Barlow P and others 1998; Wear and others 1998, 1999). In some cases, the effect is immediate as when naturally regenerated forests are Abstract—Population growth has created 347 social and economic pressures that affect the converted to developments, pastureland, sustainability of naturally regenerated southern rangeland, cropland, plantations, or other uses. In the United States, 11.7 million acres yellow pine forests. Major causes of this decline of forests were converted to developed land include (1) a shift in public attitudes regarding during the period from 1982 to 1997 (fig. 29.1). woods burning (from one favoring it to one Population growth also influences forests in that favors fire suppression) and (2) an increase subtle ways that take place over decades. The in land values (especially near urban centers). public generally overlooks gradual changes in The increase in land values reduces the chance species composition, even when millions of acres of farmland abandonment, which was common are affected. Naturally established southern in the first half of the 20th century. Abandoned yellow pines2 are disappearing over Eastern farmlands provided many of the sites for the North America. This trend is exacerbated by naturally regenerated pine stands that are being southern pine bark beetle (Dendroctonus harvested today. Also, higher land values and frontalis Zimmermann) epidemics. higher taxes put pressure on landowners to With the exception of spruce pine (Pinus subdivide their land for development or to glabra Walt.), southern yellow pines are intolerant establish more profitable tree plantations. of shade, and exposed mineral soil is generally These population-related factors and outbreaks required for their successful establishment. Pines of the southern pine bark beetle have resulted were often the primary tree cover over much of in a decline in naturally regenerated southern the Southeast when the first historians recorded pines of more than 38 million acres since plant names. However, during the second half of the 20th century, the combined effects of fire 1953. As population pressures reduce the incidence of wildfire, prescribed burning, and the abandonment of old fields, the decline 14 in naturally regenerated southern yellow pine 12 will continue. By 2030, only 23 million acres of natural southern yellow pine may remain. 10 8

6

4

2 Deforestation (million acres) Deforestation (million 1 Professor, Auburn University, School of Forestry 0 and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn, AL 36849; and Professor Developed Other Pasture- Range- Cropland Emeritus, The University of Tennessee, Department land land of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries, Knoxville, TN 37996, respectively. New land use 2 For the purpose of this chapter, the southern yellow pines are defined as eight members of the genus Pinus Figure 29.1—The conversion of forested land to other (subsection Australes Loud.) plus sand pine and Virginia land uses in the United States from 1982 to 1997 (U.S. pine. “Natural” stands of pine are those that are regenerated Department of Agriculture, Forest Service 2001). by seedfall and not by direct seeding or planting. Southern Forest Science: 348 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity slash pine( pine timberland yellow resulted inadeclinenaturalsouthern to plantationsofloblollypine( hardwoods, andconversionofold-fieldpinestands suppression, increasesinnaturallyregenerated statute oradministrative regulation. other areasthatare withdrawnfromtimberutilization by wood. Thisdoesnot includepineforestsinnational parksor pine andwhicharecapableofproducing cropsofindustrial more ofthevolumeiscomposed naturallyregenerated replace pines. regeneration andallowshardwoodsto absence offiresdiscouragesnaturalpine aspopulationdensityincreases.The burns foresters findithardertoconductprescribed 1,000 personspersquaremile.Inaddition, regeneration firethancountieswithmore mile willlikelyhaveahigherprobabilityof population densitiesof<6personspersquare is relatedtopopulationdensity. Countieswith ofmorethan1,000acres number ofwildfireburns density. South (the author)hypothesizesthatthe management offireisrelatedtohumanpopulation to protecttheseassetsfromwildfireincreases.The since 1950.Aspropertyvaluesincrease,theneed the woods”inSouthhasincreaseddramatically W FIRE ANDPOPULATION GROWTH eachyear.of thewoodharvested forests,theyprovidemorethanhalf southern plantations representabout14percentofthe more productivethannaturalstands.Although million acres).Thisisbecausepineplantationsare yellowpineforeststoday(insteadof63 of southern we estimatethattherewouldbe<30millionacres and notusedherbicidesprescribedburning, by anestimated30millionacres(table29.1). agriculturallands) havealsoincreased on former (fig. 29.3).Pineplantations(manyestablished have increasedbymorethan25millionacres stands increased. Oak-pineandoak-hickory styraciflua ( ( 34 millionacresin1997(fig.29.2).Incontrast,oak 3 Acer rubrum Acer rubrum Quercus Natural pinetimberland:standsin which50percentor If forestershadnotplantedpineseedlings hen populationsofcountiesincrease, increases. Also,thenumberofhouses“in value oflandandtimberinthosecounties spp.), hickory ( spp.),hickory L.),andotherhardwoodshave P. elliottii L.), sweetgum( 3 from 72millionacresin1953to Engelm.var. Carya P. Liquidambar spp.),redmaple

taeda elliottii L.)and

) have the period, ashumanswerenotpartofthisecosystem. and timbervolumeswerenotmadeduringthis judgments aboutspeciestypes,standorigin, viable populationsofthesespecies.Value Mill.) arenotserotinous,fireshelpedtomaintain ( shortleaf pine( Although theconesofloblollypine,slash were stronglytiedtofirefrequencyandintensity. of successfulnaturalregenerationthesespecies genotypes evolvedserotinouscones.Thechances Lamb.), andsomepitchpine( Vasey exSarg.],Table Mountainpine( pine [ such aspondpine( adapted toavarietyoffireregimes.Somepines yellowpines volcanoes. IntheSoutheast,southern fires werestartedbylightningandoccasionally Before Humans Stands (million acres) Timberland (million acres) P. palustris Before humanssettledNorthAmerica,forest 20 40 60 80 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 9016 9018 902000 1990 1980 1970 1960 1950 P. clausa Department of Agriculture, Forest Service 2001). and pineplantation stands from 1953to 1997(U.S. Figure 29.3—Increases inoak-hickory, oak-pine, Wear andGreis 2002). Department of Agriculture, Forest Service 1988; southern yellow pinetimberlandintheSouth(U.S. Figure 29.2—Actual andpredicted declineof natural 9018 0022 2040 2020 2000 1980 1960 Oak-hickory Mill.),andVirginia pine( var. P. echinata P. serotina clausa Oak-pine (Chapm.exEngelm.) Year Mill.),longleafpine Year Michx.),Ocalasand P. rigida Pine plantations P. virginiana Mill.) P. pungens Table 29.1—Changes in timberland area over a 44-year period for selected species in the United States

Region Stand type 1953 1997 Change Change

- - - - million acres - - - - %

South Longleaf and slash 26.9 13.1 -13.8 -51 South Loblolly, shortleaf, and others 51.8 49.7 -2.1 -4 North Loblolly, pitch, shortleaf, Virginia 3.6 2.3 -1.3 -36

South Longleaf 12.2 2.8 -9.4 -77 South Loblollya 35.6 39.1 +3.5 +10 South Shortleafa 7.8 4.7 -3.1 -40 South Slash 14.7 10.3 -4.4 -30 349 South Virginia, pond, pitch, sanda 8.4 5.9 -2.5 -30 South Southern yellow pine timberland total 78.7 62.8 -15.9 -20

South Oak-pine 24.0 29.8 +5.8 +24 29. Chapter South Oak-hickory 54.9 74.3 +19.4 +35 South Oak-gum-cypress 34.5 28.5 -6.0 -17 South Oak total 113.4 132.6 +19.2 +10

South All timberland 204.5 201.0 -3.5 -2

a Acreages are estimates made by the authors. Note: Timberland does not include land in national parks or wilderness areas where timber harvesting to produce crops of industrial wood is not allowed due to statute or administrative regulation. The total of forest land and plantations in the South was 226 million acres in 1953 and 214 million acres in 1997 (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service 2001).

Source: Outcalt and Sheffield (1996); Smith and others (2001); U.S. Department of Agriculture, Pine Forests Yellow Southern Natural Forest Service (1988).

Prehistoric Cultural Impacts Early European Settlement Fires in the South As humans moved into North America European explorers who traveled along the from Asia 12,000 years ago, they brought fire eastern coast of North America frequently saw with them as a cultural tool. They often burned fires and thick smoke. When Europeans settled both grasslands and woods. These activities along the east coast, most adopted the practice “superimposed a new and extensive fire regime of burning the woods. “Perhaps nowhere else in over the existing natural one” (Pyne 1982). Fire the country were Indian burning practices more was employed to replace forests with grasslands thoroughly adopted and maintained than in the and thereby support grassland browsers as a food piney woods, in the remote hills, and on the sandy source. Fire was also used as an aid to hunting, soils . . .” of the South (Pyne 1982). Pyne (1982) as a tactical weapon, as a method of weed control, further claims that and sometimes in hope of altering weather (Pyne Early settlers on the coastal plains 1982). Blankets were used to extinguish accidental learned broadcast burning from local fires in lodges and villages. Backfires were set tribes. As they moved inland, crossing to keep wildfires from reaching villages. There some of the premier fire regimes of North are no references supporting the idea that early America, pioneers carried their fire habits inhabitants of North America suppressed wildfires with them. The northern woods might be in forests. cleared and settled without fire, but not the southern rough. Skill in broadcast Southern Forest Science: 350 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity Service 1980). Service in 1978(U.S.Departmentof Agriculture,Forest Theaveragefiresizewasabout13acres burned. < 0.4percentoftheSouth’s forestlandisnow annually.about 1millionacresburned Eachyear, on protectedareasoftheSouth.By1999,only annually. In1917,14millionacreswereburned was adeclineinthetotalareaofwoodsburned employed tosuppressfirealsogrew. Theresult and thePacific States(3,135). States(2,589) other regionssuchastheEastern in 1980).Thiswasfarmorethanoccurred Service South (U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest firesinthe In 1978,therewere35,850incendiary Department ofAgriculture,Forest 1980). Service firesroseto55percent(U.S. for incendiary In comparison,the5-yearaverage(1973–78) South equatesto39percentofallwildfires. firesinthe average (1917–66)forincendiary of Agriculture,Forest 1968).The50-year Service fires(U.S.Department the numberofincendiary increase inpopulation,therewasan 20 throughout mostofthe20 woods arson,itcontinuedtobeacommonpractice th As populationsgrew, thenumberofpeople Even thoughlawswerepassedthatpenalized Century Fires inSouthernForests continuance ofwoodsburning. socioeconomic environmentforthe thatcreateda United States,apattern itdisappearedelsewhereinthe long after offrontiereconomy to sustainthispattern social, andhistoricaleventsthatworked however, wastheconfluenceofeconomic, England. WhatmadetheSouthspecial, housesinNew as fishpondsdidforrural protective backfires-doingdoubleduty, firebreaks andaspointsforigniting actedas yards aroundwoodenstructures architecture offrontiercabins:thecleared Fire protectionwasevenbuiltintothe the firesthatothersweresuretolight. homesteaders toprotectthemselvesfrom to industriallogging,anditwasusedby naval storesoperations,theantecedent It wasemployedforfuelreductionin maintenance, andforrangeimprovement. landclearing, forhuntingandhabitat agrarian economyreliedonit-for nearlyalldimensionsofsouthern survival: frontier fire wasessentialtosouthern th century. With an POPULATION GROWTH ANDHARVESTS equilibrium.” to reacha“natural would suggestthatforestfiresshouldbeallowed cabins goupinsmoke.Asaresult,fewbiologists We certainlydonotwishtoseeourhomesand itisconsidereda“badfireyear.”acres burn, has increasedtothepointthatwhen7million human investments.Suppressionofwildfires and arsonfiresarerapidlyextinguishedtoprotect Man andtheBiosphere1996).Today, natural Appalachian forest isagoodidea”(Southern “Using fireasamanagementtoolinthenational respondents disagreedwiththestatement, showedthatamajorityof a 1996survey in theenvironmenthasdecreased.For example, population increased,theacceptabilityoffire havechanged.As toward woodsburning INCREASE INHARDWOODS from pinetohardwoods. willfavorsuccession a reductioninharvesting management toobtainnaturalpineregeneration, regeneration. Intheabsenceofwildfireand and theacreageinearlystagesofnaturalpine land willreduceboththeacreageharvested mile (Wear andothers1998).Adeclineinforest increases from40to990peoplepersquare from 70to30percentasthepopulationlevel percentage ofacountyintimberlandmightdecline and others1998,1999).InNorthCarolina,the southern yellowpinetypescombined. southern foresttype(fig.29.4)istwicethatofall hickory types. Currently, theacreageofnaturaloak- stand stand typestooak-pineoroak-hickory stands willresultinadditional conversionofpine aversion totheuseoffireandherbicidesinpine 50 percentormoreofthebasalarea).Continued into oak-pinestands(inwhichhardwoodsmakeup likely converted5millionacresofpinestands than 25millionacres.Ingrowthofhardwoods andoak-pinestandtypestotalsmore hickory 1953 (table29.1).Since1953,theincreaseinoak- in theacreageofuplandhardwoodstandssince and South1984),therehavebeenlargeincreases or hickoriesareplantedintheSouth(Boyer Even thoughrelativelyfewoaks,redmaples, A T Over recentdecades,publicattitudes reduction in the acreage burned results reductionintheacreageburned to theregion’spopulationdensity(Wear inaregionisnegatively related harvesting pineswhilethatofhardwoodsincreases. inadecreasenaturalregenerationof he amountofforestlandavailablefortimber 150 Private INCREASE IN PLANTATIONS Industry Public n 1926, there were only about 3,000 acres Forest Service 100 of pine plantations in the South. By 1953, I pine plantations occupied 2 million acres, and plantation acreage increased to more than 32 50 million acres by 1999 (Wear and Greis 2002). Today, approximately 17 percent of forest land in the South is in pine plantations. Even though Timberland (million acres) 0 pine plantation acreage has increased by 33 million Longleaf-slash Loblolly-shortleaf Oak-hickory acres since 1953, pine types have declined by about pine pine 16 million acres (table 29.1). This decrease is due Forest-type group largely to the inaction of nonindustrial private landowners (Alig and others 1986) who do not Figure 29.4—Acreage of naturally regenerated use artificial or managed natural regeneration to 351 longleaf-slash pine, loblolly-shortleaf pine, and oak- maintain their land in pine-dominated ecosystems. hickory forests in the Eastern United States in 1997 by ownership class (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural regeneration of pines after harvesting can Forest Service 2001). be difficult without fire, herbicides, or mechanical site preparation. High-grading is a common harvesting method Pine plantations have been established widely on private lands. For example, a landowner might on former farmland. The Soil Bank Program was 29. Chapter remove all of a stand’s merchantable pines, leaving responsible for the stabilization of 1.9 million acres 25 percent of the stand’s original basal area of mostly “worn out” farmland between 1956 and in low-quality hardwoods. The resulting stand 1961. During the 1980s, the Conservation Reserve would be reclassified as an oak-hickory forest type. Program stimulated widespread establishment This trend is much greater on lands owned by of pine plantations. This effort was responsible individuals than on land owned by industry (Alig for the planting of more than 2.6 million acres on and others 1986). Since most of the land in the farmland. In addition, subsidy programs helped East is owned and managed by private individuals to establish more than 180,000 acres of longleaf (fig. 29.4), there has been an overall decline pine plantations on farmland. Between 1982 and in southern yellow pine since 1953 (table 29.1). 1997 more than 22 million acres of afforestation About 60 percent of the forest acreage harvested occurred on former pastureland, cropland, and Pine Forests Yellow Southern Natural annually in the South is harvested by methods rangeland (fig. 29.5). A large portion of this was other than clearcutting (U.S. Department of from artificial regeneration. Of the 30.3 million Agriculture, Forest Service 2001), but this acres of pine plantations that existed in 1997, at percentage is higher on privately owned lands. least 2.7 million acres were afforested through Only about 1 percent of the forest area in Government incentive programs. We estimate the South is clearcut annually (Rudis 1998). that by 1997, more than 5 million acres of southern Even-aged regeneration harvesting on national forests in the Southern Appalachian region is declining (Southern Appalachian Man and the 14 Biosphere 1996). 12

Southern pine beetles generally kill pines 10 that are under stress caused by drought or from 8 high-stocking levels or both. Droughts increase the incidence of outbreaks, but overstocking is 6 often the prime factor that weakens the pines 4 (Ku and others 1980). The absence of management practices to control stocking will increase the risk acres) Afforestation (million 2 of mortality from southern pine beetles. Recently, 0 thousands of acres of natural pines have been Pastureland Cropland Rangeland Rural land killed throughout the South. Former land use

Figure 29.5—The afforestation of nonforested land to timberland in the United States from 1982 to 1997 (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service 2001). Southern Forest Science: 352 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity pine plantations (table29.2).Establishing pine acres ofslashpineplantations thanVirginia be duetotheexistenceofabout 7millionmore regeneration ofslashpine. This maysimply (table 29.2),thereismuchmore natural stands isaboutthesameas forVirginia pine although theareasupportingnaturalslashpine regeneration ofadjacentareas.For example, that pineplantationsprovideseedtreesfor overlooked for thatspecies(fig.29.6).Itisoften amount ofyoungnaturalregenerationrecorded amount oflandsupportingapinespeciesandthe is small. Table Mountain pine,andtheirnaturalstandarea pineand there arefewornoplantationsofspruce predominant speciesinnaturalstands.Incontrast, accounts formostplantations,anditisalsothe are listedbyspeciesintable29.2.Loblollypine Greis 2002). will beafforestedbytheyear2040(Wear and an additional23millionacresofagriculturalland nonsubsidized programs.Somepredictthat and afforestation underGovernment-assisted yellow pineplantationshadbeenestablishedby There appearstobearelationshipbetween Acreages inplantationsandnaturalstands pue3,1 946—9 10 30 50 7 276 28 99 35 b others (2002). — 100 438,254 a — 238,067 39,416 676,321 92,830 39,416 92,830 Pitch Sand Table Mountain Spruce stands for themid-21 Mapmaker Version 1.0:runOctober 15,2001),andtheauthors’ predicted declineinnatural number of Forest Inventory andAnalysissurvey plots(data generated from Forest Inventory Table 29.2—Acres of southernyellow pinesintheEastern United States duringthe1990s, pce oa tnssad tnsposstands plots stands stands stands Total Species ls 0720133515736973 ,9 25 20 35 50 50 45 3,495 361 9,680 920 1,142 31 864 45 99 91 92 7,386,917 21,334,218 5,742 83 484,695 260,931 3,335,145 17,860,361 473,290 39,385,704 10,722,061 4,837,941 3,163,475 910,732 5,322,636 2,346,513 3,424,405 916,474 2,819,804 Loblolly Slash Shortleaf Virginia Longleaf Pond Thetotal declineof natural pinestands isbasedonpredictions by Wear andGreis (2002)andAlig and Assumesnoartificiallyregenerated stands of pitch pineinNew Jersey. oa 424473,5,4 042415 69838 16,938 52 30,412,411 33,650,942 64,254,477 Total b ce ecn ubrpercent number percent - acres - 5,2 2,6 8349 6 50 165 97 28,364 826,462 854,826 st century a aua eddNtrlSre natural Survey Natural seeded Natural lne rPredicted Planted or Natural regeneration (million acres) pine stands(Rudis andSkinner1991).Both were evidentinonly35percentofthenatural duringthepast10years,whilefireeffects burned plantations showedevidencethattheyhadbeen the 1980s,about54percentofyellowpine in plantationsthannaturalstands.During of subsequentnaturalregenerationpines. on uplandhardwoodsitesincreasesthechance and plantations onwhatwaspreviouslyfarmland iet declineof direct- The useofprescribedfireismorelikely 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.2 1.4 1.0 0 for five southernyellow pines. amount of natural regeneration (age class1to 5years) Figure 29.6—Theamount of landinpine stands and Shortleaf pine Longleaf pine Slash pine Virginia pine Loblolly pine 02 040 30 20 10 Stands (millionacres) percentages will likely decline as the population During the 1990s, the area in natural yellow of rural counties increases. Public opinion, risk pine was as follows: 2.3 million acres of longleaf of liability, smoke regulation, and residential pine, 3.3 million acres of slash pine, 4.6 million developments are important barriers to burning acres of shortleaf pine, and 17.8 million acres of on private lands in the South (Haines and loblolly pine (table 29.2). Alig and others (2002) others 2001). predicted a 38-percent decline for all the southern pines by the mid-21st century. We took their REDUCED PINE REGENERATION prediction and subdivided it by species (table 29.2). hen yellow pine stands remain unburned for about 10 years, hardwoods such as oaks, Spruce Pine W hickories, and red maple become abundant Spruce pine is the rarest southern pine in the understory (Wahlenberg 1960). Where fire species in terms of total number of trees, total continues to be excluded and no action is taken to volume, and number of acres. Since supporting reduce the ingrowth of hardwoods, the basal area data are not readily available, we do not know 353 represented by pines declines as that of hardwoods if the population of spruce pine is increasing or increases. The area classified as oak-pine (where declining. However, the standing volume of spruce pine makes up 25 to 50 percent of the stocking) pine increased from about 464 million cubic feet increased by 24 percent between 1953 and 1997 in 1963 (Sternitzke and Nelson 1970) to about 587 (table 29.1). This accounts for an estimated million cubic feet in 1993. So far, few are concerned about the reproductive success of this species since 5.8 million acres of the decline in natural pine. 29. Chapter Approximately 4.5 million acres of pine plantations it is classified as very shade tolerant. In addition, now have more than 50 percent of their basal area it is highly susceptible to fire and is naturally in hardwoods (Rosson 1995). adapted to areas where fire is infrequent. A small decline in natural spruce pine acreage over the Since 1953, acreage in oak-hickory stands has next 50 years could result from development and increased by almost 20 million acres (table 29.1). from utilization of this species as a less expensive Practices that have caused this include (1) fire source of wood for finishing material. exclusion, (2) high-grading of pine-hardwood stands, and (3) harvesting of pine stands without Table Mountain Pine replanting pines or implementing successful Many Table Mountain pines on western and measures to naturally regenerate pine. In spite

northern exposures have serotinous cones that Pine Forests Yellow Southern Natural of tree planting efforts over the past 44 years, open only when exposed to high temperatures. the acreage in loblolly-shortleaf-longleaf-slash Fire exclusion will cause continued decline of pine cover types has declined by more than 15 this species (Southern Appalachian Man and million acres (table 29.1). Although forest the Biosphere 1996). Prescribed burning can industries plant seedlings to keep their land in be conducted to encourage natural regeneration, pines, practices used by private nonindustrial but only certain types of burns will be effective landowners have favored the conversion of pine (Welch and Waldrop 2001). Although prescribed stands to hardwoods. burns may be attempted on public lands where Forest Inventory and Analysis data were used population levels are low, it is doubtful that to determine the distribution of stand-age classes prescribed burns will be conducted on private for natural stands of several southern yellow pines lands that are close to residential areas. For these (fig. 29.7). These data indicate a peak in natural reasons, we believe that this species is the most pine regeneration between 1930 and 1950 threatened of the southern yellow pines. Although (equivalent to age classes 40 to 60). A more recent inventory data suggest that there has been an peak during the 1980s can be observed for loblolly increase in the numbers of Table Mountain pine pine and slash pine. To some extent it is also (table 29.3), this difference might be related to evident for longleaf pine. This recent peak may having a small number of sample plots (28) and the be due to the abandonment of pastureland, and to use of sampling methods that do not distinguish some extent to the Conservation Reserve Program between ingrowth and ongrowth. In the absence (which takes cropland out of production). Some of major wildfires, a 50-percent decline in Table of the “natural” regeneration may have occurred Mountain pine might occur by 2050. on abandoned agricultural fields that were adjacent to loblolly or slash pine plantations. Southern Forest Science: 354 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity

Pine stands (thousand acres) Pine stands (thousand acres) Pine stands (thousand acres) 1,000 1,200 100 150 200 250 100 150 200 250 200 400 600 800 50 50 0 0 0 in the0-to 10-year age classby thenumberof acres inage class41to 50years. The numberoneach graph represents theratio obtained by dividing thenumberof acres Figure 29.7—Acreage of natural even-aged pinestands by speciesand5-year age classes. 5 5 10 5 10 10 15 15 15 20 20 20 25 25 25 30 30 30 35 35 35 40 40 40 45 45 45 Age class 50 50 50 55 55 55 60 60 60 65 65 65 70 70 70 Shortleaf 0.30 Longleaf 0.54 Loblolly 1.54 75 75 75 80 80 80 85 85 85 90 90 90 95 95 95 100 100 100 1,000 1,200 100 150 200 250 100 150 200 250 50 50 200 400 600 800 0 0 0 5 5 10 10 5 10 15 15 15 20 20 20 25 25 25 30 30 30 35 35 35 40 40 40 45 45 45 Age class 50 50 50 55 55 55 60 60 60 65 65 65 70 70 70 75 75 75 Virginia 0.37 80 Pond 0.46 Slash 0.90 80 80 85 85 85 90 90 90 95 95 95 100 100 100 Table 29.3—Inventory of Table Mountain burning as a tool for managing the Pine Barrens. pine growing stock by diameter class for By 2050, we expect a 50-percent decline in natural two periods pitch pine as a consequence of development.

D.b.h. class About 1977 1989–99 Pond Pine Confined to the lower Coastal Plain from - - - - - million trees ------Virginia to Florida, pond pine is an ecological enigma. Its serotinous cones and sprouting ability 6 5.6 8.6 attests to its dependence on fire for regeneration, 8 4.3 5.8 yet it exists in pocosins and swamps. These 10 2.2 3.7 traits identify intense fires at long intervals 12 1.4 2.2 as the primary regeneration vector. The Pond 14 0.9 1.6 Pine Wilderness Area was established in North 16 0.3 0.4 Carolina in 1984 and contains 1,685 acres. Because 18 0.08 0.05 355 this area is in an isolated location, development 20 0.02 0.03 will have little effect on new regeneration. Source: Della-Blanca (1990); 1989–99 data (28 However, if intense wildfire is excluded from plots) generated from Forest Inventory Mapmaker this region, a gradual decline could occur over Version 1.0: run October 15, 2001. the next half century.

Longleaf Pine 29. Chapter Sand Pine Natural longleaf pine has excellent wood In central Florida, there are many even-aged properties, and as a result is a preferred species stands of Ocala sand pine that regenerated at many sawmills. Good seed crops are infrequent naturally after wildfire. Sand pine was not utilized and several years may be required before forest or planted much before World War II, but planting managers achieve successful natural regeneration began around 1956 when 8,000 seedlings were of longleaf stands. Even when afforestation is grown at a nursery in Florida (Sampson 1973). attempted on former cropland that has no Today, more than 60 percent of the stands of hardwood competition, success rates are sand pine are plantations established mainly by sometimes less than desired. These factors have

planting. The Choctawhatchee variety occurs in encouraged landowners who harvest longleaf pine Pine Forests Yellow Southern Natural the panhandle of northwest Florida and is rarely to plant other pine species. As a result, longleaf planted. Recently, some natural pine stands have pine timberland has declined by 77 percent in just been replaced by longleaf pine plantations. Rapid 44 years (table 29.1). A Longleaf Pine Alliance has urbanization of the Florida landscape could result been established to slow the rate of decline. Even in a 30-percent decline in natural sand pine though this organization encourages landowners acreage by 2050 (table 29.2). to manage for longleaf pine, we predict that natural longleaf pine will continue to decline as Pitch Pine a consequence of fire exclusion and a lack of effort Cones of pitch pine at the north end of its range to obtain adequate natural regeneration. We tend to be serotinous, while this trait disappears predict a 45-percent decline in acreage of natural in the southern end of the range. In 1978, the stands over the next 50 years (table 29.2). National Parks and Recreation Act established 1.1 million acres in New Jersey as the Pinelands Virginia Pine National Preserve. Organizations like The Nature This species was important to the stabilization Conservancy and the New Jersey Conservation of badly eroded fields following agricultural Foundation continue to purchase property within abandonment after the Great Depression. Today, the borders of the preserve while the Pinelands many of these naturally regenerated stands are Preservation Alliance alerts the public to being replaced by hardwoods. Virginia pine will developments within the preserve. The New continue to decline over the next several decades, Jersey Forest Fire Service has the task of although small groups and individual trees will prescribed burning the Pine Barrens. It will be become established in disturbed areas. Except interesting to learn how effective legislation will for use as Christmas trees, planting of this species be in slowing development and keeping prescribed by landowners is rare. Although there may be over Southern Forest Science: 356 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity However, naturalstandsofslashpine(var. established adjacenttoexisting plantations. standsarebeing be becausemanynew“natural” pines.Thismay among thelowestofsouthern more commonvarietyofslashpinemightbe plantations, therateofdeclineinacreage hardwood competition,andconversionto will continuetodeclineasaresultofdevelopment, regeneration. Whiletheacreageofnaturalstands these asstandsshowingnosignsofartificial willlikelyclassify plantation, futuresurveys some genesfromthegeneticallyimproved to plantations.Althoughthesestandswillcontain stands willdevelopfromseedonareasadjacent have beenreplacedbyplantations.Somefuture foreconomicreasonsand have beenharvested outside ofitsnaturalrange.Manystands Georgia, andmanyplantationscanbefound inFloridaand been favoredbyforestindustry and goodwoodqualitytraits,thisspecieshas Slash Pine hardwoods andbyloblollypineplantations. decline duetoreplacementofshortleafby more thanhalfofthebasalareawillcontinueto the acreageonwhichshortleafpineconstitutes will continuetobefoundthroughoutitsrange, previously (fig.29.7).Althoughindividualtrees regeneration isabout70percentlessthan The mostrecentinventoriessuggestnatural of shortleafthanclearcuttingandburning. will likelyresultinlessnaturalregeneration andindividualtreeselection, as shelterwood touch”regenerationtechniques,such of “soft will continuetobenaturalregeneration,use Althoughthere timberharvesting. pine after shortleaf pinehavebeenreplantedwithloblolly pine seedlings.Manyareasthatsupported tended tobelowerthanthatforlargerloblolly planting ofthesmallerseedlingsafter and survival grownathighseedbeddensities, pine wasoften Arkansas hasbeenreducedsince1985.Shortleaf U.S. DepartmentofAgricultureForest in Service by forestindustry. Also,theplantingrateby it isvaluedasasawtimbertree,rarelyplanted yellowpinespecies.Although distributed southern Shortleaf Pine (table 29.2). that fewerthan1.6millionacreswillexistby2050 3 millionacresofnaturalstandstoday, wepredict and lowlevels ofnaturalregeneration. will likelydeclineduetohousing development Because slashpinehasrapidearlygrowth Shortleaf pineisthemostwidelynaturally densa ) PREDICTIONS highways, andeveninplantations. limit theuseofherbicidesaroundhomes,near populationswilllikely increase inurbanandrural to promotenaturalregenerationofpines,an others 2001).Althoughherbicidescouldbeused intheSoutheachyear(Hainesand burned (< 3percentofourforestland)areprescribed as amanagementtool.About4.1millionacres liability suits)aregraduallyeliminatingfire air regulations,housingdevelopments,and ofclean as populationpressures(intheform feweracreseachyear foresters areburning to manipulatespeciescomposition.However, In somecases,bothfireandherbicidesareused sometimes substituteforprescribedburning. of prescribedfire,butcertainherbicidescan herbicides arenotidenticalwiththeeffects P HERBICIDES INPLACE OFFIRE widespread (table29.2). perhaps becauseloblollyplantationsarevery common nowasitwasduringthe1950s(fig.29.7), regeneration ofloblollypineappearstobeas commonly plantedtreeintheregion.Natural foreseeable future,itwillcontinuetobethemost with whichithasbeencompared.Intothe upland sitesintheSouththanotherspecies years, ittypicallyproducesmorebiomasson conditions, andtrialshaveshownthatatage20 in theWorld. Loblollydoeswellonarangeofsite are plantedeachyearthananyothertreespecies Pine Loblolly sell largetractsforresidential development forest fragmentationas productscompanies economically productive.Taxation canresultin encouraged toseekways makethelandmore from theirnaturalpinestands, ownerswillbe equal orexceedtherevenue landownersget on forestlandexceeds$25peracre.Whentaxes pressure onpineforests.Insomeareasannualtax and propertytaxeswillincrease,placingadditional percent. Asthepopulationincreases,landvalues the U.S.populationispredictedtoincreaseby67 this increaseinurbanareas.Duringperiod, double between1996and2046,with70percentof B It islikelythatmoreseedlingsofthisspecies etween 1990and2000,thepopulationof and preparingseedbeds.Theeffectsof viable bysuppressingcompetinghardwoods cankeeppineecosystems rescribed burning the population of the 13 Southern Stateswill the populationof13Southern Georgia increasedby25percent.Somepredict (Flick and Newman 1999). After forest land is of natural pine stands, a reduction of tree planting transferred to individual private landowners, after logging of natural pine forests, a reduction in many will choose not to establish new forests with tree planting after wildfires, an increase in the use either natural or artificial regeneration methods. of herbicides to favor natural pine regeneration, and the abandonment of pastureland or cropland. Population pressures over the South will Pressures from increased urban and rural continue to increase into the foreseeable populations will discourage the implementation future. This will result in an increase in forest of most of these factors. As a result, the loss of fragmentation (Rudis 1998). The presence of more natural pine ecosystems will continue at an houses in forested landscapes will be especially alarming rate. threatening to pine management strategies. Some people living in these new homes will ACKNOWLEDGMENTS want clean air (no smoke from prescribed burns), no wildfires, no use of herbicides, and no chipping he authors wish to thank the U.S. Depart- of hardwoods. Some will want to establish forest ment of Agriculture Forest Service, Forest 357 “preserves,” and succession in these preserves T Inventory and Analysis, for use of the will favor hardwoods at the expense of natural online version of the Forest Inventory pine stands. Mapmaker Program. Alig and others (1986) reported that natural LITERATURE CITED pine stands in the South decreased at a rate of Alig, R.J.; Knight, H.A.; Birdsey, R.A. 1986. Recent area 29. Chapter about 1.2 million acres per year between 1977 and changes in southern forest ownerships and cover types. 1985. They predict there will be 20 million acres in Res. Pap. SE–260. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of natural yellow pine timberland in the South in Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 10 p. 2030. This represents a decline of 20 million acres over a 45-year period (or 450,000 acres per year). Alig, R.J.; Mill, J.; Butler, B. 2002. Private timberlands growing demands, shrinking land base. Journal of Forestry. 100(2): Others predict a decline of 23 million acres by 2030 32–37. (fig. 29.1). The rate of decline is not expected to be Barlow, S.A.; Munn, I.A.; Cleaves, D.A.; Evans, D.L. 1998. as great in the future as it was between 1977 and The effect of urban sprawl on timber harvesting: a look at 1985. Although one computer model suggests the two Southern States. Journal of Forestry. 96(12): 10–14. acreage of natural pines might increase by 45 Boyer, J.N.; South, D.B. 1984. Forest nursery practices in the percent by midcentury (Zhou and others 2003), South. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 8: 67–75. Pine Forests Yellow Southern Natural this scenario is based on mathematics and not on Della-Bianca, L. 1990. Table Mountain pine. In: Burns, the opinions of foresters. R.M.; Honkala, B.H., tech. coord. Silvics of North America. A Longleaf Pine Alliance has been established Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 425–432. Vol. 1. to help slow the decline in the acreage of longleaf pine. However, we believe that Table Mountain Flick, W.A.; Newman, D.H. 1999. Tax code just fuels sprawl. Atlanta Journal–Constitution. Dec. 11. http:// pine is the most threatened of the southern yellow www.forestry.uga.edu/warnell/html/taxcode.html. [Date pines. Professor South predicts a “Table Mountain accessed: July 14, 2003]. Pine Alliance” will be formed in the future. Haines, T.K.; Busby, R.L.; Cleaves, D.A. 2001. Prescribed We do not expect that important causal factors burning in the South: trends, purpose, and barriers. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 24: 149–153. will change in ways that will favor an increase in the rate of natural pine regeneration. Except Ku, T.T.; Sweeney, J.M.; Shelburne, V.B. 1980. Site and stand for loblolly pine and slash pine, the acreage in new conditions associated with southern pine beetle outbreaks in Arkansas—a hazard-rating system. Southern Journal of natural pine stands (age class 0 to 10 years) is Applied Forestry. 4: 103–106. < 60 percent of that for age class 41 to 50 years Outcalt, K.W.; Sheffield, R.M. 1996. The longleaf pine forest: (fig. 29.7). This ratio is only 30 percent for trends and current conditions. Resour. Bull. SRS–9. shortleaf pine. If these trends continue, there Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest will be significantly fewer natural stands of Service, Southern Research Station. 23 p. shortleaf pine, longleaf pine, Virginia pine, and Pyne, S.J. 1982. Fire in America: a cultural history of wildland pond pine in the year 2030. and rural fire. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 654 p. Factors that might contribute to an increase Rosson, J.F. 1995. Forest plantations in the Midsouth. Res. Pap. in natural regeneration of pines include large SO–290. New Orleans: U.S. Department of Agriculture, wildfires after droughts, an increase in prescribed Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 30 p. burning, an increase in the average rotation age Southern Forest Science: 358 Past, Present, and Future Biodiversity U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest 1980.1978 Service. U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest 1968.1966 Service. H.S.;Nelson,T.C.Sternitzke, pines 1970.Thesouthern AppalachianManandtheBiosphere(SAMAB).1996. Southern Smith, W.B.; Vissage, J.S.;Darr, D.R.;Sheffield,R.M.2001. Sampson, O.R. practicesusedforsandpine.In: 1973.Nursery Rudis, V.A.; Skinner, T.V. 1991.Fire’s importanceinSouth Rudis, V.A. 1998.Regionalforestresourceassessmentinan wildfire statistics.Rep.FS–343.Washington, DC.56p. wildfire statistics.Washington, DC.32p. of theUnitedStates.EconomicBotany. 24:142–150. Agriculture, Forest Region.118p. Southern Service, Rep. 1of5.R8–TP25.Atlanta: U.S.Departmentof report. Appalachianassessment:summary The Southern Forest NorthCentralResearch Station.190p. Service, NC–219. St.Paul, MN:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture, Forest resourcesof theUnitedStates,1997.Gen.Tech. Rep. 67–81. Forest Forest Southeastern Service, ExperimentStation: SE–2. Asheville,NC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture, Brendemuehl, R.H.Sandpinesymposium.Gen.Tech. Rep. ForestSoutheastern ExperimentStation:240–251. NC: U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Service, symposium.Gen.Tech.international Rep.SE–69.Asheville, ecological andculturalperspectives:Proceedingsofan Nodvin, S.C.;Waldrop, T.A., eds.Fire andtheenvironment: Central U.S.forests:distributionoffireevidence.In: 18:319–332. Areas Journal. UnitedStates.Natural ecological framework:theSouthern Zhou, X.;Mills,J.R.;Teeter, L.2003.Modelingforesttype Welch, N.T.; Waldrop, T.A. 2001.RestoringTable Mountainpine Wear, D.N.;Liu,R.;Foreman, J.M.;Sheffield,R.M.1999.The Wear, forestresource D.N.;Greis,J.G.2002.Thesouthern Wear, D.N.;Abt,R.;Mangold,R.1998.People, spaceand Wahlenberg, W.G. 1960.Loblollypine.Durham,NC:Duke U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest 2001.2000 Service. U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest 1988.The Service. 190–197. ofAppliedForestry. Journal methods. Southern 27: transitions inthesouthcentralregion:resultsfromthree research.Castanea.66:42–49. ofcurrent overview ( 118: 107–115. inventories inVirginia. Forest EcologyandManagement. effects ofpopulationgrowthontimbermanagementand sustain. [Dateaccessed:July2,2003]. ResearchStation.103p.www.srs.fs.fed.us/ Southern Service, Asheville, NC:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest report.Gen.Tech.assessment: summary Rep.SRS–54. Management Institute:348–361. natural resourcesconference.Washington, DC:Wildlife Transactions ofthe63 forestsustainability.time: factorsthatwillgovern In: University. 603p. Washington, DC.56p. RPA assessmentofforestandrangelands.Rep.FS–687. FR–24. Washington, DC.512p. forthefuture.Rep. South’s fourthforest:alternatives Pinus pungens Lamb.)communitieswithprescribedfire:an rd NorthAmericanwildlifeand Climate Change Southern Forest Science: 360 Past, Present, and Future Climate Change nteSuhr ntdSae...... 383 in theSouthernUnited States...... Forest Carbon Trends Chapter 33. and Research 373 Needsfor Estimating Storage ...... Pools. in LoblollyPinePlantations: Methods, Limitations, Carbon Sequestration Chapter 32. for SouthernForests: 365 Can We Separate .... Fact from Fiction?. Global Climate Change Chapter 31. 361 ...... and Carbon Sequestration Overview of GlobalClimate Change Chapter 30.

Implications of Chapter 30. Overview of Global Climate Change and Carbon Sequestration

Kurt Johnsen1 to a question; rather, it provides probabilities for potential directions and magnitudes of change. In other words, science permits us to assess the spectrum of risks that may be faced.

he potential influence of global climate change Clearly, the smaller the scale of inference, the greater will be certainty of predictions, and vice on southern forests is uncertain. Outputs of 361 T climate change models differ considerably versa. For example, we can have strong confidence in their projections for precipitation and other how a particular fertilization treatment may variables that affect forests. Forest responses, impact a stand of trees of a given age, species, particularly effects on competition among species, and site index, but much less confidence on what are difficult to assess. Even the responses of effect such a treatment would have on a larger, relatively simple ecosystems, such as managed less refined land base. It is likely the largest pine plantations, will be affected by complex uncertainties are associated with issues that interactions. Large-scale perturbations, such may well have the biggest impact on people and ecosystems. Consider some of the major as rising atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and changes in precipitation regimes, will interact perturbations that have drastically altered the with site-specific factors such as soil nutrition. forest landscape of the South over the past century. Chestnut blight {Cryphonectria Because making global change predictions is parasitica (Murrill) Barr [formerly Endothia difficult, it may be tempting to ignore the issue parasitica (Murrill) Anderson & Anderson]} entirely and base management and societal rapidly altered the Appalachian forest structure planning solely on historical climate and forest and did so with little warning. Large-scale responses. However, scientific uncertainty and deforestation [often of longleaf pine (Pinus difficulties in making predictions of system palustris Mill.) or hardwood stands] was followed responses are not relegated to this issue alone. by intensive agriculture, and in many cases this Chapters in this book and in the Southern Forest was followed by natural reforestation to stands Resource Assessment (Wear and Greis 2002) largely made up of loblolly pine (P. taeda L.). discuss uncertainties connected with biodiversity, This “introduction” of loblolly pine led to a forest productivity, societal demands for forest major forest industry that both owned and with values, forecasts of future forest type and extent, increasing intensity managed forest land and has urbanization, and the relative profit margins of provided a market for timber and fiber for private forest vs. agricultural lands. Economic forecasts landowners. Thus, just over a century ago the are particularly uncertain, as responses depend forest landscape was one largely dominated by not only on regional supply and demand but also longleaf pine and hardwoods (including chestnut), on national and international economic forces and loblolly pine was a minor component. Now that are in great flux. In all these cases, research we have a landscape in which longleaf pine provides tools to assess past, current, and future ecosystems occupy 5 percent of their previous system flux so that planning can be based on the acreage (Outcalt and Sheffield 1996) and are the best information available. Such planning ranges focus of an active restoration effort, a greatly from the small scale, as when a private landowner increased proportion of hardwood stands are early considers options for a particular parcel of land, to to midsuccession, and there are large expanses larger scales, as when States consider regulation of pine-hardwood forests and managed pine of forest-dependent water resources. In almost all plantations where loblolly is the most prevalent cases, science does not provide a definitive answer pine. These examples illustrate two important points. First, southern forest ecosystems can be incredibly resilient to great perturbation. Second, 1 Supervisory Plant Physiologist and Project Leader, U.S. the state of our forests has been and continues to Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research be in rapid flux. Station, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709. Southern Forest Science: 362 Past, Present, and Future Climate Change Besides research ondirectresponsestoelevated belowground Ccycling(Butnor andothers2003). and others2001),whichalso greatlyinfluences dependent onsoilnutrient availability (Oren of loblollypinetoelevatedCO growthresponses work indicatesthatlonger-term researched (Groningerandothers1999).Recent species, loblollypinebeingthemostextensively seedlings andsaplings,withonlyahandfulof using response oftreesweremostlyperformed increased. Untilrecently, studies onthegrowth initially growfasterwhenCO Mostplants, includingtrees, in theshortrun. concentration increasesphotosynthesis,atleast greenhouse effectisinprogress. variation andthepossibilitythatanaccelerating climate islikelytochangegivenhistorical scenarios. Theirmajorconclusionisthatthe climate andconsiderpredictionsoffuture impacting evidence thatglobalchangeiscurrently fiction inthispolarizeddebate.Theydiscussthe provide adiscussionondiscriminatingfactfrom Gucinski, RonNeilson,andSteveMcNulty Can We SeparateFact fromFiction?” byHermann Forests:of GlobalClimateChangeforSouthern political arenas.Inthechapter, “Implications change haveexistedinboththescientificand by landowners,corporations,andgovernments. economic, andsocialdecisionsthataremade thatcanguideecological, provide information composition givenprojectedconditions,andto andanticipatedecosystemfunction current provide systematicmethodsforevaluating Science, asshowninthisbook,endeavorsto in therealmofscientificallyderivedprobabilities. the ramificationsforpotentialconsequencesare isclearlyengaged,but change physicalmachinery others 1996).Thus,thefirstbasiccoginglobal (Wigley and million bythemiddleofthiscentury and arepredictedtoequalorexceed550partsper increasing atarateofabout0.5percentperyear higher thanpreindustrialvalues.Theyare over365partspermillion,35percent currently activities. Atmospheric CO to thecombustionoffossilfuelandotherhuman atmospheric CO CO induced increasesingreenhousegases(chiefly the dry matterofwoodytissue.IncreasingCO the dry the carbon(C)thatconstitutes50percentof is fundamentaltophotosynthesisandprovides Interestingly, themajorgreenhousegas,CO Predictions anddiscussionsofpotentialglobal Global changeispredicatedduetohuman- 2 ) in the atmosphere. Current increasesin ) intheatmosphere.Current 2 arewelldocumentedanddue 2 concentrationsare 2 2 concentrationis arelargely 2 2 , rate, androtationlengthcanimpact and soil.Deforestation,reforestation,growth representsConaforestsiteinitsbiomass former in situ Forest Csequestrationcanbecharacterizedas potential hasbeenmostevaluatedinloblollypine. rate ofincreaseCO andthusthe emissions fromfossilfuelburning quantities ofatmosphericC,thusoffsetting landscape, forestscanalsosequesterlarge in environmentand/ormanagement. models topredictforestresponseschanges through researchisbeingincorporatedinto CO the firsttimeinUnited States. commodity exchangehasbeen establishedfor sequestration. Very recently, alarge-scaleC emphasis onmanagingforand quantifyingC programs throughouttheworldwithamajor have establishedlargeforestCsequestration organizations suchasTheNatureConservancy their ownplantemissions.Nongovernment this sothattheycouldapplytheseoffsetsagainst forest Csequestrationonprivateland.Theydid companies, establishedprogramstopromote to mid-1990ssomecompanies,particularlyenergy and sequestrationasacommodity. Intheearly is stillinterestedinworkingwithCemissions States hasnotsignedtheKyoto Treaty, industry AlthoughtheUnited of Ccreditshasbeenborn. for biologicallysequesteringC.Thus,theconcept are recognizedasoneoftheimportantavenues sequestered, againrelativetothebaseline.Forests the algebraicsumoftotalemissionsandC (Oberthür andOtt1999).Carbonemissionsare baseline(Kyototo apredetermined Protocol) have beenestablishedtoreducetotalCemissions policies impacts ofglobalchange,international fuel combustion. offsets, asthesepartlysupplantfossil long-term biomass forbioenergyproductioncanprovide are filled.Additionally, utilizationofwoody emissions, whilepotentialadditionalCsinks offsetforatmosphericCO to medium-term atmosphere viacombustionordecomposition. to the various lifespansbeforetheirCreturns Various producttypes(paper, lumber, etc.)have C thatremainssequesteredinforestproducts. sequestration. Because theyaremajorconstituentsofthe As result of concern aboutthepotential As resultofconcern Forest Csequestrationcanprovideashort- 2 , foresttreebiologyknowledgegained and ex situ Ex situ (Johnsen andothers2001).The 2 Csequestrationrepresents . Again,Csequestration in situ 2 C Large-scale policy (regional, national, global) LITERATURE CITED requires large-scale analyses. In the chapter, Butnor, J.R.; Johnsen, K.H.; Oren, R.; Katul, G.G. 2003. “Forest Carbon Trends in the Southern United Reduction of forest floor respiration by fertilization on both States,” by Robert A. Mickler, James E. Smith, carbon dioxide-enriched and reference 17-year-old loblolly pine stands. Global Change Biology. 9: 849–861. and Linda S. Heath provides an analysis of aboveground C stocks by forest types in the Groninger, J.W.; Johnsen, K.H.; Seiler, J.R. [and others]. 1999. Elevated carbon dioxide in the atmosphere: what might it Southern United States, and the change in mean for loblolly pine plantation forestry? Journal of composition and extent of these stocks since Forestry. 97: 4-10. 1957. This work is based on Forest Inventory Johnsen, K.H.; Wear, D.; Oren, Ram [and others]. 2001. Carbon and Analysis data and a process model. Mickler sequestration and southern pine forests. Journal of Forestry. and others estimated that approximately 29 99: 14–21. percent of the aboveground forest C in the United Oberthür, S.; Ott, H.E. 1999. The Kyoto Protocol: international States occurs in the South. Their analyses indicate climate policy for the 21st century. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. that aboveground forest C has increased at the 359 p. 363 rate of 42 megatons per year from 1957 through Oren, R.; Ellsworth, D.S.; Johnsen, K.H. [and others]. 1997. Their analyses also indicate that acreage 2001. Soil fertility limits carbon sequestration by forest in private pineland decreased by 18 percent ecosystems in a CO2-enriched atmosphere. Nature. 411: from 1957 to 1997. However, C stocks on this 469–472. landownership type are estimated to have Outcalt, K.W.; Sheffield, R.M. 1996. The longleaf pine forest: decreased by only 2 percent. These estimates trends and current conditions. Resour. Bull. SRS–9. Asheville, NC: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, 30. Chapter only hint at the tremendous increase in Southern Research Station. 23 p. productivity that has accompanied the continued Wear, David N.; Greis, John G. 2002. Southern forest resource development of pine plantation forestry over assessment. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–53. Asheville, NC: U.S. recent decades. Pine forestry has continued to Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern develop and use management tools such as site Research Station. 635 p. preparation, fertilization, weed control, and the Wigley, T.M.L.; Richels, R.; Edmonds, J.A. 1996. Economic and use of genetically improved material, and the environmental choices in the stabilization of atmospheric CO2 result has been a steady increase in productivity concentrations. Nature. 379: 240–243. on managed pinelands. Thus, managed pinelands represent a major opportunity for increasing C sequestration in the Change Global Climate of Overview South. However, it is clear that any system of C credits will require simple but reliable methods for quantifying C sequestration. As the major industrial forest species in the world, loblolly pine has been the subject of a large body of research, research that has steadily advanced to make possible increased productivity in forest stands. The same body of research, and the fact that pine plantations are relatively simple ecosystems, make loblolly pine plantations a prime target for the implementation of C credits. In the chapter, “Carbon Sequestration in Loblolly Pine Plantations: Methods, Limitations, and Research Needs for Estimating Storage Pools” by Kurt Johnsen, Bob Teskey, Lisa Samuelson, John Butnor, David Sampson, Felipe Sanchez, Chris Maier, and Steve McKeand detail the methodologies and tools required to quantify C on a stand basis, and they identify areas in which important work is still required to improve and reduce the cost of quantifying forest C.

Chapter 31.

Implications of Global Climate Change for Southern Forests: Can We Separate Fact from Fiction?

Hermann Gucinski, Ron INTRODUCTION 1 Neilson, and Steve McNulty here is persistent skepticism about the evidence that greenhouse warming may T be occurring, and this skepticism requires consideration. This chapter is a semitechnical discussion of the issues, and is designed to shed 365 Abstract—There is no scientific dispute regarding light on the question of climate change without the existence of a greenhouse effect. There is attempting to present new research information or no doubt that water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), make new interpretations of the research findings. and methane concentrations are greenhouse There is no scientific dispute regarding the gases. The data showing increases in CO in the 2 existence of a greenhouse effect in planetary atmosphere are incontrovertible. Uncertainties atmospheres such as ours (Raval and Ramanathan arise when the Earth’s biological responses 1989). Nor is there any doubt that water vapor, to climate change are to be quantified. Such carbon dioxide (CO2), and methane are greenhouse uncertainties can be compounded when the gases (Ledley and others 1999). Moreover, the data responses of ecosystems, especially forests, showing increases in atmospheric concentration of are to be delineated. Complex interactions CO2 are incontrovertible (Keeling and Whorf 1999, among effects of climate change, disturbance, Keeling and others 1989). Lastly, it is clear that competition, invasive species, management the rise in atmospheric CO2 is largely attributable intervention, land use change, and other actions to the burning of fossil fuels (Andres and others must be clarified by modeling. Model development 2000, Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center has improved greatly, but evaluation and validation 2000). Does this prove that there will be climate change in the form of global warming? It strongly remain difficult. Model outputs for the South suggests a change in the Earth’s energy balance, show a fairly wide range of potential changes but there is no simple yes or no answer to the under scenarios developed from different climate question about global warming, because the models, suggesting that the assumption of steady- variables that affect the outcome are many, and the state conditions has little likelihood of occurrence. interactions between Earth system processes have This implies that we should rethink management not been delineated as fully as one might wish. approaches, design research to include new It is possible to make probabilistic estimates ecosystem variables, and seek integrated of likely outcomes, and these have been made ecosystem knowledge on scales heretofore (Harvey and others 1990, 1997). The Inter- rarely treated. governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is thought to be the most authoritative scientific body that has assembled such estimates. The acceptance of the IPCC estimates has not been total. Uncertainties remain, and skepticism persists. Because these estimates have vast policy implications, the debate has spilled from the purely scientific area into the arena of public

1 Assistant Director (now retired), U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Asheville NC 28802; Research Team Leader, Mapped Atmosphere Plant-Soil System Team, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Corvallis, OR 97331; and Research Ecologist and Project Leader, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Raleigh, NC 27606, respectively. Southern Forest Science: 366 Past, Present, and Future Climate Change D CLIMATE CHANGESKEPTICS development. rise coincidentwiththeeraofindustrial the pastmillenniumandrecenttemperature temperaturerecordfor shows thereconstructed the NationalAcademy ofSciences. Figure 31.1 138.pdf): www.royalsoc.ac.uk/files/statfiles/document- say thefollowing(excerptedfromhttp:// Science Academies, representing16countries, change science.InthiscaseagroupofNational statements regardingthestatusofclimate has ledaugustscientificbodiestomakestrong policy.debate andgovernmental Thecontroversy ThepresentuncertaintiesinEarthprocesses • as follows: book byLomborg(1999)andcanbesummarized claims haveappearedinWeb sites validity oftheclaimsmadebyskeptics.These development. Itisusefultoexaminethescientific scientific process,andalsointhearenaofpolicy [Date accessedunknown]. http://www.marshall.org. [Dateaccessedunknown]. 3 2 HeartlandInstitute. 2002.http://www.heartland.org. GeorgeC.MarshallInstitute.2002. Homepage. This statementhassincebeenendorsedby swamping ofthesmallincreases inCO records dueto“heatisland”effects,orthe modeling deficiencies,skewingoftemperature future climate.Theuncertaintiesmightinclude anyconfidence inpredictionsof overwhelm to theearth’sclimate. steps nowtoavertdamagingchanges scientific evidencedemandseffective levels by2100.Thebalanceofthe by between1.4and5.8 temperatureprojectedtoincrease surface continue torise,withaverageglobal percent certainthattemperatureswill conclusionthatitisatleast90 IPCC’s doubts justified.We supportthe expressed .We donotconsidersuch on thescience.doubtshavebeen consensus. Despiteincreasingconsensus endorse itsmethodofachievingthis on climatechangescience.andwe scientificcommunity of theinternational The .IPCCrepresentstheconsensus technical areas,whereitispartofthe skepticism continues,bothinthestrictly espite thegrowingscientificconsensus, o C above1990 2

3 andina 2 derived uncertainty. Henceitisimportant todistinguish climate change hypothesisonthegrounds of scientific responsethansimple rejectionofthe Such convergenceoftheanalysis demandsabetter the 99percentlevel(Houghton andothers2001). not duetoclimatevariability isnowestimatedat for thestatementthat20 give aconfidencelevelofbetterthan90percent scale consistencyofmodelswithobservations process-level understanding,andimprovedlarge- collection andprocessing,modeldevelopments, The IPCCcontendsthatimprovementsindata scientific process. debate, becausetheybearnorelationtothe stake intheoutcome,arenotsubjecttoscientific derived fromself-interest, i.e.,havinga“personal” expensive, giventherisks.Ofcourse,positions if noclimatechangeoccurs,isnottheleast mitigate climatechangethatwillprovecostly option, i.e.,theavoidanceofinvestmentsto regrets” it maybeevenmorelikelythatthe“no decisiontheory.using Bayesianformal Thus, One caninvestigatetheunderlyingassumptions change isunwisebecauseofpresentuncertainties. national resourcesonmitigatingpotentialclimate the argumenthasbeenmadethatexpending assumptions uponwhichtheyrest.For example, light ofprecedents,andbyexaminingthe to scientificreview, butcanbeexaminedinthe conspiracies”). Policy perspectivesarenotsubject United Nationsbody, hencesubjecttopolitical discrediting theprocess(“theIPCCisa ergo, theargumentmustbefalse,orby only by“greens”orradicalenvironmentalists; origin,” e.g.,climatechangeargumentsaremade include theuseoffallacy“condemning or, attimes,logicalfallacies.Examplesofthelatter grounds, orderivedfromvariouslogicalpositions, rejection. We alsoseeargumentsmadeonpolicy or testable hypotheses,subjecttoconfirmation Radiometricdatafromsatellitesandhigh- • Factors otherthanincreases ingreenhouse • temperature increasesofthe 20 last 1,000years.Moreover, thelikelihoodthat temperature increasesarethehighestof Consider theissueofscientificuncertainties. Arguments madeonscientificgroundsare altitude devicesshownowarming energy output e.g., Milankovichcycle,changesinthesun’s trends; gases areresponsibleforwarming and theoceansland exchange ofCO from fossilfuelcomparedtothelarge-scale 2 betweentheatmosphere th -century global -century th century are century between scientific debate about the implications sunspot cycles, are too short to influence climate of the remaining uncertainty, and categorical change but do confuse the signal (Houghton and assertions that uncertainties are large. Moreover, others 1994, Lean and Rind 1996). Hansen (1998) improvements in process-level understanding have asserts that the existing record of solar radiance largely overcome the difficulty of calculating small observation shows variation on the order of 0.1 differences between large numbers, and signals percent, which translates into a forcing of a few 2 can be observed despite the large flux of CO2 tenths of watts/m , whereas the forcing from between atmosphere, oceans, and the land CO2 increase over preindustrial levels alone is (Houghton and others 2001). about 1.4 watts/m2 (Hansen 1998). The relevant observation is that secular changes are additive Factors other than increasing greenhouse gas to the human-caused fossil fuel-derived effects, concentrations in the atmosphere are affecting and that the total picture needs to be analyzed. the total radiative energy reaching the Earth’s envelope. Some factors work on cyclical scales Local anomalies, such as the heat island effect, far longer than any relevant to the postindustrial have been taken into account in the analysis of 367 emissions era, while others, such as 11-year global surface temperature data. For example, Chapter 31. Chapter Global Climate Change Global Climate

Figure 31.1—The reconstructed Earth surface air temperature record for the past millennium (http://www.ipcc.ch/present/graphics/ 2001syr/ppt/05.16.ppt). Southern Forest Science: 368 Past, Present, and Future Climate Change that thegreenhouseforcingfromCO present assessments.Theargumentisadvanced donotinvalidate from balloonsandaircraft Similarly, upperairtemperaturemeasurements the absolutemagnitudeanditsstandarderror. temperature,butaffect rise inglobalsurface applied donotinvalidatetherecordofrecent heat islandeffectsandthescaleofcorrections others 2001). (Houghtonand ground-based observations Academy ofSciences2001)anddoesnotcontradict depletion, andeffectsofsulfateaerosols(National principles, stratosphericcoolingduetoozone Thisisconsistentwiththermodynamic warming. seenostratospheric Space-based observations where thegreatestnumbersofcitiesarelocated. island effectoccursprimarilyatmiddlelatitudes Antarctic Continent.Bycomparison,theheat- Canada,Alaska,andpartsofthe in Northern isgreatestathighlatitudes,especially warming Hansen andothers(2002)pointoutthatobserved the onlytenable scenario.Insteadweare faced continuation ofthepresent climateisnolonger in particular? W IMPLICATIONS FORSOUTHERNFORESTS effects atlocaltoregionalscales. and evenmoresowhenonewantstoexamine forcing, vegetationtoprobableexternal terrestrial whenoneattempts tomaptheresponsesof true future resultsnegligible.Thisisparticularly been eliminated,noristhepotentialofunexpected the systemtrajectory. Notalluncertaintieshave of alltheimportantvariablesthataredriving derived iscomplete,accurate,andinclusive skepticism thatseekstoensuretheknowledge or preconceivedconclusionfromscientific skepticism stemmingfrombadscience the annualexchanges. will becumulativeregardlessofthemagnitude additional atmosphericloadingofincreasingCO of multipleprocessesareadditive;hence,the that saysasafirst-orderapproximationtheeffects and theprincipleofsuperposition.Thelatter ignores boththephysicsofgreenhousegases photosynthesis andrespiration.Thisargument gas intheseasonaluptakeandreleasefromplant is negligiblecomparedtotheexchangeofthis The magnitude of uncertainties concerning the The magnitudeofuncertaintiesconcerning The mostimportantinference isthatthe It isimportant,therefore,todistinguish hat, then,aretheimplicationsofglobal States ingeneral,andforits forests United climate changefortheSouthern 2 increases 2 river discharge, whichtogethercandescribe water models tocalculateground-water balanceand hydrologic effects.Onemay usetheglobalclimate include changesinwateravailability amongother of suchscenariosgobeyond forestresponses,and change agentforthisdecline. decline, andcatastrophicfirecouldwellbethe forestswouldpresumably regime. Southeastern unfavorably altertheprecipitationandwater portions ofthejetstreamnorthward,whichmight 1999).Suchexpansionwouldshift and Mearns High(Bachelet andothers2001,Doherty Bermuda subtropical high-pressurefields,includingthe UnitedStatesistheexpansion ofthe Southern aridity. Ahypothesisthatmayapplyforthe accompaniedbyincreasing continued warming the developmentofunfavorableconditions,i.e., steady orincreasingprecipitation,followedby and be favorable,i.e.,onewithinitialwarming is oneinwhichclimatechangewouldinitially because itmightconveyafalsesenseofsecurity, even desirableoutcomes. the worst-casescenariosalongwithbenignor toconsider are perhapsgreatest.Itisinstructive regional scale,wheretheremaininguncertainties possible climatechangeoutcomes,especiallyatthe (National Academy ofSciences2001). biogeochemical cyclesisstilladevelopingarea ecosystemsviatheir responses oftheterrestrial 2001, VEMAPmembers1995).Buildinginthe changing climate(e.g.,Bacheletandothers mapping thevegetationresponsetogradually equilibrium isattained,andindynamicphase, the uncertaintiesregardingfutureCO principally fromtwoprocesses.Onederives dismissed outofhand.Thesescenariosarise probabilities attachedtothembutcannotbe with arangeofscenariosthatmayhavediffering i.e., after atmospheric CO i.e., after to drivethevegetationbothinequilibriumphase, outputs ofgeneralcirculationmodels(GCM) and photosyntheticradiation.Thesecanusethe (precipitation andsoilmoistureholdingcapacity), and wintertemperatureminimums,water temperature, suchasgrowingdegreedays vegetation basedonclimatedriversincluding time. Modelshavebeenbuiltthatmappotential number ofvariablesandfeedbackloopsover which havebeenevolvingtoincorporateagreater differences intheclimatemodelsthemselves, greenhouse gasemissions,andtheotherfrom For UnitedStates,ramifications theSouthern A scenariothatmightposeparticulardifficulty, As aresult,majorGCMsexhibitrangeof 2 hasdoubledand 2 andother availability. Figure 31.2 is a depiction of the water even catastrophic outcomes, it has been customary availability under the scenario of a drier South to take a “risk-averse” stance over a “risk-neutral” onto which population growth rates have been one, but even that can be problematic in terms of superimposed. The figure shows water stress required action. The “zero-infinity” paradox, in as the ratio of changed availability divided by which the probability of the occurrence of an event changed growth rates. This is only one possible is vanishingly small, but the consequences simply outcome of several, selected to show a worst-case catastrophic, such as unprecedented wildfire, or situation. There are benign and even promising a massive earthquake in an urban area, requires scenarios in which forest expansion is a strong preparatory action regardless of likelihood. possibility. Unfortunately, there are no reliable What are the implications of potential climate data at this time on the probability of occurrence change for risk management? for any of these scenarios (see discussion in Smith and others 2002). The study of disturbance processes, and their lessening or accentuation by changing climate, The foregoing implies that our management 369 is still relatively young. Wildfire frequency and strategies with respect to climate change must be intensity is being modeled as a response to the structured to function in the context of uncertainty effects of climate change on forest ecosystems and incomplete information. This is not shocking (Lenihan and others 1998). McNulty (2002) and not unprecedented; a similar situation exists has described effects of hurricane on southern with respect to other phenomena, such as market forests. Management strategies for resistance fluctuations or exposure to risk from hurricanes 31. Chapter to hurricanes include planting (or encouraged and floods. It simply means that decision theory regeneration) of deeper rooted and salt-tolerant approaches developed elsewhere may be applied species, and denser forest stocking (or lower here and that risk assessment and risk thinning levels). On the other hand, management management approaches apply in this arena as strategies for southern forest response to fire they do in others (Gucinski and McKelvey 1992). include removal of understory, planting (or Change Global Climate Risk assessment must address two elements, encouraged regeneration) of species that are the probability of the occurrence of an event, such more fire resistant, and lower stocking—or higher as future drought, and significance (or “value” or thinning levels. It appears that improved forest “utility” in economics parlance) of the event when management and better policy is also needed it does occur. For large-scale events with costly or to improve postfire and posthurricane salvage.

3.01 Ð 5.5 1.51 Ð 3 1.01 Ð 1.5 Increasing 0.51 Ð 1 stress Figure 31.2—Predicted change in water supply stress defined as the ratio of the 0.26 Ð 0.5 2025 demand and supply divided by the 0.11 Ð 0.25 1990 ratio of demand and supply. Higher 0.00 Ð 0.1 stress is the result of both increasing demand (population pressure) and the changed supply (climate driven) (McNulty and others 2004). Southern Forest Science: 370 Past, Present, and Future Climate Change CONCLUSIONS Beawarethatriskassessmentisinfluenced • Analyzethepotential costofdelayingaction • Weigh therisksofomissionagainstthose • forestsforlow-probabilityclimate Manage • U.S.forests: change impactsonSouthern possible optionsformitigatingnegativeclimate useful startingpointsforfurtherexplorationof weigh coursesofactionthatremainopen. climate change,thebetterourpositionto facets ofthepossibleresponsestopotential problems. Thebetterweunderstandthemany ofpollinators,andotherpotential disruption toplantmigration, limitsonseed, barriers are beingstudied,asfragmentation-related opportunistic species,especiallyinvasives, is detrimentaltofiresuppression. resistanceincreasesfuelloadsand hurricane However, increasedstockingneededforimproved sectors, makes thisaviableoptionformanagers, frameworks, andtheiruseinother decision-theory UnitedStates.Theexistenceof in theSouthern been usedadequatelytoassess possibleimpacts A We as believethatthefollowingmayserve Potential effectsofclimatechangeon be soughtorconsulted shouldnot mean thatadditionalinformation may haveitsowncosts.Ofcourse,thisdoes about thepotentialeffectsofclimatechange Delaying actionuntilthereisgreatercertainty Academies inendorsingtheIPCCfindings. This istheargumentadvancedbyNational when thedelaymayeliminateviableoptions. in thehopeofobtainingbetterinformation impending climatechange be beneficialregardlessoftheeffects especially whentheseapproacheswould by implementingactiveapproachesearly, throughinaction aregreaterthan incurred of commission.Sometimestherisks potentialisrelativelyshort harvest States, wheretherotationperiodforreaching United especially appropriatefortheSouthern ultimately sustainability. Thisstrategymaybe In thiscase,diversitymaybringresiliency, and scenarios thathavelarge-scaleconsequences. improve ourchancesofmeetingobjectives that consistencyinassessmentapproacheswill by bothobjectiveandsubjectiveelements, pproaches inwhichpotential globalclimate often beenignored,and certainlyhavenot often change istreatedasasetof futureriskshave Harvey, D.;Gregory, J.; Hoffert,M.[andothers].1997.An Hansen, J.E.2002.Abrighterfuture.ClimaticChange.52: debate.AARST.Hansen, J.E.1998.Theglobalwarming New Hansen, J.;Ruedy,Sato,M.; R.; Lo,K.2002.Globalwarming Gucinski, H.;McKelvey, R.1992.Forest management Doherty, L.O. R.;Mearns, 1999. 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Chapter 32. Carbon Sequestration in Loblolly Pine Plantations: Methods, Limitations, and Research Needs for Estimating Storage Pools

Kurt Johnsen, Bob Teskey, INTRODUCTION Lisa Samuelson, John Butnor, he Southern United States is now the David Sampson, Felipe most intensive and extensively managed Sanchez, Chris Maier, and T forested area in the World. The tree species Steve McKeand1 most widely employed in plantation forestry is loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.). Because loblolly pine has great commercial and economic 373 Abstract—Globally, the species most widely importance, its culture and management has used for plantation forestry is loblolly pine (Pinus been studied in great detail (Schultz 1997). taeda L.). Because loblolly pine plantations are Although much practical knowledge has so extensive and grow so rapidly, they provide been gained about loblolly pine, the research a great potential for sequestering atmospheric has typically been aimed at providing information carbon (C). Because loblolly pine plantations are needed for commercial wood and fiber production. relatively simple ecosystems and because such a Such research has produced growth-and-yield great volume of knowledge has been gained about models, artificial regeneration methodology, stand amelioration methodology (and especially that the species, the quantification of C dynamics of relating to fertilizer use), and information about loblolly pine stands will be relatively easy. Here, forest genetics and tree improvement. we evaluate the state of science that relates to quantifying standing C pools in managed loblolly There is growing interest in quantifying the pine stands. We consider the accuracy and ability of forest trees to sequester atmospheric precision with which aboveground and carbon (C). This interest stems from observed rapid increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, belowground pools can be estimated, the an important greenhouse gas, and their potential portability of these tools across different stand for changing the Earth’s climate. Because loblolly types, and the intensity and efficacy of the pine plantations are so extensive and grow so measurement techniques. We emphasize rapidly, they have great potential for sequestering the need to develop standard and relatively atmospheric C (Johnsen and others 2001c). And inexpensive measurement protocols. because loblolly pine plantations are relatively simple ecosystems and because such a great volume of knowledge has been gained about the species, the quantification of C dynamics of loblolly pine stands will be relatively easy. The quantification of C pools in loblolly pine stands is necessary for two main reasons. One benefit will be in developing and validating process models (Johnsen and others 2001a, 2001b). 1 Supervisory Plant Physiologist and Project Leader, Conventional growth-and-yield models have been U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern practical tools for managing loblolly pine stands, Research Station, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709; both naturally regenerated and plantation, over Professor, University of Georgia, School of Forest Resources, Athens, GA 30602; Professor, Auburn University, School the past century. These models are based on of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn, AL 36849; Plant empirical data about past performance and Physiologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, utilize site index to characterize stand quality Southern Research Station, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709; Mathematical Modeler, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24060; Chemist and Research Biological Scientist, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709; and Professor, North Carolina State University, Department of Forestry, Raleigh, NC 27695; respectively. Southern Forest Science: 374 Past, Present, and Future Climate Change TREE ORGANS PARTITIONING CARBON AMONG inexpensive measurementprotocols. the needtodevelopstandardandrelatively of themeasurementtechnique.We emphasize across differentstandtypes,andtheintensity degree towhichestimationtoolsareapplicable and belowgroundCpoolscanbeestimated,the accuracy andprecisionwithwhichaboveground managed loblollypinestands.We considerthe that relatestoquantifyingstandingCpoolsin C sequestrationovertime. C poolswillbeneededtoaccuratelyevaluate but relativelysimpleprotocolsforquantifying a practicalreality, standardized,dependable, Europe. ItisclearthatifCcreditsaretobecome States, theyareinseriousconsideration United of CcreditsexistsyetintheSouthern a basisfor“carboncredits.”Althoughnosystem modelingefforts. and international oflargerscaleregional,national, performance pine standlevelshouldbeutilizedtoimprovethe stand Candmodeldynamicsatthemanaged andtoolsdevelopedtoinventory information GlobalChangeProgram.Clearly,Southern Department ofAgricultureForest Service, thebasisofU.S. These effortsform modeling toolsthatcanprovideusefulforecasts. and large-scalelandmanagementissuesrequires with respecttotheuncertaintyoffutureclimate managing standsofpine.Policy andplanning models tobebasedon. for and sugarsprovidesavaluable“currency” and majorconstituentofcellulose,lignin,starch, undernovelconditions.C,asabasic performance will hopefullyprovidetoolsforpredictingstand oftreeandstandfunction, mechanistic information others 2001).Processmodels,whichincorporate rates (Albaughandothers1998,Samuelson Loblolly pineisbeinggrownatunprecedented increasing, thisassumptionisnolongervalid. on. However, withintensiveforestmanagement to thestandsgrowth-and-yieldtableswerebased stands theyareusedforhastypicallybeensimilar have beeneffectivebecausethegrowthof and productivepotential.Growth-and-yieldmodels among theaboveground andbelowground A In whatfollows,weevaluatethestateofscience Quantifying pinestandCpoolswillalsoprovide Process modelsareneededformorethan tree’s totalbiomassresides withinitsstem, root system.Biomassisallocated differentially branches, leaves,reproductive organs,and total Cgain. simply consideredanalogoustopartitioningof the proportionsofstandingbiomasscannotbe fine rootsrepresentephemeralorgans.Thus, to fineroots(datanotshown).Bothfoliageand foliage androots;fertilizationreducedallocation proportion ofnewgrowthallocatedtoboth yearly productionthatindicatesamuchgreater strongly evident.However, figure32.1Bshows ofstandingbiomasswasnot organs interms for 3years,anddifferentialallocationamong SETRES. In1995,thesestandshadbeenfertilized of maturetrees,consistentwithresultsfrom of standingbiomassispresentinrootsystems (1997) statedthatapproximately20to25percent (SETRES) (Albaughandothers1998).Schultz the SoutheastTree ResearchandEducationSite standing biomasscomponentsoffertilizedtreesat older trees(fig.32.1A).Figure 32.1Ashows mass, butthisproportiondecreasesgreatlyin can constituteupto50percentofaseedling’sdry course ofstanddevelopment.For example,foliage in differenttissuecomponentschangeduringthe components, andtheproportionsofbiomass 1995, 3years after fertilization commenced. The stand was established in1985anddata are from Research andEducation Site located inNorthCarolina. production for fertilized trees from theSoutheast Tree Figure 32.1—(A)standing biomassand(B)annual Branches (B) 13% (A) Stems 50% Stems 37% Branches 16% Foliage 30% Foliage 10% Coarse roots Taproots and coarse roots Fine roots 5% 7% Fine roots Taproots 1% 13% 18% BIOMASS ESTIMATION bark. These are not trivial differences, especially n several investigations, aboveground and for young trees, and probably account for a large belowground organs of trees have been part of the differences in volume estimates. I harvested and the biomass of loblolly pine As with biomass equations, a systematic stands has been estimated, typically in a plantation and nonsubjective method is needed for choosing setting. Often, relationships have been developed the right growth-and-yield model for application between simple metrics [diameter at breast height to a particular stand. This will require a detailed (d.b.h.) and height] and biomass components, and evaluation and integration of the many models these relationships can be used to estimate site C. in the literature, as well as further research, Although these studies can provide simple tools for particularly on intensive forestry systems. estimating C pools, they are largely site, age, and/ Landowners will need to provide nonsubjective or tree size specific. In the following sections, we simple biometrics such as height, d.b.h., and discuss the estimation of C for aboveground and belowground components using formulas available 375 in the literature and other methods. Baldwin and others 1987 Albaugh and others 1998 Naidu and others 1998 Ralston 1973 Van Lear and others 1984 Samuelson and others, in press Aboveground Standing Carbon Stems—Figure 32.2 compares stem biomass 400 estimates from six independently derived 350 biomass equations at two tree size/age classes 300 32. Chapter [only Baldwin (1987) uses age as a predictor]. 250 Note that except for Van Lear and others (1984) 95 percent CI 94.02 Ð 291.33 kg and Naidu and others (1998), the larger size class 200 examined in figure 32.2 represents a tree size 150

Biomass (kg/tree) 95 percent CI larger than the sample trees examined in the Sequestration Carbon 33.75 Ð 52.29 kg studies. The larger size class was examined, 100 though, because it represents a tree size 50 frequently occurring during a full rotation. 0 Except for Baldwin (1987), there is reasonable D.b.h. 17.5 cm D.b.h. 27.2 cm Height 14.6 m Height 21.9 m congruency among the estimates. However, Age 18 years Age 32 years confidence intervals are still large, and selecting the right equation to use for any particular site Figure 32.2—Stem biomass estimates obtained by remains problematic. More such investigations applying six independently derived biomass equations for two tree size or tree age classes. Confidence are needed across a wider range of sites and tree intervals (CI) of 95 percent are shown for each size class. sizes so that a stronger rationale can be developed for model selection. On a positive note, two sites that received extremely intensive management 100 treatments (Albaugh and others 1998; Samuelson Goebel and Warner 1996 and others, in press) do not appear as outliers Shelton and others 1984 80

relative to the other sites that had less /ha) intensive management. 3 60 As boards and fiber are mostly contained in the boles of trees, many growth-and-yield tables for 40 bole volume are available. For any given site, there are multiple growth-and-yield models to choose (m Standing volume 20 from. Again, we use SETRES as an example. Figure 32.3 shows the volume estimates provided 0 CIFIF by two growth-and-yield models: one from Goebel Treatment and Warner (1969) and one from Shelton and others (1984). Under all treatments, the Shelton Figure 32.3—Standing volume estimates, using two and others model predicts approximately 50 growth-and-yield equations, for 10-year-old loblolly pine stand trees grown for the last 5 years under four percent higher volume than Goebel and Warner. treatments: control (C), irrigation (I), fertilization (F), The Goebel and Warner equation gives wood and irrigation plus fertilization (IF). Treatments are volume not total volume, i.e., no bark. The Shelton described in Albaugh and others (1988). and others equation estimates volume outside Southern Forest Science: 376 Past, Present, and Future Climate Change production. However, leaves representthe approximately 30percentofyearlybiomass biomass ismuchgreaterand atSETRESis stand biomass.However, productionoffoliage sapling phaseisapproximately 10percentoftotal the standingbiomassoffoliage oftreespastthe (Mencuccini andGrace1995). and leafareaormasswillprobablybemoreuseful larger trees,relationshipsbetweensapwoodarea simple relationshipsmaynolongerexist.For close andaplateauinleafmassisreached,such area ormassontheotherhand.Oncetreecanopies such asd.b.h.andheightontheonehand,leaf strong relationshipsareexhibitedbetweenmetrics Therefore, inearlystagesofstanddevelopment, plateau reachedarefunctionsofsitelimitations. semiplateau. Boththeinitialgrowthrateand foliage accretesovertimeuntilitreachesa Foliage— relationships acrosssites. influences limittheportabilityofthese branch biomass,butstockingandproductivity to producefigure32.2alsoprovideestimatesfor and Brister1982).Again,theequationsused influenced bystandageandsitequality(Hepp and others1997).Branchbiomassisstrongly predicting standbranchbiomass(Baldwin However, relatively littleefforthasgoneinto for 10to20percentofbiomass(Shultz1997). Branches— for applicationtoaparticularstand. literature reviewtoprovidegoodestimates so bothareasrequirefurtherresearchand/or growth rateasinfluencedbymanagement,and withtree concentrations oftreeorgansmayvary In reality, specificgravityof woodaswellC percent forfineroots(Sampsonandothers2001). ranging from50percentforbranchesto42 amongtreeorgans, pine. ConcentrationsofCvary gravity withtreeheight,respectively, forloblolly gravity withtreeage,anddecreasingspecific Dinkins (1990)demonstratedincreasingspecific 0.5 toobtainanestimateofstemwoodinMgC/ha. is approximatelyone-halfC,multiplytheresultby a goodaveragetouse.Then,becausepinebiomass gravity ofpinewood.Schultz(1997)suggests0.5is multiply volumeinm converted toMgC/hainthefollowingway. First, biomass equation)andproducevolumeestimates. use theappropriategrowth-and-yieldtable(or stocking toadecision-supportsystemthatwill For midrotationstandslikethose atSETRES, Zobel andothers(1972)Tauer andLoo- Volume ofstemwood,expressedasm After planting,thequantityof Branch biomasstypicallyaccounts 3 /ha byavalueforthespecific 3 /ha, is versa, ifestimatesforspecificleafarea(g/m estimates ofleafareaindex(LAI),andvice productivity istobemodeledsatisfactorily. understood andmodeledproperlyifstand biomass, andyearlyleafareadynamicsmustbe Thus leavesareanimportantcomponentofstand approximately twicethatinmidwinterleafarea. seasons sopeakleafareainlatesummeris maintains eachcohortofleavesfortwogrowing important inloblollypinebecausethespecies productivity. Leafareadynamicsarecritically ofstand or leafarea,isamajordeterminant photosynthetic capitalofatree,andleafbiomass, as showninfigure32.4arerequired.Estimationof stands (SampsonandAllen1994),corrections underestimates LAIby10to30percentinpine when LAIvariesmonthly. However, thePCA inLAI estimationofseasonalpatterns permit (PCA), arerapidandmuchlessexpensive, LI-COR LAI-2000PlantCanopyAnalyzer longevity ofindividualannualfoliagecohorts. length ofwhichdependsonboththenumberand from littertrapdatarequiresawaitingperiod,the results thatmaybesite-specific.EstimatingLAI expensive andtimeconsuming,produces light fluxdensity. is harvesting Destructive techniques thatemploymeasuresofrelative techniques,and“instantaneous” litterfall biomassharvesting, These includedestructive approaches toestimatingleafbiomassandLAI. are alsoavailable.Therethreecommon 2000 from theSoutheast Tree Research andEducation Site. index (LAI),andnondestructive measures using aLI-COR LAI- Figure 32.4—Relationship between litterfall, estimated leaf area LI-COR LAI-2000 vegetation area index (m2m-2) Leaf biomass can be determined from Leaf biomasscanbedetermined Instantaneous methods,suchasusingthe 0 1 2 3 4 5 012345 Litterfall LAI(m 2 m - 2 ;one-half totalbasis) 2 ) seasonal foliage biomass or LAI using PCA but losses due to ripping and imprecision in the will still require sequential measurements over volume of soil sampled increase sampling error time. In an attempt to minimize the sampling considerably. In the future, it will be necessary frequency, Sampson and others (in press) to develop inventories of stand taproot C on the developed equations for estimating seasonal basis of relationships between taproot C and LAI from a single measurement. While this work simple measures such as d.b.h. and height, which utilized plots that varied greatly in productivity will also be used to estimate aboveground biomass. and stand structure, the general applicability of Taproot morphology can vary tremendously within such an approach still needs to be tested. a stand. The four taproots shown in figure 32.5 came from trees on the same site in South Carolina Belowground Standing Carbon and range from a single carrot-shaped root to a Roots—Taproots represent an important sink complex series of large sink roots stemming from of C; intensive destructive sampling at SETRES a buttressed stem. Thus estimating total coarse showed that they constituted 15 to 18 percent of root biomass removes the subjectivity involved in 377 total tree biomass. Taproot excavation is extremely deciding exactly what constitutes the taproot. labor intensive. Heavy machinery can be utilized,

Figure 32.5— Taproots excavated

from a 20-year-old 32. Chapter plantation in South Carolina, showing the variation in root morphology. Photos by Lance Kress. Carbon Sequestration Carbon Southern Forest Science: 378 Past, Present, and Future Climate Change

Coarse root biomass (mg/ha) in situ belowground. Ludovici andothers(2002)examined and maybeimportantinsequesteringC to rapiddecompositionasfinerrootcomponents reside inanenvironmentthatisnotasconducive taproots canpenetratebelow3m.Thus may wellreduceverticaltaprootdevelopment. a watertablethatishighorfluctuatingboth fordifferentsitetypes.Forconstructed example, surprising. Relationshipswilllikelyhavetobe and abovegroundbiomassforallthesesitesis relationship holdsbetweencoarserootbiomass sand, clay, andloam),sothefactthatone (deep represent alargerangeinsoilpermeability ratios willnotsuffice.Notethatthesesites simple coarserootbiomass:abovegroundbiomass declines withstanddevelopment.Therefore, of coarserootbiomasstoaboveground is approximately0.20,whichmeansthattheratio in figure32.6indicatethattheallometricconstant above. Log-logregressionanalysesofthedata because ofthemorphologicaldifferencesdiscussed The figureshowstotalcoarserootbiomass biomass forcombinationsofsiteandstandage. coarse rootbiomassandtotalaboveground and Clemson,SC, from Van Lear andothers (1984,1995). Williamsburg, Co., SC; Duke Forest, NC, from Ralston (1973); Bainbridge, GA,from Samuelson andothers(inpress); (SETRES) estimates are viaAlbaugh andothers(1998); others (1997).Southeast Tree Research andEducation Site was adjusted to add branch andleaf carbon using Baldwinand and converted to carbon values asdescribedintext and value where stem volumes were estimated usingavolume equation biomass samplingexcept thosefor theWilliamsburg site, coarse root biomassacross sites. Note: Allestimates are via Figure 32.6—Relationship between aboveground biomassand 10 20 30 40 50 60 Bainbridge, GA6years SETRES, NC10years SETRES, NC8years 0 Depending onsoilandmoistureconditions, Figure 32.6illustratestherelationshipbetween decompositionofloblollypinetaproots 0101020250 200 150 100 50 0 Total aboveground biomass(mg/ha) Clemson, SC41years Duke Forest, NC14years Williamsburg Co., SC20years r 2 =0.98 much morework needstobedonesothat itcan GPR hasshown promiseoncoarse-textured soils, intensity canbeincreasedgreatly. Although of datacanbecollectedusing GPR,sosampling hours, theequivalentofover 2,000cores’worth GPR imagescanbecalibrated. However, in4 still requiresthatsomecoring bedonesothat in estimatesobtainedbycoring.TheuseofGPR variability isactuallylowerinGPRestimatesthan Because itprovidesanintegratedmeasure, penetrating radar(GPR)toestimaterootbiomass. (2001, 2003)haveexploredtheuseofground need tobedevised.RecentlyButnorandothers methodologies is extremelydifficult.Alternative indicate, makingpreciseestimatesofrootbiomass to coringforestimatingcoarserootbiomass. intact.Thismethodappearstobesuperior are left around asampletree;rootsover2mmindiameter be excavatedinachosenareatodepth soil bymeansofcompressedair. Rootsystemscan recently begunusingan“airknife”thatdisplaces in facthavelittlevaluethemselves.We have Coarse rootestimatesderivedviasoilcoringmay homogeneously distributedthanarecoarserroots. (table 32.1A). profile depthasfinerootsbecomescarcer and showedthatthevariationincreaseswith demonstrated thegreatvariationinrootbiomass loblolly pineexperimentinSouthCarolina intensity rootcoresamplingata20-year-old special variationcanbeextremelyhigh.High- requireshighsamplesizesaswithin-plot often estimatedbymeansofsoilcoring,which often root biomassproduction.Fine rootbiomassis For example, fertilizationcangreatlyreducefine biomass areaffectedbyenvironmentalconditions. be high(fig.32.1B).Fine rootproductionand contribution offinerootstoyearlyproductioncan biomass canbelow(fig.32.1A).However, the the contributionoffinerootstototalstanding roots representanephemeraltissuetype.Thus as being<2mmindiameter. Aswithleaves,fine finerootsaredefined classes issubjective.Often, needs tobeassessed. taproot decompositionofmoretypicalstandsstill standards formanyareasoftheSouth,andso age wellbeyondtypicalloblollymanagement 60years.Thesetreeswereofasizeand after persisted, andasmallfractionwasstillrecoverable approximately 45percentoftaprootbiomass chronosequence. Ten yearsfollowingcutting, grown onaPiedmontsiteacross60-year As thesamplesizerequirementsintable32.1A However, fineroots aremuchmore The characterizationofnontaprootsintosize Table 32.1—Site mean, mean square error, and used, soil bulk density must be assessed so that estimated sample size needed, by soil profile soil C data can be scaled up. Although soil C depth, to detect 10-percent differences between concentrations typically decrease with depth, soil treatment means for root biomass (A) and percent bulk density increases also, and so values of both soil carbon (B)a characteristics must be determined to properly scale the data to the stand level. Depth Mean root mass MSE Sample size In managed stands, soil C can display large cm g/core 10% difference temporal variation. After clearcutting, root biomass soon becomes necromass and decomposes A over time, resulting in a large temporary increase 0–20 16.88 15.91 679 in soil C. This phenomenon is clearly shown 20–40 0.62 1.85 7,296 in figure 32.7, which displays soil C results of a 40–60 0.57 1.18 3,336 long-term site productivity study in the Croatan National Forest in North Carolina. During year 379 Mean % carbon zero, the old stand was cut and replanted. After B only 1 year, soil C increased, probably as a result 0–20 2.09 0.96 176 of the decomposition of the least recalcitrant 20–40 0.28 0.28 167 fine roots from the harvested stand. By year five, 40–60 0.24 0.24 276 soil C peaked as larger root classes decomposed.

By year ten, the strong pulse of organic matter 32. Chapter MSE = mean square error. was largely lost due to soil respiration. However, a Data is from a sample of 240 10-cm diameter soil cores collected from a 20-year-old North Carolina State Forest soil C concentrations were still higher than at year Nutrition Cooperative Regionwide 7 trial in Williamsburg Co., SC. zero. If C sequestered in the soil is to be quantified properly, these fluctuations over time must be

taken into account. Although the soil C pulse is Sequestration Carbon be applied across more soil types. However, both ephemeral, it still results in a net exclusion of antennae optimization and rapid improvements C from the atmosphere. in data processing make it likely that GPR will provide a very powerful and useful tool for Again, the variability among soil C estimating root biomass. measurements is large and indicates that new methodologies must be devised. Currently Soil Carbon—Soil C often is the largest workers are exploring the possibility of using component of a stand’s total C stock. Soil C is advanced Raman/SERS fiberoptic-based devices typically sampled by coring, often in combination (Wullschleger and others 2001), Laser-Induced with root sampling. As with roots, soil C Breakdown Spectroscopy (Ebinger and decreases with depth (table 32.1). Soil C is more homogeneous than root biomass, however, and this is reflected in the lower coefficients of variation 5 Centimeters and sample size requirements for soil C (table 0 Ð 10 32.1). However, sampling intensity needs to be 4 10 Ð 20 high, and sampling therefore can be very costly. 20 Ð 30

If one is to take cores for soil C analyses, one 3 must decide whether to core by horizon or by standard depths. Coring by horizon is more 2 difficult as it requires locating the horizon depths for each sample, but it can reduce variation among Soil C (percent) samples and thus decrease sample sizes. Coring by 1 depth is more rapid, but as soil profiles will often change within a depth increment, variation among 0 samples will be higher. The tradeoffs between the 01510 two protocols need to be established before one Year chooses a sampling scheme. Figure 32.7—Percent soil carbon (C), by soil profile depth, If large cores with a known soil volume are over time, for stands from the long-term site productivity used, then data can simply be scaled to the stand experiment located in the Croatan National Forest in coastal North Carolina. The previous stand was harvested level volumetrically. Where small soil augers are and the new stand planted in year zero. Southern Forest Science: 380 Past, Present, and Future Climate Change biomass, specificgravity, Cconcentration oftree could includedirectestimates ofsoilC,root would providemorespecific standdata.These suitable formostsmallprivate landowners. intensity. Thislevelofprecisionwouldlikelybe for differentregions,soiltypes,andmanagement might bestratifiedtoprovidedifferentestimates would thenbeobtainedfromtheliteratureand All conversionfactors,aswellsoilCvalues, suchasd.b.h.,height,andstocking. information the landownermightprovideonlybasicstand documentation forCcredits.At thecoarserlevel, in estimatesofstandingCforthepurposes and expensive. C creditswouldobviouslybeextremelydifficult the baselineClevel.Thismannerofexecuting negative Ccreditsuntilaccretedagainreaches would requirethatalandowneractuallypayfor andplanting deficits followingstandharvesting base level.However, inthelattermethod,C C onasiteeachyear, relativetosomestandard Alternatively, landownerscouldbecreditedfor at criticaltimesinaplantation’sdevelopment. values canbeestimatedfrommeasurementsmade length. Modelscanbedevelopedsothatintegrated values, andthendividingthesumbyrotation summingtheintegrated integrating eachcurve, temporal variationofthevariousCpools, managed forestswillrequireassessingthe produce greatgains. UnitedStateswill researchers intheSouthern estimation easier. Increasedcollaborationamong to improvetheprecisionofestimatesandmake where wethinkfurtherresearchisneededboth components discussedabove.We haveindicated is associatedwithmeasuringeachofthestand intensity androtationlength. management decisionsabout affectland provided forCcreditswouldoften cobenefit, andthepossibilityofreceivingincome C CONCLUSIONS and characterizeCconcentrationinsoil. (Wielopolski andothers2000)toanalyze others 2001),andinelasticneutronscattering At finerandmorepreciselevels,thelandowner We envisionatleast twotiersofprecision True quantificationofCsequesteredby Obviously sampling,site,andtemporalvariation However, Csequestrationcanprovidea solely forsequesteringatmosphericC. learly landwillrarelyifeverbemanaged LITERATURE CITED greatly appreciated. original manuscript;theirsuggestionsare reviewers whopointedoutdeficienciesinthe Improvement, Inc.Ourthankstotwoanonymous and theNationalCouncilforAirStream Nutrition Cooperative;theUniversityofGeorgia; MeadeWestvaco; theNorthCarolinaStateForest Paper; ResearchStation;International Southern ACKNOWLEDGMENTS for authenticity. documentation willneedtobecertified In anycase,allestimatesprovidedforCcredit art modelstoprovideCsequestrationestimates. and wouldincorporatefielddataintostate-of-the- would begeareduptousestate-of-the-art tools, companies willproliferate.Theseconsultants provide moredata.Itispossiblethatconsulting the willingnessoflandownerstocollectand forstandswilldetermine more directinformation increase. Thefinancialgainmadebyproviding increase asthedirectinputsintoestimates with agenciesanduniversities. programs orcooperativeresearch research and especiallythosewithstronginternal would morelikelybeusedbyforestindustries, tissue, andleafarea.Theselevelsofprecision Butnor, J.R.;Doolittle,J.A.;Kress,L.[andothers].2001. Butnor, J.R.;Doolittle,J.A.;Johnsen,K.H.[andothers].2003. Baldwin, V.C.; Peterson, K.D.,Jr.; Burkhart,H.E.[andothers]. Baldwin, V.C. equationsforabove- 1987.Greenanddry-weight Albaugh, T.J.; Allen,H.L.;Dougherty, P T Southeastern UnitedStates.TreeSoutheastern Physiology. 21:1269–1278. Use ofgroundpenetratingradarto studytreerootsinthe 67:1607–1615. Journal. tool inforestsystems.SoilScienceSocietyofAmerica Utility ofground-penetratingradarasarootbiomasssurvey ofForestJournal Research.27:918–927. areadistributions.Canadian foliage weightandsurface 1997. Equationsforestimatingloblollypinebranchand 212–218. ofAppliedForestry. Journal gulf region.Southern 11: ground componentsofplantedloblollypinetreesinthewest 1–12. pine tonutrientandwateradditions.Forest Science.44: Leaf areaandabove-belowgroundresponsesofloblolly The valueofCcreditswouldthenlikely Department ofAgricultureForest Service, in thischapterwasfundedbytheU.S. he researchthatyieldedthedatareported .M. [andothers].1998. Ebinger, M.H.; Cremers, D.; Breshears, D.D.; Unkefer, Sampson, D.A.; Johnsen, K.H.; Ludovici, K.H.; Albaugh, P.J. 2001. Total carbon measurement in soils using laser- T.J. 2001. Stand-scale correspondence in empirical and induced breakdown spectroscopy: results from the field and simulated labile carbohydrates in loblolly pine. Forest implications for carbon sequestration. In: Proceedings from Science. 47: 60–68. first national conference on carbon sequestration. http:// www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/01/carbon_seq/ Samuelson, L.; Johnsen, K.H.; Stokes, T.; Cooksey, T. [In press]. carbon_seq01.html. [Date accessed: June 9, 2003]. Production, allocation, and stemwood growth efficiency of Pinus taeda L. stands in response to six years of intensive Goebel, N.B.; Warner, J.R. 1969. Volume yields of loblolly management. Forest Ecology and Management. pine plantations for a variety of sites in the South Carolina Piedmont. For. Res. Ser. 13. Clemson, SC: Clemson Samuelson, L.; Stokes, T.; Cooksey, T.; McLemore, P., III. 2001. University, Department of Forestry, South Carolina Production efficiency of loblolly pine and sweetgum in Agriculture Experiment Station. 15 p. response to four years of intensive management. Tree Physiology. 21: 369–376. Hepp, T.E.; Brister, G.H. 1982. Estimating crown biomass in loblolly pine plantations in the Carolina flatwoods. Forest Schultz, R.P. 1997. The ecology and culture of loblolly pine Science. 28: 115–127. (Pinus taeda L.). Agric. Handb. 713. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. [Number of pages unknown]. Johnsen, K.H.; Butnor, J.R.; Maier, C. [and others]. 2001a. 381 Fertilization increases below-ground carbon sequestration Shelton, M.G.; Nelson, L.E.; Switzer, G.L. 1984. The weight, of loblolly pine plantations. In: Proceedings from the first volume and nutrient status of plantation-grown loblolly pine national conference on carbon sequestration. http:// trees in the interior flatwoods of Mississippi. Tech. Bull. 121. www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/01/carbon_ Starkville, MS: Mississippi State University, Mississippi seq/carbon_seq01.html. [Date accessed: June 9, 2003]. Agriculture and Forestry Experiment Station. 27 p. Johnsen, K.H.; Samuelson, L.; Teskey, R.O. [and others]. Tauer, C.G.; Loo-Dinkens, J.A. 1990. Seed source variation in specific gravity of loblolly pine grown in a common 2001b. Process models as tools in forestry research and 32. Chapter management. Forest Science. 47: 2–8. environment in Arkansas. Forest Science. 36: 1133–1145. Johnsen, K.H.; Wear, D.; Oren, R. [and others]. 2001c. Carbon Van Lear, D.H.; Kapeluck, P.R.; Parker, M.M. 1995. Distribution sequestration via southern pine forestry. Journal of Forestry. of carbon in a Piedmont soil as affected by loblolly pine 99: 14–21. management. In: McFee, W.W.; Kelly, J.M., eds. Carbon forms and functions in forest soils. Madison, WI: Soil Science

Ludovici, K.H.; Zarnoch, S.J.; Richter, D.D. 2002. Modeling Society of America: 489–502. Sequestration Carbon in-situ pine root decomposition using data from a 60-year chronosequence. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 32: Van Lear, D.H.; Waide, J.B.; Teuke, M.J. 1984. Biomass and 1675–1684. nutrient content of a 41-year-old loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) plantation on a poor site in South Carolina. Forest Mencuccini, M.; Grace, J. 1995. Climate influences the leaf area/ Science. 30: 395–404. sapwood area ratio in Scots pine. Tree Physiology. 15: 1–10. Wielopolski, L.; Orion, I.; Hendrey, G.; Roger, H. 2000. Soil Naidu, S.L.; Delucia, E.H.; Thomas, R.B. 1998. Contrasting carbon measurements using inelastic neutron scattering. patterns of biomass allocation in dominant and suppressed Transactions of the IEEE on Nuclear Science. 47(3): loblolly pine. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 28: 914–917. 1116–1124. Wullschleger, S.D.; Martin, M.Z.; Vo-Dinh, T. [and others]. Ralston, C.W. 1973. Annual productivity in a loblolly pine 2001. Advanced instrumentation for in situ field monitoring plantation. In: Young, H.E., ed. IUFRO biomass studies: of soil carbon sequestration. In: Proceedings from Nancy, France and Vancouver, Canada. Orono, ME: the first national conference on carbon sequestration. University of Maine, College of Life Sciences and http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/01/carbon_ Agriculture: 123–139. seq/carbon_seq01.html. [Date accessed: June 10, 2003]. Sampson, D.A.; Allen, H.L. 1994. Direct and indirect estimates Zobel, B.J.; Kellison, R.C.; Matthias, M.; Hatcher, A.V. 1972. of leaf area index (LAI) for lodgepole and loblolly pine Wood density of southern pines. Tech. Bull. 208. St. Paul, stands. Trees. 9: 119–122. MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 56 p. Sampson, D.A.; Johnsen, K.H.; Albaugh, T. [In press]. Temporal estimates of loblolly pine LAI from point-in-time measurements: leaf phenology and senescence across stands that vary in structure and nutrition. Canadian Journal of Forest Research.

Chapter 33. Forest Carbon Trends in the Southern United States

Robert A. Mickler, James E. INTRODUCTION Smith, and Linda S. Heath1 f the United States is to meet the challenge

of future carbon dioxide (CO2) emission and I sequestration goals, the Southeastern region Abstract—Forest, agricultural, rangeland, will play a critical role in increasing carbon (C) wetland, and urban landscapes have different sequestration potential through conversion of 383 rates of carbon (C) sequestration and total nonforest land to forest land and through the C sequestration potential under alternative management of forest lands. Terrestrial C fluxes management options. Future changes in caused by changes in land use and landcover must be quantified so that C sources and sinks in the the proportion and spatial distribution of United States can be identified. International land use could increase or decrease the treaties on greenhouse gas reduction require that capacity of areas to sequester C in terrestrial current C emissions and sequestration potential of ecosystems. As the ecosystems within a forest lands be determined so that baselines can be landscape change as a result of natural or established for current and future forest C stocks. anthropogenic processes, they may go from Changes due to afforestation (establishment being C sinks to being C sources or vice versa. of forest on land that is not now in forest use), We used periodic forest inventory data from deforestation (conversion of forest land to the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest nonforest use), and reforestation (regeneration Service’s Forest Inventory and Analysis Program of forest after clearcut or significant partial-cut and Landsat Thematic Mapper data to obtain harvesting) are being used to derive estimates estimates of forest area and type. A simulation of forest C stocks for an historical baseline and future projections. Additional gains in C model for estimating and predicting C budgets sequestration may be realized by increasing (FORCARB) and a physiologically based photosynthetic C fixation by plants, reducing forest productivity model (PnET) were used decomposition of soil organic matter, reversing to generate estimates of historic, current, land use changes that contribute to global and future C storage for southeastern forests. emissions, and creating energy offsets through the use of trees in urban environments. The Southeastern United States can play an important role in a national program for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The conversion of nonforest land to forest land results in an increase in aboveground and belowground sequestered C. The present-day conversion of abandoned farmlands to naturally regenerated forests and commercial forest plantations is contributing to an increase in the region’s terrestrial C sink. In this chapter, we present historic, current, and future projections of forest C as simulated by an empirical simulation model used to estimate and predict C budgets (FORCARB) and a physiologically based forest productivity model (PnET). 1 Assistant Technical Director, Mantech Environmental Technology, Inc., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709; and Research Plant Physiologist and Research Forester, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Northern Global Change Program, Durham, NH 03824, respectively. Southern Forest Science: 384 Past, Present, and Future Climate Change E ESTIMATES OFFOREST CARBON MODELING HISTORIC ANDCURRENT and becausethereareaccounting difficulties of theuncertaintyinbelowground Cestimates, on abovegroundpoolsinthis chapterbecause vegetation, and(5)theforest floor. We focus dead wood(includingstumps),(4)understory (2) abovegroundstandingdeadtrees,(3)down components: (1)abovegroundlivetrees, chapter, wepartitionthe forest intofive number ofpools.For thepurposesofthis Forest assessedseparatelyfora Cisoften similarly onthebasisofforestattributes. other forestcomponentscanbeestimated of basicmodelsorconversionfactors.Cin volume canbeconvertedtoCmassbymeans area andmerchantabletimbervolume.Tree weredesigned forestimatingforest FIA surveys the pastexistinTexas, Oklahoma,andFlorida. forest landsthathavenotbeeninventoriedin Significant areasoflessproductiveorreserved forests aretimberlands. percent ofsouthern Approximately94 designated asreserved. per yearofindustrialwoodproductsandnot producing inexcessof20cubicfeetperacre Timberland isdefinedaslandcapableof productive forestlandknownastimberland. conducted moreintensivelyonthe Statewide basis.Theinventorieshavebeen periodicallyona States havebeensurveyed weight,isC. of livetreebiomass,ordry calculating Cmass.Approximately50percent forest inventoriesprovidethedatarequiredfor the timebetweeninventoriesinyears.Traditional calculated asthechangeinCmassdividedby then therateofchangeinCstockscanbe isconductedatalatertime, If asecondsurvey by multiplyingforestareaCperunitarea. others 2001).OnecanestimateregionalCstocks Program (FIA)(Milesandothers2001,Smith (Forest Forest Service), andAnalysis Inventory U.S. DepartmentofAgricultureForest Service Forest datawereobtainedfromthe inventory Change (1997),andHoughtonothers(1999). Panelothers (1995),Intergovernmental onClimate (1993), BirdseyandHeath(1995),Turner and Plantinga andBirdsey(1993),Heath Similar approacheshavebeenemployedby Since theearly1950s,forestsinUnited cosystem Cpoolsfortheabovegroundportion using an inventory andmodelingapproach. using aninventory forestecosystemswereestimated of southern half ofthe20 Past Inventories Forest CarbonEstimatesfrom (Smith andothers2001). ratio ofstatewideremovalstonational (1998), partitionedbyStateonthebasisof national estimatesfromSkogandNicholson woodproductsarebasedon of Cinharvested Estimates to thetotalamountofCharvested. of thefourcategorieswoodproductsisequal ofbiofuelsmadefromwood.Thesum burning offuelwood,orfrom the mill,fromotherburning ofwoodforenergyat may resultfromburning without producingenergy. ReleaseofCemissions emissions fromwoodeitherdecayingorburned toproduceenergy,from woodburned and(4)C products inuse,(2)Clandfills,(3)emissions wood productsinCbudgetsare(1) wood. Thecategoriesusedtodescribeharvested in theUnitedStatesisfateofCharvested and others2003). as aconsequenceoflandusechange(Heath relating tothetransferoflargeblockssoilC vegetation information inBirdsey (1992,1996). vegetation information in SmithandHeath(2002), and understory 1987 and1997data,on forest floorequations on relationshipsforlive-tree Cpoolsfromthe nonstanding-tree Cpoolswere estimatedbased the detailed1987and1997databases.Theother were basedonsimilarrelationshipsanddatain of Cinnongrowingstockandstandingdeadtrees distributions, andbiomassequations.Estimates estimated fromaveragetreevolumes,diameter (2003). Cdensityofforestgrowingstockwas 1989); and(4)theequationsofSmithothers (Smith andothers2001,Waddell andothers with the1987and1997U.S.foreststatistics type onCcontentfromthedatabasesassociated the landscape;(3)effectsofownershipandforest areas (Smithandothers2001)aggregatedacross distributed amongdiameterclassesandforest (Jenkins andothers2003);(2)tablesofvolume based on(1)generalizedtreebiomassequations landscape areavailable(Smithandothers2001). years, onlyforeststatisticsaggregatedacrossthe for theyears1987,1992,and1997.For theother datacompiled database fortheforestinventory The Forest hasadetailedplot-level Service for years1953,1963,1977,1987,1992,and1997. Forest dataareavailableforthelast inventory Another importantaspectofforestCbudgets Our estimatesofhistoricaltreeCmassare th century. Thedatawerecompiled MODELING CURRENT AND FUTURE Remotely Sensed Forest Classification ESTIMATES OF FOREST CARBON Forest cover mapping using spaceborne sensors he physical and chemical environments of has been a goal of forest managers since the forest ecosystems are changing at rates launch of Landsat-1 in 1972. The enhanced spatial, T unprecedented in recent geologic time. The spectral, and radiometric resolution available with Mauna Loa record shows a 16.9-percent increase the launch of Landsat-4 and subsequent Landsat in the mean annual concentration of atmospheric satellites has improved the application of the TM

CO2 from 315.98 parts per million by volume sensor for discerning forest cover classification at (ppmv) of dry air in 1959 to 369.40 ppmv in 2000. Anderson Level II and III classification precisions

The 2.87-ppmv increase in CO2 concentration in at a pixel spatial resolution of 30 m. One of the 1997–98 is the largest single yearly increase since projects sponsored by the Multi-Resolution the Mauna Loa record began in 1958 (http:// Land Characteristics (MRLC) Consortium was cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/ndps/ndp001.html). If emissions production of landcover data for the conterminous continue to increase at this rate and there are United States. Landcover was mapped using 385 no measures taken to slow the growth of CO2 general landcover classes. For example, forest concentrations, a doubling of atmospheric CO2 is classified as deciduous, evergreen, mixed, and is possible by 2100 (Houghton and others 1996). woody wetlands. Landcover classification was

In addition to elevated atmospheric CO2, climate based on MRLC’s Landsat-5 TM satellite data change resulting from the production or use of archive and a host of ancillary sources.

greenhouse gases and sulfate aerosols has 33. Chapter The Landsat TM data used for this project increased over the last century. Air temperatures were preprocessed following the procedures have increased on average by 1 °F across the described by MRLC for the National Land Cover United States during this period. In the Hadley Data (NLCD) set. The NLCD-selected TM scenes model scenario, the Eastern United States ° consist of data acquired between 1990 and 1994. has temperature increases of 3 to 5 F by Trends Carbon Forest Image processing for the NLCD set is described 2100, with larger increases for other regions by Vogelmann and others (1998, 2001). Spectral (National Assessment Synthesis Team 2000). information from leaf-on and leaf-off datasets The physiological responses of southern forest was used to derive the landcover classification ecosystems to elevated CO and climate change 2 products. First-order classification products have been the subject of hundreds of publications. were developed using predominantly the leaf-off A detailed review of the literature on this topic mosaics as a baseline and refined with the spectral for southern forests is presented in Mickler data from the other season and ancillary spatial and Fox (1997). information. Further refinements in the In this section, we present the responses of classification were made using decision trees southeastern forest to elevated CO2 and climate and visual inspection. Landsat TM and ancillary change. The objective of the research described data in the NLCD set were acquired for the here is to utilize remotely sensed forest cover 13 Southeastern States from MRLC (http:// data linked to a productivity model to determine, www.epa.gov/mrlc/nlcd.html). Individual State evaluate, project, and map forest productivity in flat landcover files were imported into ERDAS the Southeastern United States from the present IMAGINE®. Image data were projected to Albers to 2100. We hope eventually to integrate existing projection, NAD83 datum, GRS1980 spheroid, and climate, soil, and remotely sensed landcover units of meters. Individual State images were used data, and the Hadley2Sul climate scenario for to produce one regional mosaic image. Forest area the Southeastern United States as input to forest was displayed and summarized for three NLCD process models to predict, validate, and project landcover classes: (1) deciduous forest (class 41), forest growth and forest biomass. This section will (2) evergreen forest (class 42), and (3) mixed describe methods for linking Landsat Thematic forest (class 43). The deciduous forest class was Mapper (TM) landcover information and a PnET supplemented with the woody wetland class (class to estimate and display forest productivity. 91) to create a reclassified deciduous forest class. The accuracy of the landcover classification has been described by Yang and others (2001). Southern Forest Science: 386 Past, Present, and Future Climate Change a 2 projections usingtheHadleybasescenariowith change onforestandagriculturalrents.Climate then assessedthefutureeffectsofglobalclimate ha, or1.1percent,between1982and1997.They the forestareaofregiondeclinedby687981 that data,determined survey Resources Inventory andothers(2001),whoexaminedNatural Murray to 86646000hain1997,a5.3-percentdecline. in theSouthdecreasedfrom91471000ha1953 data,reportedthattotalforest FIAsurvey Service Smith andothers(2001),whoanalyzedForest in economicconditions(Adams andothers1996). vice versa,hasbeendrivenprimarilybychanges conversion offorestlandtoagriculturaluse,and percent oftheSouth’stotallanduse.Historically UseChange Land ~8 000ha[4 by ~4000ha[2 U.S.forest areadecline the Southeastern were appliedtoamodeloflandallocationfor with a20-percentreductioninprecipitation or forest-typespecificvegetation parameters. water-holding capacity(WHC), andspecies- PnET includemonthlyclimate parameters,soil from thePnETmodel.Input datarequiredby production(NPP) decadal meanofnetprimary for 2000,2050,and2100wereestimatedusinga and others1998).Forest biomasspredictions UnitedStates (McNulty across theSoutheastern annual growthinbasalareameasuredatsites withaverage from PnEThavebeencorrelated Federer 1992),andpredictionsofforestbiomass UnitedStates(Aberand across theEastern average annualgrowthinsitebasalareameasured with of forestproductivityhavebeencorrelated climates andsiteconditions.PnETpredictions productivity andhydrologyacrossarangeof time-step processmodelPnETtopredictforest Forest ProductivityModeling forest areainthefuture. maychange in forestandagriculturalreturns region’s forestswiththeknowledgethatchanges climate changeonthefutureproductivityof remain constantto2100.We reporttheeffectsof based ontheassumptionthatforestareawill forest areaintheregion,presentstudyis last 50yearsshowingonlyaslightdecreasein climate scenariosandthehistoricaltrendfor projection ofchangeinforestareaunderglobal Given theuncertaintyassociatedwithany Forest landandagriculturalaccountfor90 We utilizedthephysiologicallybased,monthly ° F (1 ° C) and4 ° F (2 ° F (2 ° F (1 ° C) warming] by2040. C) warming] ° C) warming combined C) warming ° C) warming] and C) warming] 0.5 (Miller andWhite1998)wasadaptedtothe0.5 derivedfromtheCONUS-Soildataset information more appropriateforregionalanalysis.SoilWHC and presentsoilassociationsatascale(1:250,000) maps compiled frommoredetailedsoilsurvey forU.S.lands.STATSGOinformation mapswere tostoreanddistributesoilsurvey Service of Agriculture,NaturalResourcesConservation Program wasdevelopedbytheU.S.Department The StateSoilGeographicDataBase(STATSGO) State UniversityEarthSystemScienceCenter. dataset, whichwasdevelopedbythePennsylvania resolution forthemodel. input dataaremodifiedtomatchthe0.5 temporal andspatialconsistency, andhence,other finest spatialresolutionavailablewiththislevelof CO and projectedscenariosofclimate,atmospheric biogeographical modelstohistoricaltimeseries of biogeochemicalandcoupledbiogeochemical- compare time-dependentecologicalresponses aerosols. Thesedatasetshavebeenusedto related toincreasingatmosphericCO include temperatureandprecipitationeffects These climatescenarios,Had2CMSulandCGC1, office.gov.uk/research/hadleycentre/index.html). and theCanadianClimateCentre(http://www.met- circulation modelsdevelopedattheHadleyCentre climate variablesfor1994–2100,basedongeneral climate scenariosthatincludethesamemonthly datasets.html). 1997) (http://www.cgd.ucar.edu/vemap/ climate, soil,andvegetation inputdata,PnET literature (AberandFederer 1992).Based onthe derived fromfieldmeasurements andpublished and otherphysiologicalcoefficients orconstants nitrogen concentration,lightextinctioncoefficient, CONUS soilseriesWHCpolygons. States ata0.5 the period1895–1993acrosscontinentalUnited Project (VEMAP)providesthesevariablesfor Vegetation/Ecosystem ModelingandAnalysis total precipitation,andsolarradiation.The include minimumandmaximumairtemperature, water stressovertime. growth, evapotranspiration,drainage,andsoil resolution ofinputdataandincludesforest PnET outputisdependentonthespatial Soil WHCisderivedfromtheCONUS-Soil PnET vegetationvariablesincludefoliar Monthly climatevariablesrequiredbyPnET ° 2

grid byarea-weightedaveragingofthe , andnitrogendeposition.Thisdatasethasthe ° by0.5

VEMAP alsoprovidestransient °

resolution (Kittelandothers 2 andsulfate ° by0.5 ° ° by calculates the maximum amount of foliage or sum of standing C in live and dead trees is leaf area that can be supported. NPP equals provided in table 33.2 by forest type and total gross photosynthesis minus growth and ownership. The majority of C is in privately maintenance respiration for leaves, wood, and owned forests and in hardwood forest types. roots. Respiration is calculated as a function Countywide estimates of mean aboveground of the current and previous month’s minimum forest C density are shown in figure 33.1. and maximum air temperatures. Changes Aboveground C includes that in live and dead in water availability and plant water demand trees, understory vegetation, down dead wood, place limitations on leaf area produced; as vapor and the forest floor. Values for each county pressure deficit and air temperature increase represent the mean for forest land within the above optimal photosynthetic levels, total leaf county. Only counties with at least 5 percent of area decreases. Reduced leaf area decreases area classified as forest are included. Mean net total C fixation and alters ecosystem hydrology. annual growth for the period 1987–97 is shown Transpiration is calculated from a maximum in figure 33.2. The C pool represented in this 387 potential transpiration modified by plant water figure includes the aboveground portion of all live demand that is a function of gross photosynthesis trees having diameter at breast height greater and water use efficiency. Interception loss is a than 2.5 cm. Net annual growth is essentially the function of total leaf area and total precipitation. net annual change in live tree C stock, a definition Evapotranspiration is equal to transpiration consistent with the use of the term in summary and interception loss. Drainage is calculated forest statistics of the United States (Smith and 33. Chapter as precipitation in excess of evapotranspiration others 2001). and WHC. Maximum water storage capacity is equated to WHC to a depth of 100 cm. Monthly Estimates of Forest Carbon Stocks 1953–97 evapotranspiration is a function of leaf area, plant In the Southern States, aboveground forest water demand, and climate; i.e., air temperature, C stocks generally accumulated steadily between Trends Carbon Forest vapor pressure deficit. 1953 and 1997 (fig. 33.3). The mean annual change We report PnET predictions of NPP for in tree C stocks between 1953 and 1997 (table 33.2, evergreen, deciduous, and mixed forests. The column 2) is calculated as the difference between PnET model runs were performed for evergreen C stocks in the 2 years divided by the interval in and deciduous forest types. NPP for mixed forest years (44 years). A positive value represents an types was assumed to be a 50:50 mix of deciduous average increase in C stock, as in the case of oak- and evergreen NPP. Estimates of NPP were hickory forests, while a negative value indicates an output at the 0.5° by 0.5° resolution, and then average decrease, as in the case of privately owned Anderson Level II forest-cover type pixels were longleaf-slash pine forests. Because these are total assigned NPP values within each 0.5° by 0.5° cell. C estimates, the differences could result from The resulting estimates of forest productivity changes in the area of forest, or in C density, or across the Southeastern United States are both. Between 1953 and 1997, total area of stored at a 30-m spatial resolution and include information about attributes for specific forest types. Forest biomass predictions for 2000, 2050, Table 33.1—Mean aboveground carbon density of and 2100 were estimated using decadal means productive southern forests (timberlands) by forest of NPP from the PnET model. type and carbon pool, 1997

Forest type RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Estimates of Carbon Stocks in Southern Forests Carbon pool Softwood Mixed Hardwood outhern forests presently contain 5810 Mt of Mg carbon/ha aboveground C on 87 million ha. Forests of the S conterminous United States contain 20 340 Mt Live trees 37.7 55.4 56.0 of aboveground C on 250 million ha. Thus the Standing dead trees 1.7 3.0 3.1 South accounts for approximately 29 percent of Understory vegetation 2.9 2.2 2.9 aboveground forest C stock in the conterminous Down dead wood 3.3 7.4 7.5 United States. Allocation of this stock among Forest floor 9.3 7.6 5.7 forest ecosystem pools is shown in table 33.1. The Southern Forest Science: 388 Past, Present, and Future Climate Change al-ec-ic . 3772 102 418 1 198 3 572 1 83.7 52.9 74.9 71.6 883 988 71.9 1 86 6 75 38.8 8 48.8 229 113 66.7 0.1 1.1 34 97 3.8 1.0 0.1 6 0.2 0.3 Other Eastern types Maple-beech-birch 0.1 Elm-ash-cottonwood Oak-gum-cypress Oak-hickory Oak-pine Loblolly-shortleaf pine Longleaf-slash pine Miscellaneous conifer Total South and ownership classifications, 1997 Table 33.2—Mean aboveground tree carbon massof southern forests by forest type a between 1953and1997iscalculated asthenet change incarbon stock dividedby thenumberof years. oettp 939 cro est Forest area density carbon 1953–97 Forest type al-ec-ic . 87. 397 851 767 10 356 10 445 28 71.5 45.1 61.5 70.8 59.3 468 4 286 18 193 28 486 52 39.4 33.2 734 686 1 74.1 0.3 6.0 721 23.4 148 6.4 0.3 14 0.8 -1.8 Other Eastern types Maple-beech-birch 0.1 Elm-ash-cottonwood Oak-gum-cypress Oak-hickory Oak-pine Loblolly-shortleaf pine Longleaf-slash pine Miscellaneous conifer Thecarbon poolincludesaboveground portions of live andstanding dead trees. Mean annualcarbon change icuignntce)<016581025 1 5.8 6 <0.1 (including nonstocked) icuignntce)042 . 541 2 8.9 23 0.4 (including nonstocked) o a . 7 551 343 10 55.5 574 6.6 303 76 51.0 Total 892 3 35.8 Total tcro e erM abnM abnh 000ha 1 Mgcarbon/ha Mtcarbon Mt carbon peryear abncag oa reCarbon Total tree carbon change Mean annual a 244465. 6646 86 51.5 466 4 42.4 Privately owned forests Publicly owned forests 389

7.59 147.77 Mg C/ha Chapter 33. Chapter

Figure 33.1—Aboveground carbon (C) density (Mg C/ha) for forested lands in 1997 in the Southern United States. Forest Carbon Trends Carbon Forest

-1.2 3.1 Mg C/ha/year

Figure 33.2—Mean net annual tree growth 1953– 97 in terms of carbon (C) density (Mg C/ha/year) for forested lands in the Southern United States. Southern Forest Science: 390 Past, Present, and Future Climate Change wood burned forenergy.wood burned and landfills,withanadditionalamountofCin additional 2to3MtCperyearinproductsuse ecosystems. ManyStateshavealsosequesteredan have sequestered5to6MtCperyearinforest C inforestsovertheperiod.AnumberofStates are giveninfigure33.5.AllStateshaveincreased woodproducts 33.4. EstimatesofCinharvested Stateispresentedinfigure of CforeachSouthern 50 percent. all pinesincreasedfromabout2percentto theproportionofplantedpineto this interval, by onlyabout2percent(seetable33.2).During by 18percent,buttotalCintreesdecreased privately ownedpineforestintheSouthdecreased An estimateoftheannualforestcontribution

Total C mass (Mt) Total C mass (Mt) 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 0 0 9016 9018 902000 1990 1980 1970 1960 1950 9016 9018 902000 1990 1980 1970 1960 1950 wood, andtheforest floor. dead trees, understory vegetation, down dead State. Aboveground Cincludesthat inlive and (Mt) isfor allproductive forest landwithineach (B) Southeastern States 1953–97.Total Cmass forest carbon (C)stock for (A)Southcentral and Figure 33.3—Estimated total aboveground (A) (B) Year Year of theregionanddecreasedCaccumulationin portion the periodforStatesinnorthern generally steadyCaccumulationthroughout forest Cstocksbetween2000and2050was Landsat TMdata(table33.3).Thetrendintotal the Hadley2Sulscenario,andforestcoverfrom andwetterclimateprojectedunder warmer uncalibrated modelofforestCbalance,a United States.Thisanalysisisbasedonan for 2000,2050,and2100theSoutheastern provides anestimateofpotentialforestproduction of forestecosystems.Theanalysisreportedhere responses tothechangeonfuturecomposition of globalclimatechangeandsocioeconomic Estimates ofForest CarbonStocks2000–2100 One canonlyspeculateabouttheeffects Texas Tennessee Oklahoma Mississippi Louisiana Kentucky Arkansas Alabama Virginia South Carolina North Carolina Georgia Florida In use Landfills Energy Emitted 12 6 10 5

4 8

3 6 Mt C/year Mt C/year 2 4

1 2

0 0 Texas Texas Florida Florida Virginia Virginia Georgia Georgia Alabama Alabama Kentucky Arkansas Arkansas Louisiana Kentucky Louisiana Oklahoma Oklahoma Mississippi Tennessee Mississippi Tennessee North Carolina North Carolina South Carolina South Carolina 391

Figure 33.4—Estimated mean annual change in Figure 33.5—Estimated mean annual change aboveground forest carbon stock 1953–97. of carbon in the harvested products Estimates are for productive forest land. categories 1953–97. Chapter 33. Chapter

Table 33.3—Hadley 2000, 2050, and 2100 minimum, maximum, and average net primary production for Forest Carbon Trends Carbon Forest all forest types

Hadley 2000 Hadley 2050 Hadley 2100

State Min. Max. Avg. Min. Max. Avg. Min. Max. Avg.

g carbon/m2/year

Alabama 1064.2 2320.7 1313.9 1080.6 2158.0 1338.3 674.5 1761.8 1197.4 Arkansas 885.6 1464.4 1151.0 822.9 1480.3 1117.4 744.5 1534.7 1158.1 Florida 1172.8 2320.7 1554.6 1020.9 2191.6 1430.5 391.2 1806.0 1088.4 Georgia 1049.9 2019.8 1298.1 1004.4 1954.7 1323.5 360.2 2026.3 1127.4 Kentucky 997.3 1544.2 1213.2 1017.9 1702.7 1344.8 1006.2 1633.1 1328.5 Louisiana 1037.5 2331.2 1506.9 893.3 2171.1 1363.1 805.8 1755.7 1225.4 Mississippi 1078.1 2086.4 1367.4 999.0 2013.9 1310.2 884.9 1629.6 1210.0 North Carolina 1078.5 2135.5 1424.4 1269.9 2280.3 1627.4 1152.8 2222.0 1488.3 Oklahoma 892.5 1357.3 1107.6 800.1 1224.7 1015.3 546.5 1390.4 1006.0 South Carolina 1060.3 1900.4 1339.2 1184.8 2174.0 1462.1 600.7 2222.0 1344.7 Tennessee 1034.3 1595.2 1286.7 1019.2 1899.3 1402.4 1013.0 1926.5 1371.9 Texas 871.6 2079.4 1202.0 721.9 1933.6 1055.1 597.9 1628.3 1015.1 Virginia 646.8 1936.4 1242.2 785.8 2173.1 1437.5 801.9 1910.3 1359.0

Regional 646.8 2331.2 1313.5 721.9 2280.3 1354.3 360.2 2222.0 1250.7 Southern Forest Science: 392 Past, Present, and Future Climate Change will affectwoodytissuerespiration, climate suggestincreasingairtemperaturethat region (figs.33.6Band33.6C). stocks between2050and2100forallStatesinthe is aprojecteddecreasingtrendintotalforestC States(figs.33.6Aand33.6B).There the Southern and (C)2100. 2000, (B)2050, scenario for (A) Hadley2Sul climate types using the year] for allforest [g carbon (C)m primary production Estimated annualnet Figure 33.6— 2 / (C) (B) (A)

Future trendsin 150 150 150 Coastal Plains. future forestproductivity, especiallyalongtheGulf will likelybeacontributingfactorinlowering andseasonalwaterstress.Airtemperature diurnal evapotranspiration, andthedevelopmentof 2250 gC/m 2250 gC/m 2250 gC/m 2 2 2 /year /year /year ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Kittel, T.G.F.; Royle, J.A.; Daly, C. [and others]. 1997. A gridded historical (1895–1993) bioclimate dataset for the his research was funded by the U.S. conterminous United States. In: Proceedings of the 10th Department of Agriculture Forest conference on applied climatology. Boston: American T Service, Southern Global Change Meteorological Society: 219–222. Program, Research Work Unit RWU–4852, McNulty, S.G.; Vose, J.M.; Swank, W.T. 1998. Predictions and and the Northern Global Change Program, projections of pine productivity and hydrology in response to Research Work Unit RWU–4104. climate change across the Southern United States. In: Mickler, R.A.; Fox, S., eds. The productivity and sustainability of southern forest ecosystems in a changing LITERATURE CITED environment. Ecol. Stud. 128. New York: Springer-Verlag: Aber, J.D.; Federer, C.A. 1992. A generalized, lumped- 391–406. parameter model of photosynthesis, evapotranspiration, Mickler, R.A.; Fox, S., eds. 1998. The productivity and and net primary production in temperate and boreal forest sustainability of southern forest ecosystems in a changing ecosystems. Oecologia. 92: 463–474. environment. Ecol. Stud. 128. New York: Springer-Verlag. 892 p. Adams, D.M.; Alig, R.J.; Callaway, B.A. [and others]. 1996. The 393 forest and agricultural sector optimization model (FASOM): Miles, P.D.; Brand, G.J.; Alerich, C.L. [and others]. 2001. model structure and policy applications. PNW–RP–495. The forest inventory and analysis database: database Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest description and users manual. Version 1.0. Gen. Tech. Rep. Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 60 p. NC–218. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Birdsey, R.A. 1992. Carbon storage and accumulation in Forest Service, North Central Research Station. 130 p. United States forest ecosystems. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO–59. Miller, D.A.; White, R.A. 1998. A conterminous United States Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

multi-layer soil characteristics data set for regional climate 33. Chapter Service. 51 p. and hydrology modeling. Earth Interactions. http:// Birdsey, R.A. 1996. Carbon storage for major forest types and EarthInteractions.org/. [Date accessed: June 3, 2004]. regions in the conterminous United States. In: Sampson, Murray, B.C.; Abt, R.C.; Wear, D.W. [and others]. 2001. Land R.N.; Hair, D., eds. Forests and global change: forest allocation in the Southeastern U.S. in response to climate management opportunities for mitigating carbon emissions. change impacts on forestry and agriculture. World Resource Washington, DC: American Forests. 379 p. + appendix 2. Review. 13(2): 239–251. Trends Carbon Forest Vol. 2. National Assessment Synthesis Team. 2000. Climate change Birdsey, R.A.; Heath, L.S. 1995. Carbon changes in U.S. impacts on the United States: the potential consequences of forests. In: Joyce, L.A., ed. Productivity of America’s forests climate variability and change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge and climate change. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM–GTR–271. Ft. University Press, U.S. Global Change Research Program. Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 154 p. Rocky Mountain and Range Experiment Station: 56–70. Plantinga, A.J.; Birdsey, R.A. 1993. Carbon fluxes resulting Heath, L.S.; Birdsey, R.A. 1993. Carbon trends of productive from U.S. private timberland management. Climatic Change. temperate forests of the coterminous United States. 23: 37–53. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution. 70: 279–293. Skog, K.E.; Nicholson, G.A. 1998. Carbon cycling through wood Heath, L.S.; Smith, J.E.; Birdsey, R.A. 2003. Carbon trends products: the role of wood and paper products in carbon in U.S. forest lands: a context for the role of soils in forest sequestration. Forest Products Journal. 48: 75–83. carbon sequestration. In: Kimble, J.M.; Heath, L.S.; Birdsey, R.A.; Lal, R., eds. The potential of U.S. forest soils to Smith, J.E.; Heath, L.S. 2002.. Estimators of forest floor sequester carbon and mitigate the greenhouse effect. Boca carbon for United States forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE–722. Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers, CRC Press: 35–46. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station. 37 p. Houghton, J.T.; Meira Filho, L.G.; Callader, B.A. [and others]. 1996. Climate change 1995: the science of climate change. Smith, J.E.; Heath, L.S.; Jenkins, J.C. 2003. Forest volume-to- Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 584 p. biomass models and estimates of mass for live and standing dead trees of U.S. forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE–298. Houghton, R.A.; Hackler, J.L.; Lawrence, K.T. 1999. The U.S. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, carbon budget: contributions from land-use change. Science. Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station. 57 p. 285: 574–578. Smith, W.B.; Vissage, J.S.; Darr, D.R.; Sheffield, R.M. 2001. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 1997. 1996 Forest resources of the United States, 1997. Gen. Tech. Rep. guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories. NC–219. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Revised. Paris, France. 650 p. Vols. 1–3. http://www.ipcc- Forest Service, North Central Research Station. 191 p. nggip.iges.or.jp/public/gl/invs1.htm [Date accessed: June 3, 2004]. Turner, D.P.; Koerper, G.J.; Harmon, M.E.; Lee, J.J. 1995. A carbon budget for forests of the conterminous United Jenkins, J.C.; Chojnacky, D.C.; Heath, L.S.; Birdsey, R.A. 2003. States. Ecological Applications. 5: 421–436. National scale biomass estimators for United States tree species. Forest Science. 49(1): 12–35. Vogelmann, J.E.; Howard, S.M.; Yang, L. [and others]. 2001. Completion of the 1990s Nation land cover data and ancillary data sources. Photogrammetric and Remote Sensing. 67: 650–662. Southern Forest Science: 394 Past, Present, and Future Climate Change Yang, L.;Stehman,S.V.; Smith,J.H.;Wickham, J.D.2001. Waddell, K.L.;Oswald,D.D.;Powell, D.D.1989.Forest Vogelmann, J.E.;Sohl,T.; Howard,S.M.;Shaw, D.M.1998. 76: 418–422. Unites States.RemoteSensingoftheEnvironment. Thematic accuracyofMRLClandcoverfortheEastern PacificService, NorthwestResearchStation.106p. Portland, OR:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest statistics oftheUnitedStates,1987.Res.Bull.PNW–168. Environmental MonitoringandAssessment.51:415–428. datasources. Thematic Mapperdataandancillary Regional landcovercharacterizationusingLandsat Rauscher, H. Michael; Johnsen, Kurt, eds. 2004. Southern forest science: past, present, and future. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–75. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 394 p.

Southern forests provide innumerable benefits. Forest scientists, managers, owners, and users have in common the desire to improve the condition of these forests and the ecosystems they support. A first step is to understand the contributions science has made and continues to make to the care and management of forests. This book represents a celebration of past accomplishments, summarizes the current state of knowledge, and creates a vision for the future of southern forestry research and management. Chapters are organized into seven sections: “Looking Back,” “Productivity,” “Forest Health,” “Water and Soils,” “Socioeconomic,” “Biodiversity,” and “Climate Change.” Each section is preceded by a brief introductory chapter. Authors were encouraged to focus on the most important aspects of their topics; citations are included to guide readers to further information.

Keywords: Biodiversity, climate change, forest health, forest history, productivity, socioeconomics, soil, water.

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CAUTION: Pesticides can be injurious to humans, domestic animals, desirable plants, and fish or other wildlife if they are not handled or applied properly. Use all pesticides selectively and carefully. Follow recommended practices f or the disposal of surplus pesticides and their containers. Rauscher, Johnsen Southern Forest Science:

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use management of the Nation’s forest Past, Present, and Future resources for sustained yields Past, Present, and Future of wood, water, forage, wildlife, and recreation. Through forestry research, cooperation with the H. Michael Rauscher and Kurt Johnsen, Editors States and private forest owners, and management of the National Forests and National Grasslands, it strives—as directed by Congress—to provide increasingly greater service to a growing Nation.

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Southern Research Station General Technical Report SRS-75 2004