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A Postcolonial Critique of Religion and Ethnicity in Southern Kaduna with Specific Reference to an Online Forum

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A Postcolonial Critique of Religion and Ethnicity in Southern Kaduna with Specific Reference to an Online Forum A Postcolonial Critique of Religion and Ethnicity in Southern Kaduna with Specific Reference to an Online Forum By Sokfa Francis John 213568791 Submitted to partial fulfilment of the academic requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Religion and Social Transformation (Sociology of Religion) in the School of Religion, Philosophy and Classics, University of KwaZulu-Natal Supervisor: Dr. F. G. Settler December 2016 Declaration I, Sokfa Francis John, declare that this thesis is my own original work. All citations, references and borrowed ideas have been acknowledged. No parts of this work have been submitted to another institution for degree or examination purposes. Unless stated otherwise, this work is entirely mine. _____________________ Sokfa Francis John Candidate As the supervisor of the candidate, I hereby approve this dissertation for submission. _____________________ Dr. Federico Settler Supervisor ii Dedication To my family: John and Elisabeth, Habila, Agnes, Esther, Amako, Achi, Boman, Zychat and Akut. iii Acknowledgments My heartfelt gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Federico Settler, for his support and assistance during this study. For all the opportunities he exposed me to and for ensuring that I pursued excellence in my research. I am also thankful to Dr. M. Engh for her support during the years of PhD and her editing of my thesis. I am immensely grateful to my mother, Alisabatu (Elizabeth), my late father, John, and all my siblings, Habila, Esther, Amako, Achi, Boman, Zychat, Akut and my late sister Agnes for their consistent support, encouragement and prayers for me throughout my many years of higher education. I am very thankful to my partner, Nthatuwa Leeke, for her love, affection and care during this period of Doctoral studies, and for always being by me. Several other friends have supported me in different ways –Timothy Obaje, Tony Oyowe, Chris Ifeacho, Dumisa Mbano, Andrew Okem, Lilly Phiri, Chammah and Mutale Kaunda – and I am grateful to them all. I am also very thankful to the several scholars I met, whose seminars or classes I attended and with whom I discussed aspects of my work, and whose suggestions were very useful – Dr. Jehu J. Hanciles, Dr Deanna Womack and Dr John Snarey of Emory University, Atlanta, G.A.; and Professors Mahmood Mamdami, Brian Larkin, J. Martins, Mamadou Diouf and Bachir Diagne who were happy to meet with me and welcomed me to some of their seminars at Columbia University, New York. I am thankful to Professor Sean Jacobs of the New School University, New York, for introducing me to them and their works. This thesis has also benefited from conferences and workshops and I am grateful to all those who challenged my thoughts and made valuable suggestions. Finally, I am very grateful to the Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESSRIA) and the National Institute for the Humanities and Social Sciences (NIHSS) for granting me the African Pathways Doctoral fellowship, for their mentoring programs and conferences, which made it possible to complete this study. I am particularly grateful to Dr. Nthanbiseng Motsemme of the NIHSS and Professor Pumla Gqola, Wits University, for the quality time they spent with me reading and discussing my research in ways that deepened my analysis of data and for their general support. iv Abstract Against the background of ethnic and religious relations and conflicts in Kaduna, northern Nigeria, this study examined the emerging social and cultural spaces on which religious and ethnic identities are contested, such as the internet; and the religious forms and ideological practices that are (re)produced and invoked on such spaces to create imaginations of identity and for othering. I employ postcolonial theory and research in digital religion to specifically examine a Southern Kaduna Online Forum and the prevailing representation on the forum. I analyze a two-year worth of Online Forum’s content (2013-2014), which I complemented with a self- administered online survey. The online survey results indicate that majority of respondents were relatively young (ages 20-40), male and Christians belonging to the several ethnicities of Southern Kaduna. Most respondents have been members of the Online Forum for over 2 years, and identified more universal goals as their motivations for joining, such as, to pursue Southern Kaduna interest, support state creation and to promote peace, although their visions of peace differ. In addition, respondents viewed strategies such as interfaith dialogue and prayer as less likely to bring about peace in Kaduna; while political solutions such as state creation and equal political representation were viewed as more likely to bring about peace. In my analysis of the Forum’s 2-year content, I identified key narratives through which Southern Kaduna Christian Self, Hausa-Fulani Muslim Other, and Religion are constructed and depicted by Online Forum users. Generally, Southern Kaduna Christians are imagined as marginalized, loyal, non-violent, and morally superior, while Hausa-Fulani Muslims are imagined as suspicious, inferior, aggressive and rigidly religious. Online Forum members further critically engage in conflicting representation of religion both as a problem to society which causes retrogression, and as an intrinsic part of society which cannot be particularly separated from politics. Among other things, I argue that Online representation emerges out of offline conflicts, and reflect varying degrees and intensity of offline conflicts. I further argue that Online Forum members are knowingly or unknowingly engaged in religious work through their participation in the online forum; producing rhetoric and epistemology through their active participation, and creating a digital archive of religion in Africa. v Contents Declaration..................................................................................................................................... ii Dedication ..................................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................ iv Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... v List of Figures, Tables and Screenshots ..................................................................................... ix Figures ....................................................................................................................................... ix Tables......................................................................................................................................... ix Screenshots ................................................................................................................................ ix Chapter One: ................................................................................................................................. 1 General Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Background to the Study .................................................................................................... 2 1.2.1 Emergence of Online “emancipation” Groups ............................................................... 3 1.3 Research Problem and Objectives ..................................................................................... 5 1.3.1 Research Questions......................................................................................................... 5 1.3.2. Research Aim and Objectives........................................................................................ 6 1.4 Theoretical and Methodological Framework ................................................................... 6 1.4.1 Theoretical Imperfections ............................................................................................... 9 1.4.2 Digital Media and Religion .......................................................................................... 14 1.5 Mapping the Context of the Study ................................................................................... 15 1.6 Significance of the Study .................................................................................................. 20 1.7 Conclusion and Structure of the Thesis .......................................................................... 20 Chapter Two: .............................................................................................................................. 22 Socio-Historical Survey of Ethnic and Religious Relations in Kaduna, Nigeria................... 22 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 22 2.2 Christian-Muslim Relations in Nigeria ........................................................................... 22 2.3 Religious Reform and Complex Encounters in Northern Nigeria ................................ 27 2.4 British Interruption and Aggravation of Already Tense Relations .............................. 30 2.5 Postcolonial Dramas .........................................................................................................
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