Teaching

International Perspectives on the Recovery Program* Marie M. Clay

The Opportunity Analogies can be misleading but let teaching them one at a time, and I used to just throw my book me try one. The instruction is not a not in a prescribed sequence such as down because it was too hard packaged recipe for all learners and occurs in class or group instruction. to read but now I can read any it cannot work for a whole class of If we problem solve each individual book in the world. children. It is more like a dose of case we are able to hand over literate antibiotics, taken only when essential, 7-year-olds to the education systems — A student after professional appraisal, given as with an inner control over That is what Reading Recovery a full course of treatment, and varied learning which enables them in a (RR) does. It puts a limited number to suit the precise condition of each good classroom program, to continue of children who might have been individual. to learn within the average band. confused by early literacy instruc- We aim to minimize a seemingly Across the world RR is a target for tion back in touch with the com- chronic problem found in every copyists who want to help more municative arts. It is an early literacy country with universal education— children. These innovators modify, intervention program designed for reading difficulties. To cope with this simplify, and design cheaper versions children who clearly show that they problem in the past, education sys- that make the very compromises that have already become at-risk in literacy tems have expanded legitimate labels have led to weak solutions to this learning in their classroom program. like learning disability and to problem in the past. They advocate, Two of Her Majesty’s Inspectors cover children who do not need those but they do not observe, develop, in Britain studied RR in operation labels, and administrators have tried try out, research, check, and provide across New Zealand and responded remedial approaches one after another data. They live by assurances or single that, “It is much more than a set of with extremely limited results. demonstration with a case or small procedures to be used with a child. Societies have come to accept literacy group. It seems that few people are It is a way of establishing an early difficulties as always being with us prepared to consider “a different intervention program in an education but have settled for much greater program for every child” in this hard- system in order to reduce reading numbers than are necessary. to-reach group, even though most and difficulties in the primary people would expect their doctors to ­Reading Recovery research presents a school” (Frater & Staniland, 1994). treat them as individuals, and most challenge to this state of affairs, sug- Any child entering the program is teachers of writing, art, and drama gesting only 1–2% of an age cohort taken from where he is to some- would plan for individual creativity in school will require assistance with where else, working up from what to thrive. Such respect for individual literacy learning which starts early he already knows, using his strengths learning also applies to seemingly low and continues for several years. Other and what he does well. The lessons achievers when the foundation of lowest achievers between 6 and 7 are individually designed, differ from later learning is being laid down. day to day, and emphases change years can become readers and writers. according to individual need across The special situations that allow the Literacy, defined here as performance the series of lessons. lowest achievers to learn quickly and in reading and writing, could be catch up with their classmates involve likened to an individual sport like

* The Auckland College of Education has hosted the Reading Recovery National Centre in New Zealand for many years now, and the National Trainer-Co-ordinators have trained Australian, British, Canadian, and some United States trainers and tutors to lead programs back home. Many New Zealand tutors and trainers have by now served overseas to our benefit as well as to the benefit of their host country and such exchanges will be of value as new theories and future circumstances bring continuing adjustments.

16 Journal of Reading Recovery Fall 2007 : A Visionary Educator

golf or swimming; a personal coach next school year because they can teach to the strengths of an indi- entered too late in the year Across the world Reading vidual, go around his weaknesses, and to have a full program. Recovery is a target for gradually lift the challenge. Reading 3. We provide diagnostic teach- copyists who want to help Recovery designs individual solu- ing which identifies about tions, from its theory and research more children. These 1% of the age group (or up to its delivery and daily instruction, innovators modify, sim- to about 10% of the intake and results appear in a relatively short group) for referral for a spe- plify, and design cheaper period of time! A mother, having cialist report and appropriate versions that make the just consented to her child joining longer-term help, after their the program, said, “I doubt that they very compromises that time in Reading Recovery. can do it in such a short time but I’ll have led to weak solu- keep an open mind. It ought to take These outcomes are replicated tions to this problem in longer,” than about 12–20 weeks to by individual cases daily, in New the past. They advocate, get to average levels of the class. Zealand probably 40–50 children complete their program each school but they do not observe, One-to-one teaching is not merely day and in the United States RR may develop, try out, research, a convenient or privileged delivery be completing programs at the rate of tactic; it is the only delivery system check, and provide data. 500 children per school day. that could arise from a theory which says that the causes of the difficul- The lowest-achieving children in the in the Sunday Times claiming, “This ties are multiple, they differ from 6-year-old group are selected not Program Fails” in February 1992, child to child, and each child has a excluding any child for any reason in to part of a main editorial in the different profile of strengths. This is an ordinary classroom, a challenging Independent in February 1995, heretical in an academic world that position adopted to ensure reliability which read: of teacher judgment. It also takes care spends much energy searching for …To most people outside of other values like children’s rights, one explanation for reading difficul- educational politics it (Reading fairness and equality, and social, cul- ties: Therefore RR’s approach stands Recovery) sounds like a simple tural, and linguistic inequities (Sylva somewhat in isolation. Many who idea. Six-year-olds who are & Hurry, 1995). admit it works still do not accept our lagging behind in their read- explanations of why it works, and Most children are flexible learners ing are given half-an hour of the practice will not survive unless its and can learn in classrooms with very individual tuition every school supporting theories are understood. different reading programs. Reading day for 16 weeks by a highly Our challenge is simple: We have to Recovery switches from group in- trained teacher… Expensive? enable children who are hard-to-teach struction to the child’s own compe- Of course. But the cost for each to read and write in ways that make tencies and provides a second chance child is less than the cost of it possible for them to learn in class to learn literacy for those who make administration alone for a child without any further special help. a struggling beginning. However, at who requires ‘a statement’ for Reading Recovery can have three the end of an individual program a special needs… child must have regained the flexibil- positive outcomes, which create a By 1995 an independent academic ity required to work with any class- win-win-win situation: research appraisal funded by politi- room program. 1. We aim to get about 90% cians had reported the success of chil- (of those who enter) to work In time, RR gets “good press” for dren in some tough urban settings in independently in the average surprisingly good results in differ- England (Sylva & Hurry, 1995). ent countries and finds its way into group of their classrooms The idea is simple but the program important documents at country without further extra help. is complex; it calls for shifts in the level. In England press comment 2. Some children need to com- thinking of those who train to be RR moved from 3-inch-high headlines plete this treatment in the teachers; and it is hard for research-

Fall 2007 Journal of Reading Recovery 17 Marie Clay: A Visionary Educator

ers and evaluators to understand a them to read with some success, 1950–70 and psychological tests for program which breaks with so many was surprised at their progress, and assessment included the Illinois Test established parameters. This program wrote a paper about it. The of Psycholinguistic Abilities and the aims to get rid of literacy difficulties, review discussed the work of Monroe, Frostig Test of Visual Perception, to accept an hypothesis of multiple Fernald, Gates, Burt, Schonell, and new instruments designed to produce causation, and has a theory to explain Helen M. Robinson, most of whom definite diagnoses leading to prescrip- why it succeeds even when it flies referred to in some limited way to tions for instruction. With them in the face of much experience and spelling and writing as well as read- came countermovements, weak by established practice. ing. Winterbourn trained two reading comparison, but destined to oust the specialists, Ruth Trevor who estab- clinical, diagnostic test approach in Reading Recovery professionals have lished reading clinics in New Zealand due course (Wiederholt, 1977). to solve problems about children’s over the next 20 years, and Yvonne learning, about teachers’ learning, and While at home with my own pre- Malcolm, known especially for about making the program work in school children in the 1950s I taught bringing the International Reading education systems, which I graph as remedial reading at my kitchen table Association to New Zealand. three concentric circles. Trainers and overlooking the Rangitoto channel tutors train to become specialists in My plans in 1949 to study with and particularly remember two these three areas of problem solving. Schonell in Britain were thwarted interesting 11-year-old boys. After by his move to the University a slow start each made alarming A Personal View of Queensland, Australia, and I progress, alarming because it was went instead to the University of unexplainable by existing theories of History Minnesota and studied with Guy about learning to read. It is food for My contacts with reading difficulties Bond (a student of Arthur Gates, thought when one’s theories do not date from the 1940s when I entered whose “Improvement of Reading” is explain one’s successes! teachers college and university and still on my bookshelf). Under Bond’s Schonell’s research from Australia set out to complete a case study of supervision, I taught children with was widely read in the British one child. I was on teaching practice reading difficulties in my minor Commonwealth. Canada had a in a class of 11-year-olds and selected courses, completing my major in strong group of academics leading a child having difficulty with read- developmental child psychology. The clinical and classroom programs, and ing. I was given no framework for courses I had planned to take in spe- the research of people like Daniels my study, no books to read, and cial education no longer existed, so and Diack (1956) was influencing no prescription of what to do and I talked my way into the Institute of approaches to reading problems in how to do it. I was required to give Child Welfare, and studied research the United Kingdom. Led by medi- instructional help which I did, but on children and clinical child psy- cal advocates, the concept of dyslexia as I have no memory of the outcome chology. For personal interest I took and the teaching programs it spawned I wonder what either of us learned. “Theater for Children” in 1951 and spread across the globe in this period. My university courses about atypi- still have my production script for a cal children were heavily influenced Chinese play with full stage design At this time in New Zealand the by child psychologists in Britain like and costumes for three dragons, an Chief Inspector of Primary Schools, Burt and Schonell, and by Professor interest never allowed to flourish. Brian Pinder, concluded that the Ralph Winterbourn who developed existence of reading clinics dimin- The concepts of brain damage, the psychological service for the New ished the responsibility of classroom brain dysfunction, and learning dis- Zealand Department of Education teachers for literacy instruction and ability were on the rise; Strauss and and the counseling service for New defined every teacher as a teacher of Lehtinen had published two chal- Zealand secondary schools. I was reading, which was, perhaps the lenging books, and Sam Kirk was in appointed to teach a special class for origin of the sound and pervasive Chicago beginning his work in this mildly mentally retarded children, literacy teaching of classroom area. Clinics were seen as the answer which was Winterbourn’s special teachers in the New Zealand Primary to severe reading difficulties from area at that time. I taught most of School today.

18 Journal of Reading Recovery Fall 2007 Marie Clay: A Visionary Educator

of this path of research to provide programs which reduced the size of the problem. Reports appeared showing that increasing numbers of people were being labeled in this way. Bluntly, I wanted to remove as many of these potentially learning disabled children from that category as I could. Today RR’s challenge to teachers in the first year of school is, “Take as many of the potential Reading Recovery children away from Reading Recovery as you can by teaching them well” and the appeal to psychologists and administrators is, “Give as many children as need it a second chance at literacy learning before you categorize or label them as special kinds of learners.” A growing disenchantment with learning disability gave way to a new popular diagnosis of attention deficit disorder (ADD) with questioning articles now appearing in major psy- chological journals.

Country by country Briefly, what was happening in the countries where RR is now being Marie’s quest to explain the unexplainable progress of children with reading tried out? (See Pinnell, this volume, difficulties began in the 1940s when she entered teacher college and university and pp. 638–654 for the situation in the set out to complete a case study of one child. United States.) New Zealand had high expectations from classroom teachers, and a diminishing number By the mid-1970s the critique of I published my first critique of the of reading clinics. The education sys- the special psychological tests gained learning disability concept in Clay, tem never adopted learning disability ground, followed in the 1980s by 1972, and I was ready to put the or dyslexia concepts but instead the sociologists’ strident attack on brake hard down on the overgen- appointed Reading Resource teachers the concept of learning disability and eralization of legitimate conditions to provide itinerant assistance to chil- how it was being overgeneralized to to children who did not need the dren with reading difficulties. These populations to whom it probably did labels. I began what I describe as my teachers supported and supplemented not apply. Psychological publications long and lonely swim against the the classroom teachers’ work. A voice stressed that the numbers of people accepted tide of theory and practice. for learning disability was maintained being labeled as having difficulties In Clay, 1987, I published a stron- by the Specific Learning Disability increased, but programs did not dem- ger statement called “Learning to be (SPELD) organization of parents onstrate a reduction in the size of the Learning Disabled” presenting argu- and interested public, who brought problem (Gittleman, 1985). ments about the definition problem, authorities from dyslexia or learning the diagnostic tools, and the failure disability programs in the United

Fall 2007 Journal of Reading Recovery 19 Marie Clay: A Visionary Educator

States, Britain and Australia to annual . On the other hand the conferences in New Zealand. ideas of those with a literary theory of Reading Recovery started learning to read encouraged a faith in In Australia the position was similar in 1976 at the University children’s ability to learn if they were with greater diversity from state to of Auckland in a lean-to read to, from good trade storybooks, state, a stronger learning disability a move which became linked with behind an old house in movement, and exploration of new a goal of working with each child Wynyard Street with one teaching strategies at different sites individually until she or he became a by people like Kemp, Elkins, and teacher teaching hard-to- reader and writer. This confused the members of the staff of Macquarie teach children behind a essential need for “individual teach- University. A strong countermove- ing for some” with the difficulty of one-way screen and myself ment toward improving classroom delivering it effectively to all. Most observing and recording. teaching grew up with an emphasis children do not need it; some do. For on books, , messages, and some people psychological theories writing, an example of a defiant call England, or the polarity and pendu- and psychologists were seen as the encountered in several countries that lum swings of change that occur in problem, perhaps the cause, behind quality classroom teaching was the the United States. reading difficulties. Therefore an way to reduce and eliminate reading admirable advocacy for reading sto- difficulties. In part they were right. ries which was needed in classroom Reading Recovery’s In Canada the movement to improve programs became confused with the History classroom teaching was supported by need of some learners to get extra and In New Zealand authorities in the reading field like special help. Good classroom teach- Robertson, Jenkinson, Downing, and ing will never suit every learner and It was 25 years after my time in innovative academics at the Ontario something extra should be available Minnesota before I began on RR. Institute for Educational Studies like for some. I taught developmental psychol- Smith, Wallach, Wells, and Olson, ogy and clinical child psychology The combined effects of teaching with support from visiting British for 30 years to educators and edu- practices, theories, academic endeav- authorities on literature and writing cational psychologists, and carried our, and public and political aware- like Meek, Britton, and Wilkinson. out a variety of research projects, ness lead countries to travel along In each province there was strong some directed toward early lit- different paths in evolving improved clinical leadership from many people eracy. I became involved with the literacy programs. Some cross-fertil- like Grace Walby in Manitoba. International Reading Association in ization of ideas is accompanied by Auckland, and was elected president In England opposing theories flour- serious doubts that what works in of this Association 30 years later in ished side by side. Dyslexia still has one place could work in another, but 1992–93. My connections with the a strong hold today in the treatment there have been strong movements United States were rewarding because of reading difficulties, drawing new driven by the assumptions of teachers I learned a lot about my own country energy from research in neurological and teacher educators, each emphasiz- during my stay there, and about science. Research from Oxford and ing their own “significant variables” cultural differences, and how to Cambridge by Bryant, Bradley, and for primary school literacy learn- switch from culture to culture. This Goswami led many to design pro- ing. Notable is the doggedness with prepared me in small ways for my grams on a most-important-single- which Australia, New Zealand, and recent challenges. variable assumption that reading Canada, while strongly influenced by difficulties would be overcome by British and American practices and Reading Recovery started in 1976 at increasing . This publications, have striven for the local the in a lean- nudged a long-overdue revision of integrity of what they do, evolving to behind an old house in Wynyard unsound practices in the teaching of programs which do not mimic the Street with one teacher teaching “” as if English had a regular perplexing diversity of practices in hard-to-teach children behind a one- way screen and myself observing and

20 Journal of Reading Recovery Fall 2007 Marie Clay: A Visionary Educator

recording. We discarded what did not than an alternative pro- work in schools and we deliberately work, related what worked to existing gram?” We needed to ask, placed as few organizational con- theoretical writing, enlarged the team “How do the outcomes com- straints as possible on the RR teach- in 1977 to seven, continued the sift- pare (a) with the individual’s ers’ decisions; we asked them to tell ing process, wrote a teachers’ manual past record of progress?” and us how to make the program work and felt that we had “something (b) “Where were individu- in schools of different sizes and that worked.” We got permission to als in relation to the class populations. carry out field trials in schools with group?” Such questions con- The results of every child who five teachers paid by the National tinue to be critical in evalua- entered the program, not exclud- Department of Education. We select- tions of RR. ing anyone, were published in the ed schools in average to poor areas, 3. At that time the experimen- manual for teachers (Clay, 1979, varying in size and in organization, tal designs were not recom- pp. 74–79) contrary to misreporting avoiding the advantaged districts. mended as appropriate for in many reviews. Three group results Principals released their best teachers an extreme tail-end segment were reported—Discontinued from for the job and we began the develop- of the total population. the program, Not Discontinued, and ment of our several levels of training the Comparison group for age/class for RR professionals. 4. Success could not be judged peers in the same school. The Not by standardized tests in New By the end of 1977, we had a well- Discontinued group included the Zealand at the time of the documented miracle full of surprises. seven children who were referred to initial research (a) because The research design had been careful- psychologists (reported in Clay, 1979, none were available for the ly selected not in ignorance of tradi- p. 80), the children who had short, age group and (b) because tional research designs but to answer incomplete programs which were RR is directed toward the relevant questions at that point in continued in the next year, and four schools managing their own time. Five issues were considered. children who left the schools before programs in the interests their programs were completed. Thus 1. The questions were: “What of their local population the tables account for all children in was possible for the lowest and not necessarily match- the study. In a later study Clay and achievers? What percentage ing national norms. All the Tuck (1993b), showed that “carried could learn to read? Could other children in the same over” children took the same time any children reach average classes, that is, all the bet- and had the same discontinuing rates levels for class? And if so ter performers, create the as children who completed their pro- what percentage could reach school-based relative stan- grams within the school year. such levels?” The theoretical dard for entry and outcome question was “Could we take against which the program’s The first research design apparently children who were falling effectiveness in practice was addressed administrators’ questions further and further behind judged. about children’s progress and dem- their age/class peers and onstrated that they could have dis- 5. Statistical analyses of changes teach them to do what com- continued children in high numbers, across groups would be petent children were learning with low numbers of referrable chil- mere approximations of suc- to do” as described by Clay dren, and that children who entered cess which could not guide (1966, 1972)? late in the school year would need the clinical treatments of to complete their programs in the 2. No competing programs individuals, so real-world subsequent year. Within a month the existed. Therefore, research differences recorded as data director-general of education called designs comparing programs for individual cases were for a seminar to discuss the report’s (such as a quasi-experimen- essential. implications for the development tal design with randomized In this first study we were also inves- and expansion of the program across groups) would only answer tigating the way the program might the country. Where was this surpris- the question, “Was it better

Fall 2007 Journal of Reading Recovery 21 Marie Clay: A Visionary Educator

ing solution which defied traditional I was still deeply impressed with how school does not deliver the program parameters supposed to go? The notes different education is in different to all who need it, and this leads to I prepared for that seminar were countries. a questioning of the program if the pretty much on target for the next 10 problems are not cleared by expan- My talk on RR at the Darwin years. I missed some of the problems sion of the coverage. Another early Reading Conference of the Australian but I had a pretty good view of what stronghold was established in Wagga Reading Association triggered devel- could happen in our small country, Wagga. The New South Wales opments in Victoria and Canberra. and anything beyond these shores was program began to expand in the A Bendigo administrator, Peter not to be dreamed of. late 1980s with help from the New Hunt, thought RR worth trialing. Zealand national trainer, and tutors The snowball began to roll. One Joan Smith trained in Auckland, on leave from New Zealand served hundred teachers were trained in returning to Bendigo in 1984 with both the State and Catholic educa- Auckland in 1979–80, the program Jeanette Methven, a New Zealand tion systems. Queensland now has began a slow expansion through tutor. Hints that this program would an expanding program and Australia New Zealand with national imple- only work under the close guidance now has three RR trainers. mentation across the country during of Marie Clay had to be laid to rest, 1983–88 (Clay, 1990) and the analy- and I did not visit Victoria until the Australia made a unique contribution sis set the model for an economical, end of the year, leaving guidance of to RR by having a member speaking national monitoring system based, the development to the Director of in the Federal Parliament sufficiently not on a sample, but on the total Reading Recovery in New Zealand, well-briefed by an alert tutor to have population served and discontinuing Barbara Watson. Peter Geekie (1992) a description of the program entered rates (Kerslake, 1993). From a birth with Brian Cambourne studied the into Hansard, the parliamentary cohort of 50,000 6-year-olds in 1994, initial year of the program in Bendigo record. Representations were also a prevention program was provided from the point of view of how teach- made to a Federal Parliamentary for 14,500 each year, about 9,000 of ers, school staff, parents, and the Commission which recommended them became independent readers community saw the program. two literacy programs, Reading and writers, 3,400 were identified Recovery and First Steps, and sug- In sequence three trial training pro- for completion of their lessons in gested that states might select one grams for tutors were initiated, in the following school year, and 1,043 or the other! This was strange since Victoria at the Bendigo College of were referred for specialist reports if First Steps were to be directed to Advanced Education, at La Trobe (Kerslake, 1993). The efficiency of classrooms RR would still be useful University, and at Melbourne Uni- this implementation has had a good as a backup supplementary pro- versity. Victoria did not train a RR press (Frater & Staniland, 1994). gram for those with literacy learning trainer until 1994, but in some years difficulties. tutors were sent to the Auckland The emigration of Reading Recovery College of Education for training. Note that early initiatives by educa- In 1983 came the challenge to trans- Parallel developments occurred in tors came to the notice of state and fer RR first to Victoria, Australia, and the Catholic schools, and in other national administrators by first mak- 18 months later to Columbus, Ohio. Australian states — sometimes the ing the program work in schools Could what worked in New Zealand lead has been taken by Catholic rather than by academic argument or be replicated in another country? education and sometimes by the espousal. This was probably the only Education is usually not considered state system. possibility since the program turns to be exportable, as education systems its back on so much past thinking The Canberra system sent two tutors are organized and managed differ- and practice. ently with different political agendas to New Zealand for training in 1986, and a superior result from a program and has run a system-wide imple- From the early Australian experience on home ground did not justify the mentation for 8 years in almost all its we learned to adjust to some educa- optimism about replication in anoth- schools but only serving about 13% tion system differences: different er education system. Thirty years of its hard-to-teach children. This is policies for entry to school, use of the after my experiences in Minnesota called partial implementation when a first year of school as a preparatory

22 Journal of Reading Recovery Fall 2007 Marie Clay: A Visionary Educator

program in contrast to the expecta- one district with a strong skills-based “learning disabled” unless and tion that 5-year-olds would learn to program for children with literacy until he or she has received read and write, variation of curricu- difficulties. Reading Recovery was intensive individual assistance lum and materials with nothing like criticized for not delivering success to in learning to read, which had the many little story books in New every child, and the existing program not resulted in improved aca- Zealand classrooms, and concern that claimed superior results. demic performance. (1994) the program’s assessment tasks for In 1995 in the United States, “Over This is what we would like to see in selection and progress checks might the last 10 years in 1,905 school all countries; give children a second perform differently on “new soil.” districts and 5,523 schools Reading chance for literacy learning in an In the United States and Australia Recovery has accomplished what it individual program before they we faced the challenge of getting was designed to do. A total of 88,323 are labeled. teachers to teach differently, to use a individuals have…caught up to their England’s interest began later in theory predicated on the constructive grade-level peers…” (Pinnell, Lyons, 1989, starting in Surrey after sev- child, and to hold complex variables & Jones, 1995). The program contin- eral talks given in England between in mind when making teaching deci- 1981 and 1989. Surrey found funds sions at all times. The insistence that to train a tutor in New Zealand, the teacher should be very observant This is what we would like who returned to set up a successful of the learner’s behavior made some to see in all countries; give local implementation model backed Australian teachers uncomfortable, as children a second chance by strong administrators in tough if this were an intrusion on privacy to economic times (Wright, 1992). A peer into and discuss the detail of a for literacy learning in an training for tutors began in the UK child’s response, but being observant individual program before in 1991, and over 2 years nine New has become accepted as essential in a they are labeled. Zealand Reading Recovery personnel program that helps children proceed helped the Institute of Education, along idiosyncratic paths. University of London to mount train- ues to expand and has a place in cur- By May 1984, colleagues in the ing programs for teachers and tutors rent discussions in the United States United States were asking how to for geographically spread sites in about special services in least restric- prepare for a September start when boroughs and counties. The Institute tive environments for special needs we had only just begun in Victoria. trained further tutors in 1993–94, children (Lyons, 1994, 1995). (The extensive research from the and completed 3 pilot years with United States is reviewed in this Canada, benefiting from the prox- temporary support from the central volume by Pinnell, pp. 638–654.) imity of , had government. The HMI report on In the United States the program tutors trained for British Columbia, the New Zealand program was an faced a new variable, the existence Manitoba, Newfoundland, Nova independent document of importance of established provisions for children Scotia, and Scarborough, Ontario, to developments in England and with reading difficulties at this age which led to the creation of a the program found its place in the level. There were “reading teachers,” Canadian National Training Institute National Commission on Education and federally funded programs for in 1993, backed by sterling efforts report “Learning to Succeed.” socially disadvantaged children, and from administrators. Canada had Northern Ireland and Jersey have programs for the “learning disabled,” three trainers by 1996. The Canadian new programs and the first class and a common practice of schools Royal Commission on Learning of teachers for Wales have trained to employ paraprofessionals to work recently reported to the minister of for English-medium schools. The with children needing “extra help.” education and training, with recom- government also commissioned an Reading Recovery had to compete mendation 33 being: independent study (Sylva & Hurry, for the same pool of resources, and 1995). That no child who shows dif- for the children to be served. The ficulty or who lags behind peers On my computer I have copies of conflict emerged early in Ohio in in learning to read be labelled most of the United Kingdom press

Fall 2007 Journal of Reading Recovery 23 Marie Clay: A Visionary Educator

reports which have on the whole government assistance will be free to vention is like a standard boat tossed made our task difficult, but with the demonstrate what the program can into several different turbulent rivers publication of the research commis- do for young children’s literacy dif- and struggling to master the rapids sioned by the government, RR’s press ficulties. The lowest achievers in any and stay afloat in each of them. The in England has become positive. It school, in any sector of society, need central tenets of teaching on this pro- took 3 years. access to this supplementary program. gram, “tentativeness, flexibility and problem solving” are necessary. Politics in the United Kingdom Reading Recovery operates in a win- induced a twist into the implementa- dow of opportunity through which tion of this program. It was delivered an individual child passes only once, Three Concentric Circles: mostly to inner city schools record- and that window has nothing to do Implementing, Teaching ing the lowest scores, where many with needing a free lunch. When RR and Learning is new, it is fragile and does not dem- Evaluation studies of new educational onstrate clearly what it can achieve. developments do not necessarily Reading Recovery operates It needs administrative leadership in a window of opportu- arise from a theoretical hypothesis. and planful political support for best Discovering what was workable in nity through which an results in an education system. RR led to the construction of a theo- individual child passes The cutting edge of the research ry to explain this, the reverse of most only once, and that for RR is delivery in Spanish for academic inquiry. On the one hand window has nothing to do Hispanic children in various parts of teachers had children they could not with needing a free lunch. the United States, and interest has teach, and on the other, educational been shown for other language adap- psychologists had too many refer- When Reading Recovery tations, such as French for Canada. It rals and few effective treatments for is new, it is fragile and is not possible to deliver this program the hard-to-teach literacy problems. does not demonstrate immediately in another language as I worked with a team to find a clearly what it can achieve. redevelopment is required to suit the research-based solution to these prob- characteristics of that language, and lems. The program was constructed It needs administrative this involves much more than mere by a problem-solving approach to leadership and planful translation and takes about 3 years an unstructured problem (although political support for best of trials. The Spanish experience has Robinson’s (1993) authoritative work results in an education demonstrated that redevelopment in this area is critical of the path we takes times and must be done with took). Theory did not drive practice; system. care. But it is interesting because we rather there was a circle of influence can expect to get another level of from practice to theory, and back understanding about the reading pro- to practice, informed and altered by children had free lunches. Together cess across . Full translations data from day-by-day documenta- politicians, economic issues, and the into Spanish of the teachers’ manuals tion of changes in children and an predominant message of the press are a current development and would imperative that it must be workable over 4 years pushed out of sight the open the doors to trials in Mexico, in schools. No particular school of fact that as almost every school has its Central and South America led by thought on literacy learning drove children who have difficulties, almost bilingual tutors from the United the exploration, but new work at the every school requires a make-up pro- States. Rather belatedly I have come time included Bruner (1957, 1973), gram. Resourcing should not be linked to understand what we are struggling Cazden (1972), Chomsky (1972), to poverty; it should be based on with in trying to make this program Donaldson (1978), Graves (1978), learning need and all schools should work in different countries. I think of Miller (1967), Read (1975), Smith have access according to demon- each country, or state, or province as (1971), the Russian school of devel- strated best learning needs, not socio- a young river, on a course of develop- opment psychologists, and informa- economic need. The English counties ment that is undergoing changes of tion processing psychologists like like Surrey and Cheshire which have a complex kind, and our early inter- Rumelhart (1994). introduced Reading Recovery without

24 Journal of Reading Recovery Fall 2007 Marie Clay: A Visionary Educator

A typical research review assumes that lematic learning histories, and does The negative consequence of starting theory comes first, and is subsequent- not relate only to a child’s potential too early is giving individual teach- ly applied to practice, and we gamble for learning. Reliable prediction of ing that would not have been needed on whether teachers and education which individuals will fail or succeed if we had waited longer, and the systems can work from the theoretical is not achieved before the onset of negative results of waiting too long account. I recommend that a critique instruction. are that the time it takes to deliver of RR should reverse the cycle, start an effective program lengthens the Across the world further questions are with the outer circle and ask: (1) longer the children have been in for- raised. Should entry be earlier in plac- Can this education system put the mal instruction, and therefore fewer es in the United Kingdom where the program in place? and (2) Can teach- children can be served for the same school entrant could enter school at ers be trained to teach children and teaching resource. just over 4 years of age or do we wait achieve change? before asking the until after 7 years for the child who question from the inner circle, Absence of teacher or learner from begins schooling at 6 years? What (3) What theoretical assumptions do daily lessons could be recommended for countries the data on children’s learning sup- This threatens the accelerative learn- which begin school at 7 years? In the port or challenge? Critiques usually ing needed for children to catch up United States does the kindergarten try to answer question (3) but this with their classmates. The difficulty count as school and what about half- is only relevant if the first two ques- of getting children to school every day kindergarten? tions can be answered affirmatively. day requires attention, but getting Readers of reviews should first be Age of entry is an example of how parental permission for the child to assured that the conditions in ques- implementation of the program must join the program offers an opportu- tions (1) and (2) have been met. be problem solved in every country nity to negotiate for special help from Therefore, I will comment with this because of differences in societies, the family to have the child at school. approach in mind. in populations, and in education After several research studies the vari- systems, as well as politics, economic able “teacher not available to teach” The Outer Circle: theories, social problems, and reli- emerged as a bigger problem than gions. On the other hand a country’s child absence. Despite excellent rea- Working in theories of child development and sons why the trained teacher should School Systems learning, of literacy learning, and of perform other duties in school or in At what age should RR be available? early intervention must also be taken society, it is absolutely necessary for The general statement would be into account. Surprisingly, about 6 the RR children to receive a lesson a that selection should occur as soon years is a practical compromise and day. This frequent contact allows yes- after entry to school as we can reli- we have enough experience on the terday’s responding to be still clear in ably identify children falling behind ground to show that this works. The the minds of both teacher and child. their same-age peers in the new factors to be weighed are age, time For schools this means release of an classroom, and the timing has to be at school, general preparedness, and effective teacher for 2 hours a day problem solved in each education some things about child develop- (varied according to training status system. In New Zealand it is after 1 ment. We had to have learners with and the school’s need) and without year of school (i.e., around the sixth two qualities: first, what they knew pulling that person off their allotted birthday), after a fair chance to settle had to be woven into a fabric of task. The potential for accelerated in the school, to adjust to demands, interacting response systems which learning is reduced if the teacher and to begin to learn. Two reasons they controlled (for islands of knowl- is not available to teach daily. The for this timing are that (1) review edge about specific aspects of literacy lessons must occur in an intensive of research reiterate that we cannot processing would not make an effec- series and the same number of lessons predict literacy problems well enough tive reader or writer) and second, spaced out over time is a poor substi- before instruction begins, and (2) a the learners had to become relatively tute resulting in poorer learning. “multiple causation” theory includes independent of teachers so that they lack of learning opportunities in life could work well in classrooms. or school contexts as well as prob-

Fall 2007 Journal of Reading Recovery 25 Marie Clay: A Visionary Educator

The length of the school year sufficiently independent to survive in two children out of the program and This determines how many days the classroom without further help. take a third child in, to be continued the teacher has to teach. Different Reviewers also find it difficult to in the next school year. This is con- models for three or four terms, and understand the flexibility with which sidered “best practice” and results in all-year-round schools can create dif- this program adapts to individual about 67% discontinued per calendar ficulties with the “a lesson every day” learners so that time in the program year! The Ministry of Education demand. was reported as 15 weeks for research Research Division’s annual figures convenience in one study (Center, published and available on request The learning needs of individual Wheldall, Freeman, Outhred, & show, that in New Zealand 0.2–1.5% children do not align with the school McNaught, 1995) and 20–26 weeks of the age cohort is referred for lon- year of teaching. In New Zealand in another (Sylva & Hurry, 1995). ger-term assistance in a calendar year schools it was easy to continue to Unfortunately figures in reviews can (Clay, 1993b, p. 84). teach the children who were not yet become the reference for new research ready to leave RR in the next school This sampling of some of the imple- or implementations. The capacity of year, until they reached one of two mentation issues illustrates why a the program to adapt in length to outcomes, discontinued or referred. sound approach to evaluating the the learning needs of individuals is (Teacher leaders in the United States children’s learning would be to start critical to (a) learning and (b) effec- and Canada are called tutors of teach- an evaluation by satisfying oneself tive implementation. ers in New Zealand, Australia, and and one’s readers that the implemen- the United Kingdom.) An incomplete tation of the RR program to be stud- Discontinuing rates across series of lessons occurs only when a ied was an effective one. different countries child leaves the school and attends a Comparisons of the rate at which new school which does not provide children leave this program at average The Second Circle: RR assistance, a very rare occurrence levels of performance can be made in New Zealand. In some other coun- Training Teachers for within an education system but must tries like the United States with a Problem Solving be handled cautiously across coun- shorter school year and different pro- The training course for RR teach- tries. It is now clear that they depend motion practices it is often unwork- ers is a year-long period of change. on program delivery factors such as able to continue RR help in the next Change during that year is a unit the average number of children pass- school year, but solutions to this of learning in itself. Geekie (1992) ing through a half-hour teaching slot problem are being formulated. reported a shift over a year from in the year, the length of the school widespread skepticism to obvious year, and whether daily lessons are How long does this supplementary commitment among RR teachers and delivered. If the question is, “What program take? among schools. Teaching improves percentage of the intake group will be The time in the program is surpris- after training and more children are discontinued?” then in the real world ingly brief. With consistency across discontinued in less time. Research the following statistics apply. the world the time in an efficient pro- reports need to record how long a No. of children No. of children Possible program has been in place together gram averages from 12 to 20 weeks a teacher serves with a full Discontinuing thus providing a guideline within a year in a 30-min programme Rate with details of teaching experience teaching slot which to shape our expectancies and beyond training. 1 1 100% policies. The fact that individuals In all countries teachers bring to spend different lengths of time in 2 1 50% their teaching assumptions which are the program is irritating for research- 2 2 100% sometimes country-specific and some- ers and administrators; they would 3 2 67% times more general. Such assumptions like a fixed number of treatments for call for small adjustments in training all, a prescribed turnover point, “all courses in each country, but because change here,” but the discontinuing RR must not limit the progress of criteria require a teacher to ensure, In each 30-minute teaching ‘slot’ any child by its practices and policies, as best as she can, that a child is now New Zealand teachers tend to get all teachers are required to open up

26 Journal of Reading Recovery Fall 2007 Marie Clay: A Visionary Educator

their local clusters of assumptions to devised for group instruc- made by teachers in each country new alternatives. tion, and are not suited to that are antagonistic to the progress individual learning, looking of hard-to-teach children. We need 1. Some assumptions are for a fast track to success them to become more flexible and about curriculum sequences and taking different paths tentative, to observe constantly and that should occur, includ- to common outcomes. To alter their assumptions in line with ing inflexible beliefs that a accelerate the progress of a what they record as the children child must know (A) before child with a low repertoire a work. They need to challenge their she or he can try to do (B)! teacher must find any route own thinking continually. Such Assumptions like this under- to the desired outcome and change begins during their training pin programs which teach a allow for the entire range of year, but teachers discontinue more letter a day for a whole year idiosyncratic competencies children in the next 2 years as they in some kindergartens, or to support the struggling become familiar with the program require children to know all learner. A teacher must and how it can work. They learn letter-sound relationships monitor her own assump- to use the rationales for decision before they try to read, or tions about learning and making which make the teaching insist that children read about an individual child and the organization of the program before they try to write. to take advantage of every run more effectively. Due to the 2. Some assumptions are incipient opportunity to complexity of what is being learned, about task difficulty and the “leap forward.” the individual learning trajectories of assumed limitations for learn- the children and the incomplete the- 3. On the other hand there are ing that children have. There ory out of which teachers work, there sets of assumptions which are assumptions about “hard will always be problems to solve. limit progress because they things” that must be left Teachers need to recognize that they take for granted that all until later (such as compre- start with diverse assumptions about competencies needed for lit- hension), or “things that must learning to read and write and these eracy behaviors will emerge come first,” or “things that differences are a strength within their in some natural way when will require many repetitions.” collegial network. the learner is ready, causing Teachers think, “It will be a teacher to wait for these In different countries there have hard and I will have to help emerging competencies to been differing degrees of willingness you,“ or “I will have to sim- reveal themselves. Some to consult peers, and for tutors or plify it for you,” or “I will teachers do not want to trainers to form networks, to seek a have to instruct you until govern the amount of chal- second opinion, and to overcome the you can learn for yourself.” lenge in a reading text, nor unreliability of one person’s decision A RR teacher must invite consider a gradient of dif- by pooling knowledge in network learners to deal with complex ficulty, nor think about how decision making. Such consultation texts, to learn at a faster rate a new competency can be is self-correction behavior aimed at than average, and to become helped to emerge from what catching the errors in individual judg- independent learners who is already known. This is not ments; it is essential. initiate, process, monitor, the place to debate this mat- and self-correct, expanding Sometimes the emphasis during train- ter in relation to classroom their own literacy processing ing in sessions behind the one-way learning but these things are system while reading and screen is on putting what you see not true for those learners writing independently. into words, but equally important is who, by definition and selec- the articulation of how what you see tion, are finding learning These assumptions of cur- conflicts with what you had assumed. extremely difficult. riculum sequence or teaching Bringing the implicit, whether sequence are inappropriate The challenges in training teachers observed or assumed, into a verbal in RR; they are assumptions lie in uncovering hidden assumptions form which allows discussion and

Fall 2007 Journal of Reading Recovery 27 Marie Clay: A Visionary Educator

revision is an essential part of training ponent, all of which are imprecise of sounds in in each country. As a college of edu- and could mislead. They select three words and letters and letter strings cation dean said to his peers, major theoretical principles for men- on the page, (3) their understanding tion: (1) that reading is considered of the meaning of the text, and (4) Reading Recovery has managed a strategic process that requires the their knowledge of syntax. “Meaning to operationalize that vague integrating of letter-sound relation- is not derived from the print alone notion that teachers ought to ships, features of print, and language but also from the knowledge of the reflect on their own practice. which is derived from the interaction world that readers bring to the task, That behind the glass play by of the reader’s unique background for example, their knowledge of the play analysis and the collegial and the print; (2) reading and writ- language of books and language in debriefing with the teacher ing are interconnected and the child general, their prior knowledge of the after her teaching session rep- must make the connections; and (3) subject matter of the text, their ability resent some of the best teacher children learn to read by reading and to make inferences.” The goal of RR education I have witnessed in only by reading frequently can the is to help children to use all the skills my 28-year history in the field. child come to detect regularities and and strategies that they have at their (Pearson, 1994) disposal (and to) “encourage children to monitor their own reading, detect- The Inner Circle: The Children’s learning has ing and correcting errors by checking Learning of the Children not shown clear differ- responses against all possible strate- Children’s learning has not shown ences across countries, gies.” This improves children’s read- clear differences across countries, ing and writing “over a wide range except for those created by different except for those created of skills,” described as a broad spec- classroom programs (i.e., different by different classroom trum approach. learning opportunities) or associated programs (i.e., different Against that reporting one can with age. Culture and language have learning opportunities) set less-accurate accounts of RR’s created interesting questions but no or associated with age. theory given by Center et al. (1995), big problems. Culture and language have Hiebert (1994), Iversen and Tunmer Independent reviewers from the created interesting ques- (1993), Razinski (1995), Shanahan United States and the United & Barr (1995). Center et al., for Kingdom, who are not involved in tions but no big problems. example, report the theory in this devising or delivering RR, provide way: “Reading is viewed as a psycho- the following characterizations of the linguistic process in which the reader redundancies present in written lan- program’s background theory. Both constructs meaning from print,” and guage. I would not quarrel with the reviews say that Clay (1979) describes most readers would then place it in words used above or with the follow- reading as “a message-gaining, prob- the wrong theoretical camp with psy- ing. “There is no systematic presenta- lem-solving activity which increases cho linguistics rather than informa- tion of phonics yet during the read- in power and flexibility the more that tion processing. ing and writing activities letter-sound it is practiced.” Wasik and Slavin relationships are taught as one of the (1993) list the components of the Variants within the learning theory basic strategies for solving problems” reading model as perceptual analy- To be an effective program RR must (p. 183). sis, knowledge of print conventions, be responsive to the discourse of decoding, oral language proficiency, Sylva and Hurry (1995) reiterate new research and theory and not prior knowledge, inference making, the message-getting problem-solv- be locked into the theory of the reading strategies, metacognition, and ing activity quoted above and add late 1970s when it was developed error detection and correction strate- that children make use of a variety of (Pearson, 1994). In the early 1970s gies. They omit “visual” from per- strategies to help them in this prob- its practices may have appeared ahead ceptual analysis, translate phonemic lem-solving activity, the most central of research in some areas, but as more awareness into decoding, and create of which are: (1) their understanding information and new theory becomes an unexplained metacognition com- of the concepts of print, (2) their available, areas of uncertainty should

28 Journal of Reading Recovery Fall 2007 Marie Clay: A Visionary Educator

be informed and practices should ly regular, or irregular, with Variants from outside the program change. Three examples illustrate past the same cognitive strategy. When variants which are theoreti- or potential changes: This allowed for better cally incompatible with the program teaching in the “making and are introduced into the program as 1. Recent research on phone- breaking” segment of the research variables and good results mic awareness called for little lesson (which existed in the reported, it is not acceptable merely change in actual procedures first edition of the proce- to claim that the variant produced the because in 1976–77 we dures manual) and without good outcomes for it is plausible to observed that children who either a prescriptive teaching suppose that the broad program may had extreme difficulty with sequence or an undue stress have sustained progress despite the “hearing sounds in words” upon regularity and word variant. Hatcher (1994) for example, needed effective teaching families that would be inap- introduced a systematic, detailed and which was built into the propriate for the English prescriptive phonological training program from the beginning, language. into his recommended program and, an example of practice ahead unless we are shown otherwise, one of theory. New information The dynamically changing theory is might hypothesize that the wrap- confirmed that practice; it concerned with how we understand around RR program carried the vari- changed what teachers read the sequence of changes in ways ant to its success. during training, and it led in which children process complex to an increase in emphasis arrays of information as they learn to Children with English as a on the reciprocity of reading read and write. A multivariate theory second language and writing (see Wasik & of such changes (rather than a single It has been reported that these chil- Slavin, 1993). causal theory) forces an openness to dren are, or should be, excluded new knowledge. If “Reading Recovery 2. In one area of uncertainty from selection (Hiebert, 1994). helps children to integrate a wide we still search for a stronger This does not happen in the five range of skills involved in reading and theoretical basis for how the countries where their progress has writing” (Sylva & Hurry, 1995) then child weaves visual percep- been watched. They are probably there are a myriad of unknowns hid- tion learning into his early the group of children who derive den in the verb “to integrate” when it construction of inner control most benefit in subsequent years is combined with a developmentalist’s over literacy and recent eye from having had this supplement interest in “change over time.” Much movement research inches early because language was the major of it has to do with how and what the us close to this possibility block to their learning and they had constructive learner learns from his (Rayner & Pollatsek, 1989). 30 minutes every day with a teacher own decision processes when prob- The reader cannot use his who increased their time for talking lem solving continuous text. What is phonemic awareness in the and personalized their instruction. challenging for theory construction is service of reading or writing Hobsbaum’s study (1995) from that during the time of reading and without some new visual England reported satisfactory progress writing acquisition each one of the perception operations! for children who spoke more than multivariate processes is in a forma- one language. 3. A thorough review of the tive stage. arguments about onset and New editions of teachers’ text cover- rime, and analogy clarified Reading Recovery in another ing theory (Clay, 1991), assessments language how children can develop (Clay, 1993a), and teaching pro- effective procedures for If special care is taken to redevelop cedures (Clay, 1993b) are essential handling three different cat- the observation (assessment) tasks for a program that is evaluating and egories of spelling clusters in and the instructional procedures then responding to shifts in available English that are phonologi- the “window of opportunity” for an knowledge. cally regular, orthographical- early intervention in literacy learning appears able to cross language barri-

Fall 2007 Journal of Reading Recovery 29 Marie Clay: A Visionary Educator

ers and remain effective. For children Conclusions learning to read and write English, Progress in Reading A good review will be referred to no important differences appear in Recovery is measured in when the original studies are forgot- what it is the children need to learn terms of both reading and ten; it summarizes the position to to do in different countries. However, date and acts as a bulwark saving since teaching began in Spanish writing progress and the readers from the need to return to (Escamilla, 1994) we have had to child is expected to survive original sources. Reviewers therefore consider that there is more involved back in the classroom in have a responsibility to understand than theoretical concepts and assess- both curriculum areas. and report previous research accu- ment tasks. The timing in acquisition A large body of research rately before biasing the subsequent and the emphases during instruction course of practice, research, and the- for effective processing in another shows that readers and ory with their conclusions. Whether language might change. After an early writers have to develop we like it or not Herber (1994) has discovery in studies of early writing phonemic awareness, and shown that we do not usually review that English-speaking children hear build the use of the sound back more than 21 years, and it is 19 the consonants of the language eas- years since RR began its development ily and have problems with hearing system of their spoken and 16 years since the first reports the vowels and by contrast, Spanish- dialect and language into were available. Already the decade of speaking children hear the vowels their developing network the 1970s is outside the reviewer’s and miss out on the consonants at of strategies for two simi- ken; therefore, while this is not the first, (Ferreiro & Teberosky, 1982) place for a meta-analysis of reviews our current questions are about (a) lar but different process- it is important to stress that, inter- the role of the syllable in Spanish ing systems, reading and nationally, accurate reviewing is very literacy acquisition, (b) whether the writing. important and seldom achieved. linguistic discovery of onset and rime applies to Spanish, (c) how to help To take just one example, several reviews echo the claim that RR only beginning readers cope with many build the use of the sound system of used in-program tests and had no long words in their first books, and their spoken dialect and language into standardized test as a beyond-pro- (d) for languages with much more their developing network of strategies gram measure (Center et al., 1995) regular letter-sound relationships for two similar but different process- but that problem was recognized than English (Spanish, Maori, and ing systems, reading and writing. from the beginning. Training sites German, for example) how might RR Researchers who continue to separate have used local standardized instru- teachers tell whether the learner who reading and writing and their respec- ments; the Burt test from NZCER has become a rapid decoder of regular tive theories do not model the actual in New Zealand; in the United -letter relationships is taking or potential links between these two States the most successful being full account of meaning and language activities, and reviewers tend to skip the Woodcock Reading test; and structure? These aspects of processing over the writing in RR and its con- in England the British Intelligence may be more readily observed in the tributions. If children can use their Scale (Reading), although this test oral reading of English than in more knowledge about reading and writing is not available for use by teachers. regular languages. to support each other then these two Outside the United States some favor activities have reciprocal effects on the Neale Reading Test but as it has A possible neglect of writing each other. Teachers with very differ- four unconnected and not compa- Progress in RR is measured in terms ent assumptions can retard the prog- rable standardizations at this time, a of both reading and writing progress ress of children in reading when reader needs to be told clearly which and the child is expected to survive they skip the writing or give it mini- editions and which norms are being back in the classroom in both curric- mal attention, assuming that they reported. ulum areas. A large body of research should and can give priority to shows that readers and writers have reading and attend to writing as a to develop phonemic awareness, and later learning task.

30 Journal of Reading Recovery Fall 2007 Marie Clay: A Visionary Educator

In research studies across the world strategies. “If we know how to ensure provide the answers to all literacy dif- measurement instruments are added that students will learn to read in the ficulties; no one claimed its theory to to the RR measures for several rea- early grades, we have an ethical and hold for all literacy learning. sons: (1) to test alternative theories; perhaps legal responsibility to see Complex issues require specialist (2) to measure outcomes on standard- that they do so. Preventive tutoring solutions. An educational treatment ized measures which were designed can be an alternative for providing a finely tuned to a particular challenge usually with different theories in reliable means of abolishing illiteracy should not be expected to solve all lit- mind; (3) because new instruments among young children who are at risk eracy problems. Its success is captured become available; and (4) to allow for for school failure” (Wasik & Slavin, in the Sylva and Hurry synopsis “…a comparisons across populations and 1993, p. 158). powerful intervention over a broad even countries. What the researcher, High rates of success for RR have spectrum in the short term, and administrator, and teacher under- encouraged a frequent error in educa- for the most disadvantaged and the stand by the test labels will depend tion, the error of overextension of its lowest achieving children…Reading on the theory they are committed to, potential and consequential misap- Recovery was more powerful even the implementation question they plications. It would be unfortunate to one year after the end of the interven- have in mind, or the practices they lose the specialist solution because of tion for the disadvantaged children have experience with. One can “read” this. No one claimed that RR would and it is highly effective (also) in the phrase “a test of explicit phonics” be an effective solution to anything changing the behaviours of those in nine or ten different ways depend- but the learning problems of the who fail to discontinue.” This dem- ing on one’s professional role (theo- lowest achievers in the second year onstrates something more like “a rist, teacher, or administrator) and of school; no one claimed it would change of status theory” of literacy if there is no explicit specification of improve the mean scores of the age acquisition, the child going through what is taught, how it is taught, and cohort; no one claimed that it would the door into the world of written how it is embedded and used in the acts of reading and writing one is left to one’s own constructed interpreta- tion. Is the achievement the memo- rizing of words (Sylva & Hurry, 1995), or a metacognitive awareness that makes sense of phenomena like down/blown or light/blue in English, or a set for diversity, or elaborate teaching sequences (Hatcher, 1994)? Could this be abstracted to the prin- ciple of knowing how to use analogy with the flexibility to say, “If it is not like this word I know then it might be like that one,” a simple tactic to achieve many complicated solutions (Clay, 1993b)? One-to-one tutoring as reviewed by Allington (1994), Pikulski (1994), and Wasik and Slavin (1993), is a potentially effective means of prevent- ing student reading failure. It deserves an important place in discussions Clay’s observational methodology and clinical orientation arise from her training of reform in preventive, compensa- in developmental psychology and have kept her close to the source of literacy tory, remedial, and special education learning—the children and their teachers.

Fall 2007 Journal of Reading Recovery 31 Marie Clay: A Visionary Educator

language rather than a theory which • Keeping the selling price of emphasizes a slow accumulation of One thing we have each unit as affordable as pos- knowledge, and that change of status learned internationally. sible for as many consumers might be considered a citizen’s right. Children do not have to as possible. We want to know much more about They warn that the redesign process how tutoring works and how to max- be slow learners. We have does not develop without normal imize its effectiveness (and minimize created and categorized growing pains. its cost). slow-learning children One thing we have learned interna- The explorations of teacher training by the ways in which tionally. Children do not have to be and support, the delivery of teach- we package and deliver slow learners. We have created and ing, the management and the school, our age-bound cohort categorized slow-learning children district and state/country level of by the ways in which we package the program demonstrate that any structure for instruction. and deliver our age-bound cohort further research on RR should, for Reading Recovery set out structure for instruction. Reading economy’s sake, study the outcomes to deliver learning oppor- Recovery set out to deliver learning in learning only in places where it can tunities differently. opportunities differently. And that be established that: (1) the teachers perhaps is the general message which are in or beyond their second year of this paper can contribute to the topic teaching after training and are part searched with others for 2 years for of this volume. of the recommended support system financial and/or political support offered by tutors/teacher leaders, to conduct a substantive and effec- References and (2) the program is implemented tive cost-benefit analysis of RR to according to state or national guide- “alleviate the lingering doubts of Allington, R. L. (1994). The schools we have. The schools we need. The lines. The schools should follow the sympathetic supporters and to disarm Reading Teacher, 48(1), 14–29. local guidelines for program delivery opponents,” but without success. An and the implementation should be alternative model used in the Rowe Bruner, J. S. (1957). On perceptual readiness. Psychological Review, 64, in its fourth year. I am still inclined (1995) study from Victoria, Australia, 123–152. to the opinion that a follow-up study provides an example of a well- should follow the children over time designed follow-up study. Bruner, J. S. (1973). Organization together with the age/class group in of early skilled action. Child In this early intervention program Development, 44, 1–11. their school for that is the valid com- 6-year-olds become competent parison group against whom their Canadian Royal Commission on 7-year-old readers and writers. It entry and exit criteria are judged. Learning. (1994). For the love of learn- will not help older children become ing. Ontario: Ministry of Education Under the above conditions it would anything but 7-year-old readers. and Training. be good judgment to carry out a cost- Therefore sound school reading pro- effectiveness study. Cazden, C. (1972). Child language and grams for 8- to 18-year-olds are still education. Cambridge: Harvard With that approach in place and with necessary to take full advantage of the University Press. any other qualifications appropri- foundation skills that RR establishes. Center, Y., Wheldall, K., Freeman, ate for real-world research, academic L., Outhred, L., & McNaught, M. Reading Recovery must have what researchers might be justified in using (1995). An evaluation of reading Wilson and Daviss (1994) call “the the changes in learning to shape and recovery. Reading Research Quarterly, power of the redesign process in evaluate theoretical constructs about 30(2), 240–263. industry:” literacy learning. Chomsky, C. (1972). Stages in language • Capitalizing on success, development and reading exposure. Such choice conditions are unlikely Harvard Educational Review, 22, •  for, as the then Dean of the College Improving quality, 1–33. of Education, University of Illinois, • Expanding usefulness, and David Pearson (1994) reported, he

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