Kempanaickenapalayam Village Ecosystem

Erode District,

State of Environment and Na tural Resources 2006

Centre for Environment Education Tamil Nadu CEE Chennai 600091

Arunkumar S, Manikandan A, Shiva Prabhu G, Mahamuni D, Ramjee N Indian Institute of Science Bangalore 560012

India Canada Environment Facility New Delhi 110066

CEE Centre for Environment Education - South State of Environment and Natural Resources 2006

Kempanaickenpalayam Village Ecosystem

Erode District, Tamil Nadu

Tamil Nadu Uplands and Plains

CEE Centre for Environment Education Tamil Nadu Chennai - 600091

Centre for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012 Kempanaickenpalayam Village Ecosystem; State of Environment and Natural Resources 2006

Centre for Environment Education Tamil Nadu Chennai - 600091

Published by Centre for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore – 560012 Karnataka, .

Year of publication 2007

Team–CEE TN Arunkumar S, Manikandan A, Shiva Prabhu G, Mahamuni D

Team–IISc Deepa Kumar, Girish A C, Hameedulla Khan, Mythri D J, Sannadurgappa S D

Coordinated by N. Ramjee CEE- TN and N H Ravindranath, Indu K Murthy, Rakesh Tiwari CST, IISc

Supported by India Canada Environment Facility New Delhi - 110066

Contact N. H. Ravindranath Centre for Sustainable Technologies Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore – 560012 Karnataka, India. [email protected]

Acknowledgement We would like to thank Dr. Sandhya Rao, Dr. K Kameshwar Rao, Dr. Ramakrishna Parama, Dr. P Pramod, Dr. Shailaja Ravindranath, Mr. Mariappa Raju and Mr K R Thiruppathi for the technical support. We thank Y Joshi for editing the draft report. The invaluable support provided by the people of Kempanaickenpalayam is deeply appreciated. Contents

1. Introduction ...... 1

2. Demography and Rainfall ...... 4

3. Land ...... 6

4. Livestock ...... 16

5. Water and Soil ...... 18

6. Wild Fauna and Fish Resource ...... 21

7. Energy and Sanitation ...... 25

8. Overall Trends in Natural Resources ...... 27

1. Introduction

onservation and sustainable 1.1. Utility of a State of the Cmanagement of natural resources Environment Report are fundamental to sustainable food production, water supply and livelihoods. This state of village environment report Natural resources such as land, is important to the following entities: biodiversity, water, livestock and soil are being continually exploited by G Village communities including human societies, often leading to the farmers and particularly women to degradation of these resources. Village assist them in decision-making on the ecosystems are complex systems with use and management of natural inter-linkages between natural resources resources. and livelihoods of communities. G Policy-makers at regional, state and national level to help them design The state of environment and natural strategies and policies to conserve resource report of a village focuses on natural resources. major natural resources, their status and trends over the years and also the G District/block/panchayat-level inter-linkages. With this understanding, planners and decision-makers. the report highlights key environmental G Development departments such as issues with implications for resources, forests, agriculture, pasture livelihoods and sustainability. To development, water resource, and understand the status of and trends in the the environment to promote resources, indicators were identified and sustainable practices. an inventory of the natural resources carried out. The agro-ecological zone G Educational institutions to create (AEZ) approach was adopted in awareness. selecting the village, taking into 1.2. Agro-Ecological Zone consideration the key features of the Approach selected AEZ and the representativeness of the village. This facilitates India is a large country with diverse understanding of the strata of the sub- temperature, rainfall, soil, vegetation AEZ in which the village is located. This and socio-economic conditions. AEZ report serves as a model and has been categorization is based on the length of generated adopting the indicators and the growing period (LGP), which is methods developed by the Indian derived from climate, soil and Institute of Science for monitoring topography data using a water balance natural resources. model and knowledge of crop requirements. The AEZ approach is The report presents general information adopted by FAO and other agencies of the village in the initial section. for all forest, cropland and other Subsequent sections systematically land-resource-related planning address the status of various resources, activities. and the final section concludes with a synthesis of the findings, which identify India has been divided into 20 AEZs based inter-linkages of various resources and on rainfall, moisture and temperature environmental issues. regimes, soil type, land form, etc.

1 The AEZ and village ecosystem approach G The village falls under the agro- is adopted in this study for the following ecological sub-zone AEZ 8.3, the reasons: Tamil Nadu uplands and plains of India and is characterized by hot G AEZ is widely used by the Planning moist semi-arid climate and deep Commission, the Ministry of red loamy soil. Agriculture, National Bureau for Soil Survey and Land-Use Planning, Figure 1: Location of the village agricultural universities, and others.

G A strong functional interdependence exists among TAMIL NADU the natural resources (forests, watersheds, grasslands, water bodies, livestock and cropland) at the village environment level in each AEZ.

G Decision-making on the use and ERODE management of natural resources such as forests, biodiversity, grazing lands and irrigation water occurs at the village environment level.

G Participatory institutions such as water sanghas, forest protection committees and biodiversity management committees are organized and function at the village level.

G Overlaying the natural ecosystem boundary of an AEZ with administrative boundaries gives a unique combination of physical, biological and socio-economic KEMPANAICKENPALAYAM perspectives. 1.3. Village Location 1.4. Reason for Selecting G Kempanaickenpalayam village is a Kempanaickenpalayam part of taluk of Erode district of Tamil Nadu G Kempanaickenpalayam is an (Figure 1). agricultural village situated at the foothills of the Eastern Ghats G Kempanaickenpalayam is located and presents a unique set of at 11°312 45.03 N and 77°182 023 bio-geographical features. E 254 m above the mean sea level. The village is 10 km from G Very few efforts have been made Sathyamangalam, the nearest town in the past to monitor the natural and the taluk headquarters. resources.

2 1.5. Natural Resources G Land survey to demarcate and map Monitored different land-use systems as well as estimate the area under each to The resources monitored in enable comparison with past data Kempanaickenpalayam village and to understand changes in land- ecosystem include: use pattern.

G Demography: Population and land G Household survey to obtain holding pattern. information on cropping pattern, water sources, fuelwood G Climate: Rainfall pattern. catchment area, consumption

G Land Resources: Cropland, pattern, etc. wasteland, agro-forestry and G Field measurements to estimate plantations. biomass in different vegetation

G Livestock Resources: Population, types, fuelwood, water breeds, grazing pattern and dung consumption, dung production by production. cattle and assessment of fish resources and diversity. G Water Resources: Rivers, canals, wells and drinking water sources. G Laboratory measurements to measure the quality of drinking G Soil Resources: Organic matter water and the status of soil quality status. in terms of soil organic carbon.

G Wildlife: Large mammals and birds. G Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)

G Fish Resources: Diversity, to gather detailed and qualitative production and consumption description of village resources, patterns. patterns of use, trends and changes in the status of resources over the G Settlements and Infrastructure: years. Sanitation, electrification status, schools, housing areas and roads. 1.7. Monitoring Period 1.6. Methods Adopted G The study was conducted during The following methods were adopted to September 2006 to March 2007 assess the status of various resource and (referred to as "the Current" period). resource indicators. G The land-use and crop particulars are for the major cropping season, G Secondary records for data on rainfall, population, land-use namely kharif (October to January). pattern, livestock, etc.

3 2. Demography and Rainfall

2.1. Demography G Non-agricultural occupations include weaving (15%) and basket- 2.1.1. Population and Land Holding making (5%).

G The national census conducted in 2.1.2. Trends 2001 recorded a population of 6,551 comprising of 3279 males and G The population of 3272 females. Kempanaickenpalayam has increased over the last few G The total number of households is decades. 979. 2.2. Climate: Rainfall G Landless agricultural labourers dominate, and account for 51% of 2.2.1. Current the total households. G The mean annual rainfall of Erode G About 12% of the households are district is 660 mm. those of medium farmers with 2.5 to 5.0 acres of land; only 1% of G The mean annual rainfall of the households own more than is 769 mm 5 acres of land (large farmers). (average of 70 years).

G Small farmers (those with less than G The rainfall recorded during 2006 2.5 acres of land) account for 8% of was about 757 mm. the households (Figure 2). G As Kempanaickenpalayam lies on the leeward side of the Western Figure 2: Current occupation pattern Ghats, it receives most of its rain from the retreating northeast Small Medium farmers monsoon, September to November farmers 8% being the peak months (Figure 3 12% Others 8% and 4). Basket- making Figure 3: Rainfall distribution in 2006 Weavers 5% 15% Large farmers 1%

Landless labourers 51%

4 Figure 4: Trends in annual rainfall

Basket-Making

In Kempanaickenpalayam, the communities utilize the forest for their livelihood activities such as grazing and collection of fuelwood. About 50 families depend on basket-making, using bamboo collected from the forest.

About 200 families were dependent on this occupation until a few decades ago. Gradually, the number decreased due to the low income from this occupation and reduced availability of bamboo because of over extraction.

During the participatory rural appraisal process, members from the basket-making community stated that earlier they used to extract 3.7 tonnes of bamboo a day. But now, they extract only about one tonne. Due to overexploitation and deforestation, bamboo production in the forest has decreased and the number of households involved in basket-making has declined to one-fourth of that in the earlier years. Further, market demand for bamboo baskets has also reduced.

This occupation may become extinct in the next few years, because the younger generation of this community is now shifting to other occupations because of the difficulty in collecting the bamboo from the forest and the declining market for baskets.

5 3. Land

3.1. Land Use records maintained at the village administrative office (Figure 5). Kempanaickenpalayam shares its

northern and eastern boundaries with a G Cropland: Area under crops state-owned reserve forest; on the west, decreased gradually from 570 ha to it is bound by Kondappanaickenpalayam 501 ha (8%). village and to the south, by Sellipalayam G Fallow land: Area under fallow land village. A stream, named Perumpallam, increased substantially from 99 ha flows across the village from the north in 1997 to 165 ha in 2006 (Figure 6). to the south. This stream is a major source of water for the Perumpallam Figure 5: Trends in major land use dam, a small dam north of Kempanaickenpalayam. The human 600 1997 settlements are located in the southern 500 2000 part of the village. 400 2006 3.1.1. Current Land Use 300

The total geographic area of 200 Kempanaickenpalayam is 923 ha. The 100 major land-use components include settlements, infrastructure, wasteland, 0 Crop Water Fallow Settle- Infra- cropland and fallow land. land bodies land ment structure

G Currently, cropland accounts for 501 ha. Figure 6: Changes in area under cropland and fallow land G About 224 ha of land is under water bodies such as dam, streams and 700 canals. 600 500 G About 91 ha of cultivable land is fallow. 400 300 o currently, 74 ha of land is Area (ha) permanent fallow, and has not 200 been cultivated for the 100 preceding five seasons. 0 1997 2000 2006

G Settlements including homes and Cropland Fallow land sites account for 22 ha.

G Roads and infrastructure occupy G Infrastructure and water bodies: about 11 ha. There is no drastic change in the area under infrastructure and water 3.1.2. Trends in Land-use (1997–2007) bodies.

Trends in major land-use over the G Settlements: A marginal increase in decade are discussed in this section area (0.35%) under settlements over based on information compiled from a decade.

6 Figure 7: Detailed land use of Kempanaickenpalayam

7 3.1.3. Factors Contributing Figure 8: Major crops 2007 Cash G The prime reason for the decrease crops in cropland area is water shortage. 65% o change in cropping pattern from short-duration to annual Food crops such as sugarcane and crops 15% turmeric has increased the demand for water o with the availability of water Cereals Pulses remaining constant, the fallow 11% 3% Others land area has increased. 6%

3.1.4. Implications G Sugarcane is the dominant crop,

G Increase in fallow land has accounting for 150 ha, about 30% of increased the land available for the total cropland area (Figure 9).

grazing. G Other crops include vegetables, mulberry, flowers and bund G Loss of cropland leads to decreased agricultural activity and plantations.

production. G Food crops such as paddy and pulses account for less than 15%. G Landless labourers are forced to seek employment in non-farm 3.2.2. Trends in the Cropping Pattern activities and out migrate as a result of decreased agricultural G There have been significant activity. changes in area under cash crops, cereals, pulses and fodder crops in G Loss of fertile cultivable land. Kempanaickenpalayam.

3.2. Cropping Pattern G Area under cereals such as paddy and maize have drastically 3.2.1. Current Cropping Pattern decreased (75%) over the decade from about 213 ha in 1997 to 53 ha G Cash crops dominate the cropping now. pattern (65%). o cash crops include sugarcane, G Area under pulses shows a trend similar to that for the cereals and turmeric, banana, tobacco decreased from 45 ha in 1997 to 16 and coconut. ha in 2007 (Figure 10). G Food crops and cereals account for 15% and 11% respectively. G Cash crops, on the other hand, show a reverse trend of increasing area G The major irrigated crops are (Figure 9): area under cash crops sugarcane, turmeric, banana, increased from 199 ha to 324 ha tobacco and vegetables (Figure 7 (30%). and Figure 8). o sugarcane cultivation in G The major rainfed crops include particular increased fodder maize, tapioca, bajra and substantially, from 60 ha in 1997 pulses. to 150 ha now.

8 Figure 9: Area under major crops

Sugarcane Fodder maize

Tapioca Coconut

9 Figure 10: Change in area under food crops such as sugarcane, turmeric and cash crops and banana has increased.

400 G Lesser human effort needed and high returns from tapioca compared 300 to other rainfed crops such as bajra, pulses and fodder maize. 200

Area (ha) 3.2.4. Implications 100

G Increased cultivation of water- 0 1997 2002 2007 intensive crops like sugarcane could increase the number of Cash crops Food crops borewells in the village and,

G There is also a drastic reduction consequently, would lower the (13%) in fodder cultivation from 161 water table in the long-run.

ha in 1997 to 77 ha now (Figure 11). G Increased production of cash crops has increased the monetary returns Figure 11: Percentage changes in the from land. area under major crops G Decreased production of fodder 40 crops has resulted in fodder being 30 30 in short supply. This has increased 20 the grazing pressure on the forest. 10 3.3. Crop Varieties 0

-10 -5 % change in area 3.3.1 Current -13 -20 -23 -30 G Sugarcane variety currently under Cash Cereals Pulses Fodder cultivation is TC353.

G Paddy varieties currently under 3.2.3 Factors Contributing cultivation are ADT43, ADT38, and CO43. G Assured market for sugarcane

due to establishment of the G Tapioca variety under cultivation is Bannariamman sugar factory in MVT1 (Mulluvadi). 1986 in the nearby Sathumugai. G Fodder maize varieties grown are G Increased availability of water due CO25 and BSR1. to increase in number of borewells G BSR1 and BSR2 are the two varieties from none in 2000 to 47 in 2006. of turmeric. G The people’s perception is that the G Bajra varieties include ICMS 7703, construction of Perumpallam dam K4 and CO7. in 1992 has helped to maintain the

level of groundwater. G Tobacco varieties grown in the village are I115, VTK1 and vairam. G The increase in irrigated area has

replaced crops with lower G Traditional variety of onion is grown monetary value. In addition, area in the village. under cultivation of long-duration

10 Construction of Dam

Kempanaickenpalayam is a semi-arid village in Erode district. The village has a seasonal stream, named Perumpallam, from which the village gets water during the rainy season; for most of the year, the stream is dry. The district authorities decided to construct a small dam across the Perumpallam stream. The plan for the construction of dam was first prepared in 1985; construction began in 1988 and the dam was completed in 1994.

Perumpallam dam is located in the Change in the irrigation sources northern part of the village. The size of the reservoir is about 442 acres, including a small part from the neighbouring village Kondappanaickenpalayam.

The dam has the capacity to irrigate 450 acres of land of which 339 acres are in Kempanaickenpalayam. Initially, the stored water was used directly for irrigation. However, since the water did not last for more than 40-50 days (not even adequate for a short-term crop like onion), the village administration decided to store the water and use it as a percolation tank. The dam serves to recharge groundwater and is used for fish culture.

The construction of the dam has Trends in area irrigated changed the cropping pattern of the 400 village. After construction of the dam, the number of open wells and 300 borewells has increased considerably, thereby increasing the irrigated area. 200

Area (ha) Although sugarcane, turmeric and 100 banana are the traditional crops, 0 people started cultivating these 1997 2002 2007 crops extensively after the Irrigated land Rainfed land construction of dam.

11 G MCU5 and jayalaxmi are the 3.4. Crop Yields varieties of cotton. Majority of the farmers reported a G Banana varieties currently under reduction in the yield of crops over the cultivation include robusta, years despite shift to high-yielding poovan, rasthali and GENE9. varieties and application of fertilizers.

G T9 is the variety of black gram. G A large number of farmers cultivating 3.3.2. Trends in Crop Varieties sugarcane report a decrease in yield over the last five years. G Until about two decades ago, only G An overwhelming 73% of farmers traditional varieties of crops were reported a decrease in turmeric cultivated. yield over past five years.

G The same varieties of banana have G Farmers growing banana had a been cultivated except GENE9 in mixed response. While 37% the past several years. reported decrease in yield, 26%

G No traditional variety of sugarcane reported an increase in the yield is grown in the village. and 37% reported no change.

G Sugarcane variety CO8021 was 3.4.1. Factors Contributing grown in the past years. G Incidence of mealy bugs in G IR20, CO46, ADT36 were the sugarcane has affected the yield. varieties of paddy cultivated in the G Decrease in the yield of turmeric past decade. may be due to leaf mites.

G I115, VTK1 were the varieties of tobacco, grown earlier. 3.4.2. Implications

G MCU12, DCH were the varieties of G Increased use of fertilizers and cotton cultivated in the past pesticides has implications for soil decade. fertility in the long-run. 3.3.3. Factors Contributing 3.5. Fertilizer and Manure Application G The loss of traditional varieties is due to the extension and promotion 3.5.1. Current Use by the agricultural department for cultivation of improved varieties. G Participatory rural appraisal of farmers revealed increased use of G Changes in market forces and food synthetic fertilizers and decreased habits have contributed to shifts in use of organic manure (Table 1). crop varieties. G Irrigated crops such as sugarcane, 3.3.4. Implications turmeric and paddy are grown using high input of synthetic fertilizers (1.3 G Loss of traditional varieties. to 1.7 t/ha) along with significant G It is feared that the introduced amount of organic manure (20 to high-yielding varieties may be more 28 t/ha). sensitive to the local pests and may G Rainfed crops such as fodder maize, require application of fertilizers. bajra, tapioca are not supplied with

12 any synthetic fertilizer (Table 1). G For pest control, farmers in the Some farmers use organic farmyard village take the advice of the manure for tapioca (20 t/ha). village agricultural officer and use pesticides such as Table 1: Fertilizer and manure application monocrotophos, borate, for major crops dimethoate, butachlor and endosulphan. Crop Inorganic Organic fertilizer t/ha manure t/ha 3.7. Agro-forestry Sugarcane 1.7 28 Turmeric 1.4 20 3.7.1. Current Banana 1.5 27 Cropland bunds Tapioca 0.8 20 Paddy 1.3 20 G Most farmers practise agro-forestry Onion 0.7 10 by growing trees along their Bajra - 20 cropland bunds. Fodder maize - 10 G There is no block plantation of trees. Others 0.9 0

G A total of 28 species were recorded along the cropland bunds. 3.5.2. Implications

G Coconut is the dominant species G Reduction in organic manure, with an average density of 12 trees/ particularly the disappearance of ha. It accounts for 84% of the total the practice of raising a green- tress along the bunds (Figure 12). manure crop, over the years may adversely affect soil fertility and Figure 12: Species composition in sustainability of crop yields. cropland bunds

G Excess application of synthetic Coconut fertilizer may lead to increased 84% salinity of the soil and depletion of soil biota. 3.6. Pests and Use of Pesticides Others 8% G Nearly 30% of the farmers growing paddy recorded the following pests: Areca o stem borer, leaf roller, thrips Neem 2% Silk 3% cotton G Over 50% of the farmers cultivating 3% sugarcane reported the following pests: G Other major species include silk o mealy bug, white fly cotton, neem, areca nut, lemon, teak, mango and several species of G Turmeric: Thrips are the major pest reported. Acacia. Roadside vegetation G Tobacco: Cut worm and stem borer are the major pests reported. G The 4-km stretch of road through the

G Banana: Wilt was the major disease. village occupies about 9 ha.

13 Prosopis - Bane to Boon

Prosopis sp. is a weed of national significance. It is regarded as one of the worst weeds in India because of its invasiveness, potential for spread, and economic and environmental impacts.

Prosopis originated in Argentina and spread all over the world. Prosopis is known to have spread in India since the 1870s by migrant animals; first identified in Andhra Pradesh, it has spread all over the country.

The economic impacts stem from its habit of forming dense, impenetrable thickets that, combined with its thorns, prevents cattle from accessing watering holes and makes grazing difficult. Prosopis also reduces the productivity of grazing land by covering the ground and using valuable soil and water resources. Other impacts of Prosopis include damage to animal hooves and the poisoning of livestock, when they consume excessive amounts of its pods.

Environmental impacts, once the species becomes dominant, include changes in soil quality, which make the soil incapable of supporting native plants and animals, and safe refuge for feral animals such as pigs and cats.

In Kempanaickenpalayam, Prosopis was observed in the late 1960s as a multi-stemmed thorny shrub. In Kempanaickenpalayam, Prosopis infestation is spread over about 150 ha.

At Kempanaickenpalayam, Prosopis sprouts rapidly after the retreating monsoon. Dark vegetal growth is found along the stream bunds flowing from the Perumpallam and in the low-lying areas of the region, community land and other wastelands. It has now become an aggressive weed in Kempanaickenpalayam. The invasion by Prosopis of agricultural land affects agriculture in the region. Landowners fear that its growth could reduce crop and livestock production, and farmers do not allow the shrub to grow in the immediate vicinity.

However, thanks to the thorny shrub's ability to withstand harsh conditions, some farmers in Kempanaickenpalayam have used Prosopis as a live fence around their land to protect their crops from the cattle. Because of its ability to regenerate rapidly, the shrub is looked upon by many as an inexhaustible fuel source. Many landless people in Kempanaickenpalayam completely rely on it as their principal fuel source for domestic use. Over 500 households in Kempanaickenpalayam depend on the shrub as their principal fuel source.

14 G A total of 14 different species were 3.7.2. Trends in Agro-forestry recorded along the roadside. G Coconut dominates the cropland G Neem was the dominant species bunds while multiple naturally (39%) along the roadside (Figure 13). regenerating trees dominate the

G Silk cotton and Cassia species banks of the stream and the make up 25% and 15% of the total, roadside.

respectively. G Over 30 different species were recorded in the village along the Figure 13: Tree composition in roadside bunds of cropland, streams and vegetation roadsides. Silk Neem cotton 39% G Out of these, only 10 species are 25% planted; the rest are naturally regenerated and retained.

G According to the participatory rural Acacia appraisal involving senior members nilotica 5% of the society, a large variety of Others Cassia sp. trees were found few decades ago, 16% 15% and these have dwindled. This means a loss of biodiversity in Stream-side vegetation agro-forestry.

G The total area of streams is 73 ha. 3.7.3. Factors Contributing G About 25 tree species were recorded along the Perumpallam G Market forces have motivated the stream that runs through the farmers to cultivate coconut along village carrying water from the cropland bunds. Perumpallam dam. G Income from the minor forest

G Silk cotton was the dominant produce such as neem seeds species (27%) along the stream and fibre encourages farmers to (Figure 14). protect the vegetation along the banks of the stream bunds and G The other major species by the the roadsides. stream include neem (16%) and Pithecolobium dulcis (11%). 3.8. Grazing Land - Fallow land and Stream-side Figure 14: Tree composition in stream-side vegetation 3.8.1. Current Grazing Land

Silk Others G No dedicated grazing land is found 35% cotton 27% in the village; therefore, the fallow land and the stream bunds are used for grazing, supplemented with stall feeding. Neem 16% G The total area under fallow land is Unknown Pithecolobium 165 ha. 6% Adina sp. dulcis 5% 11% G The streams accounts for about 73 ha.

15 G With the increase in livestock over the past years and because population, grazing pressure on the of livestock grazing, the vegetation already meagre grazing area in the in the forest is subjected to village is increasing. degradation.

3.8.2. Trends in Area Available for Grazing Figure 15: Trends in fallow land area 200 G The area under fallow land in the 166 past decade has increased by 4% 150 (Figure 15). 129

G The cropping pattern has seen the 99 low productive lands being 100 abandoned, leading to increase in Area (ha)

the area under fallow land. 50 3.8.3. Implications 0 G Due to the lack of grazing land, 1997 2000 2006 livestock are grazed in the forest

16 4. Livestock

4.1. Livestock Population G Other livestock numbers 116 (draught animals such as donkeys 4.1.1. Current Livestock and pack horses).

G Currently the livestock population 4.1.2. Trends in Livestock Population of the village is 5306.

G The population of milch animals G Sheep and goats dominate (77% of increased from 835 in 1997 to 945 in livestock population) and number 2006 (Figure 17). 4060.

G The population of sheep and goats G The number of milch animals is also increased over the past 945, 18% of the total livestock decade, from 3415 in 1997 to 4060 population (Figure 16). now (Figure 18). G The number of bullocks is about 185 (3%).

Figure 16: Current livestock composition Figure 18: Trends in sheep and goat population Goat and 4500 sheep 4060 3701 77% Milch 3415 3338 animals 18% 3000

Population 1500

Others 0 2% Bullocks 3% 1997 1998 2002 2006

Figure 17: Trends in sheep and goat population

4500 4000 1997 2002 2007 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 Number of livestock 1000 500

0 Cow Buffaloes Bullocks Sheep and Others Goats

17 G People switched from traditional human effort involved in rearing breeds to crossbreeds in the 1980s, bullocks. following advice from the local G The increase in sheep and goats dairy units. population appears to be linked G Participatory rural appraisal with the decline in rainfall over the revealed most cows now reared past many years. are crossbreds: the traditional 4.1.4. Implications breeds account for less than 30%.

G Loss of traditional breeds. 4.1.3. Factors Contributing

G Increase in the population of sheep G The traditional breeds are being and goats and grazing them in the replaced with crossbred animals nearby forest land have adversely because the latter give more milk. affected the regeneration

G Stall-feeding has increased due to capacity of the forests. increase in the number of crossbred G The high grazing density is leading cows. to degradation of fallow land.

G Establishment of a small-scale dairy in the village and the market it 4.2. Dung Production offers have driven people to opt for G Only 3% of the households have crossbred milch animals as they biogas plants. give a higher yield. G Average production of dung is G Bullocks are replaced by the 10 kg/cow/day . tractors for ploughing due to the

18 5. Water and Soil

5.1. Irrigation Water G There were no borewells in 1978 and in 2002 there were 4 borewells and 5.1.1. Current Availability currently there are 47 borewells, a 91% increase over the period 2002 G Borewells and open wells are the to 2006 (Figure 19). two sources of irrigation.

G Before the 1990s, the only source of Figure 19: Trends in number of borewells irrigation was open wells. for irrigation

G In the 1990s, the farmers started 47 drilling borewells. 50 40 G Now there are about 47 borewells

and 247 open wells within the 30 village. 20 G The Perumpallam and other streams that pass through the village serve 10 as a seasonal source of water but 10 are not available for irrigation. Number of borewells 0 4 G The Perumpallam dam has the 0 capacity to irrigate about 340 ha 1978 2002 2003 2006 of cropland, but the local community along with the PWD has taken a decision not to open the 5.1.3. Factors Contributing dam for irrigation, as there are no

perennial sources of water for the G Construction of the Perumpallam dam. dam has helped recharge the o the Perumpallam dam at groundwater in the village. present is used mainly as a 5.1.4. Implications percolation tank to recharge the groundwater. G Free electricity supply by the state for agriculture has encouraged the 5.1.2. Trends use of borewells. The free supply has made both the digging of wells and G Irrigated area has increased in the pumping water from them more recent years. economical than is the case with

G In 1997, the total area under rainfed open wells. farming was 339 ha; now it has G Increase in the number of borewells decreased to 185 ha due to the may lower the water table; the increase in irrigation sources. average depth of borewells is

G There is a significant increase in the already 650 feet, indicating the number of open wells from 63 in decline. 1978 to 247 in 2006.

19 5.2. Drinking Water any implications for human health, but lowers the consumption of 5.2.1. Current Water Sources water by imparting a disagreeable taste to the water. G Taps, hand pumps and open wells

are the main sources of drinking G Hard water, although it does not water in the village. have any implication for health, makes the water salty to taste, G One part of the village is also thereby lowering the quality of served by a reservoir. water and making it less suitable for 5.2.2. Current Water Quality cooking and washing.

G All the parameters except turbidity 5.3. Microbial Load (30 NTU) were within the permissible 5.3.1. Current limits in samples from the reservoir.

G In all other samples, total dissolved G All the samples from borewells and solids (TDS) and alkalinity exceeded the reservoir were free from the desirable limits (TDS shows the coliform bacteria. hardness of water) but was within G A third (33%) of the open well the permissible limits (Table 2). samples, 65% of the tap samples

G Samples from open wells and hand and 78% of hand pump samples had pumps were found to have slightly their total coliform count within higher concentrations of nitrate the permissible limits (0–10 MPN/ than the desired limit, but all were 100 ml). (MPN is the most probable within the permissible limit. number.)

G Nearly half (48%) the samples from 5.2.3. Contributing Factors open wells and roughly a fifth (22%)

G Hardness can be due to the of those from hand pumps had a presence of salts of calcium and total coliform count ranging from magnesium. 11 to 100 MPN/100 ml.

G TDS and total alkalinity may be G In 14% of open well samples, the attributed to the geological total coliform count ranged from reasons. 101 to 200 MPN/100 ml.

5.2.4. Implications G A very small proportion (5%) of the open well samples had a G Water with high dissolved solids will microbial load greater than 500 be usually turbid. It does not have MPN/100 ml.

Table 2: Drinking water quality status Parameters Desirable Permissible Open well Borewell Hand Limitξξξ Limit*ξξξ pump Total dissolved solids# 500 2000 682.4 583.3 788.6 # Total hardness as CaCO3 300 600 389.1 339.3 484.3 # Total alkalinity as CaCO3 200 600 479.0 402.8 445.0 Nitrate# 45 100 47.5 29.6 81.9 # in mg/L

20 5.3.2. Contributing Factors Table 3: Soil quality status Crop or land use % organic carbon G Presence of coliforms in open wells can be due to contamination by Bajra 0.23 birds, rotten leaves and faecal Banana 0.63 matter. Fallow 0.75 Fodder maize 0.43 G Contamination of water from the Onion 0.61 hand pumps can be attributed to Sugarcane 0.88 improper methods of sewage Tapioca 0.59 disposal and poor sanitation. Turmeric 0.64 Tobacco 0.54 5.3.3. Implications Forest 0–15 cm depth 1.58 Forest 15–30 cm depth 1.38 G If the water contains pathogenic bacteria, risk of waterborne Note: <0.5%, low, 0.5–0.75%, medium and diseases is likely to be high. >0.75%, high

5.4. Soil Quality G Tapioca, turmeric and tobacco had 0.59, 0.64 and 0.54% organic G Sugarcane, banana and tobacco carbon, which indicates highly are the major crops in the area. fertile soils.

G Fodder maize is grown as a dryland crop and it had 0.43% organic 5.4.1. Implications carbon in the soil (Table 3). G Lands in which perennial crops are

G Soils in bajra crop had the least grown have high organic carbon. organic carbon of all the crops G Soil fertility status is poor on (0.23%). croplands and high on fallow and

G Fallow land had 0.75% organic forest land, where the topsoil is not carbon whereas forestlands had disturbed. 1.58% in the topsoil and 1.38% at 15–30 cm depth.

21 6. Wild Fauna and Fish Resource

The northern and eastern boundary G Wetland birds are limited to the of the village borders with the area around the Perumpallam dam Sathyamangalam reserve forest. Many and irrigated crop fields. Villagers wild animals from the forest often make report that large number of their way into the village. The migratory wetland birds like the construction of the dam across the teals flock around the Perumpallam Perumpallam stream has increased the dam. frequency of sighting of animals such as G Migratory birds are sighted elephants. between September and March.

6.1. Birds G Listed below are some of the common wetland birds sighted in 6.1.1. Current the village (Table 5). Several woodland birds were sighted Table 5: Major wetland birds during the study throughout the village and more near the crop fields. The list of Major wetland birds woodland birds sighted in the village is Palm swift listed in Table 4. Cattle egret Common teal Table 4: Major woodland birds Darter Teals Major woodland birds Little cormorant Ashy prinia Jungle crow Little egret Ashy wren warbler Jungle fowl Little grebe Asian koel Large pied wagtail Red wattled lapwing Baya (weaver bird) Little brown dove White-breasted water hen Blossom-headed White-breasted kingfisher parakeet Paddy field pipit Brahmini myna Pariah kite Brahmini kite Grey partridge 6.1.2. Trends Common myna Peacock G The population of wetland birds has Common quail Pied bush chat increased after the construction of Common swallow Purple sunbird the dam. Black drongo Red-rumped

swallow G The population of woodland bird is Golden-backed gradually decreasing due to the woodpecker Red-vented bulbul change in the cropping pattern. Greater coucal Rose-ringed (e.g., decrease in the area of parakeet cropland). House crow Tailor bird House sparrow White browed 6.2. Mammals bulbul 6.2.1. Current Indian robin White headed babbler Large mammals are sighted in the northern and eastern part of the village,

22 especially in the Perumpallam dam 6.2.2. Trends area and the hills of Madheswaran, Malli Amman and Narayanan G The frequency with which the (Karumalai). animals enter into the fields has increased due to the changes in G Among mammals, wild boar, rabbit, the cropping pattern. (e.g., spotted deer, elephant, civet cat, cultivation of tapioca and wild dog and a few rodents are sugarcane attracts wild boars and some of the commonly sighted elephants). species in the village area. 6.2.3. Implications G Listed below are common

wild animals seen in the G The change in the cropping pattern Kempanaickenpalayam region has an impact on the wild animal (Table 6). population.

o Table 6: Major mammal species wild boar has become a serious pest to sugarcane, tapioca and Major mammals other crops. Their attacks on Anteater Sambar deer the crops has reduced yield in Civet cat Spotted deer the recent years. Elephant Wild boar Indian gaur Wild dog G The diversity of bird population Jackal Mouse deer (specially the migratory birds) in the Panther village has increased.

23 6.3. Fish Resource 6.3.2. Trends

6.3.1. Current Status G All water bodies are a seasonal source of fish but with the G Fishing is done in the reservoir, construction of the dam in 1994, the streams and canals of storage capacity has increased Kempanaickenpalayam. considerably and the water bodies now serve as a source of less G The checkdam is used for private fish culture. commercial pisciculture.

G Seven fish species have G The predominant fish species in reservoir include catla (Catla disappeared, namely Channa catla), common carp (Cyprinus maurilius, Channa striatus, Channa carpio), rohu (Labeo rohita), puctatus, Clarius dussumieri, mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala), Channa nama, Applocheilus velichimean (Salmostoma lineatus and Cirrhinus reba.

sardinella) and tilapia (Oreochromis G Fish yield has decreased in all the mossambicus). water bodies. Four yeas ago, according to the fish contractors, G In the streams (downstream of the reservoir), 8 species were fish yield used to be 15 to 20 quintals recorded; the predominant per year; now, it is only 3 to 4 quintals fish species include loaches per year.

(Lepidocephalicthyus guntea) G Earlier, the number of fishermen was and tilapia (Oreochromis 27; now, due to the reduction in the mossambicus). fish catch, the number has dwindled

G In canals, 7 species were to 7; the rest have opted for other recorded; the predominant fish livelihood options. species include Oreochromis G The reservoir was 35 feet deep in mossambicus, pool barb 1994. The depth has decreased (Puntius sophore) and loaches considerably due to siltation and (Lepidocephalicthyus guntea). currently stands at 25 feet,

G Nearly all (98%) the households in affecting fish growth and yield. the village eat fish. 6.3.3. Factors Contributing G Every time the water level in the dam is low, farmers encroach G Cereals and fodder crops are grown upon the area for agricultural on the reservoir bed during the dry activities. Crops such as tapioca, season. The pesticides used in these fodder maize and bajra are fields run off into the reservoir and cultivated. affect fish production.

24 7. Energy and Sanitation

7.1. Energy Sources 7.2. Lighting Energy Sources

7.1.1. Current 7.2.1. Current Electrification Status

G Nearly 30% of the households have G About 81% of the households are improved stoves. electrified.

G A large number of these (over 75%) G In electrified houses, 79% of the were installed in the last 5 years. households own other electrical devices. G Over 20% of these stoves were

installed in the 1980s and 1990s. G Monthly electricity consumption of an average household in G Only 13% of households have a Kempanaickenpalayam is 50 kWh. chimney for their cookstoves.

G Electricity for pumps used for G Nearly 30% of households have LPG agriculture is free in Tamil Nadu. stoves.

G Almost 97% of the irrigation sources G Fuel savings of 5–15% have been have been electrified. reported in 27% of the households.

G About 3% of the households own a 7.2.2. Implications biogas plant. G Reduced drudgery for men and

G All biogas plants were installed in bullocks. the late 1980s and early 1990s. G Increase in the electrification of

G The biogas plants in the village are irrigation sources has lead to large and have an average reduction in cattle population used capacity of 9 cubic metres. in the animal-drawn water-lifting

G An average of 25 kg of dung is used devices for irrigation. for each biogas plant per day. 7.3. Sanitation G Biogas is utilized for cooking. 7.3.1. Current Status 7.1.2. Implications G Only 11% of the households have G The maintenance of improved toilet facility. stoves is not adequate. The fuel savings are much lower than the G All the toilets are of Indian type.

actual potential of the stoves. G About 72% of the toilets have tap connection. G Majority of households still

cook with less efficient and G There are 2 community toilets in smoke-emitting traditional wood the village. Due to lack of stoves. maintenance, neither is used by the villagers. G Large amount of fuelwood is harvested from the forests for G Most households (90%) have cooking, leading to degradation of cattle sheds separate from the forests. living area.

25 G Few households (10%) have cattle 7.3.3. Implications sheds as part of the house. G The fact that 89% of the households G About 10% households dispose off do not have the toilets has serious kitchen waste by dumping it in the implications for hygiene, health and streams and by the roadside; the the quality of life of the people rest use manure pits or garbage pits. within the village.

7.3.2. Factors Contributing G The economic status of the people has improved but the quality of life G Lack of awareness about hygiene is far below the desired level. and health. G Disease incidence among the G Lack of water facility in toilets. community and health hazards are quite high due to lack of awareness and initiative.

26 8. Overall Trends in Natural Resources

irect functional relationship exist G There is a growing trend of replacing Dbetween the natural resources in short-term crops such as paddy and village ecosystems such as forests, water other cereals with long-term crops bodies, cropland, grazing land and like sugarcane and banana due to livestock. A small irrigation dam, which is labour shortage and possibility of now used only for recharge of higher income. groundwater, is a significant element G The production of food grains is on in the natural resource dynamics the decline while cash crops like of Kempanaickenpalayam village. sugarcane are on the increase. Irrigation and market forces have forced a shift from traditional and rainfed G The population of sheep and goat agriculture to more water-intensive has increased significantly over the agriculture. The dam has been successful last few years. in maintaining the groundwater level so G The grazing density is very far but may not support continued high due to increase in livestock expansion of intensive agriculture in the population which may lead to future. The dam has also attracted local degradation of fallow land and wildlife and migratory species of birds forests. to the village from the surrounding forests. Life of a significant percentage G The construction of a dam in of population still depends on the 1992 has helped to recharge sustainability of forests, water bodies, groundwater in the village. cropland and livestock in the village. The G People believe that bird diversity, village exhibits significant changes in the specially of the local migratory birds patterns of use of natural resources in the like cormorants and teals, has recent past. Some of the major changes increased after the construction of are mentioned below. the dam.

G There has been a notable change in G The frequency of sighting of large the land-use pattern of the village mammals such as elephant, deer where the cropland has significantly and wild boar has increased reduced and fallow land increased because of the water availability in due to changes in the cropping the dam and the cropping pattern pattern. of the village.

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