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CHRONOLOGYTeacher’s Manual

The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org Table of contents

Summary ...... 38 Vocabulary ...... 39 Background Information ...... 41 Subjects: Procedure ...... 47 , Earth , Chemistry Quick Reference: 14C in the Cycle ..... 52 Decay Curve Exercise ...... 53 Duration: Quick Reference: Target Events and Dated 3 class periods Events ...... 54 The Research Plan Exercise ...... 56 Class size: up to 40 students

The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org 37 Summary

Overview: Objectives: Material Included in the Box:

In this module, students will be introduced • To understand the diff erence be- • Slide Show to assist in the presentation of to the method, which tween based on rela- the information. archaeologists and geologists frequently tive dating and . use to determine when the events which in- • Digital and hard copies of illustrations to be terest them occurred. During this lesson, the • To understand how radiocarbon dating used while instructing. teacher will instruct the students about the works, what objects can be dated, and what concepts foundational to the radiocarbon the limitations of the method are. • Digital and hard copies of the lesson packet dating method. This lesson will require students to be distributed to students. to identify suitable and unsuitable materials for • Understanding how archaeologists use ra- radiocarbon dating, use a graph to determine diocarbon dating to reconstruct human his- the age of samples based on the amount of tory and investigate links between natural radiocarbon that is in them, and do a hazards and human occupation take-home writing assignment in which they will design a plan for constructing a of events at an archaeological site.

The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org Chronology 38 Vocabulary

Absolute Dating: Carbon-13 (13C): Dated event: The process of determining when an event A naturally occurring, stable carbon , An event which is directly dated by a par- occurred along a calendrical timeline. which is considerably less abundant in the ticular dating method. In the case of radio- atmosphere than is 12C but considerably carbon dating, the dated event is the of : more abundant than 14C. 13C contains 6 pro- death of an organism from which a sample The component of the Earth system which tons and 7 . is taken. The dated event may or may not be consists of all life on earth, including all of direct interest to archaeological research. avian, terrestrial, and aquatic species. The Carbon Cycle: biosphere can be understood in terms of The process by which carbon fl ows Isotope: the abundance of living organisms on earth throughout and is exchanged between A variant form of an element. Different (global biomass) and in terms of its internal various physical and biological systems of the same element have diff erent organization or systemic process (ecosys- (for example, the atmosphere, the oceans, numbers of neutrons in their atomic nuclei. tems). and the biosphere). Because carbon is an For example, a 12C atom has six neutrons in essential ingredient for life on earth, it is its nucleus, 13C has seven, and 14C has eight, Carbon-12 (12C): critical that carbon be continuously avail- yet all three are still carbon atoms and in- The most abundant stable carbon isotope able to organisms, so understanding how teract in the same chemical reactions in the occurring in nature. 12C contains 6 carbon is recycled through the carbon cy- same way. and 6 neutrons. cle is of central importance for biologists.

Carbon dioxide (CO2): A molecule consisting of two atoms and one carbon atom. mole- cules form in the atmosphere, and their carbon atoms can be either 12C, 13C, or 14C atoms.

The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org Chronology 39 Vocabulary Continued

Law of superposition: : BP (years ): A principle of which states that, in a The process of determining whether an The amount of time which has passed be- sequence of geological layers, a lower layer event came before or after another event in tween the occurrence of an event and the of sediments was deposited before, and time, without consideration for how much A.D. 1950. To prevent confusion, ra- therefore is older than, overlying layers. This time intervened between the two or how diocarbon scientists defi ned A.D. 1950 as law only applies in cases where such layers long ago in the past they occurred. the 'present' so that radiocarbon ages al- have not been disturbed or mixed since the ways refer back to this same fi xed point in time of their deposition. : time. For example, 537 years BP will always A sequence of layers at an archaeological refer to the year which preceded A.D. 1950 : site or a geological locale that represents the by 537 years, in other words A.D. 1413. A subatomic particle which has no charge. depositional of that location. Together with protons, neutrons are one of the building blocks of the nuclei of atoms, Stratum (plural: strata): but they can also occur free in nature. A layer in a geological deposit having characteristics (age, color, composition) that -14 (14N): make it distinguishable from other layers. A common, naturally occurring, stable ni- trogen isotope. 14N contains 7 protons and Target event: 7 neutrons. An archaeological term used to refer to the event which is of interest to an archaeologist Radiocarbon (14C): and for which they would like to estimate a A naturally occurring, radioactive carbon date. Linking a particular "dated event" to the isotope, which is considerably less abundant "target event" is one of the biggest challenges of than both 12C and 13C. historical sciences like archaeology and geology.

The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org Chronology 40 Background Information

When cosmic rays excite atmospheric neutrons, approximately 5,700 years, half of the amount sample came from, assuming a constant rate of some of these neurons collide with atmospheric of 14C which was originally in the sample con- radiocarbon decay. nitrogen-14 (14N), which is transformed into ra- verts back into 14N. After another ~5,700 years, diocarbon (14C) as a result (see Figure 1). This half of the remaining 14C converts into 14N. This If an archaeologist or geologist has good reason 14C constitutes a miniscule proportion of at- process of continues indefi - to believe that the death of a sample (the “dated mospheric carbon, alongside two considerably nitely through time, but the amount of 14C re- event”) corresponds closely in time with its de- more abundant carbon isotopes: carbon-12 maining in a sample becomes so small after position at an archaeological or geological site (12C) and carbon-13 (13C). All three of these car- approximately 50,000 years that laboratory (the “target event”), they can use this sample’s bon isotopes combine with atmospheric oxy- machines have a hard time detecting it. Con- date to determine when it was deposited at the gen atoms to form carbon dioxide molecules. versely, 12C is a stable isotope, so the amount of site, allowing them to begin to construct a time- Through the process of , plants 12C that is present in a sample at the time of its line for the archaeological or geological history incorporate carbon from these carbon dioxide death should remain constant over time. of that site. molecules into their tissues, maintaining a 14C to 12C ratio in equilibrium with the atmosphere Technicians who work at radiocarbon labora- as long as they are alive. In turn, animals eat tories measure the amount of 14C and 12C re- plants or other animals, and the carbon in the maining in a sample of organic material (such plant or animal tissues that they consume is in- as , , bone , shell, hair, corporated into their own tissues. When plants seeds, or plant fi bers). If they assume that the and animals die, they cease incorporating new ratio of 14C to 12C that was originally present in carbon into their tissues and the "radiocarbon the sample is identical to the ratio of modern clock" starts ticking. atmospheric 14C to 12C, then they can use their measurement of the amount remaining in a Radiocarbon is a radioactive isotope which sample to estimate the amount of time that has decays back into 14N at a constant rate: after passed since the death of the organism that the

The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org Chronology 41 Background (in more detail) The of 14C Formation and Decay

14 C (pronounced “radiocarbon” or "carbon 14") is The formation and a radioactive isotope of carbon. radioactive decay of 14C

An isotope is a variant form of an element. Dif- In the upper atmosphere, nitrogen atoms are refers to a radioactive element’s "half-life" (la- ferent isotopes of a single element have the same bombarded by cosmic rays. As a result of this beled t½). A t½ is the amount of time it takes number of protons in their nuclei but vary in the bombardment, the stable isotope 14N (pro- for one half of a given amount of a radioactive number of neutrons they have. A carbon atom, for nounced “Nitrogen-14”), which has seven pro- element to decay, leaving the other half in the example, has six protons in its nucleus, but there tons and seven neutrons in its nucleus, loses one radioactive isotope form. , the cre- are three naturally occurring carbon isotopes – of its protons and gains an extra neutron, con- ator of radiocarbon dating, thought that 14C’s 12 13 14 14 C, C, and C – which have six, seven, or eight verting it into C (six protons, eight neutrons). t½ was approximately 5,568 years long, but neutrons in their nuclei, respectively. we now know that it is closer to approximately Over time, 14C decays back into 14N through a pro- 5,730 years long. What makes some isotopes such as radiocarbon cess called ß emission (ß is pronounced “beta”). A radioactive is that they are “unstable,” meaning ß particle is a negatively charged , located A less common way of talking about radioac- that the ratio of neutrons to protons in their nu- in the nucleus of the atom, and each ß emission tive decay is to talk about its annualized decay clei is too high above 1.0 and as a result they end event involves not only emitting a ß particle from rate (labeled λ, pronounced “lambda”). λ refers up “giving up” parts of their nuclei, resulting in a the nucleus of the 14C atom but also an exchange to the amount of the radioactive isotope that more stable atom. This process is called radio- of its eighth neutron for an additional . As a decays in a single year, expressed as a percent- active decay or simply radioactivity. Radioactive result, the nucleus of the atom is balanced back to age of the amount existing at the beginning of isotopes contrast with stable isotopes, whose the seven neutrons and seven protons that consti- the year. In other words, the amount of the ra- neutron-to-proton ratios are close enough to tute 14N (n:p ratio = 1.0). dioactive isotope at the beginning of the year is 1.0 that they stay in their form barring external reduced by a certain percentage by the end of intervention. 14C decays to 14N at a constant rate, which can be the year. For example, the λ associated with the expressed in diff erent ways: Libby t½ of 5,568 years is 0.0124488% lost per λ The most common expression of this decay rate year, while the associated with the Oxford t½

The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org Chronology 42 Background (in more detail) The Physics of 14C Formation and Decay - continued

of 5,730 years is 0.0120968% lost per year.

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

percentage of 50% 14C remaining in the sample 40%

30%

20%

10%

0% 0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 45,000 50,000

years ago

Knowing these decay rates, it is possible to graph the relationship existing between the amount of 14C present in a sample at the time of its death and the amount of time that has elapsed since then.

The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org Chronology 43 Background (in more detail) The Physics of 14C Formation and Decay - continued

Assuming that we know how much radiocarbon Radiocarbon in the was originally present in the sample, we can carbon cycle: calculate the amount of time which has elapsed based on the amount of radiocarbon remaining Approximately one out of every one trillion car- When the organism dies, however, it can no lon- in the sample. bon atoms in the atmosphere is a 14C atom. Just ger rejuvenate the carbon in its body. The 14C like other atmospheric carbon, most atmospher- fi xed in its tissues at the time of death begins to ic 14C atoms bond with oxygen atoms to create decay into nitrogen, as discussed earlier.

carbon dioxide (CO2).

Most of this carbon dioxide enters the oceans, but terrestrial plants consume some of it through the process of photosynthesis, fi xing the carbon in their tissues. In turn, animals that eat these plants fi x the plant’s carbon in their tissues, and predators that prey upon these ani- mals in turn fi x the prey’s carbon in their tissues.

As long as the plant or animal is alive, it con- tinually rejuvenates the carbon in its tissues, exchanging old carbon for newly consumed carbon, and thereby insuring that the ratio of 14C out of all carbon in its tissues is in equilibrium with (in other words is more or less identical to) the ratio of 14C out of all carbon in the atmo- sphere.

The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org Chronology 44 Background (in more detail) The Physics of 14C Formation and Decay - continued

Measuring radiocarbon in samples Limitations in a radiocarbon and calculating radiocarbon ages: date’s accuracy and precision:

Because we know that there was approximately (or AMS for short) to directly measure the mass An archaeologist’s or geologist’s ability to make one 14C atom for every 999,999,999,999 car- of 14C and of all other kinds of carbon present in eff ective use of a 14C date is limited in important bon atoms in an organism’s tissues when it died, a sample. ways. we can determine the percentage of 14C lost through radioactive decay, if we can also mea- Typically, after about eight or nine half-lives (ap- First of all, there is an issue of precision in mea- sure the current ratio of 14C to all other kinds proximately 45,840 to 51,570 years), there is surement. Precision refers to how close a mea- of carbon in a sample taken from a deceased too little 14C left in a sample to reliably measure. surement comes to the value that the researcher organism’s tissue. If we can take such a mea- When a sample which is submitted to a dat- is trying to measure. All instruments that sci- surement and calculate the percentage of 14C ing lab comes back with an undetectably small entists use to make measurements of the phe- remaining, we can then use this knowledge to amount of 14C remaining in it, we say that it is nomena that interest them have limited preci- calculate the amount of time that has elapsed be- “radiocarbon dead” or has “infi nite age” (mean- sion. In other words they rarely get exactly the tween the organism’s death and the present, and ing that we know that it can be no less than eight right measurement. For example, if you were to can thereby determine its time of death. or nine half-lives old but that we don’t know measure the width of your desk with a ruler to how much older than eight half-lives it is). the nearest millimeter or the nearest sixteenth There are two ways of measuring the amount of an inch, and if you were to do this multiple of 14C present in a sample, labeled conven- , you would probably come up with multi- tional dating and AMS dating. Conventional ple nonidentical measurements. Yet, your mea- dating involves counting the number of ß par- surements would also come close to each other, ticle emissions that occur over a given amount and this allows you to estimate what the width of time and using this to calculate the amount of your desk is within a certain margin of er- of 14C necessary to produce ß emissions at the ror. Similarly, both conventional and AMS dat- measured frequency. AMS dating uses a ma- ing methods involve some measurement error. chine called an accelerator mass spectrometer When radiocarbon laboratories report an age The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org Chronology 45 Background (in more detail) The Physics of 14C Formation and Decay - continued

estimate for a particular sample, the estimated usually not interested in the organism’s time of wood problem. If the archaeologist has good age is always reported along with a margin of death. They are usually interested in knowing reason to suspect that the prehistoric people error, called an standard error, for example such things as when a particular village was oc- whom they are studying harvested driftwood 5,000±50 (read “5,000 plus or minus 50”) years cupied, when people manufactured a particular for fi re-making purposes, they may therefore before present. The standard error is associated of pot, when a certain volcano erupted, or not want to use charcoal as a material to date. with a 68% probability, so we can say that the when a particular stratigraphic layer was depos- On the other hand, if the archaeologist has no real date of the sample falls between 4,950 and ited. We refer to the organism’s time of death as reason to believe that driftwood was an impor- 5,050 years before present, with a 68% prob- the dated event, whereas we refer to the time tant resource, or to believe that the driftwood ability (in other words, a 32% chance of being that the researcher actually wants to date as the which was available could have been very old wrong). If the standard error is doubled (e.g., to target event. The fact that the two events are by the time that past people harvested and used ±100 years in our example), the resulting mar- not the same does not, however, mean that we it, then he or she may choose to date wood or gin of error is associated with a 95% probability, cannot use the dated event to infer the age of charcoal samples with confi dence. The trick is so in our example we can say that the date of the target event. But in order to do so we must therefore to pick the right kind of material to the sample falls between 4,900 and 5,100 years demonstrate that the two events lie very close date in order to reliably date the target event. before present, with a 95% likelihood (in other to each other in time. In some situations, this is words a 5% chance of being wrong). not easy. For example, when people use drift- wood as fuel for fi re, there is a possibility that Secondly, there is an issue of accuracy. Accu- the driftwood they burn had died a long time racy refers to the connection between the date before they burned it. If an archaeologist then estimated for a given sample and the date of wants to know when that fi re was made and col- the phenomenon that the researcher actually lects a charcoal sample from its ashes for 14C dat- wants to date. Recall that the method calculates ing, the date which the archaeologist gets back the amount of time elapsed since the organ- from the lab may in fact be older than the date ism died. Yet, archaeologists and geologists are at which the fi re was made because of the drift- The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org Chronology 46 Procedure Lesson Activity 1: The Basics

Students learn the and write them in a column, with the oldest event – expiration date), and how you could use the difference between absolute and relative on the bottom and the most recent event on the relative dating for the rest of the items. You may dating used by archaeologists and other earth top. decide to do this as a demonstration with an scientists. actual trash can. 2. Explain the diff erence between absolute and Warm up: relative dating (just like with the events in our 6. Give students the Rasshua Island strati- Review what archaeologists study. Ask students lives, sometimes we can put a specifi c number graphic profi le (laminated handouts) and ask why time and dating might be an important on the age of some event (absolute date), and them to work in small groups to explain the component in an archaeological project (an- other times we can only say that something is sequence of deposition according to the Law of swer: archaeologists want to know when a vil- older than, younger than, or same age as some- Superposition (which layer is oldest and which lage was occupied, when a specifi c type of tool thing else (relative date). came after?). Ask them if they could tell without was used fi rst, when some change in technol- absolute dating if object #6 or object #2 was ogy happened, etc.). 3. Ask students which of their events would fall older. under relative or absolute dating. As a class, Procedure: discuss examples provided by several students. Wrap Up: 1. Ask students to think of 5 events from their Ask students what they already know about life; for some of these events they should 4. Introduce the Law of Superposition. dating methods used by archaeologists (from remember the exact date (example: sibling’s movies, documentaries, or books). Make a birth), but for others they should not remem- 5. Ask students to discuss the law using a trash transition to radiocarbon dating – one of the ber the exact date, but be able to place it into can activity: have students draw a trash can most useful and most often used absolute dat- sequence relative to the events they do know and fi ll it with the remains of three meals in ing methods. exact dates for (example: a play at school, an the order in which they went in. Ask students important sports game, an injury, family vaca- which of these objects could provide them with tion, visit from a relative). Ask the students to absolute dates (newspaper, yogurt container

The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org Chronology 47 Procedure Continued Lesson Activity 2:

Students learn the environmental chemistry of to date it. However, there are other dating so it cannot be radiocarbon dated. However, carbon, from the formation of radiocarbon in methods which can provide dates for some sometimes rust on metal tools contains organic the atmosphere, to its introduction into the bio- types of stone. carbon, which can be used to indirectly date the sphere, to its transmission throughout the bio- Bone: Bone was part of a living organism and metal artifact. sphere, to the decay of radioactive carbon. contains organic carbon, so it can be radiocarbon Stone Projectile Point: Just like unmodifi ed dated. However, before this can be done the stone, artifacts made out of stone do not Procedure: organic portion of the bone, called collagen, has contain organic carbon, so we cannot use the 1. Use the powerpoint provided on CD or to be isolated from the inorganic portion, called radiocarbon method to date them. However, online to explain how radiocarbon dating bone apatite. stone tools sometimes have organic residues on works. The teacher may choose to include more Pure Beach Sand: Because beach sand consists them, which can be used to indirectly date the detail in their explanation of the process to the of inorganic mineral grains, it does not stone artifact. class, depending on the students’ interest and contain organic carbon, so we cannot use the Hair: Hair was a part of a living organism and knowledge of molecular physics and chemistry radiocarbon method to date it. contains organic carbon, so it can be radiocarbon [Slides 1-7]. After these slides, students should Charcoal: Charcoal is burned wood and dated. Technological advances in radiocarbon be able to identify items that are 14C datable. contains organic carbon, so it can be dated dating allow as little as 20 micrograms of carbon using the radiocarbon method. In fact, it is (about 2–4 cm of hair) to be radiocarbon dated. 2. Use the “Dating Game” [Slides 7-20] to probably the material most commonly dated Wood: Wood contains organic carbon and solidify the understanding of what can be used by archaeologists to establish the age of human can be dated using the radiocarbon method. for radiocarbon dating: the students are shown settlements. However, in most cases unburned wood a series of photographs depicting diff erent Seed: Though rarely recovered in archaeological does not preserve as well as does charcoal, so objects, and they are asked whether these sites because they are fragile, seeds are organic archaeologists encounter wood less often than objects can be 14C dated and why. Here are the and can be dated using the radiocarbon method. charcoal. answers: Shell: Shell can be radiocarbon dated because Plastic Bottle: Plastic is a petroleum-based Rock: Because stone does not contain organic it contains . product. Petroleum is an organic substance, carbon, we cannot use the radiocarbon method Metal Artifact: Metal does not contain carbon, containing organic carbon from organisms that

The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org Chronology 48 Procedure Continued Lesson Activity 2 (continued):

lived hundreds of millions of years ago. However, after the organism dies using the online or on this curve: because these organisms lived so long ago, any hardcopy Decay Illustration of a seal [Slide 21]. a. What is the approximate age of an radiocarbon that was once in their tissues has This series of drawings shows how many atoms organic sample with 75% radiocarbon eff ectively disappeared. The commercial use of each isotope are contained in the bones after remaining? and mass manufacture of bottles also did not each half-life (5,730 years). Please note that Answer: approximately 2,500 years. begin until the mid- A.D., so while the condition of bones does not determine the b. How much radiocarbon remains in a the material from which plastic bottles are made amount of 14C present, i.e. the deterioration of sample after 3 half-lives? is too old to be dated using the radiocarbon bones is illustrated to represent time, not the Answer: 3 × 5730 = 17,190 years. Approxi- dating method, the plastic bottle itself is also too amount of radiocarbon present. The illustration mately 12% young to be dated using the method. also shows that the radiocarbon method is not c. What is the approximate age of an Cotton Fabric: Cotton is made from organic reliable for objects older than about 50,000 organic sample with 1/512 of the fi bers from cotton plants belonging to the years because too few 14C atoms are present to original radiocarbon remaining? genus Gossypium. It can be dated using the accurately detect and measure them. However, Answer: 1/512 ≈ 0.2%. 1/512 is radiocarbon method. many archaeologists are interested in hu- associated with 9 half-lives (29 = 512). How- Pottery: Pottery itself cannot be radiocarbon man activities within this period and organics ever, this amount of remaining radiocarbon is dated because it consists of inorganic and preserve at many sites, so radiocarbon is a very too small for most laboratories to measure or sand minerals. However, if there is organic popular method of dating, especially in North detect, so no reliable date can be obtained; all residue, for example remains of food that America. we can say is that it is >9 half-lives old, in other was cooked or stored in the vessel, then these words >51,570 years old). materials can be dated and used to indirectly 5. The teacher will illustrate how to “refl ect” d. How much radiocarbon remains in a date the pot's manufacture. lines against the radiocarbon decay curve (get sample after 25,000 years? x from y or y from x) to determine the age of a Answer: approximately 5%. 3. Discuss the results of the Dating Game sample based on how much radiocarbon is left in it, using the decay curve illustration [Slide 6. Show the students what a radiocarbon date 4. Demonstrate the dynamics of 14C and 12C 22]. The teacher can then ask questions based looks like when the lab sends the result back to

The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org Chronology 49 Procedure Continued

the researcher using an illustration like this one. municated using the central date and standard error as a shorthand for this range. However, 1290 ±40 years before present for the sake of simplicity, students should 95% likelihood use the central estimate in any exercise that requires the manipulation of radiocarbon dates 68% likelihood throughout the modules in this box. Then give students another random date (for example +40 +40 -40 -40 5,275+/-60) and have them explain what the date means (the true radiocarbon age has a 1370 1330 1290 1250 1210 68% chance of lying somewhere between the 14C years before present measured age plus the standard error and the measured age minus the standard error).

Conclusion: Explain what Before Present means (before Have students summarize and review how 1950) and why there is a +/- (standard er- radiocarbon dating works in their own words ror measurement) attached to the date -- our (you can display the fox illustration to help instruments are not perfect, there is some un- them). certainty to each measurement. We leave it up to the teacher to decide in how much detail to cover this concept in class, but students should understand that radiocarbon dating does not determine the age of events with exact preci- sion but instead provides a restricted range of possible ages, which can be effi ciently com-

The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org Chronology 50 Procedure Continued Lesson Activity 3: Interpreting radiocarbon dates

Students use their knowledge of dating meth- of interest are “target events.” site layers. The narrative should include how ods to interpret an archaeological site. c. Archaeologists have to make argu- people lived at the site and what events they ex- ments to link dated events and target events for perienced. You may decide to do this as a small Warm up: example, the wood is found in the same layer group activity: Review the Law of Superposition, Absolute and and it’s a short-lived twig. A. Divide the class into small groups of 2-3 Relative Dating, and the principles of Carbon students. Hand out the fi rst worksheet and the Dating. Ask students to give examples of how 2. Use the Rasshua test pit illustration (laminated Rasshua Test Pit profi le. Ask students as a small each is used. handouts) to talk about whether things that can group to complete the fi rst worksheet and to be dated on that illustration will provide dates identify what levels they want to date and why. Procedure: close to target dates. For example, bone is usu- B. Discuss the answers to worksheet as a class. 1. Ask students to think about whether archae- ally a good way to get a date close to target date Ask students to report on which layers they ologists are interested in when an organism of human occupation, because people normally would like to date and why. died. Ask them to think about the defi nition eat animals soon after they kill them, whereas C. Distribute Worksheet Two and the Test Re- of archaeology – study of people. Discuss the wood could provide a date older than human sults. Ask students to answer the questions re- idea that archaeologists are more interested in occupation if, for example, old driftwood was lating to their test results in their small group. human activities than when an organism died. being used (for fi rewood or tools). Reconvene the class to discuss the answers and Consider what archaeologists call the target what they might tell us about the people who events and dated events, using the illustration 3. Tell the class that they will now use this Rassh- lived at the Rasshua site. as a visual aid that emphasizes the diff erence ua Island site to interpret using what they’ve between target and dated events [Slide 23]. Stu- learned about dating. Conclusion: dents should understand that As individuals (or in small groups), students will a. While archaeologists date layers and 4. Hand out the Research Plan worksheets (you write a site report describing who lived at the objects, what they are really interested in dating can print out the Rasshua stratigraphy and ra- site, how they lived at the site and what they are the human behaviors or events that might diocarbon dates for each student on the last two experienced. Tell students that they should use have infl uenced humans. pages of the Research Plan worksheet or use the evidence from their study to support their narra- b. The death of an organism is a “dated laminated handouts). Ask students to answer tive. Discuss the fi ndings as a class. event.” Human behaviors or geological events the questions and write a narrative about the The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org Chronology 51 Quick Reference: 14C in the Carbon Cycle

How 14C works

1. Cosmic rays enter the earth’s atmosphere and collide with atoms there, creating energized neutrons. 2. If one of these energized neutrons collides with a nitrogen atom (14N, having seven protons and seven neutrons), this atom turns into a 14C atom by capturing the energized neutron and losing a proton. 3. Both 14C and 12C combine with oxygen in the atmosphere to form carbon dioxide molecules, which are then absorbed into the tissues of plants during photosynthesis. 4. Animals eat plants or other animals and absorb the 14C and 12C into their tissues continuously throughout their life. 5. Following the death of a plant or animal, it no longer absorbs 14C or 12C into its tissues, and its tissues begin to lose 14C atoms because these atoms change back into 14N by losing a neu- tron and regaining a proton. This process is called beta emission. Figure 1 = Proton = 14N = 12C

= Energized neutron = 14C = CO2 The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org Chronology 52 Student Worksheet guide Decay Curve Exercise

Questions to ask in class:

• What is the approximate age of an organic 100% sample with 75% radiocarbon remaining? Answer: approximately 2,500 years. 90%

80% • How much radiocarbon remains in a sample after 3 half-lives? 70% Answer: 3 × 5,730 = 17,190 years. Approximately 12% 60%

percentage of 50% • What is the approximate age of an 14C remaining in the sample organic sample with 1/512 of the original 40% radiocarbon remaining? Answer: 1/512 ≈ 0.2%. 1/512 is as- 30% sociated with 9 half-lives (29 = 512). However, this amount of remain- 20%

ing radiocarbon is too small for most 10% laboratories to measure or detect, so no reliable date can be obtained; 0% all we can say is that it is >9 half-lives 0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 45,000 50,000 old, in other words >51,570 years old). years ago

• How much radiocarbon remains in a sample after 25,000 years? Answer: approximately 5%. The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org Chronology 53 Quick Reference Target Events and Dated Events

Dated Event A radiocarbon date approximates the time of death of an organism, because this is the point in time when that organism stops incorporating new 14C into its tissues and the 14C already in its tissues begins to decay. For example, a radiocar- bon date on wood or wood charcoal indicates when a tree died, either from natural causes or Dated Event when it was cut by people for use. Similarly, a radiocarbon date on an animal bone indicates when that animal died, either from natural causes or when it was killed by people for use. This date is referred to as the “dated event.” In the case of radiocarbon dating, the dated event Figure 3 always refers to the time of an organism’s death

The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org Chronology 54 Quick Reference Target Events and Dated Events - continued

Target Event Archaeologists are actually interested in dating when hu- mans occupied certain locations or when they engaged in particular activities in the past. The activities that humans undertook when they occupied particular locations of- ten involved the use of organic materials (bones, wood, shell, etc.), which were then thrown away nearby. If these materials have been preserved (in other words, did not Target Event decompose, were not eaten or carried away by animals, etc.), they can be collected by archaeologists and dated. Human activities are referred to as “target events,” and their age can be approximated by the age of the dated event. In some situations, the dated event and the target event occurred very close in time to one another, for ex- ample if people cut wood from a tree to burn it. In other Figure 4 situations, the dated and target events may be separated by a few centuries (or more), for example if people use old driftwood from a beach as fuel for fire. Because of this possibility, archaeologists have to develop convincing lines of reasoning to justify using a particular sample to estimate a date for a target event, and they should check their dates by dating several samples and dating different materials (bones and charcoal, for example). Geologists struggle with these issues too, because organic materials Dated Event Target Event contained in geological layers may be anomalously old or young, for example if burrowing rodents have disturbed the layers. The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org Chronology 55 Student Worksheet guide The Research Plan

Part One: Part Two: Part Three:

You are the head of an archaeology crew. You and After you answered these questions and decided The last step in the process of archaeological your crew just returned from an excavation of a Test which levels you wanted to date, you sent your analysis of a site is to write a narrative about pit (Test Pit 1) at the Rasshua 1 site on Rasshua Island radiocarbon samples to a radiocarbon dating how the layers of the site got there. This is the in the Kuril Island chain. After the excavation, your laboratory. Take a look at the table of results story about how people lived there and what fi eld assistants drew the stratigraphic column of one that they sent back. Now answer the following events they experienced. In the space below, of the walls of the excavation. Using the drawing of questions to interpret what events took place write the history of people at Rasshua 1 as you the stratigraphy, you now have to answer the follow- at this site and how they are related to each oth- understand it from the dates you obtained and ing questions in order to decide how you are going to er in time. the stratigraphic sequence. Start from the establish the chronology, or the sequence of events, bottom and explain how each layer formed, of this site. Written questions: as well as what its chronolgical relationships 1. Are there any dates which are out of order? are with other layers. (In other lessons in this ed- Written questions: How would you explain them? (Hint: Think ucation kit, you will learn more about the artifacts 1. Which layers can you date using 14C? Why back to target and dated events and human or and food remains discovered at this site and will be do you think so? natural activities that can disturb certain lev- able to better understand the everyday lives of the 2. What materials would you date to fi nd out els). people who once lived here.) the age of cultural occupations? Why? 2. How long did humans occupy the site? 3. What would you date to fi nd out the age Were there any gaps in occupation? of Layer B? 3. What is the age of artifact X? How did you 4. What materials would you date to fi nd out determine it? What are the dated and target the age of Ushishir (Layer C)? events for this sample? 5. How would you test the idea that volcanic eruptions had a devastating consequence for human occupation?

The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org Chronology 56 Student Worksheet guide The Research Plan - continued Material 1 Available as laminated handout Rasshua 1 Test Pit 1 Excavation Profi le July 15, 2008 Erik Gjesfi eld and Molly Odell

A B D C

C E

F

Sterile (no cultural material) G

The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org Chronology 57 Student Worksheet guide The Research Plan - continued Material 2 Available as laminated handout

Results of the Radiocarbon Dating of Rasshua 1 - Test Pit 1 Samples

14C Age Site Lab Number (years BP) Material Stratigraphic position reported with standard error Rasshua 1 OS - 79668 1,950 ± 25 years BP Shell Position #1 Rasshua 1 OS - 79669 2,080 ± 25 years BP Bone Position #2 Rasshua 1 OS - 79865 2,020 ± 30 years BP Wood Position #3 Rasshua 1 OS - 79670 2,110 ± 25 years BP Charcoal Position #4 Rasshua 1 OS - 79671 2,210 ± 25 years BP Bone Position #5 Rasshua 1 OS - 79720 2,430 ± 25 years BP Charcoal Position #6 Rasshua 1 OS - 79665 2,860 ± 25 years BP Charcoal Position #7 Rasshua 1 OS - 79666 2,480 ± 35 years BP Bone Position #8 Rasshua 1 OS - 79667 2,660 ± 25 years BP Charcoal Position #9

The Kuril Biocomplexity Project: www.kbp.org Chronology 58