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Interactions Between Prolactin and Kisspeptin to Control Reproduction

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Interactions Between Prolactin and Kisspeptin to Control Reproduction review Interactions between prolactin and kisspeptin to control reproduction Jose Donato Jr.1, Renata Frazão2 ABSTRACT Prolactin is best known for its effects of stimulating mammary gland development and lactogenesis. 1 Departamento de Fisiologia e However, prolactin is a pleiotropic hormone that is able to affect several physiological functions, Biofísica, Instituto de Ciências including fertility. Prolactin receptors (PRLRs) are widely expressed in several tissues, including several Biomédicas, Universidade de São brain regions and reproductive tract organs. Upon activation, PRLRs may exert prolactin’s functions Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brasil 2 Departamento de Anatomia, through several signaling pathways, although the recruitment of the signal transducer and activator Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, of transcription 5 causes most of the known effects of prolactin. Pathological hyperprolactinemia USP, São Paulo, SP, Brasil is mainly due to the presence of a prolactinoma or pharmacological effects induced by drugs that interact with the dopamine system. Notably, hyperprolactinemia is a frequent cause of reproductive dysfunction and may lead to infertility in males and females. Recently, several studies have indicated Correspondence to: Renata Frazão that prolactin may modulate the reproductive axis by acting on specific populations of hypothalamic Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes, 2415 neurons that express the Kiss1 gene. The Kiss1 gene encodes neuropeptides known as kisspeptins, 05508-000 – São Paulo, SP, Brasil which are powerful activators of gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons. In the present review, [email protected] we will summarize the current knowledge about prolactin’s actions on reproduction. Among other Received on July/11/2016 aspects, we will discuss whether the interaction between prolactin and the Kiss1-expressing neurons Accepted on Sep/26/2016 can affect reproduction and how kisspeptins may become a novel therapeutic approach to treat DOI: 10.1590/2359-3997000000230 prolactin-induced infertility. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2016;60(6):587-95 Keywords Prolactin receptor; pSTAT5; hypothalamus; Kiss1; infertility INTRODUCTION cell populations also express PRLRs, including different rolactin is a protein hormone produced and brain regions, as well as the bone, adipose tissue, gut, P secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. Sparse skin, immune system and reproductive tract (2,4-9). evidence, at least in rodents, suggests that prolactin may Clinical evidence indicates that hyperprolactinemia also be locally produced in some brain areas, but the is a frequent cause of reproductive dysfunction and physiological importance of this production is unknown may lead to infertility in males and females (10-13). (1). Prolactin secretion is controlled by hypothalamic Pathological hyperprolactinemia is mainly caused by the endocrine neurons, especially the tuberoinfundibular presence of a prolactinoma or is due to pharmacological dopamine (TIDA) neurons located in the arcuate effects induced by drugs that interact with the nucleus of the hypothalamus (ARH). These neurons dopamine system. Loss-of-function mutations in the secrete dopamine into the hypophyseal portal system, gene that encodes the PRLRs can also be a rare cause of which leads to the activation of dopamine D2 receptors hyperprolactinemia (11). The objective of the present in pituitary lactotrophs, causing suppression of prolactin review is to summarize and discuss recent advances in gene expression and prolactin secretion (1). Prolactin the discovery of possible mechanisms linking prolactin is transported by the circulatory system and acts on signaling and the control of reproduction, especially target cells via specific receptors located on the plasma regarding the role of kisspeptins as novel potential membrane (1,2). Serum prolactin crosses the blood- targets to treat prolactin-induced infertility. brain barrier by a PRLRs-independent mechanism (3). The function of PRLRs in TIDA neurons is to allow PROLACTIN SIGNALING these cells to sense circulating prolactin levels and Multiple isoforms of membrane-bound PRLRs have AE&M all rights reserved. consequently regulate pituitary prolactin secretion been identified, differing in the length and composition © through negative feedback mechanisms. Several other of their cytoplasmic tail. In rats, for example, the Copyright Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2016;60/6 587 Prolactin, kisspeptin and reproduction following three major PRLRs isoforms were identified: PROLACTIN-MEDIATED REPRODUCTIVE short (291 amino acids), intermediate (393 amino FUNCTIONS IN PERIPHERAL ORGANS acids), and long (591 amino acids). In mice, one Prolactin is best known for its role in mammopoiesis and long and three short isoforms of the PRLRs have lactogenesis. Mammary gland development includes the been described (2). After PRLRs activation, different formation of a branched ductal system that is decorated intracellular signaling pathways can be recruited to with terminal and lateral lobules in wild-type virgin adult induce prolactin biological effects. The receptor mice. Following pregnancy and in response to prolactin activation results in a rapid phosphorylation of Janus production, the alveolar development of the mammary kinase 2 (JAK2), which is constitutively associated gland is greatly amplified. Several studies have provided with the intracellular domain of PRLRs. Activation of consistent evidence that such progression is directly JAK2 leads to the phosphorylation of tyrosine residues. modulated by the recruitment of STAT5 proteins upon Phosphotyrosines serve as binding sites for transducer PRLRs activation. In PRL-/- or PRLR-/- female mice, molecules, such as the signal transducer and activator terminal end buds form during puberty and the ductal of transcription (STAT) protein family. Three members tree grows normally. However, in adult PRL-/- mice, the of this family are recognized as transducer molecules mammary gland ductal system grows into an extended of PRLRs, including STAT1, STAT3 and STAT5a/b. branching network that is devoid of both terminal and STAT5, earlier known as mammary gland factor, lateral lobulations (19). The differentiation of ductal is recognized as the most important transducer of elements also occurs in the global STAT5a, STAT5b the PRLRs. STAT proteins become phosphorylated and double knockout STAT5a/b female mice; however, by the PRLR/JAK2 complex and form hetero- or development of terminal buds occurs to a lesser extent homodimers through its phosphotyrosine residues as compared to wild-type mice (20,21). Deficiencies in with another phosphorylated STAT molecule. STAT mammary gland development were even observed in dimers then translocate to the nucleus, where genomic non-lactating heterozygous PRLRs knockout female effects on target genes can occur. The phosphotyrosine mice, indicating that such development is dependent residues of the activated PRLR may also serve as a upon prolactin signaling (22). Of note, mammary gland docking site for others adapter proteins which can development upon pregnancy could not be observed lead to the activation of different signaling pathways, in PRLR-/- female mice, as well as in global double such as the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) STAT5a/b knockout females due to their infertility. cascade or the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) The total body of research has led to the determination cascade (1,2). In addition, it has been demonstrated that STAT5 is the principal transcription factor that PRLRs activation is also involved in rapid acute mediating mammopoiesis and lactogenesis. Global effects that lead to changes in membrane excitability. STAT5a knockout mice fail to lactate due to incomplete For example, prolactin acutely induces rapid effects on mammary gland development, even after maximal the membrane excitability of neurons (14-18). Such stimulation of prolactin secretion induced by suckling. effects occur because PRLRs activation can activate Conversely, mammary gland development occurs in a fast-acting signaling mechanisms, such as the PI3K relatively normal manner in STAT5b knockout mice pathway, tyrosine kinase-dependent K+ channels or (20,21). In addition, the specific deletion of theStat5 the production of intracellular messengers that open locus only from the mammary epithelium, using Cre- voltage-independent Ca2+ channels, which in turn loxp-mediated recombination, determined that this allows for ionic changes across the cell membrane protein is essential not only for pregnancy-mediated (1,15). One of the final mechanisms induced by PRLRs cell proliferation/differentiation but also for the activation is protein synthesis that can in turn desensitize survival of mammary epithelium and maintenance of the receptor itself. The JAK/STAT complex can be differentiation (23). inhibited by suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) The effects of prolactin on fertility have been proteins, which inhibit JAK kinases and compete with well-characterized using knockout mouse models, STAT for docking sites on PRLRs. These proteins indicating that reproduction is clearly dependent upon AE&M all rights reserved. © include SOCS1, SOCS3 and cytokine-inducible SH2- the signaling of this hormone, at least in rodents. Copyright containing protein (CIS) (1). Both short and long isoforms of PRLRs have been 588 Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2016;60/6 Prolactin, kisspeptin and reproduction described to be expressed in the granulosa, interstitial THE HYPOTHALAMUS AS A TARGET OF and luteal
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