And the Fertile Soil Brought Them

icily. Island of myths and monsters, meeting place of cultures, hub of naval trade routes, source of artistic inspi- ration and of great material wealth, and much-coveted Sstrategic location in the Mediterranean. Phoenician and Greek colonists were the ﬁ rst outsiders to settle on Sicily and

enjoy the riches that the sea and the fertile soil brought them.

They were followed by a bewildering variety of invaders and the Sea SICILY over the ages: from Romans and Byzantines through Arabs and various European dynasties up to the Allies during the Second World War. All these cultures — sometimes living in peace, and the Sea sometimes at war, always inﬂ uencing each other — left their THE PANAREA III WRECK traces on the island itself and in the sea surrounding it. Inspired by Sicily’s archaeological and cultural treasures, THE CAPISTELLO Aeolian WRECK Islands this book offers an overview — or perhaps rather an anthology, Messina Reggio since a complete survey, if at all possible, would soon become 1 THE LEVANZO WRECK stiﬂ ing — of the island’s history and culture, paying attention 2 THE WRECK OF CALA GALERA

3 THE MARAUSA WRECK Taormina not only to ancient and medieval shipwrecks, battles, economy THE WRECK OF THE MONDELLO SAN VITO LO CAPO WRECK Naxos and art, but also to typically Sicilian traditions (from folk-tales Palermo Cefalù and tuna fi shing to mafi a fi ghters), modern politics, and the Himera Mt. Etna poets, novelists and fi lm makers who lived on Sicily or were Aegadian Trapani Islands 1 Catania inspired by its unique character. 2 3 Enna Mozia Morgantina Marsala Piazza 4 Mazara del Armerina Vallo Selinunte Thapsus 4 THE WRECKS OF Agrigento LIDO SIGNORINO Syracuse Gela THE SCIACCA WRECK

THE WRECKS OF CAMARINA

Pantelleria

THE SCAURI WRECK

www.allardpiersonmuseum.nl ALLARD PIERSON MUSEUM

Sicily_omslag_02M.indd 1 27-08-15 09:19 SICILIË

icily. Island of myths and monsters, meeting place of cultures, hub of naval trade routes, source of artistic inspira- tion and of great material wealth, and much-coveted stra- Stegic location in the Mediterranean. Phoenician and Greek colonists were the ﬁ rst outsiders to settle on Sicily and enjoy the riches that the sea and the fertile soil brought them.

They were followed by a bewildering variety of invaders over en de zee SICILIË the ages: from Romans and Byzantines through Arabs and various European dynasties up to the Allies during the Second World War. All these cultures — sometimes living in peace, some- en de zee times at war, always infl uencing each other — left their traces on the island itself and in the sea surrounding it. Inspired by Sicily’s archaeological and cultural treasures, this book offers an overview — or perhaps rather an anthology, since a complete survey, if at all possible, would soon become sti- fl ing — of the island’s history and culture, paying attention not only to ancient and medieval shipwrecks, battles, economy and art, but also to typically Sicilian traditions (from folk-tales and tuna fi shing to mafi a fi ghters), modern politics, and the poets, novelists and fi lm makers who lived on Sicily or were inspired by its unique character.

www.allardpiersonmuseum.nl ALLARD PIERSON MUSEUM

Sicily_omslag_02M.indd 2 27-07-15 10:23 SICILY AND THE SEA This joint publication by the Allard Pierson LOANS Museum Amsterdam and the Soprintendenza ITALY del Mare in Palermo in cooperation with the Regione Siciliana, Assessorato Regionale Zenobia Foundation is published alongside the dei Beni Culturali e dell’Identità siciliana, exhibition Sicily and the Sea at the Allard Pierson Dipartimento dei Beni culturali e dell’Identità Museum (9 October 2014 to 17 April 2016), the siciliana: Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (16 June to - Gela, Museo Archeologico Regionale 25 September 2016), the Maritime Museum, - Camarina, Museo Regionale Palermo (2016), the Ny Carlsberg Glyptoteket, - Lipari, Museo Archeologico Copenhagen (2017) and the LVR-LandesMuseum, Regionale ‘Luigi Bernabò Brea’ Bonn (2017/18). - Marsala, Museo Archeologico Regionale ‘Lilibeo – Baglio Anselmi’ This exhibition is the first of its kind organised - Palermo, Museo Archeologico by the COBBRA network, a long-term Regionale ‘Antonino Salinas’ partnership of European museums, research - Palermo, Soprintendenza per i Beni institutions, outreach organisations, and culturali e ambientali commercial partners. - Palermo, Soprintendenza per i Beni culturali e ambientali del Mare - Solunto, Parco Archeologico - Siracusa, Museo Archeologico Regionale ‘Paolo Orsi’ - Siracusa, Soprintendenza per i Beni culturali e ambientali - Trapani, Soprintendenza per i Beni culturali e ambientali Castelvetrano, Museo Civico Catania, Museo Civico ‘Castello Ursino’

GERMANY Mainz, Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum

SPONSORS THE NETHERLANDS The exhibition Sicily and the Sea was sponsored Amsterdam, Amsterdam Museum by the Mondriaan Fund, Divection Dive Center, Amsterdam, Bijzondere Collecties Amsterdam and the Friends of the Allard Pierson Universiteit van Amsterdam Museum. Amsterdam, De Nederlandsche Bank Amsterdam, Divection Dive Center Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, Het Scheepvaartmuseum Amsterdam, Stadsarchief Den Helder, Marinemuseum

SICILY and the Sea

EDITORS WITH Piet Gerbrandy Jeffrey Royal Diederik Burgersdijk CONTRIBUTIONS BY Rossella Giglio Leonard V. Rutgers Richard Calis David Abulafia Harald Hendrix Emilia Salerno Jorrit Kelder Wim Aerts Jacqueline Klooster Fabrizio Sgroi Alexandra Sofroniew Floriana Agneto André Klukhuhn Francesca Spatafora Sebastiano Tusa Gabriella Ancona Roberto La Rocca Siward Tacoma René van Beek Guido As Marc Leijendekker Antonella Testa Carol Atack Eliana Mauro Philippe Tisseyre Paul Beliën Johan E. Meulenkamp Maria Turco Nicolo’ Bruno Agostina Musumeci Ailbhe Turley Vincenzo Castellana Cornelis W. Neeft Maaike van Berkel Maurizio D’Atri Francesca Oliveri Manfred van Bergen Alessandra De Caro Eleftheria Pappa Marieke van den Doel Casper C. de Jonge Asker Pelgrom Floris van den Eijnde Rossana De Simone Marco Poelwijk Hein van Eekert Giuseppe Di Stefano Jonathan Prag Willem van Maanen Roald Docter Ronald Prud’homme Arthur Weststeijn David Engels van Reine Roger J. A. Wilson Adriana Fresina David Rijser Stefano Zangara

ALLARD PIERSON MUSEUM CONTENTS 6 PREFACE

8 INTRODUCTION 9 Sicily and the Mediterranean World DIEDERIK BURGERSDIJK 14 Sicily’s Geological Archive JOHAN MEULENKAMP

CHAPTER 1 18 MARITIME ARCHAEOLOGY 19 Maritime Archaeology in Sicily FLORIANA AGNETO 20 Archaeological Cultural Underwater Routes ALESSANDRA DE CARO 22 Marble-Laden Ships SEBASTIANO TUSA 24 Sicily’s Submerged Structures FRANCESCA OLIVERI 26 Methods and Techniques in Maritime Archaeology STEFANO ZANGARA

CHAPTER 2 28 SICILY IN PRE- AND PROTOHISTORY 29 Sicily and the Sea in Prehistory JORRIT KELDER 32 Phoenicians in Sicily ELEFTHERIA PAPPA

CHAPTER 3 38 TRADE AND COLONISATION 39 The Greeks in Sicily CAROL ATACK 46 Sicily, Land of Cyclops’ Songs JACQUELINE KLOOSTER 52 Demeter on Sicily KEES NEEFT 56 Between Rivers and Seas: Aquatic Images on Greek Coins from Sicily PAUL BELIËN 62 Sicily and the Birth of Rhetoric CASPER C. DE JONGE 65 Archimedes’ Mastermind ANDRÉ KLUKHUHN 68 Temples and Community in Greek Sicily FLORIS VAN DEN EIJNDE 72 The Shipwreck Gela I NICOLÒ BRUNO 75 The Shipwreck of Capistello (Lipari) ADRIANA FRESINA 78 The Shipwreck Panarea III ROBERTO LA ROCCA

CHAPTER 4 82 CARTHAGE AND ROME 83 Sicily and the Punic Wars JONATHAN PRAG 87 Carthage and the Spoils of the Sicilian Wars ROALD DOCTER 91 Sicily under Roman Republican Rule: Roman Province and Slave Kingdom DAVID ENGELS 97 Sicily as a Refuge WILLEM VAN MAANEN 100 The Fragmentary Voices of the Sea: Sicily as a Stage in Virgil’s Aeneid SIWARD TACOMA 104 Sicily in The Rape of Proserpine by Claudian PIET GERBRANDY 107 Roman Sicily and the Sea ROGER J.A. WILSON 112 The Wrecks of Camarina GIOVANNI DI STEFANO 114 The Late-Roman Shipwreck of the Ancient Port of Scauri on Pantelleria ROBERTO LA ROCCA 116 The Levanzo I Shipwreck JEFFREY ROYAL

CHAPTER 5 120 NEW POWERS 121 Jews and Christians in Late Antiquity LEONARD V. RUTGERS 124 Syracuse in the Byzantine Period WIM AERTS 128 The Arab Conquest of Sicily MAAIKE VAN BERKEL 131 Medieval Sicily: an Island open on all Sides DAVID ABULAFIA 135 Dreams of Harmony: Multiculturalism and Norman Sicily DAVID RIJSER 140 The Marausa Wreck ANTONELLA TESTA 143 The Medieval Arabo-Sicilian Shipwreck of Cala Galera at Favignana FABRIZIO SGROI 146 The Medieval Shipwrecks of Western Sicily PHILIPPE TISSEYRE

CHAPTER 6 150 THE EARLY-MODERN PERIOD 151 Tommaso Fazello: The Sicilian Livy RICHARD CALIS 153 Sicily’s Role in Art History: the Case of Antonello da Messina MARIEKE VAN DEN DOEL 156 Pirandello’s House: Between Movement and Standstill HARALD HENDRIX 158 Michiel de Ruyter in Sicilian Waters RONALD PRUD’HOMME VAN REINE 162 The Risorgimento and the Sea ASKER PELGROM 166 The Artillery Cargo of the Parissona Grossa, Discovered at Sciacca ELIANA MAURO

CHAPTER 7 168 SICILY IN THE ARTISTIC IMAGINATION 169 Uncovering, Preserving and Presenting the Past: Sicilian Archaeology and Heritage ALEXANDRA SOFRONIEW 173 In Another Country: Sicily on the Silver Screen ARTHUR WESTSTEIJN 176 Rossini’s Aria that Celebrates the Love for the Fatherland HEIN VAN EEKERT

CHAPTER 8 180 MODERN SICILY 181 The Invasion of Sicily in 1943 MARCO POELWIJK 184 Landing in Sicily: Signs of ‘Operation Husky’ EMILIA SALERNO 188 The Messina Conference of 1955 GUIDO AS 190 Modern Politics in Sicily MARC LEIJENDEKKER 193 Sicily and its Fishes MAURIZIO D’ATRI 196 Folk-tales: Musical Stories of People and Fish VINCENZO CASTELLANA

200 FURTHER READING

202 AUTHORS

204 CREDITS bo The publication you have before you has you before have you The publication and the Sea is the first result of a colla Sicily come about in cooperation with the Zenobia come about in cooperation with the Zenobia and the SoprintendenzaFoundation del Mare Allard in the six already It is volume on Sicily. with which is published Pierson Series, Museum and the Sea was Sicily WBOOKS in Zwolle. the Mondriaan with help from Fund and realised Project Pierson Museum. Allard the Friends of the management of the exhibition has been in the hands of Marian a steering Schilder and group Steph Scholten. by chaired museums of European a number ration between the partners in the sharing the same DNA: Oxford, (in Copenhagen, COBBRA Network collabo- will keep Amsterdam) and Brussels, Bonn, colleagues and rating and exchanging knowledge, exhibitions and organising travelling collections, as well for the ancient world our respect to show to our own. as its relevance icily’s past and present are closely con- are past and present icily’s nected to the coming and going of people In on this island in the Mediterranean. chosen the have we this publication What started the maritime as a plan to present WIM HUPPERETZ, Director of the Allard Pierson Museum perspective of the sea to better understand and perspective Never rich cultural history. Sicily’s appreciate people adrift so many in and around were before placed Sicily at the and this has once more Europe, heart of cultures. and a clash of migration flows collections of the Soprintendenzaarchaeology del has led to on Sicily in a historicalMare context, Sicily role of the pivotal an intriguing overview Soprintendente in the Mediterranean. has played Azzarello, and Francesco Tusa Sebastiano del Mare have the Italian ambassador to the Netherlands, completion, to this project’s been indispensable The other them a debt of gratitude. owe and we placed also generously on Sicily have loan givers their collections at our disposal. S PREFACE Window Toward the Sea, SEBASTIANO TUSA, Soprintendente del Mare, Sicily sculpture by Tano Festa, 1989. Near Messina, Sicily. THE ROLE OF UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE possible. Divers are eager to view these treasures, The sea played a major role in the everyday life while our museums are already full of artefacts from of many ancient inhabitants of the Mediterranean: the sea that will remain forever in the storerooms. anonymous fishermen and sailors as well as great In Sicily we have selected some underwater authors such as Homer. archaeological sites and entrusted them to associa- The discovery of obsidian first and copper and tions or individual divers under a contract giving tin later stimulated the beginning of naval trade them responsibility for the archaeological objects routes and the first migrations. Coastal emporia, left on the seabed. such as Thapsus on Sicily, gave rise to acculturation Underwater cultural heritage management is processes that caused great cultural change in local growing rapidly, although it was neglected until a societies. The sea was the driving force behind this few years ago. Now there is much more attention first wave of Mediterranean cultural ‘globalisation’ for this vital part of our heritage, and we have an 7 in the second millennium BC, thanks to the strong important tool at our disposal: the UNESCO impulse given by the Mycenaeans. They were suc Convention on the Protection of Underwater

ceeded by the Phoenicians and the Romans. Cultural Heritage, which provides the main princi- PREFACE The sea is a great biological reservoir as well as an ples to guide us in the areas of research, control and immense historical and cultural archive that benefits management. not only scholars, but all people. A new way to enjoy Sicily and the Sea will be an important way to marine heritage is rising all over the world as archa fulfil our duty to manage and promote underwater eological finds are left on the seabed whenever cultural heritage as best as we can.

FRANCESCO AZZARELLO, Ambassador of Italy in The Hague

t is with the utmost pleasure that I witness think of the extraordinary ‘experience’ of Sicilian the completion of this important project. The gastronomy, so rich in southern-Mediterranean project proposal was presented in July 2012 to influences, or of the wonderful monuments and Iboth pillars of its realisation: Wim Hupperetz, historical and artistic artefacts which, spread all director of the University of Amsterdam’s Allard over the island, bear witness to the many invasions Pierson Museum, and Sebastiano Tusa, superinten- it endured, from the east, the west, the north and dent at the Soprintendenza del Mare of the Sicil- the south. ian region. All three of us united by passion and, if Trinacria, an island that lies at a crossroads, both I may say so, by determination. To Wim Hupperetz human and cultural, commercial and philosophical. and Sebastiano Tusa I express my deepest gratitude The importance of this exhibition is the opportu- for making this magnificent exhibition possible. nity it offers to a vast public in Amsterdam and in We hardly need recall that the history of the the other European cities that will host it, to get Dutch and of the inhabitants of Trinacria (as Sicily to know and appreciate a substantial selection of was called in ancient times) is connected with objects from an enormous archaeological under- the sea. Seafarers, explorers, conquerors, fishermen, water heritage, which so far has never crossed migrants. the Sicilian borders. 2,500 years of history made A warm sea, the Mediterranean, with a human visible the fruit of the innovative work by the dimension, an intense and beautiful sea, and Soprintendenza del Mare of Palermo. A joint nowadays, unfortunately, also a tragic one. Ideally, Italian-Dutch project, testimony to the constant it unites all the countries and peoples that live and intense bilateral cultural collaboration, exten along its shores and navigate its waters, with an ded to the far south of Europe, so dear to us, and intertwining of cultures and traditions that merge in which we continue to believe with conviction. together and renew themselves. We need only INTRODUCTION DIEDERIK BURGERSDIJK Sicily and the Mediterranean World 9 SICILY AND THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD CAPPELLA PALATINA s an island, Sicily is defined by the sea. is mainly descriptive and is based on the idea The fabric of Sicily is a As a place where people live or drop that the ancient economy and social cohesion palimpsest of cultures, anchor, it is defined by the surrounding can be reconstructed from the available data. By testament to the Phoeni- cian, Greek, Roman, Acountries: the Iberian and Italian penin- using data collections and ICT we can make old Vandal, Goth, Byzantine, sulas, the neighbouring islands from Corsica to materials yield new insights, so that for instance Arab, and Norman colo- Crete, and by the European, African and Asian trade routes can be reconstructed based on the nists and invaders. The Cappella Palatina (Palatine continents. Sicily’s symbol, the Trisceles (Greek origins and distribution of various amphora types. Chapel) in Palermo was triskeles, ‘three-legged’), represents the shape of Previous abstract discussions on ‘rationalism’ versus commissioned by the the island, also nicknamed Trinacria (‘having three ‘primitivism’ in economy — i.e. the question of Norman King Roger II in points’, on the map. Due to its geographical loca- whether the ancient Mediterranean was a techno- 1132 and was decorated by Byzantine and Arab tion, Sicily sees a continuous coming and going logically progressive or an agriculturally backward craftsmen. of travellers, armies and peoples from every side world — are now seen as outdated: at present, it’s of the Mediterranean. The multitude of material about hard data and the conclusions they generate. and literary sources attesting this convergence of This method of categorisation, quantification cultures and structures are the subject-matter of and comparison is a reaction to the abstract and this book. Its starting point is Sicily’s position in narrative practice of history that was predominant the greater whole of the Mediterranean, and in the second half of the twentieth century. It was especially what the sea has meant for the island. mostly propagated by a group of French scholars In other words: what do we mean when we say around the journal Annales, with Fernand Braudel ‘Sicily’, and how has the sea contributed to this as its most important representative. With his meaning? Is there a single Sicily shaped by various book La Méditerranée et le monde méditerranéen à factors, or is the Trinacria a symbol of a perma- l’époque de Philippe II (1949) he championed the nent division? longue durée (‘long term’), approaching the Medi- A fortiori, modern studies are debating the terranean world of the sixteenth century from issue whether there is an essentially Mediterranean the broadest possible context. This context con- culture or whether the Mediterranean world is a sisted of the geographical environment in which meeting place of developments, independent or economic, social and political structures took otherwise. Scholars now often assume the internal shape, while individuals and events were reduced cohesion and mutual connection of social micro- to foam on the oceanic currents of history. Tradi- structures, termed ‘connectivity’. Quantification tional historical questions about cause and effect of material finds and research of their origins are were of minor importance. In the computer age, important methods. The related ‘network theory’ the equally determinist and romantic character The Leopard) we find the wonderful fireside con- versation between Don Fabrizio, prince of Salina, and the Piemontese delegate Chevalley who asks the prince to become a senator in the kingdom of Sardinia — a predecessor of united Italy under the flag of Piemonte’s capital, Turin. The prince refuses because such a position would be mean- ingless in his case, referring to the numerous rulers the island has already known. ‘Everything has to change for everything to stay the same’ is his motto. In various passages by the famous twentieth-century Sicilian author Sciascia, the Sicilian soul is defined by uncertainty, illustrated 10 by an inhabitant of the island looking out over the sea, afraid to see another Muslim or Byzantine arrive. We have now entered the realm of meta-

SICILY AND THE SEA INTRODUCTION phor, and metaphors belong to the domain of TRINACRIA of annalist history — man as the plaything of an cultural history and collective memory: the Sicily’s symbol, the Trisce- unfathomable fate — has been replaced by the scholarly approach to mainly romantic concepts. les or Trinacria, represents positivist view of network theoreticians. The Historical research that is not essentialist in the triangular shape of the island. French metaphor of longue durée has been super- nature will hardly be able to comprehend Sicily seded by the English one of connectivity, but in one word. Going back to its earliest history, the views they represent share a broad vision of we scarcely find — differently from Sardinia, for the Mediterranean as a catalyst of connections. instance — an original culture of its own with The question of unity and diversity remains just internal solidarity and external ties. Sicily’s cul- as relevant, although the methods and theoretical tures derived from their respective motherlands, framework to answer it have changed. so that there is no single Sicily to which the The historical sea storm has an eye: Sicily. outside world related. Against the backdrop of a Here the same questions about unity and diversity geographically diverse landscape, its history was arise as they do for the Mediterranean as a whole, an amalgam of various groups of inhabitants with and varying answers are being given. As Sicily is a steady succession of varying rulers, often several a geographical unit, reinforced by its characteristic at the same time. As to connectivity, the example shape with orientations toward east, west and that Jonathan Prag gives in his contribution to this south, essentialist ideas have naturally developed book is a clear case in point: the battering-rams with regard to it. Because the island was divided from Carthaginian and Roman ships, in a war between various peoples and rulers for so long, these arch-enemies fought over Sicily, are techni- modern history has identified division as its cally undistinguishable. This indicates an equally- essence. Starting with the work of Sicily’s first paced technological progress rather than a direct historiographer, Tommaso Fazello’s De Rebus exchange of knowledge, the equal pace possibly Siculis (1558), thinkers and writers such as Voltaire, being furthered by craftsmen who worked for both Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa and Leonardo sides, and captured ships changing hands. Romans Sciascia have presented the succession of rulers based their ship designs on captured Carthaginian as a factor that shaped the Sicilian soul, which ships and, vice versa, Carthaginians may have been is sometimes referred to as Sicilitudo (a Latin using Roman ships they had taken. Helmets and neologism) or, with an Italianising word, amphoras may likewise originate from either side: Sicilianità — the former often catching the more mercenaries and merchants served both sides. The positive tones of that soul, the latter its dark side. finds in Sicily make it difficult to distinguish differ- In Chapter 4 of Lampedusa’s famous novel ent cultures. The Mediterranean world seems even Il gattopardo (1958, translated into English as more of a unity than it already was. 11 SICILY AND THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD

SCYLLA AND CHARYBDIS In this representation of the facts, Sicily appears between these two peoples (264–241 BC) was In Antiquity, Scylla and to be no more than the desired and fought-over fought on Sicily, as countless material and written Charybdis lurked in what is stage where these international political events sources testify. now the Strait of Messina, the waters that separate occurred. The actors of ‘connectivity’ are the Roman rule brought unity, but the dynamic Sicily from the Italian main- ethnic groups surrounding the island, which acts history of the Sicily of the Carthaginians, Greeks land, making the passage the part of Sleeping Beauty. In a broader sense, and natives, a time of cultural revolutions and at to the island a dangerous one. This 16th-century the colonisation by early immigrants such as the same time an endless story of war and con- engraving from the Civi- the Sicans, Sicels, Phoenicians and Greeks bears quest, turned into a more static situation. During tates Orbis Terrarum by testimony to the same process: Sicily as the link the Roman period Sicily served as a granary for Georg Braun and Franz between cultures and periods, not as the deter- Rome, it was the stage of social revolutions with Hogenberg mentions both mythological monsters in mining factor in its own history. Yet the island was the first slave revolt, the monumentalisation of its heading. ahead of other European regions in countless cities flourished and wonderful sculpture and matters in Antiquity: it is the cradle of several mosaics were produced. Sicily was ahead in the types of literature and performance, such as mime, creation of new urban concepts and played an bucolic poetry, and rhetoric. Great thinkers and important role in the expansion of Christianity. inventors such as Empedocles (see pp. 43-44) and After the Romans a barrage of foreign rulers fol- Archimedes (pp. 65–67) engendered knowledge lowed: Vandals, Ostrogoths and Byzantines passed that spread throughout the world. Sicily’s art of and left their traces. In the Middle Ages, the island coin minting was unrivalled in the world. The was inhabited by Jews, Christians and Muslims, world power of the Carthaginians and Romans living in harmony for centuries. Arabic culture, was made and unmade there. The first great war fostered by a Palermitan government, introduced citrus fruits; street patterns from the Islamic world pivotal role in foreign powers’ politics during the are found next to Greek grid plans; even today, the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. In May 1860 Sicilian dialect has many Arabic loan words. Some Garibaldi and his thousand volunteers landed at of these things were important contributions to Marsala, coming from Piemonte, and proceeded European culture, while some were coincidental to attain Italy’s political unification. In 1943 it was results of historic development. the Allies whose ships and airplanes opened the Only later was Sicily’s own character sought in southern front on Sicily and liberated Europe a unique combination of elements reflected in from the fascist regimes in Italy and Germany. art, literature and religion. Under the twelfth- Sicily’s integration into the kingdom of century Norman king Roger II Greeks, Arabs Italy — which took shape in 1871, when the and Christians lived together peacefully. At the Vatican could no longer withstand unifica- same time, Catholicism became the dominant tion — turned its gaze to the north. This interest religion. Greek temples and Arab mosques were went beyond Italy alone when in 1955 the 12 transformed into churches. Under the rule of Messina Conference was held, leading to the Frederick II (king of Sicily 1198–1250), we see the creation of the European Economic Community first Classical renaissance. Residing at Palermo, two years later. Today the position of the autono-

SICILY AND THE SEA INTRODUCTION Frederick restored Greek as the official language; mous region of Sicily is crucial to guarding the as the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (from border between the political powers of North 1220), he modelled it on the Roman Empire. The Africa and the European Union. It is historically dark side of Roman Catholicism came to the fore noteworthy that the Arabic loan word dwana in the expulsion of the Jewish population in 1492. (douane and similar words for ‘customs’ in French, Sicily lost much of the splendour of relative Italian and Dutch, among others), originally signi- independence under the rule of the French Anjou fying a type of taxes, became embedded in Euro- dynasty, which was attacked for its repressive char- pean idiom through Roger II’s Norman Sicily. acter in the famous Sicilian Vespers of 1282. After Recent works such as David Abulafia’s The that, the island came under the dominion of the Great Sea (London 2011) are expanding the Spanish House of Aragon, which had come to the Mediterranean library (for other works, see the rebellious Sicilians’ aid. Four and a half centuries bibliography). The idea of the Mediterranean as later, the House of Aragon was succeeded by that a unity has a recent political equivalent. Nicolas of Bourbon, also Spanish, and Sicily became part Sarkozy, then president of France, brought forward of the ‘kingdom of the two Sicilies’ with Naples the idea of a Mediterranean Union in Tanger as its capital. The beauty of the remote island was (Morocco) in 2007. The Union for the Mediterra- being discovered by foreigners: from the sixteenth nean was established a year later and works toward century onward, a lively European travel literature ecological, economic, and social cooperation. had started to flourish. In it, Sicily’s identity as a The concept is as Roman as it is Braudelian, but meeting point of cultures began to be recognised. has been overtaken by the present political reality. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Instead of an equal development on both sides of the Sicilians themselves started to describe and the sea, there is a surge of migration from south preserve their classical heritage. to north. Sicily more than ever is a factor in Euro- Thus the social and cultural diversity which at pean history, with the sea as the link between first kept Sicily divided later contributed to a the African and the European continent. Contrary recognition of unity and independence. Yet real to the historic development, Italy is Sicilianising political independence never came about. There at a fast pace, taking Europe with it. A theme that were periods of autonomy, but the island was is illustrated by the travelling exhibition ‘Sicily and independent for one year only (1848–9) — a status the Sea’, which by displaying the material culture that in fact wasn’t much more than an intention from every corner of the Mediterranean places determined largely by the revolutions washing an old concept in new contexts. over the European mainland. Sicily did play a SICILY’S POLITICAL HISTORY: A SURVEY BC (with Syracuse as its capital from 212 on- 1194), whose rule was inherited by the German To many peoples Sicily was a desired and wards) and the establishment of two naval bases Hohenstaufens (1194–1266, in the first place fought-over place, a treasury of artistic relics, in the west, the island’s most important charac- by King Frederick II (1198–1250), emperor both material and literary. The Romans encoun- teristic was its status as a grain supplier with an from 1220. They were succeeded by the House tered a culture established by Greeks: the myths ingenious land ownership system. Construction of Aragon (1282–1516) and the Spanish Habs- surrounding the first king, Cocalus, the demi- policy was based on Greek traditions. Taxes, burgs (1516–1713). At the Treaty of Utrecht in god Hercules, the goddess Demeter, the mythi- slave revolts and corrupt governors brought 1713 Sicily was given to the House of Savoy, cal ancestor of the Romans Aeneas; Empedo- some change in the rapidly Romanised prov- which after seven years was succeeded by the cles’ philosophy, Gorgias’ eloquence, the politics ince, as did Mount Etna’s eruption in 122 BC. Austrian Habsburgs (1720–1734). The Spanish of tyrants such as Gelon, Hieron and Dionysius; In 36 BC Sicily was the stage of Octavian’s Bourbons ruled the kingdom of the two Sicilies the architecture of temples and theatres. The (the future Emperor Augustus’) rise to power from 1734 to 1860 (installing a local viceroy), military confrontation with the present rulers over the empire. In later Antiquity, Sicily’s image when General Garibaldi from the north-Italian went hand in hand with admiration for the Greek was determined by the estate at present-day kingdom of Piemonte began Italy’s Unification past. The Romans’ relation to the Carthaginians Piazza Armerina, where a member of the imperi- from the south, on Sicily. Since that time Sicily on the other hand was dominated by a fear al tetrarchy allegedly resided under Diocletian. is ruled from the Italian mainland by kings and heightened during the Second Punic War After a period of Vandal and Ostrogoth rule (AD presidents, with a brief interlude during the (218–201 BC) and decisively dealt with in the 468–535), the Byzantines settled on Sicily in the Second World War, when the Allied Military 13 Third (149–146 BC). Carthage was razed to the Middle Ages (535–827), followed by the Arabs Government of Occupied Territories (AMGOT) ground and Rome was free to build its empire. (827–1053). In the ninth century the capital was governed it. In 2015 the first Sicilian president While Sicilian politics and culture had been quite transferred from Syracuse to Palermo; in the of Italy was elected. dynamic from the eighth to the third century BC, early tenth century, the Shi’ite Fatimids took over SICILY AND THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD they turned static for centuries after that: after the Emirate of Sicily from the Sunnite Aghlabids. the creation of the first Roman province in 227 Then it was conquered by the Normans (1053–

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AUSONIANS PHOENICIANS CARTHAGINIANS EGYPTIANS

0 250 500 750 1000

VANDALS BYZANTINES ARABS JEWS

OSTROGOTHS BERBERS

1000 1250 1500 1750 present

NORMANS HOHENSTAUFENS ARAGONESE SP. HABSBURGS SAVOYARDS SPANISH ITALIANS BOURBONS

ANGEVINS AUSTR. SARDINIANS HABSBURGS JOHAN MEULENKAMP Sicily’s Geological Archive 14 SICILY AND THE SEA INTRODUCTION icilia est omnis divisa in partes tres. The Sicily. Both belong to the African Plate and form island lies in the south-eastern part of the the (African) foreland of the Maghrebides over- western Mediterranean Basin. The Malta thrusting from the north. The Plateau’s rocks SEscarpment forms the border with the mostly consist of horizontal successions of marine eastern Mediterranean Basin, while the Strait of limestones from the Mesozoic and Cenozoic (see Gibraltar connects the western Basin to the Atlan- inset for time frame). Between 7.5 and 1.5 million tic. Sicily’s geological archive documents the very years ago, volcanic activity played an important different origins and histories of three areas: the role on the Plateau and its western margin. The Hyblaean Plateau in the south-east, the Sicilian Hyblaean landscape is very different from that of Maghrebides in the south, west and north, and the the Maghrebides and the Peloritani. The deep Monti Peloritani in the north-east. The Hyblaean clefts in the central part of the Plateau are striking; Plateau borders on the Pelagian Block south of west of Syracuse, the prehistoric necropolis of Pantalica (thirteenth to seventh centuries BC) consists of some 5,000 tombs cut into the lime- stone rock. Ma Holocene The Sicilian Maghrebides are part of a moun- 0.01 tain arc which runs from the Apennines through Late 0.13 Calabria and Sicily to North Africa; the arc Pleistocene Middle encloses the western Mediterranean Basin. An 0.78 Early undersea ridge between Sicily and Tunisia links 2.58 the Sicilian and the North African Maghrebides. Late Around the Skerki Bank, which is part of the Cenozoic Pliocene 3.60 Early ridge, many shipwrecks have been found, includ- 5.33 ing five from the Roman period (100 BC–AD Miocene 23 400). The Sicilian Maghrebides are the result of Oligocene tectonic processes related to the African Plate’s 34 Eocene moving north in relation to Eurasia. They consist 56 of much-folded Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedi- Paleocene ments, now ordered in a pile of nappes. The older 66 sediments were originally deposited in a complex SIMPLIFIED GEOLOGICAL Mesozoic 250 configuration of deep and shallow marine subsid- TIME FRAME Paleozoic Ma: age in millions of years ence zones along Africa’s northern edge during DIGITAL ELEVATION MODEL 4000 (DEM) of Sicily and sur- roundings showing the 3000 position of the Hyblaean, Sicilian Maghrebides and 2000 Peloritani areas, which have very different origins Stromboli 1000 and histories. The present Tyrrhenian Aeolian m 0 island is quite young, Basin Islands Strait of geologically speaking. Messina Lipari -1000 Its remarkable triangular Vulcano TD Calabria shape is defined by major PL -2000 tectonic structures: the TP CF Peloritani NNW–SSE Malta Escarp- Nb Md -3000 ment, the complex E–W MS Sicilian TM contact zone between the Si Caltanissetta Etna -4000 African and Eurasian SL Maghrebides SC CT Ionian 15 Plates, and the orientation Strait of Sicily Basin -5000 AG Basin of the WNW–ESE major Hyblaean Pantelleria SR fault systems of the Pelagi- GL Plateau an Block/Strait of Sicily. SICILY’S GEOLOGICAL ARCHIVE PL: Palermo, CF: Cefalù, Pantelleria Graben TD: Tindari, TM: Taormina, Malta Escarpment CT: Catania, SR: Syracuse, Pelagian Block GL: Gela, AG: Agrigento, SC: Sciacca, SL: Selinunte, Malta GrabenGozo Linosa Linosa Graben MS: Marsala,TP: Trapani, Malta Si: Monti Sicani, Md: Monti Madonie, Nb: Monti Ne- Lampedusa brodi.

the genesis of the ocean, which began as Africa Together with Calabria, the Monti Peloritani and Europe started to drift apart after the to the north-east form the Calabrian-Peloritan break-up of the supercontinent Pangaea about Block (CPB). Its backbone consists of Palaeozoic 200 million years ago. Once the oceanic rift had crystalline and metamorphic rocks that are over closed, the younger sediments were deposited. 250 million years old. Until 30 million years ago During this process, foreland basins developed the CPB — together with Corsica and Sar- from north to south at the front of the mountain dinia — lay on the east edge of Iberia, part of the ridge that was being created. The Caltanissetta European Plate. This piece of Europe has since Basin (central and south Sicily) is the largest; it is migrated to its present position at the curve of bounded by the Monti Sicani to the west and the Apennine-Calabrian-Sicilian-North African the Monti Madonie (up to 2,000 m) and Monti mountain arc. It was only relatively late in this Nebrodi to the north. This basin, named after the process, 10 to 8 million years ago, that the Tyrrhe- town founded by Carthaginian settlers in the fifth nian back-arc basin began to take shape. It is still century BC, plays a pivotal role in the research into evolving, and Calabria probably is still moving cause and effect of the Mediterranean ‘Messinian east-south-east at a pace of a few millimetres a year. Salinity Crisis’ (MSC). This desiccation process The highly different developments of the Hy- resulted from the connection with the Atlantic blaean Plateau, the Maghrebides and the Peloritani being closed up for 600,000 years, between 6 and became increasingly intertwined in the recent 5 million years ago. Throughout the Mediterra- geological past. This development was caused by nean, gypsum and rock salt were formed. Salt four factors. Firstly, the Peloritani being connected mines that are still in use nowadays and numerous to the Maghrebides by the thrust of the Calabrian- sulphur mines that were used until the 1980s testify Pelorian Block over the Maghrebides along the to the MSC’s economic importance for Sicily. WNW-ESE-oriented line from Longi on the CREDITS ILLUSTRATION COLOPHON Eindhoven, Stan and Wim Ver- (photograph by David Etruscans. Eminent women, beek: p. 8, 71, 86 bottom. Gowers). powerful men European Union 1955: p. 189 Munich, Himer-Archive: p. (isbn 978 90 400 7807 1) bottom. 102. Troje. Stad, Homerus en Florence, Scala: p. 6 (Andrea Naples, Museo Archeologico Turkije Jemolo); 28, 31 bottom, 38, Nazionale/Bridgeman (isbn 978 90 400 0750 7) 47, 63, 88 left, 90, 122, 165 Images: p. 98. Troy. City, Homer and Turkey top, 199 (DeAgostini Pic- Nijmegen, Ilse Verstegen, Rad- (isbn 978 90 400 0793 4) ture Library); 33 (White boud University: p. 13. Troya. Kent, Homeros ve Images); 65 (Bildagentur für Oxford, Paul Roberts: p. 20; Türkiye Kunst, Kultur und Alexandra Sofroniew: p. 170. (isbn 978 90 663 0001 9) Geschichte, Berlin); 88 right, Palermo, Museo archeologico Eeuwig Egypte 195 (courtesy of the Minis- regionale Antonino Salinas: (isbn 978 90 663 0573 1) tero Beni e Att. Culturali); p. 37 top (photograph by Eternal Egypt 94, 173-175, 184 (Album/ David Gowers), 37 bottom. (isbn 978 90 663 0626 4) Scala); 103 (Digital Image Palermo, Soprintendenza per i De Krim. Goud en geheimen Museum Associates/ Beni culturali e ambientali van de Zwarte Zee LACMA/Art Resource del Mare: p. 18, 19, 21-23, 24 (isbn 978 94 625 8002 2) 204 NY); 129; 130 bottom (Brit- bottom, 25-27, 31 top, Van Rome naar Romeins ish Library board/Robana); 34-35, 74, 76, 77 bottom, (isbn 978 94 625 8016 9) 163; 198. 79-81, 84, 86 top, 96, 112, Keys to Rome Gela, Museo archeologico 113 top, 115, 118 bottom, (isbn 978 94 625 8046 6) regionale: p. 49 left, 73 right. 127 bottom, 141, 144, 145- PUBLISHER Google Art Project: p. 105. 147, 161, 167 bottom (Bibli- wbooks, Zwolle © 2015 wbooks/Allard Google DigitalGlobe: back oteca Regionale di [email protected] Pierson Museum cover Palermo, photo Stan and www.wbooks.com All rights reserved. Nothing Amsterdam, Allard Pierson Google maps - Panoramio. Wim Verbeek), front cover from this publication may Museum: p. 17 bottom, 36 com, Burkhard Foltz: p. 16B. bottom. In collaboration with be reproduced, multiplied, (APM 1974-1975), 42 (APM Greenwich, National Mari- Philadelphia, dr. Kevin Fur- Allard Pierson Museum, stored in an electronic data 9995-9998), 44 top (APM time Museum: p. 182. long, Pennsylvania State Amsterdam file, or made public, in any 8386), 44 bottom (APM Hamburg, Carthage excava- University: p. 16A. [email protected] form or in any manner, 13986), 48 (APM 1599), 51 tions of Hamburg Univer- Rome, Harald Hendrix: p. 157. www.allardpiersonmuseum.nl be it electronic, mechanical, (APM 3702), 53 left (APM sity bottom Decumanus Syracuse, Museo archeologico through photocopying, 16.272), 53 right (APM Maximus (KA86/120): p. 89. regionale Paolo Orsi di EXHIBITION CURATOR recording or in any other 1196), 54 bottom (APM International Commission on Siracusa: p. 50 (Photograph Alexandra Sofroniew way, without the advance 6453), 55 top (1142-1143), 55 Stratigraphy, 2014: P. 14. by David Gowers). written permission of the middle (APM 13.362), 55 Key West, RPM Nautical Syracuse, Soprintendenza Beni COORDINATION publisher. bottom (APM 2149), 77 top Foundation: p. 82, 117, 118 culturali di Siracusa, Anti- Paulien Retèl, with Aniek (10601-10607), 142 (APM top, 119. quarium Parco della Nea van den Eersten The publisher has endeav- 16763). Lo Presti, et al. (2014): p. 16D. polis: p. 127 top. oured to settle image rights Amsterdam, National Numis- Lausanne, M. Vanappelghem - Trapani, Soprintendenza dei IMAGE AND CAPTIONS EDITORS in accordance with legal matic Collection, Dutch Opéra de Lausanne: p. 177- Beni culturali Trapani: p. 54 Paulien Retèl, with Ailbhe requirements. Any party who National Bank: p. 57-61. 179. top (Museo Tonnara Florio Turley and Noctua Text & nevertheless deems they have Amsterdam, Special Collec- London, Bridgeman Images: p. di Favignana); 138 (Museo Translation, Corinna a claim to certain rights may tions of the University of 24 top (De Agostini Picture Tonnara Florio di Favig- Vermeulen apply to the publisher. Amsterdam: p. 11, 64, 151, Library / Aeronike); 40-41 nana, photo Stan and Wim 165 bottom, front cover top. (Private Collection/Abbott Verbeek); 95 top (Museo TRANSLATION Copyright of the work Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum: p. and Holder, London, UK); del Satiro di Mazaro del Noctua Text & Translation, of artists affiliated with a 158, 160. 85 (Private Collection/© Vallo); 148 bottom (Tor- Corinna Vermeulen CISAC organisation has been Branca et al. (2014): p. 17 top. Look and Learn); 136 (Ali- razzo di San Vito lo Capo). www.noctua-text- arranged with Pictoright of Camarina, Museo archeolo nari); 180 (De Agostini Pic- Utrecht, dr. Paul Meijer, Fac- translation.eu Amsterdam. gico regionale di Camarina: ture Library / G. Roli); p. ulty of Geosciences, © c/o Pictoright Amsterdam p. 45, 113 bottom. 192 (Martin Norris Travel Utrecht University, based COPY EDITOR 2015. Soprintendenza Beni culturali Photography). on data Lindquist et al. Noctua Text & Translation, di Catania, Museo civico London, Honor Frost Founda- (EOS, 85,186, 2004): p. 15. Corinna Vermeulen isbn 978 94 625 8113 5 (Dutch) Castello Ursino di Catania: tion: p. 172 bottom. Vancouver, R.J.A. Wilson: p. isbn 978 94 625 8115 9 (English) p. 95 bottom. London, Mary Evans Picture 91, 99 top, 106, 107, 109, 110, DESIGN nur 682 Collection J. de Wilde: p. 61 Library: p. 120, 183. 111, 171, 172 top Miriam Schlick, Amsterdam bottom right. London, National Army Vincenzo Castellana: p. 196. www.extrablond.nl Di Stefano and Longhitano Museum: p. 186. Wikipedia.com: p. 66-67, 69, (2009): p. 16C. London, The Trustees of the 70 top, 99 below, 100, 126, This is volume 6 in the Dreamstime.com: p. 10, 30, 43, British Museum: p. 32, 73 130 top, 133, 134, 139, 154, Allard Pierson Museum 49 right, 93, 101, 108, 123, left. 155. Series. Previously published: 125, 131, 132, 135, 137, 148- Marsala, Museo Archeologico Etrusken. Vrouwen van 149, 150, 152, 168, 187, 189 Regionale ‘Lilibeo – Baglio aanzien, mannen met macht top, 191. Anselmi: p. 148 bottom (isbn 978 90 400 7806 4) SICILIË

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They were followed by a bewildering variety of invaders over en de zee SICILIË the ages: from Romans and Byzantines through Arabs and various European dynasties up to the Allies during the Second World War. All these cultures — sometimes living in peace, some- en de zee times at war, always inﬂ uencing each other — left their traces on THE PANAREA III WRECK the island itself and in the sea surrounding it. Inspired by Sicily’s archaeological and cultural treasures, this THE CAPISTELLO Aeolian WRECK Islands book offers an overview — or perhaps rather an anthology, since Messina Reggio a complete survey, if at all possible, would soon become sti- 1 THE LEVANZO WRECK ﬂ ing — of the island’s history and culture, paying attention not 2 THE WRECK OF CALA GALERA

3 THE MARAUSA WRECK Taormina only to ancient and medieval shipwrecks, battles, economy and THE WRECK OF THE MONDELLO SAN VITO LO CAPO WRECK Naxos art, but also to typically Sicilian traditions (from folk-tales and Palermo Cefalù tuna fi shing to mafi a fi ghters), modern politics, and the poets, Himera Mt. Etna novelists and fi lm makers who lived on Sicily or were inspired Aegadian Trapani Islands 1 Catania by its unique character. 2 3 Enna Mozia Morgantina Marsala Piazza 4 Mazara del Armerina Vallo Selinunte Thapsus 4 THE WRECKS OF Agrigento LIDO SIGNORINO Syracuse Gela THE SCIACCA WRECK

THE WRECKS OF CAMARINA

Pantelleria

THE SCAURI WRECK

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