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The Sabi'ans As One of the Religious Groups in Pre

The Sabi'ans As One of the Religious Groups in Pre

ARAM, 22 (2010) 243-261. doi: 10.2143/ARAM.22.0.2131040

THE SABI’ANS AS ONE OF THE RELIGIOUS GROUPS IN PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA AND THEIR DEFINITION THROUGH THE QUR’AN AND MEDIEVAL SOURCES

Prof. AIDA SHAHLAR GASIMOVA (Baku State University)

Abstract

The goal of this paper is to give an account of the : one of the ancient religious groups that seems to have originated in and penetrated to pre-Islamic Arabia circulating among the , and Hanifs. The focus of our prime interest is the etymology of the term “Sabians” and the definition given to this group by the Qur’an (al-Baqara 62, al-Maida 69, al- 17) and also by tradition, especially the influence of the Sabians upon the cultural-religious life of Jahiliyya . From the testimonies of al-Tabari, , al-Baydawi, al-Zamakhshari and other commentators on the Qur’an it became clear that this obscure religious-mystical group named “those who believe” by the Qur’an had passed through several stages in its history from blatant idolatry to a monotheistic religious movement. They had sacred books, temples and religious rites such as prayer and . The Sabians exerted an influence on the for- mation of various religious sects, particularly those of a mystical character. The Sabians’ faith and tenets were not alien to Jahiliyya Arabs. Besides the above- mentioned Quranic ayats, this follows, in particular, from the references to this group in Jahiliyya poetry and later on in Muslim hagiography. Some authors find the influence of the Sabians on the religious thought of Jahiliyya Arabs to be the reason for the widespread worship of astral in pre-Islamic Arabia. This is especially the case with the cult of the Sun, which was much influenced by the Sabians’ faith. The Sabians paid great atten- tion to geometrical figures, referring each figure to a special planet, and built sanctuaries of the heavenly bodies in the form of respective geometrical figures. It is quite possible that the sanctuary of Kabah had a quadrangular form due its being the Sabian temple of the Sun. There is evidence in Muslim hagiography that at the very beginning of and some of his followers (Abu Dhar al-Ghaffar and others) were called “Sabians” by the Meccans. Focusing on the meaning of “sabi,” which was originally derived from the Arabic root ‘saba’a (“those who reject one religion in favor of another”), some scholars were inclined to proceed from the literal meaning of such an appellation, although the similarities between the Sabian faith and Islam have always been obvious. Of particular interest for us is the comparison between the Sabians and the Hanifs given through “Al-Milal wa al-Nihal” of Shahristani as a form of a discussion between the adherents of these two sects. This discussion reveals the main difference between them which appears in the method of union with . Although Sabians rejected the idea of union between God and human beings, thus denying prophecy and developing the worship of – the only mediators between human beings and God – in to a special cult, it is paradoxical enough that they had their venerated prophets such as and . On the other hand, medieval Arabic sources depicted the Sabians as a sect closely related to Christianity. Some authors claim that the three star-led who brought the gifts to the Divine Child were Sabians from Arabia.

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In pre-Islamic Arabia there were some incoherent monotheistic groups which shaped a certain side of the religious life of the so-called Jahiliyya ‘Arabs, but belonged neither to nor to Christianity. These groups, namely Îunafa’ (sing. Ìanif) and ∑abi’un or ∑ubat, ∑abi’a (sing. Òabi’ or Òabi), were not only an important part of the spiritual life of that period, but exerted some influence over Islam as well. They were groups of hermits or pious men who differed greatly from pagan people in their monotheistic beliefs and ascetic lifestyle. Their practices and outlooks lay at the basis of many Islamic rites and doctrines. Although Muslim tradition abounds with records (khabars) of the Hanifs such as Waraqa ibn Naufal, ’Umayya ibn ’Abi al- ∑alt, ‘ ibn Îuwayrith and others and depicts Hanifism as a proto-religion of Islam, there are no clear accounts of Sabiism and its adherents. Being a mystic sect, the Sabi’ans kept their doctrines and practices secret. Therefore the relevant sources attribute obscure and vague characteristics to this creed, which might supposedly have influenced popular Islam and Sufism. The main difficulty of this investigation dedicated to the role of the Sabi’ans in pre-Islamic society is the scarcity and intricacy of information. Even this scanty information depicts Sabiism as a creed with sweeping and wide-ranging temporal and spatial borders, with complicated and miscellaneous characteris- tics which leave no space to illustrate it as a solitary religious sect. Moreover, the etymology of the term Èabi’, which might shed light on the problem, is also tangled and intricate. There are several definitions of Èabi’. The first traces it to the Arabian root Èaba’a which means “to abandon one religion for another.” According to ’Isma‘i l al-Jawhari, Èaba’a is a synonym of †ala’a which means “rise” in relation to celestial bodies, or the eruption of teeth of a child or a camel. ∑aba’a al-rajulu means “a man who abandoned one religion for another, likewise the star which abandons its place when rises.” According to ’Isma‘i l al-Jawhari Èaba’a also means "to be Èabi’”, which refers to some groups of the (ahlu al-kitab).1 By the testimony of , at the beginning of the mission of the prophet Muhammad, if someone adopted Islam, he was called Èabi’, i.e. “he who abandoned one religion for another.” The prophet Muhammad was called Èabi, because he gave up the religion of the for Islam.2 According to the second definition, Èabi’ is of Hebrew origin and refers to “he who baptizes.”3 Some scholars have noted that Arabs called the Sabi’ans mughtasila, thus emphasizing that Èabi’ as a term was derived not from the Arabic root Èaba’a, but rather traces from a Mandaean origin that means

1 Isma‘il al-Jawhari, Al-∑iÌaÌ, I, (, 1998), pp. 99-100. 2 Ibn Manzur, Lisanu al-‘Arab, I, (Beirut, without date of publishing), pp. 107-108. See: Fahruddin ar-Razi. Tefsiri-i-Kebir, Mefatihul-Gayb, III, (terc. Prof. Dr. Suat Yildirim), (Ankara, 1988), p. 56. (In Turkish). 3 Islam Ansiklopedisi, X, (, 1980), p. 9. (In Turkish).

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“he who baptizes.”4 T. Hughes assumes that the term originated from the Hebrew tsaba, “a host” and meant “those who worship the hosts of heaven.”5

THE SABI’ANS’ DEFINITION IN THE QUR’AN

It is hardly possible to understand this religious trend fully without a thorough analysis of the corresponding Qur‘anic ’ayats. The Sabi’ans are mentioned in the following verses of the Qur’an: Those who believe (in the Qur’an), and those who follow the Jewish (scriptures), and the Christians and the Sabi’ans, – any who believe in and the Last Day, and work righteousness, shall have their reward with their Lord; on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve. (al-Baqara 62)6 Those who believe (in the Qur’an), those who follow the Jewish (scriptures), and the Sabi’ans and the Christians, – any who believe in Allah and the Last Day, and work righteousness, – on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve. (al-Ma’ida 69) Those who believe (in the Qur’an), those who follow the Jewish (scriptures), and the Sabi’ans, Christians, Magians, and Polytheists, – Allah will judge between them on the Day of Judgment: for Allah is witness of all things. (al- Îajj 17)

Muslim exegetical explanations of the above-mentioned verses are miscel- laneous and also contradictory. These sources represent the Sabi’ans as a sect of a variegated geographical and ideological diapason. If we remove all isnads from the interpretations of Ibn Jarir al-Êabari and Abu al-Fida ibn Kathir the definition given to the Sabi’ans appears as follows: • The Sabi’ans are a religious group among the Magi, Jews and Christians; they do not have their own religion;7 • The Sabi’ans are a special sect among the people of the Book (ahlu al-kitab), and they read ();8 • The Sabi’ans are a religious group similar to the Christians. Their is towards the South. They claim descendance from the prophet ;9 • They sacrifice animals and enter into matrimony;10 • The Sabi’ans are a sect like the Magi. The Sabi’ans are worshippers of angels;11

4 Shinasi Gunduz, Sabiler, Son Gnostikler, (Inanc esaslari ve ibadetleri), (Ankara, 1998), p. 29, (In Turkish); Ibn Nadim MuÌammad , Kitabu al-Fihrist, (Beirut, without date of publishing), p. 340. 5 T.P.Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, (, 1885), p. 551 6 The Qur’anic verses have been given in the translation by Yusuf ‘ (internet version) 7 Ibn Kathir, Tafsiru al-Qur’an al-‘Azim, I, (Beirut, 1987), p. 107; II, p. 83. 8 Ibn Kathir, , I, p. 108. 9 Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, I, p. 108. 10 Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, I, p. 108. 11 Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, I, p. 108.

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• The Sabi’ans are a monotheistic sect and they believe in the influence of stars.12 • The Sabi’ans have their qibla and they pray five times a week;13 • The Sabi’ans are people who live in . They accept all the prophets, observe a fast for 30 days every year, and pray five times a day;14 • Only God knows their affairs. They do not have their own law (shari‘at). One cannot infer whether or not they are unbelievers;15 • The Sabi’ans are the adherents of a religious group which lives in , they say “La ilaha’illa ’llah” (“there is no God but Allah”). Besides that they do not have their own rituals, books and prophets;16 • The Sabi’ans are a religious group similar to the Jews and the Magi. They do not eat the meat of sacrificial animals and do not enter into matrimony;17 • The Sabi’ans are worshippers, they read Zabur and turn towards qibla.18 • The Sabi’ans are the worshippers of the One God. Nevertheless they believe in the influence of stars. They are star worshippers and they claim that God made the stars qibla for prayer and worship and made affairs of this world incumbent on them;19 • The Sabi’ans are an original religious group; they are neither Magi nor Jews, Christians or heathens. They are not followers of these religions. … Therefore (in the advent of Islam) the pagans named the “∑abi’un” thus indicating that they do not belong to any of these religions;20 • Some scholars say that the mission of the prophets has not reached the Sabi’ans.21

It is clear from all that has been quoted that we are not dealing with a restricted and narrow-minded sect, but with a nonsectarian movement closely related to other creeds. The miscellaneous character of various religious-cul- tural streams of the Mediterranean and the Middle East has always been very evident, which requires the study of each religion in close connection with other tenets and confessions. The same is true of the Sabi’ans, “whose religion represents a strange medley of and ancient Babylonian heathenism,

12 Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, I, p. 108. 13 Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, II, p. 83. See: C. Tisdall, The Original Sources of the , (London – New York, 1905), p. 52 14 Ibn Kathir, Tafsiru, II, p. 83. 15 Ibn Jarir al-Êabari, Jami‘ul-Bayan fi Tafsiri al-Qur’an, I, (Beirut, 1992), p. 360; Ibn Kathir, Tafsiru, I, p. 108. 16 al-Êabari, Jami‘ul-Bayan, I, p. 360; Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, I, p. 108. 17 al-Êabari, Jami‘ul-Bayan, I, p. 360; Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, II, p. 83. 18 al-Êabari, Jami‘ul-Bayan, p. 361; Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, II, p. 83. 19 Ibn Kathir, Tafsir I, p. 108. 20 Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, I, 108; al-Êabari, Jami‘ul-Bayan, I, p. 360. 21 Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, I, pp. 107-108.

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but has nevertheless borrowed certain elements from Magism, Judaism, and Christianity.”22 Their deification of celestial bodies made the Sabi’ans closer to the inhabitants of while their main ritual – into Christianity, their doctrine about pure and radiant spiritual beings – were related to . To elucidate the main features of Sabiism as a religious tenet known among Jahiliyya Arabs requires considering it as a part of the whole religious-cultural system. Only such a comprehensive approach can shed light on this obscure group and give us an opportunity to reveal its main doctrines and rituals, and to determine its role in pre-Islamic Arabia where they did not seem to be alien. There are some disputable notions about the Sabi’ans’s original country. As it appears from the above-mentioned sources, their homeland was either Îarran or Mosul. Ibn al-Nadim identifies the Harranians-Chaldeans with the Sabi’ans23 and depicts them as an obscure community.24 He states that besides Azimun and Hermes they claimed to have received their creed from the grand- father of Plato from the maternal side. “These people had their own coats (aqbiya), and long hair… al-Ma’mun asked, “who are you, are you ’ahlu al- dhimma” (the people under protection)? “They said: ‘We are Îarranians.’”25 As appears from the khabar they were neither Christians nor Jews. On their shaykh’s advice, they claimed to be the Sabi’ans in order to come under the protection of Islam (’ahlu al-dhimma).26 Ibn al-Nadim also mentioned that their book was translated from Syriac into Arabic by the order of Harun ibn Ibrahim who was a qa∂i of Îarran. Then Harun ibn Ibrahim handed over this book to ‘Ali ibn ‘Isa.27 On the other hand, Ibn al-Nadim describes their mysteries, some rites and doctrines that testify that there was a religious group in Îarran which differed from Christians and Jews.28 Another author – al-Shahristani – mentions the Sabi’ans from Indians, , Nabateans and Romans.29

22 Tisdall, The Original, p. 54. 23 He titled the ninth chapter of his book as follows: “Accounts on the Scholars and the Names of the Books Written by Them that Cover Depiction of Beliefs Îarranians and Chaldeans Known as the Sabi’ans”. Ibn al-Nadim, al-Fihrist, p. 387. 24 It is interesting that al-Ma’mun saw these people in the land of the tribe Mu∂ar. Some people from the Mu∂ar tribe who had an esoteric religion related to the Sun are mentioned in “al-Sira al-Nabawiyya” by (Ibn Hisham, al-Sira al-Nabawiyya, I, (, 1936), p. 125). We do not know whether or not both sources concern the same group, however, their connection with the Mu∂ar tribe and their special way of dressing are worthy of attention 25 Ibn al Nadim, al-Fihrist, p. 389. 26 Ibn al-Nadim derived this khabar from the book “Kashfu al Madhahibi al-Îarraniyyin” by , who was his contemporary scholar. Abu Yusuf himself stated that Îarran had nothing to do with the Sabi’ans. (Ibn al-Nadim, al-Fihrist, p. 390). 27 Ibn al-Nadim, al-Fihrist, p. 398. 28 Ibn al-Nadim, al-Fihrist, p. 389. 29 Shahristani, al-Milal wa al-NiÌal, I, (Beirut, 1991), p. 231.

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Îarran, considered to be the cradle of Chaldean civilization, is indeed very likely to have been one of the ancient homelands of the Sabi’ans, for it was a place where star worship was very widespread. The Qur’an also points out that the deification of celestial bodies was prevalent among ’s kinsmen. Abraham’s God-seeking story, where he first worshipped the stars, then the Moon and the Sun, and after all these inclinations turned to the One God, is a clear illustration of these notions and particularly of the evolution of religious beliefs from astral to the monotheistic creed. As Tisdall states, the Sabi’ans had certain religious rites, among which were seven fixed times of prayer, five of which corresponded with those of the Muslims. They kept a fast and observed the festivals of Fi†r.30 Generally the Sabi’an creed’s close relation to ancient primitive beliefs, as well as the developed monotheistic notions and philosophical doctrines, may be observed throughout its history. As Abrurrazzaq al-Îasani states, Sabiism passed through several stages in its formation: The first stage was the worship of natural phenomena. Celestial bodies took a special place among these phenomena… In the second stage the Sabi’ans built temples and named them after heavenly bodies. They usually put statues in their temples, and embellished the highest points of them with symbols… In the third stage Sabiism was shaped as a religion with sacred books and scriptures. The taught these books at the Sabi’an temples. The scholarly discussions, philosophical thought and interpretations became widespread. In this stage the penetration of philosophical thought into religious doctrine may be observed… In the fourth stage the Sabi’ans accepted John the Baptist as their prophet and ascribed the Sabi’an doctrines to him. They thought that John had been sent to them as a messenger of God. Nevertheless they were still venerating the stars.31 The fact that Sabiism is very similar to other confessions was caused by its unceasing departure from place to place. There was no place in the Middle East where the Sabi’ans had not wandered. The Roman Pliny stated that the Sabi’ans left for and lived under the auspices of Iranian kings of Arshakid dynasty (12-38 years AC). Pliny described them as Arabian people called the .32 Ancient Sabian books described Philistine as their homeland and said that they were forced to depart from this country under the yoke and oppression of the Jews.33

30 Tisdall, The Original, p. 52-53. 31 Seyyid ‘Abdu al-Razzaq al-Îasani, Sabiuna fi Îa∂irihim wa Ma∂ihim, (Sayda, 1958), pp. 14-19. 32 See: Gunduz, Sabiiler, p. 42. 33 Gunduz, Sabiiler, p. 341.

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These accounts testify that the Sabi’ans were closely connected with both the Jews and the Zoroastrians. It should be mentioned that their script was Nabatean script.34 It is very likely that they were connected with Arabs who were inhabit- ants of Nabatean kingdom and whose script was also Nabatean. There were a great number of ancient temples, from the Egyptian Pyramids and Beytu al- Maqdis up to the Ka‘aba, which were ascribed to the Sabi’ans.

SABIISM IN PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA

Such a complicated definition and wide temporal and regional dimensions require us to consider the Sabi’ans in their early period not as a solitary reli- gious sect, but as a miscellaneous religious movement or phenomenon. This movement has generally been distinguished by the following peculiarities: • Sabiism was a monotheistic creed. • The Sabi’ans venerated the celestial bodies. • Sabiism inclined to austerity and mystical devotions. • The Sabi’ans worshipped the angels.

No doubt some of the Sabi’ans had settled in Arabia at different times and could disseminate their creed among pre-Islamic Arabs, who had a very miscel- laneous religious life which blended primitive idolatry and Zoroastrian notions with monotheistic confessions such as Judaism and Christianity. It is undeniable that the Qur’an as a faithful mirror reflected the religious-spiritual life of the society in which it had emerged.35 Therefore, it is not purely by accident that the Sabi’ans were mentioned in the Qur’an among other religious groups. Although the Sabi’ans were known among pre-Islamic Arabs as a special religious group, as mentioned above, unlike the Hanifs there are scanty reports on their rituals and outlook, even on those who were known as Òabi’. According to medieval Arabian sources the Prophet Muhammad and the first Muslims were called ∑abi’un.36 Arabian sources explain this by the literal meaning of the term Òabi’ as “someone who abandoned one religion for another.” The account pre- served in Kitab al-Aghani says that when Labid ibn Rabi‘a was sent to the prophet Muhammad with the mission of learning about the new religion, he converted to Islam. However, as he felt bad and shivered, Labid was forced to return home early. In his homeland he began to warn fellow tribesmen about rising from dead, Doomsday, , etc. ™arafa ibn ‘Auf commented that:

34 Gunduz, Sabiiler, p. 45. 35 See: E. A. Rezvan, The Qur’an and its World, (St-Petersburg, 2001), p. 139. (In Russian). 36 Ibn Manzur, Lisanu al-‘Arab, (Beirut, without date of publishing), pp. 107-108.

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We sent thee to Hijaz, as an old camel with bald spot, Thou brought the religion of “∑abi’un’” confusing it with the tablets of Najd.”37

Notwithstanding the scarcity of information one can find in the Muslim tradi- tion there are some hypotheses about the reason for such a calling: something different from its literal explanation. There is a khabar in Muslim exegetics which explains it by the idea of tawÌid characteristic to both Sabiism and Islam: both of them proclaimed la ilaha illa ’llah.38 Besides the prophet Muhammad, Abu Dhar al-Ghifari is one of the first Muslims personally called by this name.39 The tradition says that when Abu Dhar proclaimed among unbelievers “ashhadu an la ilaha illa ’llah,’ashhadu ’anna MuÌammadan ‘abduhu wa rasuluhu,” (“I testify that there is no God but Allah. I testify that Muhammad is God’s servant and messenger”) the Meccans called him sabi’ and wanted to kill him.40 Another khabar says that when Abu Dhar witnessed a woman venerating the idols Isa‘af and Naa’ila, he said to her: “Get them married to each other.” The woman said: “You are Èabi’.” Then young people from Quraysh began to beat him.41 These khabars testify that pre-Islamic Arabs had some knowledge of the Sabi’ans, particularly their attitude towards matrimony etc. The prophetic tradition says that the Prophet was reluctant to appoint Abu Dhar ruler, because he was a “weak” (∂a’if) person.42 “He dressed in the same clothes as his servant.”43 He was an ascetic and pious person. Very frequently his name is mentioned among those of the awliya (friends of God). It seems the characteristic features of the representatives of the Sabi’ans in Arabia were devoutness and piety. Jorji Zeydan, while determining the roots of the institution of kihana (shamanic institution) in Arabia, states that it had been brought to Arabia by the Sabi’ans.44 Kahins were foretellers. As it appears from the scanty accounts on ancient Arabian kahins, they were a mystical group and practiced ecstasy, even levitation, in order to predict the events of the future.45

37 Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani, Kitabu al-Aghani, XVII, (Beyrut, without date of publishing), p. 703. 38 Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, II, p.108, al-Êabari, Jami‘ul-Bayan i, p. 360. 39 See: Jawad ‘Ali, al-Mufassalu, p. 702. 40 http://www.zadalebad.com/home/ghafari.htm 41 http://www.islamwattan.com/articles 42 Nevevi, Riyadu’s-Salihin, Tercume ve Serh Prof.Dr. M.Yashar Kamdemir …., IV, Erkam Yayinlari, (Istanbul, 2004), p, 672. (In Turkish). 43 Nevevi, Riyadu’s-Salihin, VI, p. 128. 44 J. Zeydan, Tarikhu ’Adab al-Lugha al-‘Arabiyya, I, (, without date of publishing), p. 211. 45 On this point, the khabar mentioned in the book of Ibn Hisham is very noteworthy: “There was the tribe Janb in which had a very famous kahin. When the mission of the Messenger of God became perfectly clear to everybody, this tribe said to its kahin: “Look, what could you say about the case of this man?” … The people assembled at the foot of the mountain. The kahin

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Yusuf al-Siba‘i Bayyumi places emphasis on the influence of the Chaldean civilization upon Arabian astrological views as a result of the activity of Chal- dean priests: the Sabi’ans in pre-Islamic Arabia. He states that they were rem- nants of the Babylonian priesthood.46 It may be that the Sabi’ans’ being a mystical group caused their alleged connection with every group inclined to mysticism, occult sciences and magic. The medieval author al-Mas‘udi also mentioned the Sabi’ans while writing about Arabian kahins. However, he pointed out that there was a difference between the Sabi’ans and kahins. According to al-Mas‘udi kahins used to fall back upon preternatural powers – for predictions – while the Sabi’ans received pre- dictions through the purification of soul.47 Moreover, al-Mas‘udi likened them to Greek philosophers. He states that he had seen the Sabi’an temples in Îarran on the door of which the dictum of Plato had been graved.48 It should be pointed out that, with the passage of time, such a simple belief as star worshipping acquired a deep mystical meaning, and some knowledge had been gained from Sabian temples of the study of supernatural powers and heavenly mysteries. So Sabiism might have had some influence on the mys- tical stream of religio-philosophical thought in the Middle East. If Hanifism in pre-Islamic Arabia lay at the base of Orthodox Islam, Sabiism might have shaped the foundation of popular Islam and Sufism, reappearing not only in their asceticism, fast-observing etc. but also in the special place attributed to the prophet ’ identified very frequently with who was a prototype of Khi∂r in Islamic Mysticism. The Sabi’ans’ influence also appears in the ancient Arabian foretelling: the so-called kha††u al-raml (lines on sand). This kind of foretelling attributed a special importance to geometrical lines and figures. According to the account

himself was on the alp. As soon as the sun began rising, he went down the slope and reclining on his bow continued to stay with his face turned toward the rising sun. After standing for a while, he began jumping. Later on he said “Hey people!! Allah gave Muhammad the blessing and made him his messenger. He had cleansed his heart from filth and inflated it with wisdom. But this man will not stay among you for a long time.” Then he ascended the mountain,” (Ibn Hisham, al-Sira al-Nabawiyya, I, (Egypt, 1936), p. 222). We are not informed about the psychic state of kahins and our feeble knowledge does not enable us to infer or describe his feelings of communication with the divinity. However, the story on the whole – its location (mountain), some actions (jumping) and details identified as attributes of mystical experience (bow) – and the typology of similar practices give us ample grounds to suggest that the case in question is that of ecstatic experience, i. e. spiritual ascension of the Arabian kahin. The main feature of the mystical practice of the kahin is the mysticism of the solar myths; for spiritual levitation kahin uses the bow, which considered to be the symbol of Sun. Furthermore, his levitation occurs during the sunrise. 46 Yusuf al-Siba‘i Bayyumi, Tarix al-’adabi al-‘arabiyyi. I, (Egypt, 1958), p. 64; al-JaÌiÂ, al-Îayawan, V, pp. 102-103. 47 Abu Îasan al-Mas‘udi, Muruju al-Dhahab, (Egypt, 1303 h.), p. 234. 48 al-Mas‘udi, Muruj, p. 264, Ibn al-Nadim notices that the Sabi’ans of Îarran consider the grandfather of Plato one of the founders of their religion. Ibn al-Nadim, Al-Fihrist, p. 387.

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in ’s “Muqaddima,” although Islam rejected clairvoyance and foretelling from lines on sand, this kind of foretelling had been accepted as a prophetic art by some people, for the prophet ’Idris was considered to have been the first to begin this kind of divination. Nevertheless, the Muslim schol- ars rejected such a statement as a misunderstanding of the prophetic tradition which says: “A prophet drew lines and he whose lines were correct, he was a prophet.” Ibn Khaldun states that this tradition does not mean predictions by drawing lines on sand, but receiving during the writing (kha††) in general.49

SABIISM, STAR WORSHIPPING AND IN ANCIENT ARABIA.

An astrological tone is not unique to Sabiism. It can be found in most creeds throughout the Middle East including Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity etc. However, its Sabi’an form has always been attractive for both medieval and modern scholars. The Sabi’ans successfully connected star worshipping with monotheistic thought. Thoroughly monotheistic Sabiism therefore stressed the special magnitude of heavenly bodies. As al-Razi states, according to the Sabi’ans God created the heavens and stars, and obliged human beings to wor- ship stars and planets and take them as qibla, because it was stars that a governed good and evil, health and illness. Stars were the patrons that manage all the issues in the world.50 It seems that Sabiism’s star worshiping helps to explain its wide circulation among various nations. Inhabitants of desert Arabia who usually traveled at night to protect themselves from the Sun’s burning rays and to find their way guided by the stars had highly developed astrological notions. They believed in the godhead of the Sun, Moon and stars. The connection of famous idols with celestial bodies is obvious in the pre-Islamic Arabian pantheon. , one of the main idols of Noah’s nation, was the deity of the Moon (Nuh, 23). Banu Tamim worshipped the Sun. There is sufficient proof that the stars, par- ticularly Sirius and the Pleiades, as well as the Moon, were objects of veneration in ancient Arabia.51 Ancient Yemen in particular was a place where this kind of worship, especially the veneration of the Sun, was widespred; this has also been illustrated in the Qur’an (al-Naml, 24).

49 Ibn Khaldun, p. 196. 50 See: Fahruddin er-Razi, Tefsiri-i Kebir, Mefatihul-Gayb, III, (Ankara, 1988), p. 56. (In Turkish). 51 ‘Abd al-La†if Jayawuk, al- Îayat va al-Mautu fi al-Shi‘ri al-Jahiliyyi. (, 1977), p. 26.

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The Sun had its hypostases as Dhat Îimyam (The Burning), Dhat Ba‘dan (The Faraway), and Dhat ZaÌran (The Heat of Afternoon). Consequently, temples dedicated to the Sun were built and idols embodying the Sun’s various hypostases emerged.52 There is sufficient evidence indicating that in pre-Islamic times sacrifices were made in honor of the Sun, Moon and stars.53 Sometimes the union of various deities into one pantheon may be observed. For instance, the Sun, Moon and Venus comprised a trio in which the Sun corresponded to the feminine element, the Moon, the masculine. The Moon was called al- by the inhabitants of the Yemenite kingdom of Seba.54 According to T. Fahd al-Manat was the deity of destiny and was venerated among other Semitic nations as well.55 The temple of Riyam – the deity of Banu Tha‘lab – was also considered to be the sanctuary of the Moon.56 It should be noted that, as in the alphabets of other Semitic nations such as the Jews, Babylonians and Greeks,57 the letters of the Arabs also corresponded to the phases of Moon.58 The wide distribution of astrology in Arabia, i.e. divinations by celestial bodies, suggests its Sabi’an roots. Such predictions were also mirrored in the Jahiliyya tradition. One of the famous monotheistic dissidents of pre-Islamic Arabia, Quss ibn Saida, pointed to the heavens which were a repository of khabar (inna fi al-sama’i lakhabaran) in his celebrated khutba.59 ‘Abid ibn al-AbraÒ mentioned “the Pleiades bringing evil fortune and good.”60 T'a’abbata Shar- ran felt that he was being guided by the Milky Way.61 The sacrificial ceremonies of the Sabi’ans were also connected to their astrological notions. There are some records in medieval Arabian sources which testify to a special importance attached to some animals as symbols of the celestial bodies. By the testimony of al-Mas‘udi, the Sabi’ans made predic- tions during a sacrificial ceremony. For this purpose they slaughtered a black bull – the symbol of the Sun – and made divinations by its entrails and agony convulsions.62 Presumably, it personified Amon, the two-horned Egyptian God

52 A.Lundin, “The Yemenite Mythology”, in Myths of the Peoples of the World, I, (Moscow, 1980), p. 598. 53 Sir Wiliam Muir, The life of Muhammad, (Edinburgh, 1912), ciii. 54 Lu†fi ‘Abdulwahhab YaÌya, Al-‘Arabu fi al-‘Usuri al-Qadimati, (Alexandria, 1999), p. 382. 55 Quoted in. Polosin “Annotations”, in Hisham ibn Muhammad al-Kalbi, The Book of Idols, (Moscow, 1984), p. 43. (In Russian). 56 Polosin “Annotations”, p. 43. 57 See: M. Eliade, Traite D’Histore Des Religions, I, (Trans. into Russian by A.A.Vasileva), (St. Petersburg, 1999), p. 330. 58 Ibn al-Nadim, al-Fihrist, pp. 21-22. 59 Ibn Kathir “Al-Bidaya wa al-Nihaya”, I, (Cairo, without date of publishing), p. 214. 60 The Diwans of ‘Abid ibn al-‘Abras of Asad and ‘Amir , of ‘Amir ibn Sa‘a‘a, (Trans. and notes by Sir Charles Lyall ), (Leyden, Brill, London, 1913), p. 11. 61 I. M. Filshtinsky, The History of , (Moscow, 1985), p. 69. (In Russian). 62 Abu Îasan al-Mas‘udi, Muruju al-Dhahab, (Egypt, 1303 h) p.264-265 This kind of clairvoyance (extispicy) had been in common practice in China and South-Eastern Asia since time immemorial.

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of the Sun. The khabar mentioned in the book of Dimashki informs us that the Sabi’ans made predictions from the death convulsions of a sacrificed cock63 which personified the Sun. It is noteworthy that they used these animals as mediators between the real and spiritual worlds. It is possible that under the influence of Sabiism the totem of the bull acquired a special significance in pre-Islamic Arabia. Sometimes the angels were imag- ined in the shape of a bull.64 No wonder that some Yemenite kings took the sobriquet Dhu al-Qarnayn (“he who has two horns”). M. Piotrovsky states that the nickname ‘Dhu al-Qarnayn’ was applied, as with Alexander the Great, to some Arabian rulers from the Iraqi family of the Lakhmids, as well as, occa- sionally, some Himyarit kings of Yemen. Mentioned in the Qur’an, the sobriquet Dhu al-Qarnayn (al-Kahf 84) originated in the depiction of them as the sacred bull Amon.65

SABIAN TEMPLES.

The building of some great temples dedicated to the celestial bodies has been ascribed to the Sabi’ans. In Nukhbatu al-Dahr Shamsaddin Damaski states: “Among the most ancient temples are the Pyramids in Egypt. Of these temples the two pyramids in Giza are the greatest ones. claim that they had been built before the Deluge. Sometimes it is said that they were built by Hermes Tris- megistus. He is Enoch in Hebrew. The reason he built these temples was that he wanted to foretell the Deluges’ taking place. There is no puttying (cement) between the stones of Pyramids. However if one looks through the stones it seems like there is white between them. The pyramids have stone doors. Each door opens to seven rooms which are called by the names of seven stars. The Sabi’ans claimed that one of the pyramids was the tomb of Azimun, i.e. the prophet Shis. The second is the tomb of Hermes to whom the Sabi’ans claim their belonging. They used to make pilgrimages there and made rooster sacrifices.”66

In the “Muqaddima” of Ibn Khaldun the Sabi’ans were connected with Beyt al-Maqdis. He states: “What about Bayt al-Maqdis? It is al-Masjid al-’Aqsa,

The Sumerians also practiced it in the election of their high . (A.Leo Oppenheim, Ancient , Portrait of a Dead Civilization, (Chicago – London, 1968) (Trans. M.N.Botvinnik and M.A.Dandamaev) (Moscow, 1990), pp. 163, 166-167) It is said that Alexander the Macedo- nian believed in such divination. (Plutarch, Alexander and Caesar, Selected Biographies, II, (Moscow, 1990), LXXIII. (In Russian). 63 Shamsaddin al-Dimaski, Nukbatu al-dahr, (St. Petersburg, 1866), pp. 56-57. According to Ibn Khaldun, the state of agony was always considered to be an important moment for clairvoy- ance. That is why some tyrants and ruthless rulers organized executions of their prisoners to hear predictions from their mouths. Ibn Khaldun, al-Muqaddima, p. 190. 64 Al-JaÌiÂ, Kitab al- Îayawan, VI, (Cairo, 2002), p. 220. 65 M. B. Piotrovsky, Historical Legends of the Qur’an, (St. Petersburg, 2005), p. 128. 66 al-Dimaski, Nukbatu al-dahr, pp. 56-57.

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which was the temple of Venus in the time of the first Sabi’ans. They usually made sacrifices there and applied oil on the stone of temple. Then this temple was lost and after a while was chosen by Banu Israil as a sanctuary.”67 The Sabi’ans’ worship of the stars was not simple veneration, but a mys- terious act connected with the divine and spiritual character attributed to heav- enly bodies by the adherents of this creed. In reality, the Sabi’ans worshipped not the celestial bodies themselves, but the spiritual powers which were dwell- ing in these bodies. On the other hand, it is said that they made a distinction between stars and planets and considered not the stars but the planets to be the dwelling places of spiritual powers. Nevertheless, they believed in the existence of the One: Creator and Ruler, Holy and Almighty, the Power and Greatness of Whom is never reached.68 Therefore, their temples were connected not only with the Heavenly bodies, but also with abstract notions. In his “Muruju al- Dhahab,” al-Mas‘udi first mentions the temple ‘Illatu al-Ula (The First Cause). Then he writes about Haykal al-‘Aql (The Temple of Intellect), Haykal al-Òurat (The Temple of Image), and Haykal al- (The Temple of Soul). All of these temples were in the form of a circle. Haykal al-ZuÌal (The Temple of Saturn) was in the form of a hexagon, Haykal al-Mushtari (The Temple of Jupiter) in the form of a triangle, Haykal al-Mirrikh (The Temple of Mars) in the form of a rectangle, Haykal al-Shams (The Temple of Sun) in the form of a quadrangle, Haykal al-‘Utarid (The Temple of Mercury) in the form of a triangle with a rectangle inside, Haykal al-Zuhra (The Temple of Venus) with a square inside, and Haykal al-Qamar (The Temple of Moon) in the form of an octagon.69 This disposition towards geometrical figures appeared as a result of sacred meaning given to these configurations. This is the very point where Sabiism coincides with Kabbalism. It is worth pointing out the special astronomical significance of the Ka‘aba, which was in the form of a tetragon: the geometrical symbol of the Sun. According to some scholars the pre-Islamic Ka‘aba was honored by the ancient Sabi’ans70 as a shrine for pilgrimage.71 M. Ruthven states that certain people regarded the Ka‘aba as a temple dedicated to the Sun, Moon and the five visible

67 Ibn Khaldun, Al-Muqaddima, (Beyrut, 1961), p. 629. 68 Islam Ansyklopedisi, X, (Istanbul, 1980), p. 9. (In Turkish). 69 al-Mas‘udi, Muruj, I, p.263. From the testimony of al-Shahristani the Sabi’ans had the temples of the First Cause, of Intellect, Politics, Image, Soul all these the form of a circle. The Temple of Saturn was in the form of a hexagon, the Temple of Jupiter in the form of a triangle, the temple of Mars in the form of a rectangle, the Temple of Sun in the form of a quadrangle, the Temple of Venus in the form of a triangle with a quadrangle inside, the Temple of Mercury in the form of a triangle with a rectangle inside, and the temple of Moon in the form of an octagon. Al-Shahristani, al-Milal, (Beirut, 1992), p. 363. 70 Dr. Tisdall, The Sources, p. 53. 71 P. Tsvetkov, Islamism, (Askabad, 1912), p. 31.

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planets (making up the mystical figure of seven, the number of circumambu- lations required for each tawaf). The story that there were exactly 360 idols placed around the temple also suggests an astronomical significance. Among the votive gifts said to have been offered to the idols, there were golden suns and moons.72 It seems that there were several sanctuaries in the form of a rec- tangle called the Ka’aba, and that the one at Najran was very famous too.73 Unfortunately, we have scant reports about other temples by this name. On the other hand, their connection with Sabiism is unclear. According to Muslim hagiography, some people from the Mu∂ar tribe hon- ored the Ka’aba. Ibn Hisham says that long before Islam one of the clans of the Mu∂ar tribe was called “∑ufi” (∑ufat, ∑ufwan). The mother of the chieftain of this clan was childless, and she vowed that if she bore a son, she would give him to the temple of the Ka‘aba as a servant. The son – Ghauth bin Murr – was born, and keeping her vow she gave him up to the Ka‘aba. Ghauth and his progeny guided the Ìajj ceremony and the pelting of the stones of damnation. They usually stoned first, and after them other pilgrims began to throw stones.74 Most likely the so-called “Òufat” were worshippers of the Sun, because the abovementioned khabar attests that they did not throw the stones until the sunset. It is not known whether this group was related to the Sabi’ans. How- ever, it evokes another record about a mystical group from the Mu∂ar (see reference 23), which, seemingly, belonged to the Sabians.

SABIISM AND ANGEL WORSHIPPING

It seems the Sabi’ans first venerated the celestial bodies as a means of proximity to God Almighty due to their being the dwellings of angels. However, subsequently they strayed from this monotheistic belief and fell into idolatry. However, one can suggest an opposite opinion: they first venerated these bodies as idols, but then attributed such divine characteristics to them. In spite of every- thing, the view of the planets being the dwellings of angels is very important, for it penetrated into other confessions within the bounds of Judaism and Christianity. Common knowledge ascribes each planet to a certain . On the other hand, the Sabi’ans’ prophet Hermes was portrayed as a semi-human, semi-angelic being, and was frequently identified with the angel Metatron.75 One can suggest that it may have been under the influence of the Sabi’ans that

72 M. Ruthven, Islam in the World, 1984, pp. 28-48). Cited from: http://www.geocities.com/ mabcosmic/articles/istudies.html#stars 73 M.B.Piotrovsky, South Arabia in Early Middle Ages, (Moscow 1985), pp. 108-111. 74 Ibn Hisham, al-Sira, I, p. 125. 75 See. A. Gasimova, “Controversial Opinions about the Prophet Idris (Enoch)”, Philological issues, I, (Baku 2002), pp. 50-55.

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the veneration of angels began to circulate in pre-Islamic Arabia. According to the Qur’an, pre-Islamic Arabs believed in angels and considered them to be feminine (al-Najm,27). The pre-Islamic Arabs depicted angels in their main sanctuary. It is said that the prophet saw these paintings during the capture of . The tradition says that when he saw the paintings on the walls of the Ka’aba, the Prophet ordered all of them except the icon of and Virgin Mary to be wiped off.76 The worship of angels is mirrored in pre-Islamic cosmogonical myths too: the Ancient Arabs thought that the Jurhum tribe was born owing to the divine copulation of the daughter of with an angel.77 Dr. Mustafa Jayawuk states that seemingly the three famous idols – al-Lat, al-‘Uzza and al-Manat – were the symbols of angels.78 Furthermore, Jahiliyya Arabs considered angels to have various appearances: they could be imagined as a man, a bull, an eagle etc.79 It is said that when ’Umayya ibn Abi al- ∑alt described the angels as carriers of the throne, the prophet Muhammad testified that he was telling the truth.80 Of great interest is ‘Umayya’s poem describing the seven heavens,81 in which the depiction of angels attracts attention.82 However, in this poem there are many parallels and similarities with Islamic notions about angels, rather than with the Sabi’an accounts.

THE SABI’ANS AND THE HANIFS

Passing over the works which deal with Sabiism, we come to a work which gives a detailed outline of the spiritual tenets of this creed concerning its con- ceptions of angels as mediators between man and God and draws a parallel between the Sabi’ans and the Hanifs who considered prophets to be mediators

76 It seems these pictures were depicted on the walls with oil, because they were washed with water after capture of Mecca. Jawad ‘Ali, al-MufaÒÒalu, VI, pp. 435-438 Apparently, the art of painting had been developed in Arabia before Islam. The Muslim tradition contains some infor- mation about icon painting. The Talmudic tradition says that long before Islam there were very skilful portrait painters in Yemen. The Haggada, Legends, Parables, Sayings of Talmud and the Midrash, (Rostov-on-Don, 2000), p. 127. 77 Jawad ‘Ali, al-MufaÒÒalu, VI, p. 144. 78 Jayawuk, al-Îayat, p. 33. 79 Al-JaÌiÂ, Kitab al- Îayawan, VI, p. 221. 80 Al-JaÌiÂ, Kitab al- Îayawan, VI, comments, p. 221. 81 ’Umayya’s depiction of heavens has some nuances that are worth noticing as widespread, traditional motifs. In this poem some circles of the heavens have their own color, name etc. The motif that one cannot reach the seventh circle coincides with the Muslim tradition. We elucidated this topic in our book titled “The Ascension of the Prophet Muhammad.” A. Gasimova, The Ascension of the Prophet Muhammad, (Baku, 1994), pp. 71-72. 82 ’Umayya ibn Abi al- ∑alt, Îayatuhu, Shi‘ruhu, (TaÌqiqu Bahjat Abdul-Ghafur), (Baghdad, 1975), pp. 187-193.

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between human beings and the Divinity. This book is al-Shahristani’s Al-Milal wa al-NiÌal. Al-Shahristani called the Sabi’ans aÒÌabu al-ruÌaniyyat (“wor- shipers of spiritual beings”), thus alluding to the great importance attached to angels in Sabiism. Using a special style – debates between the two groups – he was able to describe the peculiarities of both tenets in full. The following passage illustrates the disputes between the Hanifs, who assume prophecy and sacred books as a basis of their discipline, and the Sabi’ans, who believe in angels and deny contact with the Divinity through human beings: The Sabi’ans say that there is the Wise Creator of the World and we have to understand the impossibility of union with Him. One can reach this divine being only through the help of mediators who are similar to Him. These mediators are divine, pure, holy creatures. In order to establish contact with these mediators, we have to purify our souls from evil passions, our morality from the influence of bad affection and anger. Only after all this being done can we ask these spiritual beings for help and make them mediators between us and God Almighty. Such purity and cleanliness are possible only through hard training and patience. While asking spiritual beings for help, one has to kneel, prostrate oneself, pray, give alms, observe fast, make sacrifices, burn fragrant plants and breathe in smoke steam etc. … Each spiritual power has its own temple. These temples are stars such as ZuÌal, Mushtari, Mirrikh, Shams, Zuhra, ‘Utarid, and Qamar. The spiritual beings of these temples are the cause for all that is happening. The relations between these beings look like the relations between body and spirit. The spiritual beings emerged from nothing. They are not corporeal beings. They are special beings created in a peculiar way. Their substance is light without any darkness. This light is so bright that it is not perceived by the senses and is not seen by the eyes. Due to greatness of its light, the mind is at a loss and the imagination in failure to conceive it. Spiritual beings are light, lofty, refined and graceful. Corporeal beings are dark, low and dirty. For the materia is a source of evil. … Our way to the Divine Bosom is obvious. Our law (shariat) is comprehensible. When they wanted to be closer to Divinity our ancestors built sanctuaries in the Earth corresponding to their Heavenly prototypes and through them approached the spiritual beings, the Lord and the Cause of all happenings. We derived the principles of this way from Azimun and Hermes. Hey you, Hanifs! You are devotees of human beings. You say that they receive and prophecy from God Almighty. What is the revelation? How does God Almighty speak to a human being? Is His Word like our speech? How do angels come down to Earth? They are not corporeal beings. Do they come in the appearance of angels or human beings? Do you have any evidence about their being sent in human appearance? What about the Book which sent to them? Is it the word of God Almighty? How can one imagine this word? Is it the divine word?”83

In spite of disparities between the Sabi’ans and the Hanifs, it is noteworthy that monotheistic faith is laid at the basis of both creeds. Both “” and

83 Al-Shahristani, Al-Milal, II, pp. 5-49.

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“sabi” mean “he who abandon one religion for another.” In Arabia, hanifism, which was a real and practical confession, prevailed over Sabiism, an abstract and imaginative one. Although the first Muslims were called ∑abi’un by unbe- lievers, they (the Muslims) claimed to be the Hanifs (Îunafa), thus consider- ing their ancestor not the obscure, semi-angelic, semi-human Hermes, but the more real personage of Abraham. Both creeds had a claim on the Ka’aba’ as their temple. However, this sanc- tuary is mentioned in the Qur’an as a temple rebuilt by Abraham(XXX), not as an ancient temple of the Sabi’ans. Nevertheless, we cannot avoid the fact that Sabiism left deep traces in the spiritual life of ancient Arabs and on the cult of the Ka’aba. There are many similarities between Sabian Gnosticism and Islamic mysti- cism. The conception of Nuru Muhammad is very close to the Sabi’an cosmol- ogy of illumination.84 Purification by water was widely used in some Sufi orders in the ceremony of initiation. The gnostic idea of the Sabi’ans that a man con- sists of three parts – the body (jasad), the spirit (ruh) and the soul (nafs)85 – was evaluated by Sufi philosophers. Even in the art and architecture of non- orthodox movements of Islam one can see the influence of the Sabi’an venera- tion of celestial bodies. As L. Massignon pointed out, in the art of Qarmats and other heretics, polygonal figures corresponding to certain planets became wide- spread.86 It should be accentuated that the influence of the ancient Sabi’ans on Islam, particularly on its popular-mystical side, needs comprehensive study to create a more complete picture of the prototypes and predecessors of Islam in general, and of such a unique phenomenon as Sufism in particular.

CONCLUSION

Coming to the conclusion we can encapsulate our main points as follows: • Characterized by complicated and miscellaneous tenets, Sabiism knew no temporal and spatial bounds. Generally, its close relation to ancient primitive beliefs and monotheistic notions may be observed throughout the history of its evolution. • In pre-Islamic Arabia the Sabi’ans, as well as the Hanifs, were not a religious sect in the strict sense of the word, but rather a group of hermits or pious men who differed widely from pagan people by their monotheistic beliefs and ascetic lifestyle.

84 See: Shinasi, Sabiiler, p. 128. 85 See: Shinasi, Sabiiler, p. 128. 86 L. Massignon, “Methods of the Artistic Expression of Muslim Nation”, in Essays on History of Arabic Culture of the V-XV Centuries, (Moscow, 1982), p. 52. (In Russian).

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• Although Muslim tradition abounds with records (khabars) on the Hanifs, there are scanty accounts of Sabiism and its adherents. • Being thoroughly monotheistic, Sabiism also stressed the special magnitude of heavenly bodies, and successfully connected star worshipping with a monotheistic confession. • The Sabi’ans’ influence may be observed in ancient Arabian totemic views and sacrificial ceremonies. • The building of some great temples dedicated to the celestial bodies has been ascribed to the Sabi’ans. • One of the points that related pre-Islamic Arabia to the Sabi’ans is their veneration of angels. • Although the first Muslims were called ∑abi’un by unbelievers, they claimed to be the Hanifs (Îunafa), thus considering their ancestor not the obscure, semi-angelic, semi-human Hermes, but the more real personage of Abraham. • Sabiism had some impact on Islam, particularly on its popular-mystical side,

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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