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Re-Evaluating the French Gay Liberation Moment 1968-1983 Dan Callwood School of History Queen Mary, University of London Submi

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Re-Evaluating the French Gay Liberation Moment 1968-1983 Dan Callwood School of History Queen Mary, University of London Submi Re-evaluating the French Gay Liberation Moment 1968-1983 Dan Callwood School of History Queen Mary, University of London Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy 1 Statement of Originality I, Dan Callwood, confirm that the research included within this thesis is my own work or that where it has been carried out in collaboration with, or supported by others, that this is duly acknowledged below and my contribution indicated. Previously published material is also acknowledged below. I attest that I have exercised reasonable care to ensure that the work is original, and does not to the best of my knowledge break any UK law, infringe any third party’s copyright or other Intellectual Property Right, or contain any confidential material. I accept that the College has the right to use plagiarism detection software to check the electronic version of the thesis. I confirm that this thesis has not been previously submitted for the award of a degree by this or any other university. The copyright of this thesis rests with the author and no quotation from it or information derived from it may be published without the prior written consent of the author. Dan Callwood 23 March 2017 Details of publications: Part of chapter two was published as: ‘Anxiety and desire in France’s gay pornographic film boom, 1974-1983,’ Journal of the History of Sexuality 26, no. 1, (January 2017): 26-52. 2 Abstract The thesis offers a reappraisal of the process of ‘liberation’ for homosexual men in France from the events of May 1968 until the onset of the AIDS crisis in 1983. I argue that what we have come to call gay liberation was in fact a complex and contentious process of transformation in the place of homosexual men in French society, a decade marked as much by continuity as it was by change. Gay liberation has been previously understood as a political movement that brought the gay man onto the political stage in spectacular fashion, beginning in the US and sweeping across Western Europe. New political activism is said to have provoked the changes that led to legal equality, culminating in recent marriage legislation. This narrative has solidified into a liberation ‘mythology’, written mainly by activists themselves, replete with its founding events, language and metaphors. A re-evaluation of the 1970s as a historical moment reveals not the beginning of a triumphant march to equality led by activists, but a transformation in the place of homosexual men in society that contains its own fits and starts, successes and dead ends. The thesis is divided into three parts: Ruptures, continuities and life stories. Part one focuses on aspects of change, the emergence of radical political groups and the burgeoning market catering to gay men. The second part moves to aspects of continuity: the repression of homosexual activity and the persistent stereotyping of homosexuality as the realm of a Parisian literary elite. To close the thesis, part three uses oral history to consider the life stories of men who experienced the period. 3 Contents List of Acronyms 4 Introduction 5 Part One: Changes 1: Liberation politics, from revolutionary aspirations to modest realities 49 2: Gay Commercial Spaces and Consumer Culture 138 Part Two: Continuities 3: Policing Homosexuality 206 4: In the Public Eye. Gay Men, Literature and the media 254 Part Three: Some Life Stories 298 Conclusion 337 Bibliography 348 Appendix One: Policing Statistics 367 Appendix Two: Translations from the French 373 Acknowledgements 441 4 List of acronyms ACT UP – Aids Coalition to Unleash Power. CAPR – Comité d'Action Pédérastique Révolutionnaire (Committee for Revolutionary Pederastic Action). CHA – Comités Homosexuels d’Arrondissement (District Homosexual Committees). CUARH – Comité d’Urgence Anti-Repression Homosexuelle (Emergency Committee against Homosexual Repression). FHAR – Front Homosexuel d’Action Révolutionnaire (Homosexual Front for Revolutionary Action). GLH – Groupe(s) de Libération Homosexuelle (Homosexual Liberation Group(s)). GLH-14 Décembre – Groupes de Libération Homosexuelle-14 Décembre (Homosexual Liberation Group – 14th December). GLH-PQ – Groupe de Libération Homosexuelle-Politique et Quotidien (Homosexual Liberation Group – Politics and Everyday Life). GLH-GB – Groupe de Libération Homosexuelle-Groupes de Base (Homosexual Liberation Group – Basic Groups). IHR – Internationale Homosexuelle Révolutionnaire (International Homosexual Revolutionaries). LCR – Ligue Communiste Révolutionnaire (Communist Revolutionary League). MLF – Mouvement de Libération des Femmes (Women’s Liberation Movement). PCF – Parti Communiste Français (French Communist Party) PS – Parti Socialiste (Socialist Party) RTL – Radio Télévision Luxembourg (Luxembourg Radio and Television) 5 Introduction ‘Le terme homosexuel me hérisse. Celui d’homophile encore plus. Moi je suis “hémophile”! je crois qu’il y a des êtres paumés et des êtres pas paumés, des êtres qui veulent se libérer et d’autres qui ne veulent, ou ne peuvent pas.’1 Jean-Daniel Cadinot, director, interview with Nouvel Homo magazine, June 1976. ‘Aujourd’hui plus personne ne s’organise autour de cette vague notion de “liberté sexuelle” sauf les gais pour la leur seule.’2 Jean Le Bitoux, editor of Gai Pied, writing in his magazine, 1982 ‘Enfin ça y est; et maintenant, je me sens libéré. J’accepte d’être celui que je suis; et là je me trouve aussi bien que n’importe qui. Je n’ai pas choisi d’être homosexuel, tout simplement… Je pense même, en tant que chrétien, que Dieu m’a voulu ainsi.’3 Letter from ‘Jean-Philippe’ to David et Jonathan, the journal of a homosexual Christian association, 1982. A director of gay pornographic films questioning the value of labels; a disillusioned liberation activist; and a joyful Christian letter-writer: all expressing different relationships to the notion of ‘gay liberation’, an idea which had come to permeate the thinking and actions of men who felt sexual attraction to other men in the 1970s. These different views, all expressed towards the end of a decade of liberation politics, show the mutability of the concept. Was liberation a purely sexual phenomenon? Did it mean coming to terms with a fixed homosexual identity? Or was it primarily a political intervention? Was liberation to be achieved on the streets, in the bars, or in the mind? 1 Jean Daniel Cadinot, ‘Jean Daniel Cadinot fait le point,’ Nouvel Homo, June 1976, 47. 2 Jean Le Bitoux, ‘Le papier du mois,’ Gai Pied, September 1982, 5. 3 ‘Jean-Philippe,’ letter, David et Jonathan, Summer 1982, 23. 6 As shall be seen, to many contemporaries, the 1970s was period of unprecedented transformation in the place of homosexual men in French society. And in this sense, France follows much of Western Europe and the United States. But as the extracts above show, the meaning of this change was unclear. A generation later, our vision of the decade is more likely to be presented primarily as a discrete moment of political radicalism and sexual abandon glimpsed between the closeted sixties and the tragedies of the HIV- AIDS crisis. This ‘liberation moment’ has been smothered by metaphors of ‘coming out of the closet’, increasing visibility, and the crystallisation of same- sex attraction into a fixed gay identity. It is read as a pivotal moment that marks the beginnings of a march towards legal and social equality, driven primarily by political activism that reaches its apogee in recent legislation for gay marriage.4 For many men in France, it was clear that the 1970s had brought change to their lives - indeed, that such a wide diversity of expression around homosexuality is readily available to us is evidence of that - but the extent and meaning of this change was unclear to them. When we look closely at the experience of homosexual men in France we see not a simple increase in visibility and social acceptance, but a complex mesh of change and continuity in how men relate to their own sexual identity and how wider society treated them. This thesis will recover the socio-cultural history of homosexual men in order to explore this transformation in the status of homosexuality in French society in the long 1970s. In doing so, I will offer an account of ‘gay liberation’ as an ambiguous 4 See for instance Frédéric Martel’s illustrated work for a popular audience that takes up this metaphor as its title and guiding principle, La longue marche des gays (Paris: Gallimard, 2002). 7 and historically contingent process, rather than as a teleological narrative of increasing equality – an ambiguous ‘transformation’ as opposed to a triumphant ‘liberation’. Political change in France in the 1970s The national context in which these divergent notions of liberation were expressed was fraught with economic, social and moral change. A spirit of contestation in the wake of the student and workers’ protests of May 1968 was the preface to a decade of economic crisis and political turbulence, as thirty years of economic growth and prosperity came to a stuttering end. The political and cultural historian Jean-François Sirinelli has identified the twenty years between 1965 and 1985 as a a decisive period in French postwar history: ‘1965- 1985 est une phase historiquement ambivalente; elle est grosse d’avenir et de progrès mais aussi porteuse de contradictions telles que l’avenir annoncé s’en trouva perturbé et que le progrès promis prit d’autres formes que celles initialement prédites.’5 These years span the hope and disappointment of the late 1960s, which culminated in the revolutionary attempts of 1968, and the beginning of a new economic and political settlement in the mid-1980s. The sociologist Henri Mendras believed that the social changes wrought in the two decades after 1965 were far-reaching enough to represent a second French Revolution.6 Change was extensive, but it was also contested. The 1970s was a 5 Jean-François Sirinelli, Les vingt décisives 1965-1985: le passé proche de notre avenir (Paris: Fayard, 2007), 41.
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