Classification of the — ANIMAL KINGDOM

Richard E. Blackwelder

Classification of the Animal Kingdom

CLASSIFICATION

OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM

Richard E. Blackwelder

SOUTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY PRESS Carbondale, Illinois COPYRIGHT © 1963 by Southern Illinois University Press

All rights reserved

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER 62-17618

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

DESIGNED BY ANDOR BRAUN CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1

Simplified List of Recent Phyla 6

Simplified List of Recent Classes and Orders, with Common Names 9 Notes on the Taxa 26

Complete List of Phyla 36

Complete List of Classes and Orders, with Synonyms, Subgroups, and Geologic Range 39 BIBLIOGRAPHY 72 INDEX TO COMMON NAMES 75 INDEX TO LATIN NAMES 80

INTRODUCTION

THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS is Still Very much a field in which dis- covery and revision are continuing, even after two hundred years of study. The importance of classification in biology increases every year, because the experimental and practical fields find increasing need for accurate identification of animals and for understanding of compara- tive relationships.

At least one outstanding biologist has opposed pubUcation of this new classification on the ground that it would be accepted as final, the classification, and would tend to make students think that all higher classification is finished. The intention of the compiler is just the op- posite. Just as this classification is different in detail from all previous ones, so will future editions be still different, as we learn more about the comparative features of animals.

It is anticipated that every new edition will spur students of the individual groups to propose improvements. It is therefore planned to issue corrected editions whenever appropriate. The very appearance of these subsequent editions will emphasize the growth of understanding of animal groups. Only one ostensibly complete classification of animals, living and fossil, has been published in recent years. That classification, by A. S.

Pearse of Duke University, is a good one, based on the views of many specialists. Certain mechanical faults make it less usable than it should be, and the need for revision gave the original impetus to preparation of the present classification. Because Pearse did not usually indicate the source of his arrangements, he is not here cited as an authority. Never- theless, the two classifications are basically very similar. No other single classification has been found that agrees so closely with the conclusions of the present study.

It should be emphasized that, within certain limits, this classifica- tion is not a simple compilation of the views of specific workers. In nearly all details, choices have been made between conflicting schemes CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM 2 of various authors, not on the basis of the reputation of those authors but on my judgment of the soundness of their supporting arguments or on my analysis of the data they present. In none of the larger groups has the work of any single author been accepted without modification. Several considerations have influenced the decisions embodied in this classification.

First, a false picture is given by a simplified classification, because the existing diversity is one of the principal features of the animal kingdom. Therefore, no groups should be combined merely for the sake of sim- plicity.

Second, although the previous item would seem to require coverage of the groupings at all possible levels, to show the extreme range of division and subdivision, this is not in fact possible. Not only are there many conflicting groupings at certain levels, such as of phyla or orders, but there is no practical way to show these groupings in a general classifica- tion. It is a compromise that is believed to be effective to subdivide the phyla only into classes, subclasses, and orders. Other possible groupings, such as subphyla and superorders are referred to in the notes.

Third, two groups which are so distinct at any level that they cannot be described in common terms must be separated at that level. (For example, Pterobranchia and Enteropneusta; see the Notes on the Taxa.)

Fourth, groups which cannot be distinguished at any particular level by the type of characters used for their neighbors must be combined at that level. (For example, the sometime classes of Nematoda.)

Fifth, the discovery of groupings within a class, for example, does not justify the creation of new classes for each of the subgroups. The proper level for the new groups can only be determined by comparison with neighboring parts of the classification.

Sixth, although uniformity in the form (endings) of names at each level would unquestionably be helpful, it cannot now be attained with- out adding greatly to the total of name forms and synonyms. The sys- tems so far proposed are so diverse as to introduce further confusion of their own. None of the systems has been widely enough accepted to be entitled to adoption throughout the Animal Kingdom. None has been so widely accepted on a world basis, even in one group, as to indicate Introduction 3 universal acceptance in the near future. Indeed, even the ordinal endings in -iformes adopted by American ichthyologists and ornithologists are almost entirely unused in the rest of the world. The resulting names are unnecessarily long and cumbersome. The system does not relieve any- one from learning the shorter forms also. The latter are used here, with the uniform-ending forms listed as synonyms. In other groups, usage of the source of the classification is followed as to spelling, in most cases. There are a variety of systems in use and no obvious trend to- ward adoption of any single system. This classification attempts to show the various spellings as well as the various synonyms. Each zoologist will choose which one he wishes to use in each case.

Seventh, no single rule will suffice for choice of names where several apply to a single taxon. Reasons for each decision are given in the text in many cases, but in general it has been the goal to retain the best known names, at the most appropriate level, regardless of homonymy.

Priority is considered to be of secondary importance at these levels.

Eighth, although considerable homonymy exists at all levels, even up to that of phylum names, there is almost no real confusion caused thereby. Until there are direct rules to govern the decisions, there seems to be nothing gained by replacing well known names, such as Decapoda (either in the Cephalopoda or in the Crustacea).

This classification is in three parts, the purposes of which are quite

different. In order of preparation, these are: 1] the complete classifica-

tion, including lists of the phyla and of the classes and orders, of all ani-

mals, living and fossil; 2] the justification for unusual features in this

classification; and 3] a simplified classification of Recent animals for

student use, with common names, again including lists of the phyla and of the classes and orders. The arrangement of these parts in the

book is just the reverse of this.

In both lists, the phyla are first arranged in four subkingdoms, and

one of these is divided into four series. Many other groupings of these phyla are possible, and several are shown in the footnotes of the section

Complete List of Phyla. It is not here believed that these supra-phylum groupings are of much significance at this phase of the knowledge of animals.

In both lists of orders, these orders are arranged in the appropri-

ate classes and subclasses. No other levels, such as superorder, are rec- CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM 4 ognized. They may be of use in some circumstances but seem to be of little value in showing the arrangement of the orders on a practical basis. Throughout, rejected synonyms are printed in itaUcs, the accepted class names are in capital letters, and the subclass names and the order names are both set in capitals and lower case letters. In the footnotes, names that also appear in the classification above are printed in small capitals. The other names in the footnotes are somewhat in the nature of rejected synonyms, but as most of them are really the names of non- accepted groupings, they appear in capitals and lower case roman letters.

To the variety of spellings there is no end. No attempt is made to list all forms, but such spellings as would appear at a separate place in an alphabetical index are listed, along with those variations that are used for distinct levels; e.g., Echiuroidea (phylum), Echiurida (class), and Echiuroina (order). In the Complete List of Orders the geologic range of each group is shown by symbols at the right margin. The meaning of these symbols is shown in the following table.

REC Recent JUR Jurassic QUA Quaternary mes Mesozoic PLE Pleistocene per Permian PLI Pliocene pen Pennsylvanian OLI Oligocene mis Mississippian Mio Miocene car Carboniferous EOC Eocene (+ Paleocene) dev Devonian ter Tertiary sil Silurian CEN Cenozoic ord Ordovician CRE Cretaceous cam Cambrian TRI Triassic pal Paleozoic

There are a few points of discrepancy between the Simplified List and the Complete List. These are intentional, to make the simplified list more useful to students. The Complete List shows the definitive classification that is here being proposed. The names included under the footnote heading "Includes" may be suborders, synonyms, rejected groups, or names of questionable ap-

plication. They are all names which have at some time been used for orders or more inclusive groups and are included merely to indicate their approximate position in the scheme. 5 Introduction Several recent schemes of classification in particular groups are known to the compiler but are not followed herein. Some were received too late for study (e.g., part W of the Treatise of Invertebrate Paleon- tology). Some were not yet available in the form needed for our use

and so were not considered (e.g., Echinodermata by H. B. Fell and

Mollusca by Taylor and Sohl). There is no judgment of these schemes

implied in this action; they will be considered for a subsequent revised edition.

It will probably be thought by some that this is an extreme classifi- cation in separating many small groups as distinct phyla. The compiler believes that it is a conservative classification even in this regard. He believes that an important basic tenet of classification, too often over- looked, is that all groups must be distinct and definable and that there- fore forms are not to be forced into existing groups at any level if they do not agree with what are deemed to be the important features of that group. The important features in this case are those which caused the group to be set aside and maintained as distinct.

It is sometimes possible to enlarge slightly the scope of a group definition to admit forms previously unknown, but this does not justify including widely divergent forms that cannot be defined together effec- tively. Simplified List

Subk Series Phylum

Kingdom AN I MALI A^

EOZOA Protozoa ^ [one-celled animals] ^ PARAZOA Porifera sponges AGNOTOZOA Mesozoa HISTOZOA (Metazoa) Enterocoela Monoblastozoa

Coelenterata (Cnidaria) hydroids, jellyfish, medusae, corals, sea-anemones Ctenophora comb-jellies, sea-walnuts Acoelomata Platyhelminthes flatworms Rhynchocoela (Nemertinea) ribbon-worms, proboscis-worms Pseudocoelomata Acanthocephala spiny-headed-worms

Rotifera (Rotatoria) rotifers, wheel-animalcules Gastrotricha Kinorhyncha (Echinodera) Priapuloidea Nematoda thread-worms, round-worms Gordiacea (Nematomorpha) horsehair-worms, gordian-worms Calyssozoa (Endoprocta) —

of Recent Phyla

Subk Series Phylum

Coelomata Bryozoa (Ectoprocta) moss-animals Phoronida Brachiopoda lamp-shells MoUusca mollusks Sipunculoidea Echiuroidea Myzostomida Annelida [segmented worms] Tardigrada bear-animalcules, water-bears Pentastomida Onychophora

Arthropoda crustaceans, arachnids, insects, etc. Chaetognatha arrow-worms Pogonophora beard-worms Echinodermata Pterobranchia Enteropneusta Planctosphaeroidea Tunicata sea-squirts Cephalochordata lancelets Vertebrata vertebrates

^ For explanations, other synonyms, extinct groups, and other taxa above the phylum level, see the section Complete List of Phyla. ^The Protozoa are sometimes placed in a separate kingdom of organisms the Protista. ^ Non-Latin names can be made for each phylum by merely using the English form of the name, such as protozoans for Protozoa or arthropods for Arthropoda. These are listed only where they are in common use.

Simplified List of Recent Classes and Orders

with Common Names

Class Subcl Order PROTOZOA

FLAGELLATA (Mastigophora) flagellates Phytomastigina [plant-like flagellates]

Chrysomonadina silicoflageUates, etc. Coccolithophorida coccolithophores, coccoliths Cryptomonadina

Phytomonadina ( Volvocales) Euglenoidina Chloromonadina Dinoflagellata dinoflagellates

Zoomastigina [animal-like flagellates] Rhizomastigina Protomonadina Polymastigina Hypermastigina SARCODINA Rhizopoda rhizopods Proteomyxa Mycetozoa slime-molds Amoebozoa Testacea Foraminifera foraminiferans, forams Actinopoda Heliozoa sun-animalcules Radiolaria radiolarians SPOROZOA Telosporidia Gregarinida Coccidia Haemosporidia Cnidosporidia Myxosporidia Actinomyxidia SIMPLIFIED LIST OF RECENT CLASSES AND ORDERS 10

Class Subcl Order Microsporidia microsporidians Helicosporidia Sarcosporidia Sarcosporidia Globidia Haplosporidia Haplosporidia CILIATA ciliates Protociliata Opalinida opalinids Euciliata Holotricha Spirotricha tintiimids, etc. Chonotricha Peritricha SUCTORIA Suctoria

PORIFERA sponges CALCAREA (Calcispongea) [calcareous sponges, chalky sponges] Solenida Lebetida Pharetronida Thalamida HYALOSPONGEA (Hexactinellida) glass-sponges Lyssakina Dictyonina Lychniskophora Heteractinida DEMOSPONGEA Myxospongida Keratosida horny-sponges Haplosclerida Poecilosclerida Hadromerida Halichondrida Epipolasida Choristida Carnosida Lithistlda stone-sponges 1

1 Porifera — Coelenterata

Class Subcl Order M ESOZOA RHOMBOZOA Dicyemida Heterocyemida ORTHONECTIDA Orthonectida MONOBLASTOZOA MONOBLASTOIDEA Monoblastidea COELENTERATA (Cnidaria)

coelenterates, medusae HYDROZOA Trachylinida Hydroida Milleporida (Hydrocorallinae) millepores Stylasterina Siphonophora siphonophores SCYPHOZOA jellyfishes Stauromedusae Cubomedusae Coronatae Semaeostomeae Rhizostomeae ANTHOZOA sea-anemones, corals Alcyonaria Stolonifera Telestacea Alcyonacea soft-corals Coenothecalia blue-corals Gorgonacea sea-fans, horny-corals, gorgonians, sea-feathers Pennatulacea sea-pens, sea-pansies Zoantharia Zoanthiniaria CoraUimorpharia Actiniaria sea-anemones Scleractinia (Madreporaria) hexacorals, stony-corals SIMPLIFIED LIST OF RECENT CLASSES AND ORDERS 12

Class Subcl Order Ceriantipatharia Antipatharia black-corals, thomy-corals Ceriantharia CTENOPHORA

comb-jellies, sea-walnuts TENTACULATA Cydippida Lobata Cestida Platyctenea NUDA Beroida PLATYH ELMINTHES flatworms

TURBELLARIA planarians Acoela Rhabdocoela Alloeocoela Tricladida triclads Polycladida polyclads TREMATODA flukes Monogenea Aspidogastrea Digenea CESTODA tapeworms Proteocephala Tetraphyllidea Disculicepitidea Lecanicephala Trypanorhyncha Cyclophyllidea Aporidea Nippotaeniidea Caryophyllidea Spathebothridea Pseudophyllidea CESTODARIA Amphilinidea Gyrocotylidea Biporophyllidea 3

1 Ctenophora — Kinorhyncha

Class Subcl Order

RH YNCHOCOELA ribbon-worms, proboscis-worms NEMERTINEA Palaeonemertea Heteronemertea Hoplonemertea Bdellonemertea ACANTHOCEPHALA spiny-headed-worms ACANTHOCEPHALA Archiacanthocephala Palaeacanthocephala Eoacanthocephala

ROTI FERA (Rotatoria)

rotifers, wheel-animalcules SEISONIDEA Seisonacea BDELLOIDEA Bdellacea MONOGONONTA Ploima Flosculariacea Collothecacea GASTROTRICHA

gastrotrichs MACRODASYOIDEA Macrodasyidea CHAETONOTOIDEA Chaetonotidea KINORHYNCHA

ECHINODERA Echinodera SIMPLIFIED LIST OF RECENT CLASSES AND ORDERS 14

Class Subcl Order

PRIAPULOI DEA

PRIAPULOIDEA Priapulida NEMATODA

nematodes, nemas, thread-worms, round-worms NEMATOIDEA Enoploidea Dorylaimoidea Mermithoidea Chromadoroidea Araeolaimoidea Monhysteroidea Desmoscolecoidea Rhabditoidea Rhabdiasoidea Oxyuroidea Ascaroidea Strongyloidea Spiruroidea Dracunculoidea Filarioidea Trichuroidea Dioctophymoidea

GOR DIACEA

gordian-worms, horsehair-worms

NEMATOMORPHA Gordioidea Nectonematoidea CALYSSOZOA

endoprocts

ENDOPROCTA (Entoprocta)

Pedicellinida 15 Priapuloidea — Mollusca

Class Subcl Order

BR YOZOA

sea-mats, corallines, moss-animals, bryozoans, sea-mosses PHYLACTOLAEMATA Lophopoda GYMNOLAEMATA Cyclostomata Ctenostomata Cheilostomata

PHORON I DA phoronids PHORONIDA Phoronida

BR ACH lOPO DA

lamp-shells, brachiopods INARTICULATA Atremata Neotremata ARTICULATA Protremata Telotremata MOLLUSCA mollusks MONOPLACOPHORA Tryblidioidea AMPHINEURA chitons Neoloricata APLACOPHORA (Solenogastres) Neomeniida Chaetodermatida GASTROPODA snails, slugs, gastropods Prosobranchia Archaeogastropoda limpets, ear-shells, turbans Caenogastropoda Opisthobranchia Pleurocoela sea-hares SIMPLIFIED LIST OF RECENT CLASSES AND ORDERS

Class Subcl Order Pteropoda butterfly-shells, pteropods Sacoglossa Acoela nudibranchs Pulmonata land-snails, slugs Basommatophora boat-shells, ramshorns Stylommatophora slugs BIVALVIA (Pelecypoda, Lamellibrcmchiata) bivalves, oysters, clams, mussels, pelecypods Protobranchia Filibranchia Eulamellibranchia Septibranchia SCAPHOPODA tooth-shells, tusk-shells Scaphopoda CEPHALOPODA cephalopods Tetrabranchiata Nautiloidea pearly-nautilus Dibranchiata Decapoda squids, cuttle-fish Octopoda octopuses, argonauts Vampyromorpha SIPUNCULOIDEA [sipunculid worms] SIPUNCULOIDEA Sipunculida

ECHI U ROI DEA ECHIURIDA Echiuroina Xenopneusta Heteromyota SACCOSOMATIDA Saccosomatida

M YZOSTOM I DA MYZOSTOMIDA Proboscidea Pharyngidea ANNELIDA [segmented worms] annelids 7

1 Sipunculoidea — Arthropoda

Class Subcl Order CHAETOPODA Polychaeta polychaetes Errantia sandworms Sedentaria tubeworms Oligochaeta earthworms, angle-worms, night-crawlers, oligochaetes Plesiothecata Prosothecata Prosopora Opisthopora HIRUDINEA leeches, bloodsuckers Rhynchobdellida Gnathobdellida Pharyngobdellida Acanthobdellida ARCHIANNELIDA Archiannelida TAR DIGRADA

bear-animalcules, water-bears HETEROTARDIGRADA Arthrotardigrada Echiniscoidea EUTARDIGRADA Eutardigrada

PENTASTOM I DA LINGUATULIDA Cephalobaenida Porocephalida ONYCHOPHORA PERIPATIDEA Euonychophora ARTHROPODA arthropods MEROSTOMATA Xiphosura Xiphosurida horseshoe-crabs PYCNOGONIDA sea-spiders Eupantopoda SIMPLIFIED LIST OF RECENT CLASSES AND ORDERS l8

Class Subcl Order ARACHNIDA arachnids Latigastra Scorpionida scorpions Pseudoscorpionida book-scorpions, false-scorpions, pseudoscorpions Phalangida (Opiliones) harvest-men. Daddy-long-legs Acarida mites, ticks, chiggers Caulogastra Palpigradida microscorpions Thelyphonida whip-scorpions Schizomida Phrynichida tailless-whip-scorpions Araneida {Araneae) spiders, tarantulas, black-widows Solpugida (Solifugae) solpugids, sun-spiders Ricinuleida (Podogonata) CRUSTACEA crustaceans Branchiopoda Anostraca brine-shrimps Notostraca phyllopods, fairy-shrimps Conchostraca Cladocera water-fleas Cephalocarida Cephalocarida Ostracoda Myodocopida Podocopida Mystacocarida Mystacocarida Copepoda (Eucopepoda) Calanoida Harpacticoida Cyclopoida Notodelphyoida Monstrilloida Caligoida Lernaeopodoida Branchiura Branchiura Cirripedia barnacles Thoracica Acrothoracica 19 Arthropoda

Class Subcl Order Ascothoracica Apoda Rhizocephala Malacostraca Nebaliacea Anaspidacea Mysidacea opossum-shrimps Thermosbaenacea Spelaeogriphacea Lophogastridea Cumacea Tanaidacea Isopoda pillbugs, sowbugs Amphipoda scuds

Euphausiacea krill Decapoda crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimps, prawns Stomatopoda mantis-shrimps PAUROPODA Heterognatha SYMPHYLA Cephalostigmata DIPLOPODA millipedes Pselaphognatha Ancyrotricha Lophotricha Chilognatha Limacomorpha Oniscomorpha Ascospermophora Colobognatha Nematophora Proterospermophora Opisthospermophora CHILOPODA centipedes Pleurostigmophora Geophilomorpha Scolopendromorpha Lithobiomorpha Craterostigma Notostigmophora Scutigeromorpha SIMPLIFIED LIST OF RECENT CLASSES AND ORDERS 20

Class Subcl Order INSECTA (Hexapoda) insects Apterygota Protura proturans

Thysanura silver-fish, bristle-tails, rock-jumpers Entotrophi campodeids, japygids Collembola springtails, snow-fleas Exopterygota (Heterometabola) Ephemerida mayflies Odonata dragonflies, damselflies, mosquito-hawks, devil's-darning-needles, snake-doctors

Plecoptera stone-flies, salmonflies Grylloblattoidea grylloblattids Orthoptera (Saltatoria) grasshoppers, crickets, locusts, katydids, mole-crickets Phasmidia walking-sticks, stick-insects, leaf-insects Blattaria roaches, cockroaches, croton-bugs Mantodea praying-mantis, soothsayers, mantids Dermaptera earwigs Embioptera embiids, webspinners Isoptera termites, white-ants Psocoptera (Corrodentia) psocids, book-lice, bark-lice, dust-lice Zoraptera zorapterans Mallophaga bird-lice, biting-lice Thysanoptera thrips Homoptera cicadas, leaf-hoppers, tree-hoppers, aphids, scale-insects, spittle-bugs, mealy-bugs, frog-spit, psylhds,

lantern-flies, white-flies Heteroptera bugs, bed-bugs

Anoplura sucking-lice, lice Endopterygota {Holometabola) Neuroptera snake-flies, serpent-flies, lace-wings, ant-lions,

dobson-flies, fish-flies, orl-flies Mecoptera scorpion-flies Trichoptera caddis-flies, trout-flies, case-flies Lepidoptera butterflies, moths, skippers, blues, woolly-bears, caterpiflars, millers

Diptera flies, gnats, mosquitoes, midges, bots, maggots, punkies

Siphonaptera fleas, chigoes Coleoptera beetles, weevils, fireflies, elaters, glow-worms, water-pennies, meal-worms, wire-worms, white-grubs 21 Insecta — Echinodermata

Class Subcl Order Strepsiptera stylopids Hymenoptera bees, wasps, ants, sawflies, hornets, wood-wasps, ichneumon-flies, gall-wasps, velvet-ants, horntails, tarantula-hawks

CH AETOGN ATH A arrow-worms SAGITTOIDEA Sagittoidea POGONOPHORA beard-worms POGONOPHORA Thecanephria Athecanephria ECHINODERMATA echinoderms

CRINOIDEA feather-stars, crinoids, sea-lilies Articulata Isocrinida Cyrtocrinida Comatulida ASTEROIDEA starfishes, sea-stars Phanerozonea Spinulosa Forcipulata

OPHIUROIDEA brittle-stars, sand-stars, basket-stars, serpent-stars Myophiurida Ophiocystiida Aganasterida Phrynophiurida Laemophiurida Gnathophiurida Chilophiurida ECHINOIDEA sea-urchins, heart-urchins, sand-dollars Regularia Cidaroida Centrechinoida Exocycloida SIMPLIFIED LIST OF RECENT CLASSES AND ORDERS 22

Class Subcl Order

Irregularia Holectypoida Cassiduloida Clypeastroida cake-urchins, sand-dollars Spantangoida heart-urchins HOLOTHURIOIDEA sea-cucumbers Aspidochirota Elasipoda Dendrochirota Molpadonia Apoda PTEROBRANCHIA PTEROBRANCHIA Rhabdopleurida Cephalodiscidea ENTEROPNEU STA acom-worms, tongue-worms ENTEROPNEUSTA Balanoglossida PLANCTOSPH AEROI DEA PLANCTOSPHAEROIDEA Planctosphaeroidea TUN ICATA tunicates LARVACEA Larvacea ASCIDIACEA sea-squirts, ascidians Stolidobranchiata Aspiraculata Phlebobranchiata Aplousobranchiata Octacnemida THALIACEA Pyrosomata Pyrosomatida Myosomata Cyclomyaria Hemimyaria Desmomyaria 2 3 Pterobranchia — Vertebrata Class Subcl Order CEPH ALOCHOR DATA LEPTOCARDIA Amphioxi lancelets VERTEBRATA vertebrates

AGNATHA [jawless fishes] Cephalaspidomorpha Cyclostomata lampreys, hag-fishes, sHme-eels CHONDRICHTHYES [cartilaginous fishes] Elasmobranchii Selachii sharks, dogfishes, angel-fishes Batoidea skates, rays Holocephali rabbit-fishes Chimaerae chimaeras, ratfishes OSTEICHTHYES [bony fishes] Actinopterygii [ray-finned fishes] Chondrostei Holostei gars Teleostei Choanichthyes [lobe-finned fishes]

Crossopterygii coelacanths, etc. Dipnoi lungfishes AMPHIBIA (Batrachia) amphibians, batrachians Salientia Anura frogs, toads Lepospondyli Urodela salamanders, newts Apoda (Gymnophiona) caecilians REPTILIA reptiles Anapsida Chelonia tortoises, turtles Diapsida Rhynchocephalia Squamata lizards, snakes Crocodilia crocodiles, gavials, alligators, caymans AVES birds Neornithes Sphenisci {Spheniscijormes) penguins Struthiones (Stmthioniformes) ostriches SIMPLIFIED LIST OF RECENT CLASSES AND ORDERS 24

Class Subcl Order Rheae (Rheiformes) rheas Casuarii (Casuariiformes) cassowaries, emus Apteryges (Apterygiformes) kiwis Crypturi {Crypturijormes, Tinami, Tinamijormes) tinamous Gaviae (Gaviiformes) loons Podicipedes (Podicipediformes, Colymbae, Colymbijormes) grebes, divers Procellariae (Procellariiformes, Tubinares) albatrosses, shearwaters, petrels, fulmars, Steganopodes (Pelecani, Pelecaniformes) cormorants, pelicans, gannets, tropicbirds, boobies, snake-birds, frigate-birds Ciconiae (Ciconiiformes) herons, bitterns, storks, hammerheads, spoonbills, ibises, flamingoes Anseres (A nseriformes) ducks, geese, swans, screamers Falcones (Falconiformes) hawks, eagles, vultures, falcons, caracaras, ospreys, harriers, secretary-birds Galli (Galliformes) megapodes, pheasants, quails, grouse, turkeys, fowls, peacocks, hoatzins Grues (Gruiformes) cranes, limpkins, raUs, sunbitterns, bustard-quails, plainwanderers, trumpeters, coots, gaUinules, kagus, sungrebes, bustards Charadriae (Charadriiformes) jacanas, snipe, oyster-catchers, plovers, tumstones, surf-birds, woodcock, sandpipers,

avocets, stilts, phalaropes, gulls, terns, skimmers, awks, murres Columbae (Columbiformes) doves, pigeons, dodos, sandgrouse, solitaires

Psittaci (Psittaciformes) parrots, parakeets, lories, macaws Cuculi (Cuculiformes) cuckoos, plantain-eaters, touracos,

anis, roadrunners

Striges (Strigiformes) owls Caprimulgi (Caprimulgiformes) goatsuckers, potoos,

oil-birds, frogmouths Macrochires (Macrochiriformes, Apoda, Micropodi) swifts, humming-birds Colli (Coliiformes) mouse-birds, colics Trogones (Trogoniformes) trogans Coraciae (Coraciiformes) kingfishers, rollers, hoopoes, hornbills, todies, motmots, bee-eaters

Pici (Piciformes) woodpeckers, toucans, honey-guides, jacamars, puffbirds, barbets, piculets 2 5 Vertebrata Class Subcl Order Passeres (Passeriformes) songbirds, warblers, thrushes, shrikes, creepers, nuthatches, titmice, vireos, finches, tanagers, blackbirds, starlings, orioles, crows, jays, magpies swallows, butcher-birds, wrens, thrashers, mockingbirds,

kinglets, flycatchers, wrentits, dippers, honey-creepers, grosbeaks, buntings, broadbills, woodhewers, antbirds, ovenbirds, lyrebirds, bulbuls, larks, babblers, wagtails, waxwings, weaverbirds, drongos, wattlebirds, bowerbirds,

birds-of-paradise, etc. MAMMALIA mammals Prototheria Monotremata monotremes, platypus, echidna Metatheria MarsupiaUa marsupials, opossums, Tasmanian-wolf, bandicoots, phalangers, koalas, kangaroos Eutheria (Placentalia) placentals Insectivora insectivores, tenrecs, hedgehogs, shrews Dermoptera colugos, flying-lemurs Chiroptera bats, vampires

Primates lemurs, tree-shrews, aye-aye, lorises, bush-babies,

tarsiers, monkeys, marmosets, macaques, baboons, guenons,

langurs, apes, gibbons, lars, chimpanzees, orangutans, gorillas, men Edentata sloths, anteaters, armadillos Pholidota pangolms Lagomorpha hares, rabbits, pikas Rodentia squirrels, chipmunks, marmots, pocket-mice, pacas,

kangaroo-rats, beavers, rats, mice, muskrats, lemmings, voles, dormice, porcupines, capybaras, guinea-pigs, chinchillas Cetacea porpoises, dolphins, whales

Carnivora dogs, wolves, foxes, bears, raccoons, coatis,

kinkajous, pandas, weasels, minks, otters, badgers,

wolverines, skunks, civets, hyenas, cats, seals, sea-lions, walruses Tubulidentata aardvarks Proboscidea mastodons, mammoths, elephants Hyracoidea hyraxes Sirenia sea-cows

Perissodactyla horses, zebras, tapirs, rhinoceroses Artiodactyla pigs, peccaries, hippopotamuses, camels, llamas,

alpacas, guanacos, deer, giraffes, pronghorns, cattle,

antelopes, sheep, gazelles, musk-oxen, goats, etc. Notes on the Taxa

Subkingdoms and their subdivisions Animalia. Division of the Animal King- Eozoa and Agnotozoa. In the choice of dom into four subkingdoms is seen in names for subkingdoms, it has been felt many recent classifications, although some that only slight advantage results from writers prefer to list the Parazoa, Mesozoa, having a single phylum known by a differ- and Eumetazoa as branches of Metazoa in ent name than is used for its subkingdom. contrast to the Protozoa. The use of the However, with only four subkingdoms in- additional level "branch" is difficult to jus- volved and with two of these consisting of tify where so few groups are involved, un- two or more phyla, it appears to be rea- less there is definite information on the sonable to be uniform in this respect and phylogeny of these groups. Such knowl- use separate names for the subkingdom edge of the relationships of the groups is and phylum that include the protozoans lacking, or, at best, highly speculative. The and for the subkingdom and phylum that groups are generally recognized at the include the mesozoans. phylum and subkingdom levels, and these seem to be adequate for classification ex- Parazoa. The Porifera have long been rec- cept within the Metazoa proper (see be- ognized as constituting a group distinct low). from the rest of the many-celled animals. Inasmuch as it is often stated that ani- The extinct Cyathospongia, under one of mals are either one-celled or many-celled, the three available names, were placed it would seem to be necessary to accept the with the sponges by Okulitch and others, older subdivision of Animalia into two sub- and as a separate phylum in the Parazoa kingdoms, Protozoa and Metazoa. The fact by Pearse and others. is, however, that many undoubted proto- zoans exist only in aggregations of many cells, often with as much division of labor Histozoa. This name is accepted here be- between cell types as in some undoubted cause of the great ambiguity of the more metazoans. Removal of the Protozoa to a familiar name Metazoa. As explained separate kingdom Protista solves part of above, the incorporation of many cells into this problem, but the remaining animals one body is not distinctive of any major still represent the three very different basic group of animals, even if single-celled structures: 1] a vase-like cylinder open adult structure is found exclusively in one at one end and with several types of cells group. It was the desire to retain Metazoa in the walls but with the internal cavity which has led many writers to list the not serving for digestion, 2] a solid body Parazoa, Mesozoa, and Eumetazoa as consisting of one layer of cells around a branches of a subkingdom Metazoa. Inas- central cell or group of cells, and 3] a much as Metazoa cannot be effectively de- multicellular body with internal cavities of fined, to the exclusion of all Protozoa, it which one is usually a digestive tract and seems to be more realistic to recognize with walls of one, two, or three layers of three or four subkingdoms of animals on cells. the basis of the general body construction. These three types of construction are Attempts to divide it on the basis of cell so different as to require recognition as pri- number are arbitrary and misleading. mary divisions of the kingdom. With the The use of any of these subkingdom Protozoa (when these are treated as ani- groups is of questionable value; it is the mals), they form the four subkingdoms phyla that are important and that are most employed here: Eozoa, Parazoa, Agnoto- often definable. The distinction between zoa, and Histozoa. even Protozoa and Metazoa is so com- 27 Notes on Subkingdoms and Phyla pletely nebulous that it no longer serves point it appears that the most useful group- any clear purpose. Use of the subkingdom ing is the one based on the type of body and series names herein is simply a recog- cavity. Accordingly four groups are here nition of their use in many recent classifi- recognized, those phyla with an enterocoel cations. or gastrovascular cavity only, those with Division of the Histozoa (Metazoa) no cavities except a digestive tract, those into grades, series, or divisions has been at- with a pseudocoel, and those with a coe- tempted many times. Most of the groups so lom. These groupings are all well known adopted in the past are employed in the from Hyman (1940) and other works. face of obvious defects in the form of ex- No satisfactory name exists for the ceptions. Not all Radiata show any form first of these four groups. Radiata is inap- of radial arrangement, and not all radially plicable to many forms. Protaxonia is arranged animals are put in the Radiata. based on a concept of embryonic axes Bilateria included animals with quite di- which would include extraneous groups. verse body plans, some with virtually no Enterozoa and Enterocoela were originally paired structures, no obvious "sides," no applied to much larger concepts. On the anterior and posterior, and only a remote whole, Enterocoela is the most appropriate similarity to the obviously bilateral ani- in meaning, and it is adopted here. mals. Some groups placed in the Schizo- coela form their coelom in the enterocoe- Radiata and Bilateria. The Histozoa or lous manner, and at least one group placed Metazoa have sometimes been divided into in the Enterocoela forms its coelom by the the Radiata (Coelenterata and Cteno- schizocoelous method. Articulata has in- phora) and the Bilateria (all others) on cluded animals that are not segmented. the basis of their general body arrange- And so on. ment. The distinction is here held to be a It is here concluded that the histozoan fictitious one, because Ctenophora are (or eumetazoan) phyla cannot be grouped much less radial than some Echinoder- readily into clear-cut series. The number mata, and such an animal as a bryozoan is of these phyla is not so great as to force so completely different in body arrange- subdivision of the subkingdom, but custom ment from an annelid worm that it is seems to be sufficient justification for indi- meaningless to say that they are both bi- cating some grouping of them. At this lateral.

Phyla and rejected phylum groups

Cyathospongia. Recent works on this ex- at the other. The cells are thus simultane- tinct phylum have adopted either Pleo- ously both "ectoderm" and "endoderm"; spongia or Archaeocyatha as the phylum they are ciliated on both surfaces. Repro- name. Both of these names are of later duction is asexual (by transverse fission), date (1937) than Cyathospongia (1935), and there are indications of a sexual proc- and Archaeocyatha has been used more ess in the form of fusion of two individ- consistently for one of the included classes. uals. It is possible that a ciliated unicellu- There seems to be no firmly established lar larva results from the sexual process. usage that prevents us adopting the oldest Hyman suggested (1940) the phylum name. status for this peculiar animal, but she did not propose such a phylum directly and Mesozoa. There appears to be no reason left Salinella unassigned to any group. for not adopting the name now in wide use for this phylum, especially as it is the old- Graptozoa. The graptolites have had a est name (1877). The name has also been more varied history than most other major used at the subkingdom level, where the groups. They were for years assigned to the synonym Agnotozoa seems to be more ap- Hydrozoa in the Coelenterata, but have propriate. more recently been transferred to the Hemichordata. In 1959 Hyman examined Monoblastozoa. A new phylum named the arguments supporting the hemichor- here for the unique metazoan Salinella, date assignment. After effectively dispos- which has too long been left excluded ing of all of these, she left the group from the classifications of animals. It con- without clear assignment, although she pre- tains only one genus and one species. The sumably retained them in the Hydrozoa, as animal consists of a single layer of similar she had doubtfully done in 1940. cells surrounding an internal tubular tract Some features of the skeleton of grap- which has a "mouth" at one end, an "anus" tolites are not duplicated in the Hydrozoa, CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM 28 and the nature of the material of this exo- Coelenterata. In some recent works (es- skeleton is not known. It is not possible to pecially Hyman, 1940) this phylum has say definitely that the graptolites are been called Cnidaria because Coelenterata coelenterates, because the nature of the has at other times included such groups as body cavity is not known, but there is no Ctenophora and Porifera. This reason for evidence that it is not a coelenteron. The abandoning the universally known name graptolites may thus reasonably be in- Coelenterata would, if applied to other cluded in the Coelenterata, even placed in modern phylum concepts, result in chang- the Hydrozoa because of general similari- ing most of the familiar names, including ties, but information is simply lacking that Porifera, Annelida, Arthropoda, Hemi- would enable one to say that they did have chordata, and Chordata. Such a change the features of the coelenterates. cannot, in the opinion of the writer, be jus- Inasmuch as there is some evidence of tified by any benefits resulting therefrom. bilaterality, the skeletal tubes are different If it is thought to be necessary, the prior from those of Hydrozoa in manner of for- name Nematozoa would also have to be mation, and the almost universal form of considered. (Furthermore, inclusion of the colonies is unmatched in the Hydrozoa, the Graptozoa or Conularida (as in Hy- it is also reasonable to emphasize the dif- man) would likewise necessitate a change ferences by separating the group from the in the phylum name, by this same argu- Hydrozoa as a class. Because of the lack of ment.) knowledge of all soft-part features and the possibility that some of these also are with- Aschelminthes. The proposal of this name out counterpart in the Coelenterata, it is by Hyman (1940) for all of the Pseudo- here preferred to emphasize this uncer- coelomata except the Entoprocta has been tainty by separating the group as a phylum adopted by some later works, but her alter- distinct from Coelenterata. nate conclusion that the subphyla each be The class Hydrozoa is already one of treated as a separate phylum has also been the most diverse in the Animal Kingdom. followed by some. It is surely premature to It seems undesirable to increase further its claim that the Aschelminthes has been heterogeneity by including an additional conclusively accepted. Hyman (1951) re- series of different features. The distinctive moves one of the original seven groups features of the Coelenterata cannot be ad- (Acanthocephala) as a separate phylum. duced to help us with the graptolites, so The definition given for the emended these fossils cannot be included in that phylum Aschelminthes in 1951 contains phylum upon any firm basis. no clear-cut distinctions. Unless such ex- ist, the supposed phylum must be con- cluded to be an indefinable assemblage. Conularida. The same arguments as ap- The fact that the included subgroups are plied above to the Graptozoa are cogent mostly small and less well known is of no for the separation of the Conularida as a value in determining whether they are separate phylum also. Apparently no coe- phyla, subphyla, or classes. It is here be- lenterates have a chitinophosphatic skele- lieved that they are adequately distinct by ton, which fact alone makes the inclusion clear-cut features of fundamental nature of these animals in that phylum unsatisfac- (body plan, ciliation, "segmentation" of tory. Of course, here -Iso there is no direct cuticle, presence of jaws, presence of flame evidence that the animals were actually bulbs or solenocytes, musculature, nature coelenterate in nature. of nervous system, etc.) to be considered This group has recently been assigned separate phyla. to the Scyphozoa, although also placed sometimes as a phylum near the Annelida Nemathelminthes and Trochelminthes. or as a member of some other phylum. Al- These two names were formerly applied to though quite easily restored to look very the thread-like and the ciliated animals much like elongate scyphozoans, the fossil more recently combined into the Aschel- remains of these animals show consistent minthes. These groupings are also difficult differences in the steep-sided pyramidal to define. It is therefore preferred to treat form with four distinct sides, the closing their components as separate phyla. Nema- of the aperture by lobes of the side faces, thelminthes usually included the Nema- and the chitinophosphatic nature of the toda, Gordiacea, Acanthocephala, and periderm. The arguments in the Treatise sometimes the Chaetognatha. The Troch- (F) for combining these with the Scypho- elminthes included the Rotifera and zoa seem very weak. Gastrotricha. 29 Notes on Subkingdoms and Phyla

Nematoda. Hyman is followed here in re- from scars or galls, they cannot be as- jecting recent proposals to change this signed to orders. name to Nemata. Protarthropoda. The inclusion of Tardi- grada, Onychophora, and Pentastomida in Gordiacea. The best form of this name at the Arthropoda as a subphylum (Pro- the phylum level is a moot question. Little tarthropoda, Pararthropoda, or Oncopoda) is gained but confusion by using Nemato- has been done, in every case traced morpha, whereas Gordioidea has generally out, without direct consideration of whether been used at the class or order level. Gor- they have the basic features of arthropods, diacea seems to remain as the most distinc- or whether the resulting agglomeration tive phylum name. can be defined. Apparently it cannot be defined, and these three groups individually Calyssozoa / Endoprocta. Entoprocta is have only a few of the basic arthropod fea- accepted by Hyman for this group, but this tures. Until more correlation is demon- name (or the more distinctive spelling strated, it is held that they cannot reasona- Endoprocta) is much more often applied bly be combined with the Arthropoda. at the class level. Calyssozoa was proposed originally (and followed by Kamptozoa) Tardigrada. This group is generally for the group as a phylum. Inasmuch as placed in either the Aschelminthes or the levels, Calys- names are needed at both Arthropoda. Either position is untenable sozoa is accepted here for the phylum and if Cuenot (1949) is correct in asserting Endoprocta for the single class. (The that the animals are coelomate and entero- spellings Endoprocta and Entoprocta are coelous. It is distinguished from Onycho- both ascribed to Nitsche (1870). Both phora and Pentastomida, as well as Ar- have been used extensively, but the former thropoda, by features of considerable im- is more distinct from Ectoprocta and is portance. It is certainly entitled to phylum therefore adopted here.) status, even if the correct position for the phylum is still unknown. Myzostomida. This peculiar and little- Pentastomida. This group is generally known group has previously been listed as placed in the Arthropoda, sometimes even a class of Annelida, as a subclass of in the order Acarida. Some of its charac- Chaetopoda, or as part of the Polychaeta, ters have been ascribed to parasitic degen- but apparently never as a phylum. eration. They apparently have no cilia, do These animals are disc-shaped, are have a chitinous cuticle, and do have an non-segmented although with some paired arthropod type of nervous system. They organs, have jfive pairs of ventral append- lack an exoskeleton, jointed appendages, ages and four pairs of suckers, have ten or Malpighian tubules or coxal glands, circu- more pairs of marginal cirri or tentacles, latory organs, tracheae, and nephridia, and lack blood-vascular and respiratory sys- their appendages are of the type seen in tems as well as multiple nephridia, have the the Onychophora and the Tardigrada. central nervous system consisting of a sin- As it would be impossible to place gle large ventral stellate ganglion and two these definitely in any class of arthropods, nerve rings around the oesophagus and and since they lack many arthropod fea- pharynx, have a complete digestive tract tures, it seems best to emphasize their dif- but with the stomach branching through- ferences by treating them as a separate have a trochosphere out the body, and phylum. larva. These features would make the An- nelida impossible to diagnose, and they re- Hemichordata {Branchiotremata, Adelo- sult in an animal whose peculiarities are chorda). Nearly all recent classifications only obscured by inclusion in the An- recognize a phylum Hemichordata that in- neUda. cludes the Enteropneusta, the Pterobran- Prenant (1960) in the Traite concludes chia, and perhaps such other groups as the that these animals are annelids but suffi- Graptozoa. A good example of this is ciently distinct to be made a class. It is Hyman (1959). It is difficult to understand here believed that the features cited by this grouping when every attempt at defi- Prenant make it necessary to remove the nition consists primarily of variable or Myzostomida from the Annelida, just as relative characters. The components are so the Sipunculoidea and Echiuroidea had distinct that Hyman can only discuss them previously been removed. separately. Almost none of her statements Myzostomids are reported from sev- apply throughout the phylum. eral geologic eras. As these are known only In this situation we only obscure the CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM 30 diversity and the differences by pretending walls do occur, the extreme differences in that they can be included in one phylum. arrangement of the digestive tract, the ab- Besides the Enteropneusta and the Ptero- sence of paired structures in tunicates, branchia, there have been placed here also the presence of the tunic and the substance the Planctosphaeroidea, the Phoronida, tunicin in tunicates, the reversible blood and the Graptozoa. The latter two have al- flow in tunicates, and so on, all seem to ready been accepted as distinct phyla in deny a similarity so close as to justify in- a previous part of this classification (fol- clusion in one phylum. With the tunicates lowing many other classifications). The included, the Chordata are extremely dif- Planctosphaeroidea, consisting of certain ficult to define effectively, except on the ciliated larvae of unknown affinities, can- two features of notochord and pharyn- not be associated with any known adults. gotremy. With the tunicates excluded, the It is therefore impossible to combine them list of features held in common by the re- confidently with any phylum. It seems maining groups is considerably increased. necessary to maintain them as a distinct The Cephalochordata can much more group at the present time. reasonably be united with the vertebrates. Nevertheless, the oral hood, the atrial sys- Chordata. It is now more than seventy- tem, the brown funnel, the multiple paired five years since the vertebrates and some solenocytic nephridia, the single-layered supoosed relatives were first combined un- epidermis, the peculiar liver-pouch, the ab- der this name. Nearly all subsequent clas- sence of a heart, the multiple ductless gon- sifications have accepted this arrangement, ads, and other features seem to show that although the included groups vary some- the group is "more widely separated from what. At the extreme the Chordata have the lowest fish than the lowest fish from a included the Hemichordata, Tunicata, and bird or mammal" (Parker & Haswell, Cephalochordata, as well as the Verte- 1897). It seems appropriate to recognize brata. these substantial differences at the phylum The inclusion of the Hemichordata is level. unequivocally rejected by Hyman (1959) The use of the name Chordata for the and others. The arguments seem to be well restricted concept seems to be unnecessary founded, involving the absence of any sub- as well as inappropriate. The name is stantial similarity in major features. younger and less well known than Verte- The Tunicata, included in the Chor- brata. It would seem to be an unnecessary data as a matter of course in many works, name, based on overemphasis on a very are excluded here because the similarities few features held in common by the groups appear to be far outweighed by the differ- involved. At the most it might be consid- ences between tunicates and vertebrates. ered to be a sort of "superphylum," but Even if an homologous notochord be pres- even thus it could reasonably include only ent, even if perforations of the tracheal the Cephalochordata and the Vertebrata.

Sources of class and order arrangements

Protozoa. The five classes of Protozoa are most recent works, including the Treatise almost universally agreed upon in recent of Invertebrate Paleontology (E, 1955), works. The use of the subphyla is not so but most paleontology books list also the widespread. Protociliata may be consid- Receptaculitida as incertae sedis. Inasmuch ered to belong in the Plasmodroma rather as it cannot be justified in any of the three than in the Ciliophora, being there treated classes, it must stand as a separate class. as a separate class. Suctoria are sometimes (The Nidulitida are now thought to be united with Ciliata as a subclass. Telo- algae rather than sponges, and the Pleo- sporidia (Amoebosporidia) are sometimes spongea are treated as a separate phylum). separated from Sporozoa as a third sub- Many works divide each of the three phylum. classes into subclasses. In some cases these This is the classification of Kudo subclasses are based on features now be- (1954) except for: 1] the elevation of lieved to be of minor importance or taxo- Haplosporidia and Sarcosporidia to sub- nomic value, and the view of de Laubenfels class level, following Hyman (1940); and is here adopted that subclasses do not add 2] a few cases of different choice from effectively to the classification of this available synonyms. group. Aside from this, the arrangement here adopted is substantially that of both Porifera. Three classes are recognized in Hyman and the Treatise (E). 31 Notes on Subkingdoms and Phyla Cyathospongia. The status and subdivi- The orders of Stromatoporoidea are sions of this extinct phylum are taken accepted from Shrock & Twenhofel (1953) from Okulitch in the Treatise (E, 1955). after Kuhn (1939). Other recent works di- The oldest of the three names for the phy- vide the group into families, using no or- lum is accepted here. (Archaeocyatha ders. The orders of Hydrozoa are those of remains as a class). Hyman (1940) plus the extinct Spongio- morphida. The orders of Scyphozoa are Mesozoa. In adopting this phylum most of those of Hyman (1940) plus the extinct the views of Hyman (1940) are accepted, Lithorhizostomeae, being thus those listed except that the two orders are deemed to in the Treatise (F) after the removal of the be amply distinct in basic development and Conularida. The orders of Anthozoa are histology to be treated as classes. This is those of the Treatise, and they are those of the arrangement of Lankester (1901). It is Hyman (1940) except for the Cerianti- also believed that Lankester was justified patharia and the extinct orders. in separating the Heterocyemida from the other Dicyemida, and they are accordingly Ctenophora. The classification of Hyman given ordinal rank; for this class the name (1940) is accepted both as to classes and Rhombozoa is available. orders. Nearly all recent works agree on this arrangement. Monoblastozoa. (See remarks under Phyla, above.) Platyhelminthes. Three classes are gener- ally recognized here, but the most recent Graptozoa. The orders are taken from the monographic work on the tapeworms Treatise (V, 1955). (Wardle & McLeod, 1952) seems to justify

Conularida. This arrangement is taken the recognition of the Cestodaria as a class from the Treatise (F, 1956), but the treat- distinct from the Cestoda. Hyman (1951) ment as a phylum is new here (see remarks included these in the Cestoda as a subclass, under Phyla, above). but she found them sufficiently distinct to require separate treatment in all respects Coelenterata. The classification of the from the rest of the tapeworms (Euces- classes of this phylum adopted here is the toda). usual one except for two features: 1] two At one time the Temnocephaloidea extinct classes are added, and 2] one were treated as a class intermediate between group often listed as an order or subclass Turbellaria and Trematoda. Although it is given class rank. The first two classes has been claimed that this arrangement is are dealt with as in the Treatise (F). The now abandoned by all workers, it does re- third one requires discussion here. appear in Dawes' (1946) monographic Stromatoporoidea. This group has re- study of the Trematoda. In deference to cently been included in the Hydrozoa. The Hyman's studies on the Turbellaria, the principal arguments in favor of this seem group is herein placed in the Turbellaria to be that there are other Hydrozoa show- as a suborder of Rhabdocoela. ing some of the same peculiar colonial fea- The orders of Trematoda are taken tures. It appears that this is an argument from Dawes (1946), of Cestoda and Ces- for re-examining these other groups (such todaria from Wardle & McLeod (1952), as Spongiomorphida), because their pre- and of Turbellaria from Hyman (1951). served hard-parts show few features of Recent Hydrozoa. It seems best to empha- Rhynchocoela. Many recent works have size the considerable structural differences divided this phylum into two classes, the between stromatoporoids and typical hy- Enopla and the Anopla. While accepting drozoans by not merging them in one class. this subdivision, Hyman (1951) considers The only reasons that can be given "the great similarity of structure through- for retaining the stromatoporoids in the out the phylum" as reason for not making Coelenterata while removing the grapto- these two groups classes. She therefore lists lites from that phylum are that the grap- them as subclasses, there being no class tolites form a somewhat more distinct mentioned. There is no rule preventing the group and that the recent extreme diver- subdivision of a phylum directly into sub- gence in views on their position in the Ani- classes, but it is unfamiliar and disconcert- mal Kingdom lend credence to their more ing. isolated position. Retention of the stroma- The features cited by Hyman as dis- toporoids does not at present alter the defi- tinguishing the two subclasses seem to be nition of the Hydrozoa. no more fundamental than those used for .

CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM 32 distinguishing the orders. It is therefore Priapidoidea. The three known species be- here considered preferable to consider the long to two genera. There appears to be nemertines as consisting of a single class no basis for separating these at the ordi- of four orders. (The orders are those cited nal level (Hyman, 1951), and therefore byHyman, 1951.) there is a single class with one order. Inasmuch as there are two well-known names available for this one-class phylum, Nematoda. Although the treatment of this group as differs it seems reasonable to retain one for the a phylum from Hy- phylum and the other for the class. There man's (1951) treatment of it as a class of is little reason to choose either way, but Aschelminthes, her view is accepted that Hyman's argument that Schultze (1850- there are no subdivisions worthy of rank 51) was the "zoologist who first clearly above the ordinal level. The single class understood the group" may be used as can be distinguished from the phylum by justification for adopting Schultze's name, the older but less familiar spelling Nema- Rhynchocoela, for the phylum. toidea.

Gordiacea. There appears to be little of Acanthocephala. This is another one- basic nature in the differences between the class phylum, for which no class names are Gordioidea and the Nectonematoidea. Hy- available. The orders are listed as in Hy- man (1951) is therefore followed in man (1951). plac- ing these as orders, although in the status Rotifera. The decision made above, not of the group as a whole a different view is to employ the Aschelminthes for six groups adopted (see Aschelminthes, above). of pseudocoelomate animals, results in Calyssozoa / Endoprocta. A single class elevation of these six groups to phyla. This and order make up this phylum, and the raises the question of whether the orders of only questions which arise are about the the former class Rotifera should be raised names to be used. The order has been to classes. This has been done by some called Pedicellinida by Boettger (1952), classifiers, but there is considerable hesi- the name Entoprocta or Endoprocta has tation to doing so here. The Seisonidea generally been used for the class, and the appear from Hyman's remarks to be suffi- first name proposed for the phylum is ciently distinct to be considered a separate Calyssozoa of Clark (1921). It seems least class, but it is not so clear that Bdel- confusing to accept these rather than dup- loidea and Monogononta can be distin- licate one name at several levels. (The guished by equally fundamental characters. spelling Endoprocta is here preferred over In this dilemma, the three groups are ten- Entoprocta because of its greater difference tatively treated as classes, with the three from Ectoprocta. groups within the Monogononta treated as orders. Bryozoa. Hyman's (1959) division of this phylum into two classes with six orders, Gastrotricha. The differences between the following many earlier workers, is ac- two groups of gastrotrichs, as described by cepted here, as in most current paleonto- Hyman, including the protonephridia, logical works. pharyngeal pores, and the body cavity sub- The single order of the Phylactolae- division, appear to justify the elevation of mata seems to be without a name. The the two groups to the level of classes. Each name first used for the group was Lopho- then consists of a single order. poda, abandoned by later workers in favor of Phylactolaemata. It is here revived for Kinorhyncha. Although this group is here the ordinal level. considered to be a distinct phylum rather The argument for replacing Bryozoa than a class of Aschelminthes, there seems with Ectoprocta because of removal of the to be no reason for not following Hyman Endoprocta has been answered above un- (1951) in considering its subdivisions as der Coelenterata. Removal of one group is of less than ordinal rank. The characters not considered justification for changing distinguishing the three subdivisions are the name of a phylum (or other taxon) principally matters of degree, including no fundamental clear-cut distinctions. Phoronida. The two genera seem to be- the must contain at least As phylum long to a single order, for which there is one class, there seems to be no reason for no special name (Hyman, 1959). not using the name Echinodera at this level. It remains effectively a synonym of Brachiopoda. There appears to be univer- Kinorhyncha. sal agreement as to the division of this 33 Notes on Subkingdoms and Phyla phylum into two classes. Six pairs of names disagreement on the division of this class have been proposed for these classes, of into two orders. It is sometimes treated as which Inarticulata and Articulata are fa- a subclass or even as an order, of Amphi- vored in most recent works. The Inarticu- neura or Gastropoda. lata are usually divided into two orders, Gastropoda. Nearly all recent writers and the Articulata were formerly divided agree on the division of this class into three into two or three orders. There is no gen- subclasses, following Thiele (1931). The eral agreement on the orders of Articulata, first, Prosobranchia, has been widely di- and the opinion of Hyman (1959) and vided into three orders, but Cox (1960) in others that there is no satisfactory classifi- the Treatise (I), has combined two of these cation is accepted here. However, one of under the new name Caenogastropoda. the older orders is still acceptable to pale- His new arrangement is followed here, al- ontologists, and there is no satisfactory though in other respects Thiele's classifica- method for combining the remaining two. tion is accepted. A recent classification by The older division into three orders is Taylor & Sohl (1962) is not followed therefore followed, until a clear alternative here because it is not accompanied by jus- is available. tification at the ordinal level. Bivalvia / Pelecypoda. A considerable MoUusca. Only one recent American variety of classifications are in use for this class, •with little obvious correlation work is known to list seven classes of Mol- of groupings. At the present it lusca as is done herein. There is difference time appears of opinion among modern workers only as best to present the more common arrange- to the status of the groups sometimes re- ment of neontologists and also the custom- ferred to as Isopleura. Many texts have ary paleontological one (in the footnotes), omitted the fossil Monoplacophora and until a single scheme has been accepted by treated the Solenogastres as an incertae both groups of workers. The first of these is sedis group. This leaves the Amphineura the scheme of Lankester (1906) and most or Placophora as a fifth class. It also leaves later textbooks. The second is the scheme the classification of the phylum incomplete of Cotton & Godfrey (1938) with the or- and therefore unsatisfactory. ders raised to subclasses as by Cox (1960). In volume I of the Treatise of Inverte- (Cox's more numerous orders may repre- brate Paleontology, Yonge (1960) dis- sent a more natural arrangement, but it is cusses the features of these groups and con- not yet known whether they will be accept- cludes that there are seven classes. This able to other workers.) arrangement is followed also in the Traite Scaphopoda. Apparently no names are available de Zoologie and is accepted herein. for the single class and the single Monoplacophora. Until 1957 this order. Therefore, Scaphopoda is here used class was known only as fossils. Its divi- for all three levels, as they are coextensive. sion into three orders is taken from the Cephalopoda. There is little agree- Treatise (I, 1960). ment among recent workers as to the sub- Amphineura / Polyplacophora. There division of this class, although many of the are three substantially different classifica- subgroups are found in all schemes. The tions of this group among recent works. arrangement followed here is that of Cot- ton These are: 1] orders Lepidopleurida and & Godfrey (1940) and many of the older textbooks. Chitonida, by Thiele (1935), etc.; 2] or- The numerous nautiloid ders Eoplacophora, Mesoplacophora, Iso- "orders" of Flower & Kiimmel (1950) are placophora, and Teleoplacophora, by Cot- based largely on relative characters and ton & Godfrey (1940); and 3] orders have not been clearly established as enti- Paleoloricata and Neoloricata, by Smith tled to ordinal rank. (1960). There seems to be little direct cor- relation between these systems. Sipunculoidea. The ten genera of this phy- Smith's system is ostensibly based on lum are not separated into classes or or- Pilsbry's early classification, modified by ders. Separate names are not available for paleontological data. It is unfamiliar to the resulting single class and order. neontologists, but it may be readily under- stood when it is seen that all living chitons Echiuroidea. This phylum, which has of- are placed in the order Neoloricata (to ten been placed in or appended to the An- which many fossil forms belong as well). nelida, is divided into two classes as in

It is adopted here as the best available Boettger (1952). The class Echiurida is di- classification of a neglected group. vided into three orders as in Pearse Aplacophora. There appears to be no (1949). CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM 34 Myzostomida. The two orders are ac Onychophora. Division of the phylum cepted from Prenant in the Traite de Zo- into two orders is accepted from Boettger ologie (1959). (1952) and the Treatise (O, 1959), fol- lowing earlier writers.

Annelida. Many recent books list the Polychaeta and Oligochaeta as separate Arthropoda. Some recent classifications the two classes. The differences between of this largest of all phyla have been com- are largely relative, and the two together plicated by attempts to include the Penla- can be described in detail with few con- stomida, Onychophora, and even the Tar- the groups are flicts. For this reason, two digrada. When this is done, the phylum in class Chaetopoda, here combined the can no longer be defined, because it would as in many of the older works. Their dif- include a variety of body cavities, nervous ferences may then be brought out at the systems, respiratory systems, excretory subclass level. systems, integuments, etc. With these No really satisfactory classification of groups removed, the arthropods can read- this phylum or its classes has been found. ily be classified into eleven classes, and Polychaeta. The usual division into these can be grouped into three subphyla. two orders has been followed, with the ad- Much of the classification of the extinct order. dition of one Arthropoda above the ordinal level is in an Oligochaeta. There being no generally unsettled state. There seems to be no sin- of this group, the one accepted subdivision gle complete classification that is adequate given without Latin names by Avel (1959) for both Recent and fossil groups. The one (attributed by to Mi- in the Traite him presented here is therefore made up from chaelson, 1930) and without acceptable many sources, most of which are at least single names by Pearse (1949) is followed in part drawn from earlier sources. Listed here. The names are emended to conform below are the recent works that are ac- to custom in Latin nomenclature. cepted at each level, but they usually are Hirudinea. Division of this class into not the original proposal of the arrange- four orders was proposed by Harant & ment. Grasse (1959) using three orders pro- Subphyla are accepted from Pearse posed by Caballero (1952) and adding the (1949), classes in the Trilobitomorpha "Acanthobdelliformes nom.nov." These from the Treatise (O, 1959), in the Che- names and groupings were not new there, licerata from Pearse (1949) and Moore except in ending. Rhynchobdellida dates (1952), and in the Mandibulata from from Blanchard (1887), Gnathobdellida Pearse (1949) with exclusion of super- from Vaillant (1890), and Pharyngobdel- classes. lida from Johannson (1913). These same Orders in the Trilobitomorpha are four orders were recognized by Lowenstein from the Treatise (O, 1959), in the Mero- (1954), using the name Acanthobdellida stomata from the Treatise (P, 1955), in and using the name Herpobdellida instead the Pycnogonida from the Treatise (P, of Pharyngobdelliformes. 1955), in the Arachnida from the Treatise these names It is not clear whether (P, 1955) which is the system of Petrunke- were independently proposed, but there vitch, in the Crustacea from Waterman & seems to be no need for the -iformes end- Chace (1960), in the Pauropoda and Sym- are accepted ings here. The four orders phyla from Brues & Melander (1954), in here, the spellings of Caballero and of the Diplopoda from Boettger (1952), in Pharyn- Harant & Grasse are rejected, and the Chilopoda from Pearse (1949), and in gobdellida is accepted because of apparent the Insecta from Brues & Melander (1954). priority. The class Eurypterida consists of a Archiannelida. There is apparently single order, for which the synonym Gi- general agreement that there is only one gantostraca can reasonably be used. order in this class. No ordinal name is available. Clicu'ioi^natlia. This is another of the one- class one-order phyla. Boettger (1952) has Tardigrada. The division into three orders used the name Sagittoidea for both class in two classes is taken from Pearse (1949), and order, but it seems to be more appro- Richters and Marcus (1927). after (1926) priate to restrict this name to the ordinal level and to use the phylum name also at Penlastomida. The orders are from Boett- the class level. The other two synonyms ger(1952). seem to be inappropriate as they were .

on Suhkingdorns 35 Notes and Phyla originally employed in somewhat different et al. (1952); and in the Holothurioidea, context. from Shrock & Twenhofel ( 1 953 )

Pogonophora. This is probably the newest Pterobrancliia. Many writers agree on di- phylum in point of knowledge of the ani- viding the pterobranchs into two groups. mals themselves, as the first species was The difficulties of describing Rhabdopleura described in 1914, and most of the present and Cephalodisciis together leads to skep- day knowledge is less than a score of years ticism that they should be considered or- old. Only one classification has been un- ders rather than classes. In deference to dertaken, by Ivanov (1955), and his divi- workers in this field, the usual division is sion into two orders is accepted here. adopted, with some misgivings (as in Hy- Inasmuch as the synonym Brachiata is man, 1959). not well known for these animals, it has Enteropneusta. Only one class and one not been used for the one class. order is known in this group. It is some- Echinodermaia. No single satisfactory clas- times left without a name, but Balanoglos- sification has been found for this varied sida is available. It is here used for the or- phylum. The subphyla here accepted (see der, as the phylum name is also familiar footnotes) are those of Shrock & Twen- at the class level. hofel (1953). The classes in the Pelmato- Planctosphaeroidea. This phylum consists zoa, Homalozoa, and Haplozoa are those of a single species of what appear to be of Shrock & Twenhofel (1953), being ex- larvae. tinct except for the Crinoidea; in the Eleutherozoa the scheme of Shrock & Tiinicata. There appears to be general Twenhofel is modified according to the agreement on the assignment of the tuni- views of Hyman (1955) to omit the Stel- cates to three major classes. The subclasses leroidea and treat Asteroidea and Ophiu- and orders accepted here are those of roidea as classes. This makes it necessary Pearse (1949) and others, with addition also to treat as classes the extinct groups to the Ascidiacea of an order Octacnemida Auluroidea and Somasteroidea. This ar- after Harant (1948). rangement is admittedly a compromise classifications. with more familiar Cephalochordata. This group, which is This phylum contains a large number usually included in the Chordata, has at of extinct subgroups, and it is difficult to least four available names. Those adopted give full attention to the extinct sub- are the ones most often used at the respec- groups without confusing the classification tive levels. of Recent ones. The orders accepted here are as follows: In Pelmatozoa, Homalozoa, Vertebrata. The restriction of this phy- and Haplozoa, from Shrock & Twenhofel lum to the craniates is explained in a pre- (1953); in Asteroidea, from Hyman vious section. The classes of Vertebrata are (1955); in Ophiuroidea, from Boettger taken from Romer (1945) and Colbert (1952) except for removal of Auluroidea; (1955). The orders of these classes are in Echinoidea, from Shrock & Twenhofel taken from these same works, except that (1953) for the Regularia and from Hy- Romer is generally followed where he man (1955) for the Irregularia (except for treats as orders the groups which Colbert removal of Bothriocidaroida after Moore lists as subclasses or superorders. Complete List

Subk Series Phylum

AN I MALIA (Zoa)

EOZOA (Plastidozoa) Protozoa cam-rec PARAZOA Porifera (Spongiario, Spongeae) cam-rec Cyathospongia (Pleospongia, Archaeocyatha) cam AGNOTOZOA

Mesozoa (Plamdoidea, Mionelminthes, Moruloidea rec HISTOZOA (Metazoa, Eumetazoa) Enterocoela (Enterozoa, Protaxonia) Monoblastozoa rec Graptozoa cam-mis Conularida cam-tri Coelenterata (Cnidaria, Nematozoa, Nematophora) cam-rec Ctenophora {Acnidaria, Collaria, Ctenarea, Ctenoph- rec oraria) Acoelomata Platyhelminthes (Platodes) rec Rhynchocoela (Nemertinea, Aplocoela, Miocoela) rec Pseudocoelomata {Pseudocoelia, Autoscolecida, Protoneph- ridozoa) Acanthocephala rec Rotifera (Rotatoria) rec Gastrotricha rec Kinorhyncha (Echinodera) rec Priapuloidea rec Nematoda (Nemata) rec Gordiacea (Gordioidea, Nematomorpha) car-rec Calyssozoa (Entoprocta, Endoprocta, Kamptozoa) rec of Phyla'

Subk Series Phylum

Coelomata (Eucoelomata) Bryozoa (Polyzoa, Ectoprocta) ord-rec Phoronida REC Brachiopoda (Spirobranchia, Palliobranchiopoda) CAM-REC Mollusca (Palliata, Malacozoa, Saccata, Heterogan- cam-rec

gliata, Otocardia) Sipunculoidea REC Echiuroidea REC Myzostomida jur-rec Annelida (Annulata, Coelhelminthes) cam-rec Tardigrada Rec Pentastomida (Linguatulida) REG Onychophora (Polypoda, Protracheata, Ceratophora, cam-rec Malacopoda) Arthropoda (Euarthropoda) cam-rec Chaetognatha (Homalopterygia, Oesthelminthes) cam-rec Pogonophora (Brachiata) REC Echinodermata cam-rec Pterobranchia ord-rec Enteropneusta (Helminthomorpha) REG Planctosphaeroidea REG Tunicata (Urochordata) REG Cephalochordata (Acrania, Cirrhostomi, Entomocra- REC

nia, Haplocyemata, Homomeria, Myelozoa, Pharyngo- branchii) Vertebrata (Euchorda, Craniata) ord-rec

^ For explanations, see preceding section.

Complete List of Classes and Orders

w\th Synonyms, Subgroups, and Geologic Range

Class Subcl Order PROTOZOA^

FLAGELLATA ^ (Mastigophora) sil-rec Phytomastigina ^ (Phytomastigophorea) sil-rec Chrysomonadina {Silicoflagellata, Chrysomonada- cre-rec ceae) Coccolithophorida sil-rec Cryptomonadina (Cryptomonadaceae) rec

Phytomonadina ( Volvocales, Volvocina, Volvocaceae) eoc-rec Euglenoidina (Euglenida, Euglenaceae) eoc-rec Chloromonadina (Chloromonadaceae) rec Dinoflagellata * (Cilioflagellata, Catenata) jur-rec Zoomastigina ^ (Zoomastigophorea) rec Rhizomastigina {Pantostomatida, Rhizomastigaceae rec Rhizofiagellata) Protomonadina (Protomastigida, Protomastigaceae) rec Polymastigina rec Hypermastigina {Holomastigina) rec SARCODINA CAM-REC Rhizopoda ^ ord-rec Proteomyxa rec

^ Synonyms: Eozoa, Plastidozoa. Subphyla: Plasmodroma (Homokaryota, Gymnomyxa, Cytomorpha) = flagellata + sarcodina + sporozoa. Ciliophora (Infusoria, Heterokaryota, Cytoidea) = ciliata + suctoria. Includes: Corticata (flagellata + SPOROZOA + CILIOPHORA). ^ Includes: Lissoflagellata, Monadidea, Heteromastigina, Chromomonadina, Choanoflagellata, Craspedomonadina, Phalansteriina, Phytoflagellata, Chlamydo- monadina, Euflagellata. ^ Includes: Heterochlorida. ^ Includes: Prorocentraceae, Adinida, Peridiniaceae, Gymnodiniaceae, Di- niferidea, Cystoflagellata, Rhynchoflagellata. ^ Includes: Trichomonadida. ^ Includes: Labyrinthulidea, Lobosa, Filosa. "

COMPLETE LIST OF CLASSES AND ORDERS 40

Class Subcl Order

Mycetozoa '' {Myxomycetes, Myxogasteres) REC Amoebozoa (Amoebina, Amoebaea, Nuda, Gymna- rec moebaea) Testacea (Thecamoebae) eoc-rec Foraminifera ® {Reticularia, Polythalamia, Thalamo- ord-rec phora) Actinopoda cam-rec Heliozoa ® ple-rec Radiolaria " (Po/jc}75fma, Cytophora, Echinocystida) cam-rec SPOROZOA "' (Gregarina) REC Telosporidia ^^ (Cytosporidia, Ectospora, Amoebosporidea) rec Gregarinida rec Coccidia ^* (Coccidiomorpha) REC Haemosporidia ^^ (Haemocytozoa, Acystosporidia, rec

Gymnosporidia ) Cnidosporidia REC Myxosporidia (Amoebogeniae) REC Actinomyxidia REC Microsporidia REC Helicosporidia REC Sarcosporidia (Sarcocysddea) REC Sarcosporidia REC Globidia REC Haplosporidia (Aplosporidia) REC Haplosporidia REC

"^Includes: Euplasmodida, Eumycetozoa, Sorophora, Acrasiae, Amauro- chaetaceae, Amaurochaetineae, Amaurosporales, Anemineae, Arcyriaceae, Cal- carineae, Calonemineae, Ceratiomyxaceae, Dlctyosteliaceae, Didymiaceae, Endo- sporeae, Exosporae, Guttulinaceae, Heterodermaceae, Lamprosporales, Liceaceae, Lygogalaceae, Margaritaceae, Physaraceae, Reticulariaceae, Stemonitaceae, Tri- chiaceae, Tubulinaceae. ^ Includes: Allogromidiaceae, Astrorhizidea, Cheilostomellaceae, Chilosto- mellidea, Globigerinidea, Gromiidea, Lagenidea, Lituolidea, Miliolidia, Num- mulitidea, Rotalidea, Textularidea, Xenophyophoridea. ^ Includes: Actinophrydea, Aphrothoraca, Centrohelidia, Chalarothoraca, Chlamydophora, Desmothoraca, Helioflagellida. '^° Includes: Acantharia, Acanthometrida, Acanthophractida, Actipylaea, Cyrtellaria, Botryoidea, Cyrtoidea, Spyroidea, Monopylaria, Nasselaria, Osculo- sida, Merotrypasta, Peripylaria, Spumellaria, Collodaria, Sphaerellaria, Sphaero- zoa, Plectellaria, Plectoidea, Stephoidea, Porulosida, Holotrypasta, Tripylaria, Phaeodaria, Phaeoconchia, Phaeocystina, Tripylaea, Phaeogromia, Phaeo- sphaeria). ^^ Neosporidea (Histosporidia, Endospora) = cnidosporidia + sarcospori- dia + haplosporidia. Acnidosporidia = sarcosporidia + haplosporidia. 41 Protozoa — Porifera

Class Subcl Order CILIATA JUR-REC Protociliata (Ciliatoidea) rec Opalinida rec Euciliata jur-rec Holotricha ^® (Aspirigera, Aspirotricha) rec Spirotricha ^^ (Spirigera) jur-rec Chonotricha rec Peritricha rec SUCTORIA (Acineta, Acinetaria, Tentaculifera) rec Suctoria rec PORIFERA ^« CALCAREA ^^ (Calcispongea) cam-rec Solenida (Asconosa) cam-rec Lebetida (Syconosa) jur-rec Pharetronida per-rec Thalamida (Sphinctozoa) pen-cre HYALOSPONGEA ^° (Hexactinellida, Triaxonidd) cam-rec Lyssakina (Lyssacina) cam-rec Dictyonina (Dictyida, Inermia) ord-rec Lychniskophora (Lychniskida) jur-rec Heteractinida cam-car DEMOSPONGEA ^^ (Desmospongea) cam-rec Myxospongida rec Keratosida ^^ {Ceratospongida, Ceratosa, Ceratosida, car-rec Euceratosa) ^^ Includes: Rhabdogeniae, Serosporidia, Exosporidia, Piroplasmidea. ^^ Includes: Eugregarinida, Schizogregarinida. ^^ Includes: Adeleida, Eimeriida. ^^ Includes: Babesiida, Plasmodiida. '^^ Includes: Apostomina, Aspirotrichaceae, Astomata, Astomina, Gymnosto- mata, Hymenostomata, Thigmotrichina, Trichostomata.

" Includes: Ctenostomina, Entodiniomorphina, Heterotricha, Hypotricha, 0!i- gotrichina, Polytricha, Tintinnina. ^^ Synonyms: Spongiaria, Spongeae. Includes: Octactinellida, Heteractinel- lida. Silicospongiae (Non-calcarea) = HEXACTiNELLroA + demospongea. Niduli- tida, sometimes included here, is probably a calcareous alga. ^^ Asconosa, Syconosa, Leuconosa are structural types, not groups. Includes: Sycones, Dialytina, Lithonina, Homocoelida, Heterocoelida. ^° Includes: Hexasterophora, Amphidiscophora, Uncinataria. 21 Includes: Tetractinellida, Tetraxonida, Desmophora, Monaxonida, Sigmato- monaxonellida, Monactinellida. 22 Considered by some to belong to Hadromerida. Sometimes placed with some others of Demospongea as Cornacuspongia (with orders Protorhabdina, Poikilorhabdina, Phthinorhabdina, Aporhabdina). Includes: Dictyoceratina, Mo- noceratina, Dendroceratina, Hexaceratina. COMPLETE LIST OF CLASSES AND ORDERS 43 Cyathospongia — Coelenterata Class Subcl Order

GRAPTOZOA

GRAPTOLITHIDA CAM-MIS Dendroidea CAM-MIS Graptoloidea ORD-SIL Tuboidea ORD-SIL Camaroidea ORD Stolonoidea ORD

CON U LARI DA

CONULATA CAM-TRI Conulariida CAM-TRI

COELENTERATA

PROTOMEDUSAE COMPLETE LIST OF CLASSES AND ORDERS 44

Class Subcl Order SCYPHOZOA ^^ (Scyphomedusae, Acalephae, Neoscyphozoa, jur-rec Acraspeda) Stauromedusae (Lucernaria, Lucernariidea, Cyclico- rec zoa, Calycozoa) Cubomedusae (Carybdeida, Charybdeida, Marsupi- jur-rec

alia) Coronatae (Peromedusae, Corona, Coronatida) jur-rec Semaeostomeae (Semostomeae, Semaeostomatida) jur-rec Lithorhizostomeae (Lithorhizostomatida) JUR Rhizostomeae (Rhizostomatida) jur-rec ANTHOZOA (Endoaria, Actinozoa, Actinoidea, Oecioa, Polycy- cam-rec

clia, Corallaria, Monocyclica, Coralligena, Corolla, Scyphopolypi, Anthozoariae) Alcyonaria ^^ {Octocorallia, Octactinia, Zoophytaria) per-rec Stolonifera cre-rec Telestacea REC Alcyonacea jur-rec Trachypsammiacea per Coenothecalia cre-rec Gorgonacea cre-rec Pennatulacea cre-rec Zoantharia ^* (HexacoralUa, Helianthoida, Zoanthactiniaria, cam-rec Actinanthida, Dodecacorallia, Zoantha) Zoanthiniaria (Zoanthidea) rec Corallimorpharia (Stichodactylina, Asclerocorallia) rec

Actiniaria (Actiniidea, Malacactiniae , Edwardsiidea) cam-rec Rugosa (Stauracea, Pterocorallia, Tetraseptata, Tetra- ord-per coelia, Tetracorallia) Heterocorallia (Dicoelia) car Scleractinia (Madreporaria, Polyactinia, Cyclocoral- tri-rec

lid) Tabulata (Aseptata, Trichocorallia, Tubulosa, Tetra- ord-per dida, Schizocoralla, Heliolitida, Multisolenida, Thal- locoralla, Chaetetida)

^2 Discomedusae (Discophora) = coronatae + semaeostomeae + rhizo- stomeae. ^^ Includes: Pseudaxonia, Axifera, Stelechotokea, Protalcycnacea, Synal- cyonacea. ^* Includes: Paramera, Cryptoparamera, Ptychodactiaria, Proactiniae. ^^ Synonyms: Acnidaria, Collaria, Ctenophoraria, Ctenarea. ^® Synonyms: Platodes, Platyelmia, Plathelminthes, Platyhelmia. Cestoidea = CESTODA + CESTODARIA. 45 Coelenterata — Platyhelminthes Class Subcl Order Ceriantipatharia mio-rec Antipatharia (Hexactinia, Anticorallia, Antipathidea) mio-rec Ceriantharia (Paranemata, Tetractiniae, Heterocoral- rec

la, Cerianthiae, Cerianthidea)

CTENOPHORA^'

TENTACULATA (Micropharyngea) REC Cydippida (Saccata) REC Lobata (Bolinopsidea) rec Cestida (Cestoidea) REC Platyctenea (Tjalfiellidea, Ctenoplanidea) REC NUDA {Macropharyngea, Atentaculata) REC Beroida REC

PLATYHELMINTHES'"'

TURBELLARIA (Planaria) REC Acoela rec Rhabdocoela ^^ rec Alloeocoela (Alloiocoela) rec Tricladida REC Polycladida (Cryptocoela) rec TREMATODA rec Monogenea ^^ (Monogenetica, Hetewcotylea, Etero- rec cotylea, Herocotylida, Polystomea, Pectobothrii, Cryp- tocoela, Ectoparasitica) Aspidogastrea (Aspidobothria, Aspidocotylea) rec Digenea ^^ (Digenetica, Malacocotylea, Distomea, Ma- rec lacobothrii, Strigeata) CESTODA *° (Eucestoda, Cestoidea, Merozoa, Polyzoa, Tomioso- rec ma) Proteocephala (Proteocephaloidea) rec Tetraphyllidea (Phyllobothrioidea) rec Disculicepitidea rec Lecanicephala {Lecanicephaloidea, Diphyllidea) rec "^ Includes: Temnocephaloidea, Dactylifera, Catenulida, Macrostomida. ^* Includes: Monopisthocotylea, Polyopisthocotylea. ^^ Includes: Gasterostoma, Prosostomata. ^° Includes: Aphylles, Monophyllidea, Heterophyllidea, Cystica, Caryophyl- lacea. COMPLETE LIST OF CLASSES AND ORDERS 46

Class Subcl Order Trypanorhyncha {Tetrarhyncha, Tetrarhynchoidea, rec Phyllorhyncha) Cyclophyllidea (Taenioidea, Tetracotylea, Tetrabothri- rec diata) Aporidea REC Nippotaeniidea REC Caryophyllidea REC Spathebothridea REC Pseudophyllidea (Bothriocephaloidea, Dicestoda, Di- rec bothridiata) CESTODARIA (Monozoa, Atomiosoma) REC Amphilinidea REC Gyrocotylidea REC Biporophyllidea REC RHYNCHOCOELA"

NEMERTINEA *== (Nemertea) REC Palaeonemertea (Paleonemertea, Palaeonemertini) rec Heteronemertea {Schizonemertini, Trimyaria, Eupoli- rec

ida) Hoplonemertea (Metanemertini) rec Bdellonemertea (Bdellomorpha) rec ACANTHOCEPHALA ACANTHOCEPHALA '' REC Archiacanthocephala REC Palaeacanthocephala rec Eoacanthocephala ^ rec

ROTIFERA*' SEISONIDEA REC Seisonacea rec BDELLOIDEA REC Bdellacea (Bdelloidaceae) rec " Synonyms: Aplocoela, Miocoela. *^ Includes: Dimyaria, Protonemertini, Mesonemertini, Anopla, Enopla. ^^ Metacanthocephala = archiacanthocephala + palaeacanthocephala ** Includes: Gyracanthocephala, Neoacanthocephala. *^ Synonyms: Rotatoria. Digononta = seisonidea + bdelloidea. ^'^ Includes: Rhizota. 47 .

COMPLETE LIST OF CLASSES AND ORDERS 48

Class Subcl Order Oxyuroidea REC Ascaroidea REC Strongyloidea REC Spiniroidea (Camallanta) REC Dracunculoidea REC Filarioidea REC

Trichuroidea ( Trichinelloidea) REC Dioctophymoidea REC GOR DIACEA NEMATOMORPHA CAR-REC Gordioidea (Gordididea) CAR-REC Nectonematoidea REC CALYSSOZOA^^ ENDOPROCTA (Entoprocta) REC Pedicellinida REC BRYOZOA'^ PHYLACTOLAEMATA (Hippocrepia) CRE-REC Lophopoda CRE-REC GYMNOLAEMATA '* (Stelmatopoda) ORD-REC Trepostomata (Tripostomata, Monticuliporoided) ORD-PER Cryptostomata ORD-PER Cyclostomata (Stenostomata) ORD-REC Ctenostomata ORD-REC Cheilostomata (Chilostomata) CRE-REC

PHORON I DA PHORONIDA REC Phoronida REC ^2 Synonyms: Kamptozoa (see also class names) ^^ Synonyms: Polyzoa, Ectoprocta. Formerly included also Endoprocta; to- gether called also Holobranchia. ^* Stenolaemata = trepostomata + cyclostomata. Cheiloctenostoma (Eu- rystomata) = ctenostomata + cheilostomata. ^^ Synonyms: Spirobranchiopoda, Palliobranchiopoda, Branchiopoda, Bra- chionopoda, Brachionocephala, Branchionobranchia, Spirobranchia. ^*' Includes: Orthida, Strophomenida. " Includes:l?entainQnda, Rhynchonellida, Spiriferida, Terebratulida, Triplesiida. ^^ Synonyms: Palliata, Malacozoa, Heterogangliata, Otocardia, Saccata. Glos- sophora (Cephalophora) = amphineura + gastropoda + cephalopoda + sca- "

49 Gordiacea — Mollusca Class Subcl Order

BRACHIOPODA'^

INARTICULATA (Ecardines, Lyopomata, Pleuropygia, Gastrocau- cam-rec

lia, Tretenterata, Sarcobranchiata) Atremata cam-rec Neotremata cam-rec ARTICULATA (Testicardines, Arthropomata, Apygia, Pygocaulia, cam-rec Clistenterata) Palaeotremata {Paleotremata) CAM Protremata ^® cam-rec Telotremata cam-rec

MOLLUSCA ^«

MONOPLACOPHORA ^^ {Protogastropoda, Amphigastropoda) cam-rec Tryblidioidea {Tryblidiacea) cam-rec Archinacelloidea cam-sil Cambridioidea cam AMPHINEURA ^° (Aculifera, Polyplacophora, Loricata, Crept- cam-rec poda, Polyplakiphora, Polyplaxiphora, Placophora, Polybranchiata, Lamellata, Lepidoglossa) Paleoloricata cam-cre Neoloricata car-rec APLACOPHORA {Solenogastres, Telobranchia, Scolecomorpha) rec Neomeniida (Neomeniomorpha) rec Chaetodermatida (Chaetodermomorpha) rec GASTROPODA*'^ {Anisopleura, Paracephalophora, Pselapho- cam-rec cephala) Prosobranchia (Streptoneura, Cochlides) cam-rec Archaeogastropoda ^^ cam-rec

PHOPODA. Stenolaemata = amphineura + gastropoda + bivalvia + scaphopoda. Prorhipidoglossomorpha = gastropoda + bivalvia + scaphopoda. Isopleura = MONOPLACOPHORA + AMPHINEURA + APLACOPHORA. ^® Includes: Cynostraca, Cochliostraca. ^^ Includes: Lepidopleurida, Chitonida, Eoplacophora, Isoplacophora, Meso- placophora, Teleoplacophora. '^^ Also spelled: Gasteropoda, Gastraeopoda, Gasteropodophora, Gasterozoa. Includes: Spironotia. Euthyneura (Androgyna, Platymalakia) = opisthobranchia + pulmonata, '^'^ Includes: Scutibranchia, Aspidobranchiata, Diotocardia, Bellerophontacea, Cyclobranchia, Zygobranchia, Docoglossa, Rhipidoglossa. COMPLETE LIST OF CLASSES AND ORDERS 50

Class Subcl Order Caenogastropoda ^^ ORD-REC Opisthobranchia ^* MIS-REC Pleurocoela ^^ {Tectibranchiata, Tectobranchia, Aply- MIS-REC siacea, Steganobranchia) Pteropoda CRE-REC Sacoglossa REC Acoela ""^ EOC-REC Pulmonata PEN-REC Basommatophora PEN-REC Stylommatophora PEN-REC BIVALVIA ®^ (Pelecypoda, Lamellibranchiata, Aglossa, Lipoce- ORD-REC phala, Conchijera, Conchophora, Acephala) Protobranchia "* ORD-REC Filibranchia '^^ ORD-REC Eulamellibranchia ^° SIL-REC Septibranchia JUR-REC SCAPHOPODA {Cirrhobranchiata, Solenoconchia, Prosopocepha- DEV-REC

la, Lateribranchiata) Scaphopoda DEV-REC CEPHALOPODA (Siphonopoda) CAM-REC Tetrabranchiata (Schizosiphona, Tentaculifera) CAM-REC Nautiloidea ^^ CAM-REC Ammonitoidea ^^ ORD-CRE Dibranchiata {Coleoidea, Acetabulifera, Holosiphona) MIS-REC Decapoda ^^ (Decembrachiata, Decabrachia) JUR-REC

^^ Includes: Siphonobranchia, Pectinibranchia, Ctenobranchiata, Hemipoma- tostoma, Apomatostoma, Monotocardia, Azygobranchia, Mesogastropoda, Steno- glossa, Neogastropoda, Rachiglossa, Toxoglossa, Heteropoda, Taenioglossa, Platy- poda, Rhachiglossa. ^Includes: Gymnosomata, Oncidiacea, Acochlidiacea, Vaginulacea, Ana- spidea. ^^ Includes: Cephalaspidea, Thecosomata, Bullomorpha, Gyrosomata. ''^ Includes: Notaspidea, Pleurobranchomorpha, Nudibranchiata. ^'' Includes: Anisomyaria, Anatinacea, Cladocopa, Ambonodonta. Groups sometimes recognized include: Siphonida, Asiphonida, Homomyaria, Macrocilio- branchia, Microciliobranchia, Pteriomorpha, Colloconchida, Eutaxodonta, Isofili- branchia, Pteroconchida, Rostroconchida, Heteroconchia, Eudesmodontida, Nai- adida, Pachyodontida, Pantodontida, Asthenodontida, Schizodontida, Heterodon- tida, Septibranchida. Also used as orders: Autobranchiata, Dimyaria, Eleuthero- rhabda, Hemibranchia, Heteromya, Heteromyaria, Isedrolotila, Isomya, Laternulacea, Macrotrachia, Monomyaria, Monomya, Neotaxodonta, Palaeo- branchia, Palaeolamellibranchia, Parafilibranchia, Pholadacea, Pleuroconcha, Pleurodonta, Praeheterodonta, Synaptorhabda, Veneracea. 51 Mollusca — Myzostomida

Class Subcl Order Octopoda (Octobrachiata, Octopoida) cre-rec Vampyromorpha rec Belemnoida ^* (Phragmophora) mis-eoc

SIPUNCULOIDEA

SIPUNCULOIDEA REC Sipunculida REC

ECHIU ROI DEA

ECHIURIDA REC Echiuroina rec Xenopneusta rec Heteromyota rec SACCOSOMATIDA rec Saccosomatida rec

MYZOSTOMIDA ^=

MYZOSTOMIDA pal-rec Proboscidea rec Pharyngidea rec

Arrangement preferred by paleontologists: Subclass Prionodesmacea (orders Paleoconcha, Taxodonta, Schizodonta, Isodonta, Dysodonta). Subclass Anomalodesmacea (orders Septibranchia, Anomalobranchia). Subclass Teleodesmacea (orders Pantodonta, Diogenodonta, Cyclodonta, Teleodonta, Asthenodonta, Heterodonta, Pachyodonta, Desmodonta) ®* Sometimes a subclass with orders Cryptodonta, Lipodonta, Palaeotaxodonta. ^^ Includes: Pseudolamellibranchia. ^° Includes: Schizodonta, Heterodonta, Adapedonta, Anomalodesmata, Sinu- palliata, Integripalliata. ^^ Sometimes ranked as a separate subclass with orders Mixochoanites, Schi- stochoanites, Orthochoanites, Cyrtochoanites; or with orders Ellesmeroceroida, Michelinoceroida, Ascoceroida, Oncoceroida, Endoceroida, Actinoceroida, Disco- soroida, Nautilida; or with orders Bassleroceratida, Barrandeoceratida, Centro- ceratida, Rutoceratida, Solenochilida, Tarphyceratida. ^^ Sometimes ranked as a separate subclass with order Ammonitida; or with orders Intrasiphonata, Extrasiphonata. ^^ Includes: Teuthoidea, Sepioidea, Loliginacea, Architeuthacea. ^* Sometimes used as subclass in place of Dibranchiata. ^° Synonyms: Myzostomaria, Myzostoma. COMPLETE LIST OF CLASSES AND ORDERS 52

Class Subcl Order

ANNELIDA

CHAETOPODA " 53 Annelida — Arthropoda

Class Subcl Order

PENTASTOM I DA LINGUATULIDA REC Cephalobaenida REC Porocephalida (Linguatulodea) REC ONYCHOPHORA^^ PERIPATIDEA cam-rec Protonychophora CAM Euonychophora REC

ARTHROPODA «2 TRILOBITOIDEA '' cam-pen Merostomoidea (Xenopoda) cam Limulavida {Prochelicerata, Limulava) CAM Emeraldellida CAM Nectaspida cam Leanchoiliida (Pseudanostraca) CAM Pseudonotostraca (Pseudocrustacea) cam Burgessiida cam Waptiida cam Marrellomorpha ^ (Marellomorpha) CAM Marrellida cam Hymenocarina cam Hymenocarina cam Arthropleurida PEN Arthropleurida PEN Cheloniellida dev Cheloniellida dev Opabiniida CAM Palaeanostraca cam PHYLA + DiPLOPODA + CHiLOPODA + INSECTA. Hypaithropoda was proposed for hypothetical ancestral forms. A separate class Arthrocephala is listed by Boettger in the Chelicerata, but no other reference to such an extinct group has been found. Diantennata = trilobitomorpha + Crustacea. Branchiata = trilobitomorpha + CHELICERATA + MANDIBULATA. Accrata = MEROSTOMATA + ARACHNmA. Arach- nomorpha = trilobitomorpha + Crustacea. Myriapoda = pauropoda + sym- PHYLA + DIPLOPODA + CHILOPODA. PrOgOneata = SYMPHYLA + DIPLOPODA + pauropoda. Antennata = pauropoda + symphyla + diplopoda + chilopoda + INSECTA. Opisthogoneata = chilopoda + insecta. Includes: Marriocarida, of un- known position. ^^ Homopoda = marrellina + pseudanostraca + pseudonotostraca + hymenocarina. ^* Includes: Mimetasterida, Pygaspida, Proarthropoda. COMPLETE LIST OF CLASSES AND ORDERS 55 Arthropoda Class Subcl Order

Palpigradida {Microthelyphonida, Latisterna, Palpi- JUR-REC gradi) Thelyphonida (Uropygi, Holopeltidia) car-rec Schizomida (Tartarides, Schizopeltidia, Colopyga, pli-rec Schizonotida) Kustarachnida (Kustarachne) PEN Phrynichida (Amblypygi, Phryneides) CAR-REC Araneida (Araneae) car-rec Solpugida (Solifugae, Galeodea, Rostrata, Mycetopho car-rec rae) Ricinuleida {Rhinogastra, Meridogastra, Podogonata, car-rec Cucullijera, Rhignogastra) CRUSTACEA ''^ (Eucrustacea) CAM-REC Branchiopoda ^* cam-rec Anostraca (Euanostraca) EOC-REC Lipostraca DEV Notostraca PER-REC Conchostraca DEV-REC Cladocera REC Cephalocarida REC Cephalocarida REC Ostracoda {Ostracopa, Ostrapoda) CAM-REC Archaeocopida ^^ (Archaeostraca) CAM-TRI

Leperditicopida ( Leperditiida ) ORD-DEV Myodocopida (Myodocopa, Cladocopa) ORD-REC Podocopida (Podocopa, Platycopa) ORD-REC Palaeocopida (Paleocopa, Beyrichiida) ORD-PER Mystacocarida REC Mystacocarida REC Copepoda (Eucopepoda) REC Calanoida REC Harpacticoida REC Cyclopoida REC ^° Includes: Notostigmata, Cryptostigmata, Prostigmata, Stomatostigmata, Heterostigmata, Parastigmata, Mesostigmata, Metastigmata. ^^ Camarostomata = schizomida + thelyphonida + kustarachnida. Label- lata = phrynichida + araneida. ^" Pedipalpida (scorpion-spiders) = schizomida + thelyphonida + phry- nichida. ^^ Entomostraca = branchiopoda + ostracoda + copepoda + cirripedia. ^* Diplostraca = conchostraca + cladocera. Phyllopoda (Euphyllopoda, Onychura) = anostraca + notostraca + conchostraca. ^^ Includes: Bradorina, Discinocarina. COMPLETE LIST OF CLASSES AND ORDERS 56

Class Subcl Order Notodelphyoida REC Monstrilloida REC Caligoida REC Lernaeopodoida REC Branchiura REC Branchiura REC Cirripedia (Thyrostraca, Eucirripedia) SIL-REC Thoracica SIL-REC Acrothoracica REC Ascothoracica REC Apoda REC Rhizocephala REC Malacostraca ^^ PER-REC Nebaliacea REC Rhinocarina DEV-PEN Ceratiocarina (Ceratocarina) CAM-PEN Nahecarida DEV Anaspidacea (Anomostraca, Syncarida) PEN-REC Mysidacea ®^ MIS-REC Thermosbaenacea REC Spelaeogriphacea REC Lophogastridea REC Cumacea (Sympoda) REC Tanaidacea (Chelifera, Anisopoda) REC Isopoda DEV-REC Amphipoda (Laemodipoda) TER-REC Euphausiacea REC Pygocephalomorph a PAL Decapoda ^^ TRI-REC Stomatopoda (Hoplocarida) MIS-REC PAUROPODA REC Heterognatha REC

^^ Phyllocarida (Leptostraca) = nebaliacea + rhinocarina + ceratioca- rina + HYMENOCARiNA. Eumalacostraca = anaspidacea + mysidacea + THERMOSBAENACEA -\- CUMACEA -|- TANAIDACEA + ISOPODA + AMPHIPODA 4- EU- PHAUSIACEA + DECAPODA -1- STOMATOPODA, Peracanda (Podophthalma, Thoraco- straca, Schizopoda, Anaspides) = mysidacea + thermosbaenacea -|- lophogas- tridea + cumacea + tanaidacea + isopoda + AMPHIPODA. Edriophthalma (Ar- throstraca, Tetradecapoda) = isopoda -1- amphipoda. Eucarida = euphausia-

cea -I- decapoda + stomatopoda. ^^ Lophogastridea has sometimes been included here. ^^ Includes: Macrura, Anomura, Brachyura. )

57 Arthropoda Class Subcl Order SYMPHYLA REC Cephalostigmata REC DIPLOPODA ^^ PEN-REC Pselaphognatha {Penicillata) REC Ancyrotricha REC Lophotricha REC Chilognatha ^°° TER-REC Limacomorpha REC Oniscomorpha (Armadillomorpha) TER-REC Ascospermophora REC

Colobognatha ( Platydesmijormia TER-REC Nematophora (Merochaeta) TER-REC Proterospermophora REC Opisthospermophora REC Protosyngnatha PEN Protosyngnatha PEN Archipolypoda DEV-CAR Palaeocoxopleura (Macrosterni) DEV-CAR CHILOPODA (Syngnatha) TER-REC Pleurostigmophora "^ (Pleurosdgma) TER-REC Geophilomorpha (Geophylomorpha) TER-REC Scolopendromorpha TER-REC Lithobiomorpha TER-REC Craterostigma REC Notostigmophora (Notostigma) TER-REC Scutigeromorpha TER-REC INSECTA ^°2 (Hexapoda) DEV-REC Apterygota (Synaptera, Apterygogenea, Aptera) DEV-REC Protura {Myrientomata, Mirientomata, Frothysanura, REC Panprotura, Ellipura, Anamerentoma) Thysanura {Ectotrophi, Ectognatha) TRI-REC Entotrophi (Entognatha, Diplura, Campodeoidea, Ho- mio-rec lomerentoma, Panthysanura, Dicellura) ^^ Includes: Eurysterna, Paleomorpha. '^^° Includes: Opisthandria, Proterandria, Eugnatha, Polydesmoidea, Juliformia. ^°^ Anamorpha = craterostigma + lithobiomorpha. Epimorpha = geophil- omorpha + scolopendromorpha. ^°^ Includes extinct orders: Sypharopteroidea, Archodonata, Perielytrodea, Protephemerida, Eubleptidodea, Syntonopteroidea, Permoneurodia. Pterygota (Pterygogenea) = exopterygota + endopterygota. Palaeoptera = palaeo- DICTYOPTERA + MEGASECOPTERA + PROTOHEMIPTERA + PROTODONATA + ODONATA + EPHEMERIDA. Neoptcra = EXOPTERYGOTA (eXCCpt PALAEOPTERA) + ENDOPTERY- GOTA. Euentomata = diplura + ectotrophi + pterygota. COMPLETE LIST OF CLASSES AND ORDERS 58

Class Subcl Order CoUembola (Oligoentomata) dev-rec Exopterygota ^"^ (Heterometabola) dev-rec Palaeodictyoptera ^°* (Eopaleodictyoptera) pen-per Megasecoptera ^°^ (Megasecopterida) pen-per Protephemerida {Protephemeroidea) pen Ephemerida "'^ (Ephemeroptera, Ephemeroidea, Plec- per-rec toptera) Protodonata (Meganisoptera) pen-per Odonata ^°^ per-rec Protohemiptera (Pseudohemiptera) pen-per Protoperlaria ^°® per Plecoptera (Perlarides, Perloidea, Perlaria, Nemurae- per-rec des) Protorthoptera pen-per Caloneurodea pen-per Diploglossata (Hemimeroidea, Dermodermaptera) pal Grylloblattoidea (Notoptera) REC Orthoptera (Saltatoria, Aeroplanoptera) pen-rec Phasmidia (Phasmoidea, Ambulatoria, Gressoria, Che- tri-rec leutoptera) Blattaria (Blattaeformia, Oothecaria, Cursoria, Dicty- pen-rec optera, Neoblattariae) Mantodea {Deratoptera, Dacnostomata, Phylloptera, pal-rec

Exopterygoptera, Pandictyoptera ) Glosselytrodea per-jur Protelytroptera (Protocoleoptera) per Dermaptera (Labidura, Euplexoptera) jur-rec Embioptera (Embiidina, Embioidea, Adenopoda, OH- oli-rec goneura, Aetioptera) Isoptera eoc-rec

^°^ Coleopteroidea = protocoleoptera + coleoptera + strepsiptera. Phthiraptera (Ellipoptera) = mallophaga + anoplura. Hemiptera (Rhynchota) = heteroptera + homoptera + protohemiptera + palaeohemiptera. Blat- toidea = protoblattoidea + blattaria + mantodea + isoptera + zoraptera + psocoptera + mallophaga -1- anoplura. ^°* Includes: Hemiodonata, Anisaxia, Permodictyoptera, Breyeridea, Archae- hymenoptera. ^^-' Includes: Protohymenoptera, Diaphanopteroidea, Palaeohymenoptera. ^"^ Includes: Aphelophlebia, Agnatha, Odontota, Anisoptera, Archipterygota. ^°^ Includes: Paraneuroptera, Permodonata, Cryptodonata, Cryptodontia, Li- bellulides, Libelluloidea. ^°^ Includes: Protoblattoidea, Pruvostitoptera, Mixotermitoidea, Synarmogoi- 59 Arthropoda — Chaetognatha Class Subcl Order Psocoptera (Corrodentia, Copeognatha) per-rec Zoraptera (Panisoptera) rec Mallophaga (Lipoptera) rec Thysanoptera {Physopoda, Physapida, Thripoides, per-rec Thripsites) Homoptera pal-rec Heteroptera "^ mes-rec Anoplura ^^'^ (Siphunculata, Parasita, Pseudorhyn- ple-rec chota) Endopterygota "'^^ (Holometabola) per-rec Neuroptera "^ per-rec Mecoptera (Panorpatae, Panorpina, Mecaptera, Peta- per-rec noptera, Paramecoptera, Protomecoptera, Proto- diptera) Trichoptera (Phryganoidea, Placipennes, Paratrichop- jur-rec

tera, Agnathes) Lepidoptera (Glossata) eoc-rec Diptera {Antliata, Halterata, Halteriptera, Haustel- jur-rec lata) Siphonaptera (Suctoria, Aphaniptera, Rophoteira, oli-rec Medamoptera, Pulicina) Coleoptera ^^^ {Eleutherata, Elytroptera) per-rec Strepsiptera ^" (Rhipiptera, Rhipidoptera, Strepsata, oli-rec Stylopida) Hymenoptera jur-rec

CHAETOGNATHA ^^=

CHAETOGNATHA cam-rec Sagittoidea cam-rec dea, Hapalopteroidea, Hadentomoidea, Reculoidea, Cnemidolestoidea, Paraple- coptera, Miomoptera, Protocicadida, Protofulgorida. ^°^ Includes: Palaeohemiptera, Hemipsocoptera. ^^° Includes: Pediculidea, Polyptera. ^^^ Hymenopteroidea = archaeohymenoptera -f- palaeohymenoptera + PROTOHYMENOPTERA + HYMENOPTERA. Panorpoidea = TRICHOPTERA + LEPIDOP- TERA + DIPTERA + SIPHONAPTERA + MEGASECOPTERA + PANORPATAE. '^'^'^ Includes: Megaloptera, Raphidioidea, Emmenognatha, Leptophya. (Plani- pennia sometimes used for all these.) "^ Includes: Paracoleoptera. ^^* Sometimes placed in Coleoptera as family Stylopidae. ^^^ Synonyms: Homalopterygia, Oesthelminthes. ^^® Synonyms: Brachiata, Pogonofora. COMPLETE LIST OF CLASSES AND ORDERS 60

Class Subcl Order POGONOPHORA^^«

POGONOPHORA REC Thecanephria REC Athecanephria REC

ECHINODERMATA

CYSTOIDEA ORD-PER Hydrophoridea "^ (Cystidea) ord-dev Rhombifera ord-dev Diploporita ord-dev ^" Blastoidea ord-per Eublastoidea sil-per Coronata ord-sil Parablastoidea ord CRINOIDEA ^^° {Brachiata, Actinoidea, Eucrinoidea) ord-rec Inadunata ^^^ ord-tri Disparida (Disparata) ord-per Hybocrinida ord-sil Cladida (Cladoidea) ord-tri Flexibilia (Ichthyocrinacea) ord-per Taxocrinida (Taxocrinoidea) ord-per Sagenocrinida (Sagenocrinoidea) sil-per Camerata (Sphaeroidocrinacea, Adunata) ord-per Diplobathrida (Diplobathra) ord-mis Monobathrida (Monobathra) ord-per Articulata ^^^ tri-rec Isocrinida tri-rec Millericrinida tri-eoc Cyrtocrinida jur-rec Uintacrinida cre Roveacrinida tri-cre ^^^ Subphyla: Pelmatozoa = cystoidea + blastoidea + crinoidea + eocri- NOIDEA + PARACRINOIDEA + EDRIOASTEROIDEA. HomaloZOa = CARPOIDEA + MA- chaeridia. Haplozoa = single class haplozoa. Eleutherozoa = somasteroidea + ASTEROIDEA + OPHIUROIDEA + ECHINOIDEA + BOTHROCIDAROroEA + OPHIOCYSTO- IDEA -|- HOLOTHURioiDEA. Includes: Heterostelea (carpoidea + Amphoridea), As- terozoa, Stelleroidea, Stelliformia, Hypostoma, Echinozoa, Cystocidaroidea, Apo- rita. ^^^ Includes: Eucystoidea, Cystechinoidea, Dichoporita, Cystocrlnoidea. "^ Sometimes separated into orders Regulares and Irregulares, or orders Eubla- stoidea and Protoblastoidea. Sometimes as a separate class. ^^° Includes: Palaeocrinoidea, Inarticulata, Coadunata, Costata, Testacea, Mo- 6i Pogonophora — Echinodermata

Class Subcl Order Comatulida jur-rec EOCRINOIDEA '^ cam-ord Eocrinoidea cam-ord PARACRINOIDEA ord Paracrinoidea ord EDRIOASTEROIDEA (Thecoidea, Cystasteroidea, Thyroidea, cam-pen

A gelacrinoidea ) Edrioasteroidea cam-pen CARPOIDEA CAM-DEV Carpoidea cam-dev MACHAERIDIA ^'^ ord-dev Machaeridia ord-dev HAPLOZOA ^^ CAM Cyamoidea cam Cycloidea cam SOMASTEROIDEA ord Goniactinida ord ASTEROIDEA '"' (Cirrigrada) ord-rec Hemizonida ord-car Platyasterida ord-dev Phanerozonea ord-rec Spinulosa ^^® rec Forcipulata ^^° rec AULUROIDEA ord-mis Lysophiuroida (Lysophiurae, Aegophiurida) ord-mis Streptophiuroida (Streptophiurae) ord-mis OPHIUROIDEA ^'' (Spinigrada) ord-rec Myophiurida ord-dev Ophiocystiida ord-dev Aganasterida ?-rec Phrynophiurida ?-rec Laemophiurida ?-rec Gnathophiurida ?-rec nocyclica, Dicyclica, Irregularia, Regularia, Larvata, Tesselata, Canaliculata, Semi-articulata. ^^^ Sometimes divided into Larviformia (Haplocrinacea) and Fistulata (Cyatho- crinacea). ^^^ Includes: Pentacrinoidea, Pentacrinacea, Stomatocrinoidea, Neocrinoidea. 123 Perhaps not a natural group. ^2* Groups of doubtful relationships,—possibly not even Echinodermata. 12° Includes: Encrinasteriae, Euasteriae, Cryptozonia. 126 Sometimes united as Cryptozonia. 1" Includes: Ophiureae, Ophiurida, Euryalae, Euryalida, Cladophiurae, Zyg- ophiurae. Also sometimes divided into orders Stenurida and Ophiurida. COMPLETE LIST OF CLASSES AND 63 Pterobranchia — Cephalochordata

Class Subcl Order

E N T E R P N E U S T A ^^^

ENTEROPNEUSTA rec Balanoglossida rec

PLANCTOSPHAEROIDEA

PLANCTOSPHAEROIDEA rec Planctosphaeroidea rec

^^* T U N I C A T A

LARVACEA (Copelata, Appendicularia, Atremata, Perennichor- rec data) Larvacea rec ASCmiACEK^^^ {Tethyodeae) rec Stolidobranchiata (Ptychobranchia) REC Aspiraculata REC Phlebobranchiata (Diktyobranchia, Dictyobranchia) rec Aplousobranchiata (Krikobranchia) rec Octacnemida rec THALIACEA rec Pyrosomata Rec Pyrosomatida (Luciae, Lucida) rec Myosomata rec Cyclomyaria (Doliolida) rec Hemimyaria (Salpida) rec Desmomyaria rec

CEPHALOCHORDATA ^*«

LEPTOCARDIA rec Amphioxi (Branchiostomoidea) rec

^^^ Includes: Pelagothurida. "^ Synonyms: Helminthomorpha. ^^* Synonyms: Urochordata. Suhphyla: Copelata = larvacea; Acopa (Caduci- chordata) = ascidiacea + thaliacea. ^^^ Includes: Enterogona, Pleurogona. ^^^ Synonyms: Cirrhostomi, Entomocrania, Haplocyemata, Homomeria, Mye- lozoa, Pharyngobranchii, Acrania. COMPLETE LIST OF CLASSES AND ORDERS 64 Class Subcl Order VERTEBRATA 137

AGNATHA "® (Monorhyncha, Monorhina) ord-rec Cephalaspidomorpha sil-rec Cyclostomata ^^^ (Marsipobranchii, Petromyzonoidea) rec Cephalaspida "° {Osteostraci, Aspidocephali, Osteo- sil-dev

stracoidea, Cephalaspidiformes ) Anaspida "^ (Anaspidoidea) sil-dev Pteraspidomorpha ^*^ (Pteraspides) ord-dev Pteraspida (Heterostraci, Pteraspidijormes ord-dev Coelolepida (Coelolepidoidea, Coelolepiformes) sil-dev PLACODERMI ^'^ (Aphetohyoidea) sil-per Acanthodii "* (Acanthoglossa, Acanthodioidea) sil-per Arthrodira ^^^ {Euarthrodira, Arthrodiroidea, Phyllo- sil-dev lepida, Ptyctodontida) Macropetalichthyida "® (Anarthrodira) DEV Antiarchi ^^^ (Antiarchoidea, Pterichthyes, Pterichthy- dev omorphd)

^^^ Synonyms: Euchorda, Craniata. Superclass Gnathostomata (Amphirhyncha, Amphirhina) = Placodermi + all "higher" vertebrates. Ichthyopterygii = placo- DERMI + ELASMOBRANCHII + HOLOCEPHALI + OSTEICHTHYES. PisceS (Ichthya, Eotetrapoda) = agnatha + placodermi + chondrichthyes + osteichthyes. Haemacryma = pisces + amphibia + reptilia. Haematherma = ayes + mam- malia. Anamnia (Ichthyopsida) = pisces + amphibia. Amniota = reptilia + aves + MAMMALIA. Tetrapoda (Cheiropterygia) = amphibia + reptilia + ayes + MAMMALIA. Sauropsida = reptilia + ayes. Includes: Protichthyes, Ichthyo- dorulites. ^^^ Ostracodermi (Ostracophori) = cephalaspida + anaspida + pteraspida + Coelolepida. Includes: Euphaneroidea. ^^^ Includes: Myxinoidea, Hyperotreti, Myxini, Myxiniformes, Petromyzontia, Petromyzontiformes, Hyperoarti. "" Includes: Tremataspidiformes, Lasaniiformes, Oligocnemata, Endeiolepi- formes. ^" Includes: Birkeniiformes, Phlebolepiformes. ^*^ Includes: Astraspiformes, Psammosieiformes, Cyathaspiformes, Amphiaspi- formes, Thelodonti. "^ Coccostei (Coccosteomorphi) = euarthrodira + phyllolepida + mac- ropetalichthyes. ^^^ Includes: Climatiiformes, Mesacanthiformes, Ischnacanthiformes, Gyra- canthiformes, Cheiracanthiformes, Acanthodiformes, Acanthoessi, Acanthoessi- formes. Conodontophorida (Conodonta) may belong here (Ord-Tri). ^^^ Includes: Acanthothoraci, Arctolepiformes, Acanthaspidomorphi, Acanth- aspida, Coccosteiformes, Brachythoraci, Mylostomatiformes, Ptyctodontiformes, Phyllolepiformes. "" Includes: Gemuendiniformes, Rhenanida, Petalichthyida. ^^^ Includes: Remigolepiformes, Asterolepiformes. 6$ Vertebrata

Class Subcl Order

Stegoselachii (Stensioelliformes, Jagoriniformes, Sten- sil-mis sioellida) Palaeospondyloidea (Palaeospondyliformes) dev CHONDRICHTHYES dev-rec Elasmobranchii "^ dev-rec Cladoselachii "^ (Pleuropterygii) dev-per Pleuracanthodii {Ichthyotomi, Proselachii) dev-tri Selachii ^^° (Euselachii, Plagiostomi, Chondropterygii, dev-rec Placoidei) Batoidea "^ (Hypotremata, Platosomia) jur-rec Holocephali ''^ dev-rec Bradyodonti ^^^ (Bradyodontoidea) dev-per Chimaerae ^^* (Chimaeroidea) jur-rec OSTEICHTHYES (Teleostomi) dev-rec Actinopterygii '^^ dev-rec Chondrostei ^^"^ (Chondrosteoidea, Palaeopterygii) dev-rec "^ Holostei PER-REC Teleostei '^^ jur-rec '^'^^ Includes: Diplodonti, Diplodontiformes, Xenanthi, Xenacanthi, Xenacan- thoidea. '^^^ Includes: Cladodontiformes, Cladoselachoidea, Cladoselachiformes. ^^° Includes : Pleurostomata, Pleurotremata, Selachoidea, Heterodontiformes, Heterodontoidea, Hexanchoidea, Hexanchiformes, Notidanoidea, Lamnoidea, Lamniformes, Isuriformes, Galeoidei, Squaloidea, Squaliformes, Tectospondyli, Edestidi. ^^^ Includes: Narcaciontiformes, Torpediniformes, Rajiformes. ^^^ Includes: Petalodontes, Petalodontiformes. ^^^ Includes: Eubradyodonti, Chondrenchelyes, Chondrenchelyiformes. ^^* Includes: Chimaeriformes. ^^^ Sometimes divided into superorders: chondrostei, holostei, teleostei. Sometimes divided into infraclasses: Polypterei, chondrostei, holostei, TELEOSTEI. Ganoidi = chondrostei + holostei. Neopterygii = holostei + TELEOSTEI. ^^•^ Includes: Tarrasiiformes, Gymnonisciformes, Luganoidiiformes, Phanero- rhynchiformes, Dorypteriformes, Cephaloxeniformes, Bobasatraniiformes, Red- fieldiiformes, Calopteriformes, Perleidiformes, Platysiagiformes, Ospiiformes, Aetheodontiformes, Pholidopleuriformes, Saurichthyiformes, Palaeoniscoidea, He- terocerci, Palaeonisciformes, Polypterini, Brachyopterygii, Polypteriformes, Cla- distia, Cladistioidea, Acipenseroidea, Acipenseriformes, Subholostei, Subholo- steoidea. ^" Includes: Semionotoidea, Lepidostei, Lepisostei, Lepidosteoidea, Lepiso- steiformes, Ginglymodi, Rhomboganoidei, Pycnodontoidea, Pycnodontiformes, Aspidorhynchoidea, Aspidorhynchiformes, Amioidea, Amiiformes, Pholidopho- roidea, Pholidophoriformes, Pachycormoidea, Pachycormiformes, Protospon- dyli.

^''s See p. 66 for footnote 158. COMPLETE LIST OF CLASSES AND ORDERS 66

Class Subcl Order Choanichthyes (Amphibioidea) dev-rec Crossopterygii ^^^ (Crossopterygioidea) dev-rec Dipnoi ^®° DEV-REC AMPHIBIA '^' (Batrachia) dev-rec Labyrinthodontia ^^^ (Stegocephalia) dev-tri Ichthyostegalia dev-pen Rhachitomi mis-tri Embolomeri mis-per Trematosauria mes Stereospondyli tri Salientia ^^^ pen-rec Eoanura pen Proanura tri Anura "^ {Euanura, Ecaudata) jur-rec Lepospondyli (Urodeloidei, Pseudocentrophori) mis-rec Aistopoda pen Nectridia pen-per Microsauria {Adelospondyli, Micramphibia) mis-per Urodela {Caudata, Gradientia, Saurabatrachia) cre-rec Apoda (Gymnophiona, Peromela, Caecilia) REG

^^^ Includes: Isospondyli, Isospondyloidea, Malacopterygii, Thrissomorphi, Ostariophysi, Ostariophysoidea, Apodes, Heteromi, Heteromoidea, Mesichthyes, Cyprinodontiformes, Acanthopterygii, Symbranchiformes, Physostomi, Physocly- sti, Discocephalioidea, Echiniiformes, Echeniiformes, Plectognathoidea, Hyposto- mosoidea, Cephalacanthoidea, Scleropareioidea, Percomorphoidea, Allotriogna- thoidea, Anacanthoidea, Apodoidea, Batrachoidea, Batrachoidiformes, Haplodoci, Gobiesociformes, Xenopterygii, Lampridiformes, Lophiiformes, Lyomeroidea, Pediculati, Pediculatiformes, Pegasiformes, Salmopercoidea, Solenichthyoidea, Synentognathoidea, Tetradontiformes, Tetrodontiformes, Thoracostoidea, Thun- niformes, Icosteioidea, Icosteiformes, Malacichthyes, Chaudhurioidea, Chaudhuri- iformes, Mastacembelioidea, Mastacembeliformes, Opisthomi, Synbranchioidea, Perciformes, Dactylopteriformes, Pleuronectoidea, Pleuronectiformes, Heteroso- mata, Beryciformes, Berycomorphoidea, Zeiformes, Zeomorphoidea, Mugilifor- mes, Polynemiformes, Ophiocephaliformes, Clupeiformes, Bathyclupeoidea, Ba- thyclupeiformes, Galaxiiformes, Cypriniformes, Anguilliformes, Halosauriformes, Notacanthiformes, Beloniformes, Myctophiformes, Iniomi, Scopeliformes, Ateleo- piformes, Ateleopoidea, Giganturoidea, Giganturiformes, Saccopharyngiformes, Mormyroidea, Mormyriformes, Gadiformes, Macruriformes, Gasterosteiformes, Syngnathiformes, Cyprinodontoidea, Microcyprini, Phallostethiformes, Percopsei- formes, Stephanoberyciformes. ^^^ Includes: Porolepiformes, Osteolepiformes, Osteolepides, Osteolepidoti, Ho- loptychiformes, Megalichthyiformes, Rhipidistia, Actinistla, Coelacanthini, Coela- canthiformes. ^^° Includes: Dipteri, Dipteriformes, Dipneumona, Dipneusti, Phaneropleuri- 67 COMPLETE LIST OF CLASSES AND ORDERS 68

Class Subcl Order Saurischia ^^* (Theropoda, Sauropoda, Compsognatha) tri-cre Omithischia (Orthopoda, Ornithopoda, Predentata tri-cre Stegosauria) Synapsida ^^^ pen-jur Pelycosauria pen-tri Therapsida ^^^ per-tri Ictidosauria tri-jur Mesosauria (Proganosauria) per AVES jur-rec Archaeornithes (Saururae) jur Archaeopteryges (Archaeopterygiformes) jur Neoraithes ^^^ (Ornithae, Ornithurae) cre-rec Hesperomithes (Odontolcae, Hesperornithijormes) cre-eoc Ichthyornithes (Odontormae, Ichthyornes, Ichthyor- cre

nithijormes, Ichthyornijormes ) Sphenisci (Sphenisciformes, Impennes) oli-rec Caenagnathae (Coenagnathiformes) cre Struthiones {Struthioniformes) pli-rec Rheae (Rheiformes) pli-rec Casuarii (Casuariiformes) ple-rec Dinornithes (Dinornithiformes) ple Aepyornithes (Aepyornithiformes) eoc-ple Apteryges (Apterygiformes) ple-rec Crypturi (Tinami, Tinamijormes, Crypturiformes) pli-rec Gaviae (Gaviiformes) eoc-rec Podicipedes (Podicipediformes, Podicipiformes, Colym- oli-rec bae, Colymbiformes, Pygopodes) Procellariae {Procellariijormes, Cecomorphae, Turbi- eoc-rec nares, Tubinares)

^^* Includes: Hallopoda. '^''^ Includes: Promammalia (Protodonta), at one time placed in subclass Proto- theria, of Mammalia. ^''^ Includes: Dromosauria, Deinocephalia, Dicynodontia, Theriodontia, Ano- modontia, Theromorpha. ^" Includes: Dromeognathae, Megistanes, Gastornithes, Stereornithes, Cari- natae, Colymbomorphae, Pelargomorphae, Alectoromorphae, Coraciomorphae,

Limicolae, Pterocletes, Picariae, Musophagi. Neognathae (Euornithes) = all ex- cept HESPERORNiTHEs \- ICHTHYORNITHES + IMPENNES. Superorder Odonto- gnathae = hesperornithes (+ ichthyornithes). Superorder Palaeognathae = caenagnathae + struthiones 4- rheae -1- casuarii + dinornithes 4- aepyor- nithes -I- apteryges. Ratitae included struthiones, rheae, casuarii, dinor- 69 Vertebrata

Class Subcl Order

Steganopodes (Pelecani, Pelecaniformes, Pelicanifor- cre-rec mes) Ciconiae ^^^ (Ciconiiformes, Gressores, Herodiones cre-rec Herodii) Anseres {Anseriformes, Chenomorphae) cre-rec Falcones "® (Falconiformes, Accipitres, Accipitrijor- eoc-rec mes) Galli ^^° (Galliformes, Gallinae) eoc-rec Grues ^^^ (Gruiformes) eoc-rec Diatrymae (Diatrymiformes) Eoc Charadriae ^*" (Charadriiformes, Laro-limicolae) eoc-rec Columbae (Columbiformes) mio-rec Psittaci (Psittaciformes) mio-rec Cuculi (Coccyges, Cuculiformes) oli-rec Striges (Strigiformes) eoc-rec Caprimulgi (Caprimulgiformes) pli-rec Macrochires (Macrochiriformes, Apoda, Apodijormes, oli-rec Micropodi, Micropodiformes) Colli (Colliformes) rec Trogones (Trogoniformes) oli-rec Coraciae ^^^ (Coraciiformes) eoc-rec Pici (Piciformes) eoc-rec Passeres ^^* (Passeriformes) eoc-rec MAMMALIA ^^^ (Mammifera) jur-rec Prototheria ple-rec Monotremata (Omithodelphia) ple-rec Allotheria ^^^ jur-eoc Multituberculata jur-eoc Triconodonta jur

NITHES, AEPYORNITHES, APTERYGES, CURSORES, PROCERES, BREVIPENNES, CRYPTURI. ^^® Includes: Phoenicopteri, Phoenicopteriformes, Amphimorphae, Pelargi- formes. ^^^ Includes: Cathartidiformes. ^^^ Includes: Opisthocomi, Opisthocomiformes, Heteromorphae, Grallae. ^^^ Includes: Ralliformes, Heliornithiformes, Hemipodii, Telmatomorphormes. ^^^ Includes: Alciformes, Lariformes. ^^^ Includes: Alcedines, Bucerotes. ^^* Includes: Eurylaemi, Menurae. Scansores = pici + psittaci in part. ^^^ Epiacentalia = prototheria + allotheria + pantotheria. Theria = pan- TOTHERiA + metatheria + eutheria. Promammalia transferred to Reptilia (Sy- naptida). ^^^ Includes: Plagiaulacoidea, Tritylodontoidea. COMPLETE LIST OF CLASSES AND ORDERS 70 Class Subcl Order Pantotheria jur Trituberculata jur Symmetrodonta jur Metatheria ^^'^ cre-rec Marsupialia (Didelphia) cre-rec Eutheria ^^^ (Monodelphia, Placentalia, Placentaria) cre-rec Insectivora cre-rec Dermoptera eoc-rec Chiroptera eoc-rec Primates ^^^ eoc-rec Tillodontia eoc Taeniodonta (Ganodonta, Stylinodontia) eoc Edentata {Xenarthra, Paratheria, Bruta) eoc-rec Pholidota (Squamata, Nomarthrd) oli-rec Lagomorpha (Duplicidentata) eoc-rec Rodentia^®*' eoc-rec Cetacea ^^^ (Mutica, Cete) eoc-rec Carnivora ^^^ eoc-rec Condylarthra eoc Litoptema eoc-ple

^^'' Includes: Polyprotodontia, Caenolestoidea, Diprotodontia, Paucitubercu- lata. ^^^ Includes: Ancylopoda, Chalicotheria, Taxeopoda, Quadrumana, Daubento- mioidea, Subungulata, Pithecoidea, Platyrhina, Simiae, Toxodontia, Barytheria, Carnivores, Edentates, Ungulates, Bunotheria. Unguiculata = insectivora + DERMOPTERA 4- CHIROPTERA + PRIMATES + TILLODONTIA + TAENIODONTA + EDEN- TATA -|- PHOLIDOTA. Ungulata = Protungulata (condylarthra -\- litopterna + NOTOUNGULATA + ASTRAPOTHERIA + TUBULIDENTATA) + Paenungulata (PANTO- DONTA + DINOCERATA -\- xenungulata + pyrotheria + proboscidea + embri-

-1- THOPODA + HYRACOIDEA + DESMOSTYLIFORMES + SIRENIA PERISSODACTYLA -f- artiodactyla). Glires = lagomorpha + rodentia. Mutilata = cetacea + sire- NiA. Protungulata = condylarthra + litoptera + notoungulata + astrapo- THERIA + TUBULIDENTATA. Therictoidea = insectivora + Ferae. Archonta = Menotyphla + dermoptera -\- chiroptera + primates. Paenungulata = panto- DONTA + DINOCERATA -1- PYROTHERIA + PROBOSCIDEA + EMBRITHOPODA + HYRA- COIDEA 4- SIRENIA. Diplarthra = perissodactyla + artiodactyla. ^^^ Includes: Anthropoidea, Lemuroidea, Prosimii. ^^° Includes: Simplicidentata. ^^^ Includes: Zeuglodontia, Archaeoceti, Odontoceti, Mystacoceti. ^^2 Includes: Fissipedia, Creodonta, Pinnipedia, Ferungulata, Ferae. ^^^ Includes: Taxodontia. ^®* Includes: Amblydactyla, Taligrada, Coryphodontia. ^^^ Includes: Myohyracoidea. yi Vertebrata Notoungulata ^^^ eoc-ple Astrapotheria eoc-mio Tubulidentata eoc-rec Pantodonta ^^* (Amblypoda) eoc-oli Dinocerata (Uintatheria) eoc Pyrotheria eoc-oli Proboscidea eoc-rec Embrithopoda (Barypoda) oli Hyracoidea ^^^ (Hyraces) oli-rec Sirenia eoc-rec Perissodactyla {Mesaxonia) eoc-rec Artiodactyla (Paraxonia) eoc-rec BIBLIOGRAPHY

MANY BOOKS, pamphlets, and articles have been consulted in the preparation of this classification. A listing of all of these appears to serve no essential purpose here. The Ust given below therefore contains principally recent works in which a formal classification is presented for the entire animal kingdom or a major part of it. The list is intended merely as background for the present classification. It does not contain references to all authors and works cited in the text.

Boettger, C. R. 1952. Die Stamme des Tierreichs in ihrer systematischen Gliederung. Abhandl. Braunschweigischen Wiss. Gesell., Band iv, pp. 238-300.

Borradaile, L. A., Potts, F. A., Eastham, L. E. S., and Saunders, J. T. 1951. The Invertebrata. A manual for the use of students, 2nd edition, 725 pp. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge. Brues, C. T., Melander, A. L., and Carpenter, F. M. 1954. Classification of insects. Museum of Comparative Zoology, Bull. 108,

pp. 1-917. Colbert, E. H. 1955. Evolution of the vertebrates. A history of the backboned animals through time, 479 pp. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Dawes, B. 1956. The Trematoda, with special reference to British and other European forms, 644 pp. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge. Forster-Cooper, C. 1951. A text -book of zoology, by T. J. Parker and W. A. Haswell, 6th edi- tion, vol. 2, 758 pp. Macmillan & Co., London.

Hadzi, J. 1953. An attempt to reconstruct animal classification. Systematic Zoology, vol.

2, pp. 145-154. Hall, R. P. 1953. Protozoology, 682 pp. Prentice-Hall, New York. Hyman, L. H. 1940. The invertebrates: Protozoa through Ctenophora, 726 pp. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. 1951. The invertebrates: Platyhelminthes and Rhynchocoela. The acoelomate Bilateria, vol. n, 550 pp. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. 1951. The invertebrates: Acanthocephala, Aschelminthes, and Entoprocta. The Bibliography y3 pseudocoelomate Bilateria, vol. in, 572 pp. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. 1955. The invertebrates: Echinodermata. The Coelomate Bilateria, vol. iv,

763 pp. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. 1959. The invertebrates: Smaller coelomate groups. Chaetognatha, Hemichor- data, Pogonophora, Phoronida, Ectoprocta, Brachiopoda, Sipunculida. The coelomate Bilateria, vol. v, 783 pp. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. Kerkut, G. A. 1958. The Invertebrata, by Borradaile, Potts, et al., 3rd edition, 795 pp. Cam- bridge Univ. Press, Cambridge. Kudo, R. R. 1954. Protozoology, 4th edition, 966 pp. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield,

Illinois. Lowenstein, O.

1954. A text-book of zoology, by T. J. Parker and W. A. Haswell, 6th edi-

tion, vol. 1, 770 pp. Macmillan & Co., London. Mayr, E. and Amadon, D. 1951. A classification of recent birds. American Museum Novitates, No. 1496, pp. 1^2. Mayr, E., Linsley, E. G., and Usinger, R. L. 1953. Methods and principles of systematic zoology, 328 pp. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. Moore, R. C. (editor) 1953-1961. Treatise of invertebrate paleontology. (Issued in parts with numerous contributors)

D. Protista 3. Protozoa (chiefly Radiolaria and Tintinnina), 195 pp. 1954. (By A. S. Campbell and R. C. Moore)

E. Archaeocyatha and Porifera, 122 pp. 1955. (By V. J. Okulitch and M. W. de Laubenfels)

P. Coelenterata, 498 pp. 1956. (By F. M. Bayer, H. Boschma, H. J. Harring- ton, D. Hill, L. H. Hyman, M. Lecompte, E. Montanaro-Gallitelli, R. C.

Moore, E. C. Stumm, J. W. Wells) G. Bryozoa, 253 pp. 1953. (By R. S. Bassler)

I. Mollusca 1. Mollusca—General features. Scaphopoda. Amphineura. Mo- noplacophora. Gastropoda—General features. Archaeogastropoda and some (mainly Paleozoic) Caenogastropoda and Opisthobranchia, 351 pp. 1960. (By J. B. Knight, L. R. Cox, A. M. Keen, A. G. Smith, R. L. Batten, E. L. Yochelson, N. H. Ludbrook, R. Robertson, C. M. Yonge, R. C. Moore)

L. Mollusca IV. Cephalopoda, Ammonoidea, 490 pp. 1957. (By W. J. Arkell, W. M. Furnish, B. Kummel, A. K. Miller, R. C. Moore, O. H. Schinde- wolf, P. C. Sylvester-Bradley, C. W. Wright)

O. Arthropoda 1. Arthropoda—General features. Protarthropoda. Euarthrop-

oda—General features. Trilobitomorpha, 560 pp. 1959. (By H. J. Har- rington, G. Henningsmoen, B. F. Howell, V. Jaanusson, C. Lochman- BIBLIOGRAPHY 74 Balk, R. C. Moore, C. Paulsen, F. Rasetti, E. Richter, R. Richter,

H. Schmidt, K. Sdzuy, W. Struve, L. St0rmer, C. J. Stubblefield,

R. Tripp, J. M. Weller, H. B. Whittington)

P. Arthropoda 2. Chelicerata with sections on Pycnogonida and Palaeoisopus, 181 pp. 1955. (By L. St0rmer, A. Petrunkevitch, J. W. Hedgpeth) Q. Arthropoda 3. Crustacea, Ostracoda, 442 pp. 1961. (By R. H. Benson, J. M.

Berdan, W. A. van den Bold, T. Hanai, I. Hessland, H. V. Howe, R. V. Kesling, S. A. Levinson, R. A. Reyment, R. C. Moore, H. W. Scott,

R. H. Shaver, I. G. Sohn, L. E. Stover, F. M. Swain, P. C. Sylvester-

Bradley, J. Wainwright)

V. Graptolithina with sections on Enteropneusta and Pterobranchia, 101 pp. 1955. (By O. M. B. Bulman) Moore, R. C, Lalicker, C. G., and Fischer, A. G. 1952. Invertebrate fossils, 766 pp. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. Noble, G. K. 1931. The biology of the Amphibia, 577 pp. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. (Reprinted 1954, Dover Publications, New York)

Parker, T. J. and Haswell, W. A.

1897. A text-book of zoology, vol. i, 779 pp. Macmillan & Co., London. Pearse, A. S.

1949. Zoological names. A list of phyla, classes, and orders, 24 pp. Zoology Department, Duke Univ., Durham, N. C.

Piveteau, J.

1953. Traite de Paleontologie, tome iii, 1063 pp. Masson et Cie., Paris. (Onychophores, Arthropodes, fichinodermes, Stomocordes)

Romer, A. S.

1945. Vertebrate paleontology, 2nd edition, 687 pp. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago. Rothschild, (Lord).

1961. A classification of living animals, 106 pp. Longmans, Green & Co., Ltd. London. Shrock, R. R. and Twenhofel, W. H. 1953. Principles of invertebrate paleontology, 816 pp. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. Simpson, G. G. 1945. The principles of classification and a classification of mammals. Bull.

American Museum Natural History, vol. 85, 350 pp. Wardle, R. A. and McLeod, J. A. 1952. The zoology of tapeworms, 780 pp. Univ. of Minnesota Press, Min- neapolis.

Waterman, T. H. and Chace, F. A., Jr.

1960. General crustacean biology, pp. 1-33, in The physiology of Crustacea,

edited by T. H. Waterman, vol. 1 , 670 pp. Academic Press, New York. Wetmore, A. 1960. A classification for the birds of the World. Smithsonian Miscellaneous

Collections, vol. 139, No. 1 1, pp. 1-37, 8 1

INDEX TO COMMON NAMES

aardvarks, 25 beavers, 25 bugs (Continued) acorn-worms, 22 bed-bugs, 20 sowbugs, 19 albatrosses, 24 bee-eaters, 24 spittle-bugs, 20 alligators, 23 bees, 21 bulbuls, 25 alpacas, 25 beetles, 20 buntings, 25 amphibians, 23 bird-lice, 20 bush-babies, 25 angel-fishes, 23 birds, 23 bustard-quails, 24 angle-worms, 17 antbirds, 25 bustards, 24 animalcules blackbirds, 25 butcher-birds, 25 bear-animalcules, 7, 17 bowerbirds, 25 butterflies, 20 sun-animalcules, 9 butcher-birds, 25 butterfly-shells, 16 wheel-animalcules, 6, frigate-birds, 24 13 humming-birds, 24 animals mockingbirds, 25 Caddis-flies, 20 one-celled animals, 6 mouse-birds, 24 caecilians, 23 anis, 24 oil-birds, 24 cake-urchins, 22 annelids, 16 ovenbirds, 25 calcareous sponges, 10 antbirds, 25 puflFbirds, 24 camels, 25 anteaters, 25 secretary-birds, 24 campodeids, 20 antelopes, 25 snakebirds, 24 capybaras, 25 ant-lions, 20 songbirds, 25 caracaras, 24 ants, 21 surf-birds, 24 cartilaginous fishes, 23 velvet-ants, 21 tropicbirds, 24 case-flies, 20 white-ants, 20 wattlebirds, 25 cassowaries, 24 apes, 25 weaverbirds, 25 caterpillars, 20 aphids, 20 birds-of-paradise, 25 cats, 25 arachnids, 7, 18 biting-lice, 20 cattle, 25 argonauts, 16 bitterns, 24 caymans, 23 armadillos, 25 bivalves, 16 centipedes, 19 arrow-worms, 7, 21 blackbirds, 25 cephalopods, 16 arthropods, 17 black-corals, 12 chalky sponges, 10 ascidians, 22 black-widows, 18 chiggers, 18 avocets, 24 bloodsuckers, 17 chigoes, 20 awks, 24 blue-corals, 11 chimaeras, 23 aye-aye, 25 blues, 20 chimpanzees, 25 boat-shells, 16 chinchillas, 25 bony fishes, 23 chipmunks, 25 boobies, 24 chitons, 15 babblers, 25 book-lice, 20 cicadas, 20 baboons, 25 book-scorpions, 18 ciliates, 10 badgers, 25 bots, 20 civets, 25 bandicoots, 25 bowerbirds, 25 clams, 16 barbets, 24 brachiopods, 15 coatis, 25 bark-lice, 20 brine-shrimps, 1 coccolithophores, 9 barnacles, 18 bristle-tails, 20 coccoliths, 9 basket-stars, 21 brittle-stars, 21 cockroaches, 20 batrachians, 23 broadbills, 25 coelacanths, 23 bats, 25 bryozoans, 15 coelenterates, 1 bear-animalcules, 7, 17 bugs, 20 colies, 24 beard-worms, 7, 21 bed-bugs, 20 colugos, 25 bears, 25 croton-bugs, 20 comb-jellies, 6, 12 water-bears, 7, 17 mealy-bugs, 20 coots, 24 woolly-bears, 20 pillbugs, 19 corallines, 15 11 1

INDEX TO Common names 76

corals, 6, 11 fairy-shrimps, 18 frogs, 23 black-corals, 12 falcons, 24 frog-spit, 20 blue-corals, 11 false-scorpions, 18 fulmars, 24 hexacorals, 11 feather-stars, 21 horny-corals, 11 finches, 25 gallinules, soft-corals, 11 fireflies, 20 24 stony-corals, 11 fishes gall-wasps, 21 thorny-corals, 12 angel-fishes, 23 gannets, 24 cormorants, 24 bony fishes, 23 gars, 23 crabs, 19 cartilaginous fishes, 23 gastropods, 15 horseshoe-crabs, 17 crayfish, 19 gastrotrichs, 13 craniates, 35 cuttle-fish, 16 gavials, 23 cranes, 24 dogfishes, 23 gazelles, 25 crayfish, 19 hag-fishes, 23 geese, 24 creepers, 25 jawless fishes, 23 gibbons, 25 crickets, 20 lobe-finned fishes, 23 giraffes, 25 mole-crickets, 20 lungfishes, 23 glass-sponges, 10 crinoids, 21 rabbit-fishes, 23 gnats, 20 crocodiles, 23 ratfishes, 23 glow-worms, 20 croton-bugs, 20 ray-finned fishes, 23 goats, 25 crows, 25 silver-fish, 20 goatsuckers, 24 crustaceans, 7, 18 starfishes, 21 gordian-worms, 6, 14 cuckoos, 24 fish-flies, 20 gorgonians, 1 cuttle-fish, 16 flagellates, 9 gorillas, 25 animal-like, 9 graptolites, 27 plant-like, 9 grasshoppers, 20 flamingoes, 24 grebes, 24 daddy-long-legs, 18 flatworms, 6, 12 grosbeaks, 25 damselflies, 20 fleas, 20 grouse, 24 deer, 25 snow-fleas, 20 grylloblattids, 20 devil's-daming-needles, 20 water-fleas, 18 guanacos, 25 dinoflagellates, 9 flies, 20 guenons, 25 dippers, 25 butterflies, 20 guinea-pigs, 25 divers, 24 caddis-flies, 20 gulls, 24 dobson-flies, 20 case-flies, 20 dodos, 24 damselflies, 20 dogfishes, 23 dobson-flies, 20 hag-fishes, 23 dogs, 25 dragonflies, 20 hammerheads, 24 dolphins, 25 fireflies, 20 hares, 25 dormice, 25 fish-flies, 20 sea-hares, 15 doves, 24 ichneumon-flies, 21 harriers, 24 dragonflies, 20 lantern-flies, 20 harvest-men, 18 drongos, 25 mayflies, 20 hawks, 24 ducks, 24 orl-flies, 20 heart-urchins, 21,22 dust-lice, 20 salmon-flies, 20 hedgehogs, 25 sawflies, 20 herons, 24

scorpion-flies, 20 hexacorals, 1 serpent-flies, 20 hippopotamuses, 25 eagles, 24 snake-flies, 20 hoatzins, 24 ear-shells, 15 stone-flies, 20 honey-creepers, 25 earthworms, 17 trout-flies, 20 honey-guides, 24 earwigs, 20 white-flies, 20 hoopoes, 24 echidna, 25 flukes, 12 hornbills, 24 echinoderms, 21 flycatchers, 25 hornets, 21 eels flying-lemurs, 25 horntails, 21

slime-eels, 23 foraminiferans, 9 horny-corals, 1 elaters, 20 forams, 9 horny-sponges, 10 elephants, 25 fowls, 24 horsehair-worms, 6, 14 embiids, 20 foxes, 25 horses, 25 emus, 24 frigate-birds, 24 horseshoe-crabs, 17 endoprocts, 14 frogmouths, 24 humming-birds, 24 INDEX TO Common names 11 hydroids, 6 lions nematodes, 14 hydrozoans, 31 ant-lions, 20 newts, 23 hyenas, 25 sea-lions, 25 night-crawlers, 17 hyraxes, 25 lizards, 23 nudibranchs, 16 llamas, 25 nuthatches, 25 lobe-finned fishes, 23 lobsters, 19 Ibises, 24 locusts, 20 Octopuses, 16 ichneumon-flies, 21 loons, 24 oil-birds, 24 insectivores, 25 lories, 24 oHgochaetes, 17 insects, 7, 20 lorises, 25 opalinids, 10 leaf-insects, 20 lungfishes, 23 opossums, 25 scale-insects, 20 lyrebirds, 25 opossum-shrimps, 19 stick-insects, 20 orangutans, 25 orioles, 25 macaques, 25 orl-flies, 20 macaws, 24 Jacamars, 24 ospreys, 24 maggots, 20 jacanas, 24 ostriches, 23 magpies, 25 japygids, 20 otters, 25 mammals, 25 jawless fishes, 23 ovenbirds, 25 mammoths, 25 jays, 25 owls, 24 mantids, 20 jellyfishes, 6, 11 oyster-catchers, 24 mantis-shrimps, 19 oysters, 16 marmosets, 25 marmots, 25 marsupials, 25 kagus, 24 pacas, 25 kangaroo-rats, 25 mastodons, 25 pandas, 25 mayflies, 20 kangaroos, 25 pangolins, 25 katydids, 20 meal-worms, 20 parakeets, 24 mealy-bugs, 20 kingfishers, 24 parrots, 24 kinglets, medusae, 11 25 6, peacocks, 24 kinkajous, 25 megapodes, 24 pearly-nautilus, 16 kiwis, 24 25 men, peccaries, 25 koalas, 25 mice, 25 pelecypods, 16 krill, 19 pocket-mice, 25 pelicans, 24 microscorpions, 18 penguins, 23 microsporidians, 10 petrels, 24 midges, 20 lace-wings, 20 phalangers, 25 millepores, 11 lampreys, 23 phalaropes, 24 millers, 20 lamp-shells, 7, 15 pheasants, 24 millipedes, 19 lancelets, 7. 23 phoronids, 15 minks, 25 land-snails, 16 phyllopoda, 18 mites, 18 langurs, 25 piculets, 24 mockingbirds, 25 lantern-flies, 20 pigeons, 24 mole-crickets, 20 larks, 25 pigs, 25 moUusks, 7, 15 lars, 25 pikas, 25 monkeys, 25 leaf-hoppers, 20 pillbugs, 19 monotremes, 25 leaf-insects, 20 placentals, 25 mosquitoes, 20 plainwanderers, 24 leeches, 17 mosquito-hawks, 20 lemmings, 25 planarians, 12 moss-animals, 7, 15 lemurs, 25 plantain-eaters, 24 moths, 20 flying-lemurs, 25 platypus, 25 motmots, 24 lice, 20 plovers, 24 mouse-birds, 24 bark-lice, 20 pocket-mice, 25 murres, 24 bird-lice, 20 polychaetes, 17 musk-oxen, 25 biting-lice, 20 polyclads, 12 muskrats, 25 book-lice, 20 porcupines, 25 mussels, 16 dust-lice, 20 porpoises, 25 sucking lice, 20 potoos, 24 limpets, 15 nautilus, 16 praying-mantis, 20 limpkins, 24 nemas, 14 prawns, 19 1 1 8 8

INDEX TO Common names 78 proboscis-worms, 6, 13 sea-cucumbers, 22 songbirds, 25 pronghoras, 25 sea-fans, 11 soothsayers, 20 proturans, 20 sea-feathers, 1 sowbugs, 19 pseudoscorpions, 18 sea-hares, 15 spiders, 18 psocids, 20 sea-lilies, 21 black-widows, 18 psyllids, 20 sea-lions, 25 scorpion-spiders, 55 pteropods, 16 sea-urchins, 21 sea-spiders, 17 puflFbirds, 24 seals, 25 sun-spiders, 18 punkies, 20 sea-mats, 15 spiny-headed-worms, 6, 13 sea-mosses, 15 spittle-bugs, 20 sea-pansies, 11 sponges, 6, 10 quails, 24 sea-pens, 11 calcareous sponges, 10 sea-spiders, 17 chalky sponges, 10 sea-squirts, 7, 22 glass-sponges, 10 rabbit-fishes, 23 sea-stars, 21 horny-sponges, 10 rabbits, 25 sea-walnuts, 6, 12 stone-sponges, 10 raccoons, 25 secretary-birds, 24 spoonbills, 24 radiolarians, 9 segmented-worms, 7, 16 springtails, 20 rails, 24 serpent-flies, 20 squids, 16 ramshoms, 16 serpent-stars, 21 squirrels, 25 ratfishes, 23 sharks, 23 starfishes, 21 rats, 25 shearwaters, 24 starlings, 25 kangaroo-rats, 25 sheep, 25 stick-insects, 20 ray-finned fishes, 23 shells stilts, 24 rays, 23 boat-shells, 16 stony-corals, 11 reptiles, 23 butterfly-shells, 16 stone-flies, 20 rheas, 24 ear-shells, 15 stone-sponges, 10 rhinoceroses, 25 lamp-shells, 7, 15 storks, 24 rhizopods, 9 tooth-shells, 16 stromatoporoids, 31 ribbon-worms, 6, 13 tusk-sheUs, 16 stylopids, 21 roaches, 20 shrews, 25 sucking lice, 20 roadrunners, 24 tree-shrews, 25 sun-animalcules, 9 rock-jumpers, 20 shrikes, 25 sunbitterns, 24 rollers, 24 shrimps, 19 sungrebes, 24 rotifers, 6, 13 brine-shrimps, 18 sun-spiders, 18 round-worms, 6, 14 fairy-shrimps, 1 surf-birds, 24 mantis-shrimps, 19 swallows, 25 opossum-shrimps, 19 swans, 24 Salamanders, 23 silicoflagellates, 9 swifts, 24 salmon-flies, 20 silver-fish, 20 sand-dollars, 21, 22 siphonophores, 11 sandgrouse, 24 sipunculid worms, 16 tailless-whip-scorpions, 1 sandpipers, 24 skates, 23 tanagers, 25 sand-stars, 21 skimmers, 24 tapeworms, 12 sandworms, 17 skippers, 20 tapirs, 25 sawflies, 21 skunks, 25 tarantula-hawks, 21 scale-insects, 20 slime-eels, 23 tarantulas, 18 scuds, 19 slime-molds, 9 tarsiers, 25 scorpion-flies, 20 sloths, 25 Tasmanian-wolf, 25 scorpions, 18 slugs, 15, 16 tenrecs, 25 book-scorpions, 18 snails, 15 termites, 20 false-scorpions, 18 land-snails, 16 terns, 24 microscorpions, 18 snakebirds, 24 thrashers, 25 pseudoscorpions, 18 snake-doctors, 20 thread-worms, 6, 14 tailless-whip-scorpions, snake-flies, 20 thrips, 20 18 snakes, 23 thorny-corals, 12 whip-scorpions, 18 snipe, 24 thrushes, 25 scorpion-spiders, 55 snow-fleas, 20 ticks, 18 screamers, 24 soft-corals, 1 tinamous, 24 sea-anemones, 6, 11 solitaires, 24 tintinnids, 10 sea-cows, 25 solpugids, 18 titmice, 25 79 INDEX TO Common names toads, 23 voles, 25 wood-wasps, 21 todies, 24 vultures, 24 woolly-bears, 20 tongue-worms, 22 worms tooth-shells, 16 acorn-worms, 22 tortoises, 23 Wagtails, 25 angle-worms, 17 toucans, 24 walking-sticks, 20 arrow-worms, 7,21 touracos, 24 walruses, 25 beard-worms, 7, 21 tree-hoppers, 20 warblers, 25 earthworms, 17 tree-shrews, 25 wasps, 21 flatworms, 6, 12 triclads, 12 gall-wasps, 21 glow-worms, 20 trogans, 24 tarantula-hawks, 21 gordian-worms, 7, 14 tropicbirds, 24 wood-wasps, 20 horsehair-worms, 7, 14 trout-flies, 20 water-bears, 7, 17 meal-worms, 20 trumpeters, 24 water-fleas, 18 proboscis-worms, 6, 13 tubeworms, 17 water-pennies, 20 ribbon-worms, 6, 13 tunicates, 22 wattlebirds, 25 round-worms, 6, 14 turbans, 15 waxwings, 25 segmented-worms, 7, turkeys, 24 webspinners, 20 16 turnstones, 24 weasels, 25 spiny-headed-worms, turtles, 23 weaverbirds, 25 6, 13 tusk-shells, 16 weevils, 20 sandworms, 17 whales, 25 sipunculid worms, 16 wheel-animalcules, 6, 13 tapeworms, 12 Urchins whip-scorpions, 18 thread-worms, 6, 14 cake-urchins, 22 white-ants, 20 tongue-worms, 22 heart-urchins, 21,22 white-flies, 20 tubeworms, 17 sea-urchins, 21 white-grubs, 20 wire-worms, 20 wire-worms, 20 wrens, 25 wolverines, 25 wrentits, 25 Vampires, 25 wolves, 25 velvet-ants, 21 woodcock, 24 vertebrates, 7, 23 woodhewers, 25 Zebras, 25 vireos, 25 woodpeckers, 24 zorapterans, 20 INDEX TO LATIN NAMES

Acalephae, 44 Actinoceroida, 51 Amblydactyla, 70 Acantharia, 40 Actinoidea Amblypoda, 71 Acanthaspida Coelenterata, 44 Amblypygi, 55 Graptozoa, 42 Echinodermata, 60 Ambonodonta, 50 Vertebrata, 64 Actinomyxidia, 9, 40 Ambulatoria, 58 Acanthaspidomorpha, 64 Actinophrydea, 40 Amiiformes, 65 Acanthinocyathida, 42 Actinopoda Amioidea, 65 Acanthistida, 42 Echinodermata, 62 Ammonitida, 51 Acanthobdellida, 17, 52 Protozoa, 9, 40 Ammonitoidea, 50 Acanthobdelliformes, 52 Actinopterygii, 23, 65 Amniota, 64 Acanthocephala, 6, 13, 36, Actinozoa, 44 Amoebaea, 40 46 Actipylaea, 40 Amoebina, 40 Acanthocyatha, 42 Aculifera, 49 Amoebogeniae, 40 Acanthodiformes, 64 Acystosporidia, 40 Amoebosporidia, 40 Acanthodii, 64 Adapedonta, 51 Amoebozoa, 9, 40 Acanthodioidea, 64 Adeleida, 41 Amphiaspiformes, 64 Acanthoessi, 64 Adelochorda, 29 Amphibia, 23, 66 Acanthoessiformes, 64 Adelospondyli, 66 Amphibioidea, 66 Acanthoglossa, 64 Adenopoda, 58 Amphicoela, 67 Acanthometrida, 40 Adinida, 39 Amphidiscophora, 41 Acanthophractida, 40 Adunata, 60 Amphigastropoda, 49 Acanthopterygii, 66 Aegophiurida, 61 Amphilinidea, 12, 46 Acanthothoraci, 64 Aepyornithes, 68 Amphimorphae, 69 Acari, 54 Aepyornithiformes, 68 Amphineiira, 15,49 Acarida, 18, 54 Aeroplanoptera. 58 Amphioxi, 23, 63 Acarina, 54 Aeropneusta, 54 Amphipoda, 19. 56 Accipitres, 69 Aetheodontiformes, 65 Amphirhina, 64 Accipitriformes, 69 Aetioptera, 58 Amphirhyncha. 64 Acephala, 50 Aganasterida. 21.61 Amphoridea, 60 Acerata, 53 Agelacrinoidea, 61 Anacanthoidea, 66 Acetabulifera, 50 Aglaspida, 54 Anamerentoma, 57 Acineta, 41 Aglossa, 50 Anamnia. 64 Acinetaria, 41 Agnatha Anamorpha, 57 Acipenseriformes, 65 Arthropoda, 58 Anapsida, 23, 67 Acipenseroidea, 65 Vertebrata, 23, 64 Anarthrodira, 64 Acnidaria, 36, 44 Agnathes, 59 Anaspida. 64 Acnidosporidia, 40 Agnostida, 54 Anaspidacea, 19, 56 Acochlidiacea, 50 Agnotozoa, 6, 36 Anaspidea, 50 Acoela Aistopoda, 66 Anaspides, 56 Mollusca, 16,50 Ajacicyathida, 42 Anaspidoidea, 64 Platyhelminthes, 12, Alcedines, 69 Anatinacea, 50 45 Alciformes, 69 Ancylopoda, 70 Acoelomata, 6, 36 Alcyonacea, 11,44 Ancyrotricha. 19, 57 Acopa, 63 Alcyonaria, 11,44 Androgyna. 49 Acrania, 37, 63 Alectoromorphae, 68 Anemineae, 40 Acrasiae, 40 Alloeocoela, 12,45 Anguilliformes, 66 Acraspeda, 44 AUogromidiaceae, 40 Anguilluloidea, 47 Acrosauria, 67 Alloiocoela, 45 Angusticoela, 67 Acrothoracica. 18,56 Allotheria, 69 Animalia, 6, 36 Actinanthida, 44 Allotriognathoidea, 66 Anisaxia, 58

Actiniaria, 1 1, 44 Amaurochaetaceae, 40 Anisomyaria, 50 Actinildea, 44 Amaurochaetineae, 40 Anisopleura, 49 Actinistia, 66 Amaurosporales, 40 Anisopoda, 56 8i INDEX TO Latin names

Anisoptera, 58 Apostomina, 41 Ascoceroida, 51 Annelida, 7, 16, 37, 52 Appendicularia, 63 Asconosa, 41 Annulata, 37, 52 Apsidospondyli, 67 Ascorhynchomorpha, 54 Anoecia, 43 Aptera, 57 Ascospermophora, 19, 57 Anomalobranchia, 51 Apterygea, 24, 68 Ascothoracica, 19, 56 Anomalodesmacea, 51 Apterygiformes, 24, 68 Aseptata, 44 Anomalodesmata, 51 Apterygogenea, 57 Asiphonida, 50 Anomocoela, 67 Apterygota, 20, 57 Aspidobothria, 45 Anomodontia, 68 Apygia, 49 Aspidobranchiata, 49 Anomomeristica, 52 Arachnida, 18, 54 Aspidocephah', 64 Anomostraca, 56 Arachnoidea, 54 Aspidochirota, 22, 62 Anomura, 56 Arachnomorpha, 53 Aspidochirotida, 62 Anopla, 46 Araeolaimoidea, 14, 47 Aspidocotylea, 45 Anoplura, 20, 59 Araeoscelida, 67 Aspidogastrea, 12,45 Anostraca, 18, 55 Araneae, 18,55 Aspidorhynchiformes, 65 Anseres, 24, 69 Araneida, 8, 55 Aspidorhynchoidea, 65 Anseriformes, 24, 69 Archaehymenoptera, 58 Aspidospondyli, 67 Antennata, 53 Archaeoceti, 70 Aspiraculata, 22, 63 Anthocyaiha, 42 Archaeocopida, 55 Aspirigera, 41 Anthomedusae, 43 Archaeocyatha, 36, 42 Aspirotricha, 41 Anthomorphida, 42 Archaeogastropoda, 15,49 Aspirotrichaceae, 41 Anthozoa, 11,44 Archaeophyllida, 42 Asplanchnaceae, 47 Anthozoariae, 44 Archaeopteryges, 68 Asteroidea, 21, 61 Anthracomarti, 54 Archaeopterygiformes, 68 Asterolepiformes, 64 Anthracomartida, 54 Archaeornithes, 68 Asterozoa, 60 Anthracomorphoidea. 67 Archaeostraca, 55 Asthenodonta, 51 Anthracosauria, 67 Archiacanthocephala, 13, Asthenodontida, 50 Anthracosauroidea, 67 46 Astomata, 41 Anthropoidea, 70 Archiannelida, 17, 52 Astomina, 41 Antiarchi, 64 Archichaetopoda, 52 Astrapotheria, 71 Antiarchoidea, 64 Archinacelloidea, 49 Astraspiformes, 64 Anticorallia, 44 Archipolypoda, 57 Astromonaxonellida, 42 Antipatharia, 12,44 Archipterygota, 58 Astrophora, 42 Antipathidea, 44 Architarbi, 54 Astrorhizidea, 40 Antliata, 59 Architarbida, 54 Ateleopiformes, 66 Anura, 23, 66 Architeuthacea, 51 Ateleopoidea, 66 Aphacellae, 43 Archodonata, 57 Atelostomata, 62 Aphaneura, 52 Archonta, 70 Atentaculata, 45 Aphaniptera, 59 Archosauria, 67 Athecanephria, 21, 60 Aphasmidia, 47 Archosauromorpha, 67 Athecata, 43 Aphelophlebia, 58 Arctolepiformes, 64 Atomiosoma, 46 Aphetohyoidea, 64 Arcyriaceae, 40 Atremata Aphrothoraca, 40 Armadillomorpha, 57 Brachiopoda, 15,49 Aphylles, 45 Arthrocephala, 53 Tunicata, 63 Aplacophora, 15,49 Arthrodira, 64 Aulodonta, 62 Aplocoela, 36, 46 Arthrodiroidea, 64 Auluroidea, 61 Aplosporidla, 40 Arthropleurida, 53 Autobranchiata, 50 Aplousobranchiata, 22, 63 Arthropoda, 7, 17,37,53 Autoscolecida, 36 Aplysiacea, 50 Arthropomata, 49 Aves, 23,68 Apoda Arthrostraca, 56 Axifera, 44 Amphibia, 23, 66 Arthrotardigrada, 17, 52 Azygobranchia, 50 Arthropoda, 19, 56 Articulata Aves, 24,69 Brachiopoda, 15, 49 Echinodermata, 22, 62 Coelomata, 27 Babesiida, 41 Apodes, 66 Echinodermata, 21,60 Balanoglossida, 22, 63 Apodiformes, 69 Artiodactyla, 25,71 Barrandeoceratida, 51 Apodoidea, 66 Ascaroidea. 14, 48 Barypoda, 71 Apomatostoma, 50 Aschelminthes, 28 Barytheria, 70 Aporhabdina, 41 Ascidiacea, 22. 63 Basommatophora, 16, 50 Aporidea, 12, 46 Ascidiastella, 62 Bassleroceratida, 51 Aporita, 60 Asclerocorallia, 44 Bathyclupeiformes, 66 INDEX TO Latin names 82

Bathyclupeoidea, 66 Bunotheria, 70 Cephalocarida, 18, 55 Bathyuriscidea, 54 Burgessiida, 53 Cephalochordata, 7, 23, 37, Batoidea, 23, 65 63 Batrachia, 23, 66 Cephalodiscidea, 22, 62 Batrachoidea, 66 Caducichordata, 63 Cephalophora, 48 Batrachoidiformes, 66 Caecilia, 66 Cephalopoda, 16, 50 Batrachosauria, 67 Caenagnathae, 68 Cephalostigmata, 19, 57 Bdellacea, 13,46 Caenagnathiformes, 68 Cephaloxeniformes, 65 Bdelloidaceae, 46 Caenogastropoda, 15, 50 Ceratiocarina, 56 Bdelloidea, 13,46 Caenolestoidea, 70 Ceratiomyxaceae, 40 Bdellomorpha, 46 Calanoida, 18, 55 Ceratocarina, 56 Bdellonemertea, 13,46 Calcarea, 10,41 Ceratodonti, 66 Belemnoida, 51 Calcarineae, 40 Ceratodontiformes, 67 Bellerophontacea, 49 Calcispongea, 10, 41 Ceratophora, 37, 52 Beloniformes, 66 Caligoida, 18,56 Ceratosa, 41 Beroida, 12,45 Calonemineae, 40 Ceratosida, 41 Beryciformes, 66 Caloneurodea, 58 Ceratospongida, 41 Berycomorphoidea, 66 Calopteriformes, 65 Ceriantharia, 12,45 Beyrichiida, 55 Calycophora, 43 Cerianthiae, 45 Bilateria, 27 Calycozoa, 44 Cerianthidea, 45 Biporophyllidea, 12,46 Calyptoblastea, 43 Ceriantipatharia, 12, 45 Birkeniiformes, 64 Calyssozoa, 6, 14, 36, 48 Cestida, 12,45 Bivalvia, 16, 50 Camallanta, 48 Cestoda, 12,45 Blastoidea, 60 Camarodonta, 62 Cestodaria, 12, 46 Blattaeformia, 58 Camaroidea, 43 Cestoidea Blattaria, 20, 58 Camarostomata, 55 Ctenophora, 45 Blattoidea, 58 Cambridioidea, 49 Platyhelminthes, 45 Bobasatraniiformes, 65 Camerata, 60 Cetacea, 25,70 Bolinopsidea, 45 Campanulariae, 43 Cete, 70 Bothriocephaloidea, 46 Campodeoidea, 57 Chaetetida, 44 Bothriocidaroida, 62 Canaliculata, 61 Chaetodermatida, 15,49 Bothriocidaroidea, 62 Caprimulgi, 24, 69 Chaetodermomorpha, 49 Botryoidea, 40 Caprimulgiformes, 24, 69 Chaetognatha, 7,21,37,59 Brachiata Carinatae, 68 Chaetonotidea, 13, 47 Echinodermata, 60 Carnivora, 25, 70 Chaetonotoidea, 13,47 Pogonophora, 37, 59 Carnivores, 70 Chaetopoda, 17, 52 Brachionocephala, 48 Carnosida, 10, 42 Chaetosomatida, 47 Brachionoidea, 47 Carpoidea, 61 Chalarothoraca, 40 Brachionopoda, 48 Carybdeida, 44 Chalicotheria, 70 Brachiopoda, 7, 15, 37,49 Caryophyllacea, 45 Charadriae, 24, 69 Brachyopterygii, 65 Caryophyllidea, 12, 46 Charadriiformes, 24, 69 Brachythoraci, 64 Cassiduloida, 22, 62 Charybdeida, 44 Brachyura, 56 Casuarii, 24, 68 Chaudhuriiformes, 66 Bradorina, 55 Casuariiformes, 24, 68 Chaudhurioidea, 66 Bradyodonti, 65 Capitelliformia, 52 Cheiloctenostoma, 48 Bradyodontoidea, 65 Catenata, 39,42 Cheilostomata, 15,48 Branchiata, 53 Catenulida, 45 Cheilostomellaceae, 40 Branchionobranchia, 48 Cathartidiformes, 69 Cheiracanthiformes, 64 Branchiopoda Caudata, 66 Cheiropterygia, 64 Brachiopoda, 48 Caulogastra, 18, 54 Cheleutoptera, 58 Crustacea, 18, 55 Cecomorphae, 68 Chelicerata, 52 Branchiostomoidea, 63 Centrechinoida, 21,62 Chelifera, 56 Branchiotremata, 29 Centroceratida, 51 Chelonethida, 54 Branchiura, 18,56 Centrohelidia, 40 Chelonia. 23, 67 Breyeridea, 58 Cephalacanthoidea, 66 Cheloniellida, 53 Brooksellida, 43 Cephalaspida, 64 Chenomorphae, 69 Bruta, 70 Cephalaspidea, 50 Chernetes, 54 Bryozoa, 7, 15,37,48 Cephalaspidiformes, 64 Chernetidea, 54 Bucerotes, 69 Cephalaspidomorpha, 23, Chilognatha, 19, 57 BuUomorpha, 50 64 Chilophiurida, 21,62 Bunodomorpha, 54 Cephalobaenida, 17, 53 Chilopoda, 19, 57 83 INDEX TO Latin names Chilostomata, 48 Coccidiomorpha, 40 Coronata, 60 Chilostomellidea, 40 Coccolithophorida, 9, 39 Coronatae, 11,44 Chimaerae, 23, 65 Coccostei, 64 Coronatida, 44 Chimaeriformes, 65 Coccosteiformes, 64 Corrodentia, 20, 59 Chimaeroidea, 65 Coccosteomorphi, 64 Corticata, 39 Chiroptera, 25,70 Coccyges, 69 Corynexochida, 54 Chitonida, 49 Cochlides, 49 Coryphodontia, 70 Chlamydomonadina. 39 Cochliostraca, 49 Costata, 60 Chlamydophora, 40 Coelacanthiformes, 66 Cotylosauria, 67 Chloromonadaceae, 39 Coelacanthini, 66 Craniata, 37, 64 Chloromonadina, 9, 39 Coelenterata, 6, 11, 36, 43 Craspedomonadina, 39 Choanichthyes, 23, 66 Coelhelminthes, 37, 52 Craterostigma, 19, 57 Choanoflagellata, 39 Coelolepida, 64 Creodonta, 70 Chondrenchelyes, 65 Coelolepidoidea, 64 Crepipoda, 49 Chondrenchelyiformes, 65 Coelolepiformes, 64 Crinoidea, 21, 60 Chondrichthyes, 23, 65 Coelomata, 7, 37 Crocodilia, 23, 67 Chondrophora, 43 Coenothecalia, 11,44 Crossopterygii, 23, 66 Chondropterygii, 65 Coleoidea, 50 Crossopterygioidea, 66 Chondrostei, 23, 65 Coleoptera, 20, 59 Crustacea, 18, 55 Chondrosteoidea, 65 Coleopteroidea, 58 Cryptocephala, 52 Chonotricha, 10, 41 Colii, 24,69 Cryptocoela Chordata, 30 Coliiformes, 24, 69 Trematoda, 45 Choristida, 10,42 Collaria, 36,44 Turbellaria, 45 Chromadoroidea, 14, 47 Collembola, 20, 58 Cryptodonata, 58 Chromomonadina, 39 Colloconchida, 50 Cryptodonta, 51 Chrysomonadaceae, 39 Collodaria, 40 Cryptodontia, 58 Chrysomonadina, 9, 39 Collothecacea, 13,47 Cryptomonadaceae, 39 Ciconiae, 24, 69 Colobognatha, 19, 57 Cryptomonadina, 9, 39 Ciconiiformes, 24, 69 Colopyga, 55 Cryptoparamera, 44 Cidaroida, 21, 62 Colossendeomorpha, 54 Cryptostigmata, 55 Ciliata, 10,41 Columbae, 24, 69 Cryptostomata, 48 Ciliatoidea, 41 Columbiformes, 24, 69 Cryptozonia, 61 Cilioflagellata, 39 Colymbae, 24,68 Crypturi, 24, 68 Ciliophora, 39 Colymbiformes, 24, 68 Crypturiformes, 24, 68 Cirrhobranchiata, 50 Colymbomorphae, 68 Ctenarea, 36, 44 Cirrhostomi, 37, 63 Comatulida, 21, 61 Ctenobranchiata, 50 Cirrigrada, 61 Compsognatha, 68 Ctenodipterini, 66 Cirripedia, 18, 56 Conchifera, 50 Ctenodontiformes, 67 Cladida, 60 Conchophora, 50 Ctenophora, 6, 12, 36,45 Cladistia, 65 Conchorhaga, 47 Ctenophoraria, 36,44 Cladistioidea, 65 Conchostraca, 18, 55 Ctenoplanidea, 45 Cladocera, 18,55 Condylarthra, 70 Ctenostomata, 15,48 Cladocopa Conoclypina, 62 Ctenostomina, 41 Arthropoda, 55 Conocoryphida, 54 Cubomedusae, 11,44 Mollusca, 50 Conodonta, 64 Cuculi, 24, 69 Cladodontiformes, 65 Conodontophorida, 64 Cuculiformes, 24, 69 Cladoidea, 60 Conularida, 36, 43 Cucullifera, 55 Cladophiurae, 61 Conulariida, 43 Cucumariida, 62 Cladoselachiformes, 65 Conulata, 43 Cumacea, 19,56 Cladoselachii, 65 Copelata, 63 Cursoria, 58 Cladoselachoidea, 65 Copeognatha, 59 Cyamoidea, 61 Climatiiformes, 64 Copepoda, 18, 55 Cyathaspiformes, 64 Clistenterata, 49 Coraciae, 24, 69 Cyathocrinacea, 61 Clitellata, 52 Coraciiformes, 24, 69 Cyathospongia, 36, 42 Clupeiformes, 66 Coraciomorphae, 68 Cyclicozoa, 44 Clypeastroida, 22, 62 Coralla, 44 Cyclobranchia, 49 Cnemidolestoidea, 59 Corallaria, 44 Cyclocorallia, 44 Cnidaria, 6, 11,36,43 Coralligena, 44 Cyclodonta, 51 Cnidosporidia, 9, 40 Corallimorpharia, 11,44 Cycloidea, 61 Coadunata, 60 Cornacuspongia, 41 Cyclomyaria, 22, 63 Coccidia, 9,40 Corona, 44 Cyclophyllidea, 12, 46 INDEX TO Latin names 84

Cyclopoida, 18, 55 Diapsida, 23, 67 Cyclorhaga, 47 Cyclostomata Bryozoa, 15,48 Vertebrata, 23, 64 Cydippida, 12,45 Cynostraca, 49 Cypriniformes, 66 Cyprinodontiformes, 66 Cyprinodontoidea, 66 Cyrtellaria, 40 Cyrtochoanites. 51 Cyrtocrinida, 21,60 Cyrtoidea, 40 Cystasteroidea, 61 Cystechinoidea, 60 Cystica, 45 Cystidea, 60 Cystocidaroidea, 60 Cystocrinoidea, 60 Cystoflagellata, 39 Cystoidea, 60 Cytoidea, 39 Cytomorpha, 39 C)^ophora, 40 Cytosporidia, 40

Dacnostomata, 58 Dactylifera, 45 Dactylopteriformes, 66 Daubentomioidea, 70 Decabrachia, 50 Decapoda Arthropoda, 19, 56 Mollusca, 16,50 Decembrachiata, 50 Deinocephalia, 68 Delobranchia, 54 Demospongea, 10,41 Dendroceratina, 41 Dendrochirota, 22, 62 Dendrochirotida, 62 Dendroidea, 43 Deratoptera, 58 Dermaptera, 20, 58 Dermodermaptera, 58 Dermoptera, 25, 70 Desmodonta, 51 Desmomyaria, 22, 63 Desmophora, 41 Desmoscolecoidea, 14, 47 Desmospongea, 41 Desmothoraca, 40 Diadecta, 67 Diadectomorpha, 67 Diadematoida, 62 Diademoida, 62 Dialytina, 41 Diantennata, 53 Diaphanopteroidea, 58 85 INDEX TO Latin names Embioidea, 58 Eucarida, 56 Ferungulata, 70 Embioptera, 20, 58 Euceratosa, 41 Filarioidea, 14, 48 Embolobranchiata, 54 Eucestoda, 45 Filibranchia, 16, 50 Euchorda, Embolomeri, 66 37, 64 Filosa, 39 Embrithopoda, 71 Euciliata, 10,41 Fissipedia, 70 Emeraldellida, 53 Eucirripedia, 56 Fistulata, 61 Emmenognatha, 59 Eucoelomata, 37 Fistulides, 62 Emydosauria, 67 Eucopepoda, 18, 55 Flagellata, Encrinasteriae, 61 Eucrinoidea, 60 9, 39 Endeiolepiformes, 64 Eucrustacea, 55 Flexibilia, 60 Endoaria, 44 Eucystoidea, 60 Flosculariacea, 13,47 Endobranchiata, 62 Eudesmodontida, 50 Foraminifera, 9, 40 Endoceroida, 51 Euechinoidea, 62 Forcipulata, 21,61 Endocyclica, 62 Euentomata, 57 Endoprocta, 6, 14, 36, 48 Euflagellata, 39 Endopterygota, 20, 59 Euglenaceae, 39 Gadiformes, 66 Endospora, 40 Euglenida, 39 Galaxiiformes, 66 Endosporeae, 40 Euglenoidina, 9, 39 Galeodea, 55 Enopla, 46 Eugnatha, 57 Galeoidei, 65 Enoplata, 47 Eugregarinida, 41 Galli, 24,69 Enoploidea, 14, 47 Eulamellibranchia, 16, 50 Galliformes, 24,69 Enterocoela, 6, 27, 36 Eumalacostraca, 56 Gallinae, 69 Enterogona, 63 Eumetazoa, 36 Gasterozoa, 49 Enteropneusta, 7, 22, 37, 63 Eumycetozoa, 40 Ganodonta, 70 Enterozoa, 27, 36 Eunotosauria, 67 Ganoidi, 65 Entodiniomorphina, 41 Euonychophora, 17, 53 Gasteropoda, 49 Entognatha, 57 Euornithes, 68 Gasteropodophora, 49 Entomocrania, 37, 63 Eupantopoda, 17, 54 Gasterosteiformes, 66 Entomostraca, 55 Euphaneroidea, 64 Gasterostoma, 45 Entoprocta, 14, 36, 48 Euphausiacea, 19, 56 Gastornithes, 68 Entotrophi, 20, 57 Euphyllopoda, 55 Gastraeopoda, 49 Eoacanthocephala, 13, 46 Euplasmodida, 40 Gastrocaulia, 49 Eoanura, 66 Euplexoptera, 58 Gastropoda, 15,49 Eocrinoidea, 61 Eupoliida, 46 Gastrotricha, 6, 13,36,47 Eodiscida, 54 Euryalae, 61 Gaviae, 24, 68 Eopaleodictyoptera, 58 Euryalida, 61 Gaviiformes, 24, 68 Eoplacophora, 49 Euryapsida, 67 Gemuendiniformes, 64 Eosuchia, 67 Eurylaemi, 69 Geophilomorpha, 19, 57 Eotetrapoda, 64 Eurypterida, 54 Geophylomorpha, 57 Eozoa, 6, 36, 39 Eurystema, 57 Gigantostraca, 54 Epectinata, 54 Eurystomata, 48 Giganturiformes, 66 Ephemerida, 20, 58 Euselachii, 65 Giganturoidea, 66 Ephemeroidea, 58 Eusuchia, 67 Ginglymodi, 65 Ephemeroptera, 58 Eutardigrada, 17, 52 Glires, 70 Epimorpha, 57 Eutaxodonta, 50 Globidia, 10,40 Epiparia, 54 Eutheria, 25,70 Globigerinidea, 40 Epipolasida, 10, 42 Euthyneura, 49 Glossata, 59 Eplacentalia, 69 Euxiphosura, 54 Glosselytrodea, 58 Erpobdellida, 52 Exocyatha, 42 Glossophora, 48 Errantia, 17, 52 Exocyclica, 62 Gnathobdellida, 17, 52 Eterocotylea, 45 Exocycloida, 21,62 Gnathobdelliformes, 52 Euamphibia, 67 Exopterygoptera, 58 Gnathophiurida, 21,61 Euanostraca, 55 Exopterygota, 20, 58 Gnathopoda, 54 Euanura, 66 Exosporae. 40 Gnathostomata Eu-arachnida, 54 Exosporidia, 41 Echinodermata, 62 Euarthrodira, 64 Extrasiphonata, 51 Vertebrata, 64 Euarthropoda, 37, 52 Gobiesociformes, 66 Euasteriae, 61 Goniactinida, 61 Eublastoidea, 60 Falcones, 24, 69 Gordiacea, 6, 14, 36, 48 Eubleptidodea, 57 Falconiformes, 24, 69 Gordididea, 48 Eubradyodonti, 65 Ferae, 70 Gordioidea, 14, 36, 48 INDEX TO Latin names 86 Gorgonacea, 11,44 Heliozoa, 9,40 Hexapoda, 20, 57 Gradientia, 66 Helminthomorpha, 37, 63 Hexasterophora, 41 Grallae, 69 Hemibranchia, 50 Hippocrepia, 48 Graptoblasti, 42 Hemichordata, 29 Hirudinea, 17, 52 Graptolithida, 43 Hemimeroidea, 58 Histosporidia, 40 Graptoloidea, 43 Hemimyaria, 22, 63 Histozoa, 6, 36 Graptovermida, 42 Hemiodonata, 58 Holectypoida, 22, 62 Graptozoa, 36, 43 Hemipodii, 69 Holobranchia, 48 Gregarina, 40 Hemipomatostoma, 50 Holocephali, 23, 65 Gregarinida, 9, 40 Hemipsocoptera, 59 Hologonia, 47 Gressores, 69 Hemiptera, 58 Holomastigina, 39 Gressoria, 58 Hemizonida, 61 Holomerentoma, 57 Gromiidea, 40 Herocotylida, 45 Holometabola, 20, 59 Grues, 24, 69 Herodii, 69 Holopeltidia, 55 Gruiformes, 69 24, Herodiones, 69 Holoptychiformes, 66 Grylloblattoidea, 20, 58 Herpobdellida, 52 Holosiphona, 50 Guttulinaceae, 40 Hesperornithes, 68 Holostei, 23, 65 Gymnamoebaea, 40 Hesperornithiformes, 68 Holothurioidea, 22, 62 Gymnoblastea, 43 Hetairacyathida, 42 Holothuroidea, 62 Gymnodiniaceae, 39 Heteractinellida, 41 Holotricha, 10, 41 Gymnolaemata, 15,48 Heteractinida, 10, 41 Holotrypasta, 40 Gymnomyxa, 39 Heterocerci, 65 Homalopterygia, 37, 59 Gymnonisciformes, 65 Heterochlorida, 39 Homalorhaga, 47 Gymnophiona, 23, 66 Heterocoelida, 41 Homalozoa, 60 Gymnosomata, 50 Heteroconchia, 50 Homocoelida, 41 Gymnosporidia, 40 Heterocoralla, 45 Homokaryota, 39 Gymnostomata, 41 Heterocorallia, 44 Homomeria, 37, 63 Gyracanthiformes, 64 Heterocotylea, 45 Homomyaria, 50 Gyracanthocephala, 46 Heterocyemida, 1 1 , 42 Homopoda, 53 Gyrocotylidea, 12, 46 Heterodermaceae, 40 Homoptera, 20, 59 Gyrosomata, 50 Heterodonta, 51 Homosclerophora, 42 Heterodontida, 50 Hoplocarida, 56 Heterodontiformes, 65 Hoplonemertea, 13,46 Hadentomoidea, 59 Heterodontoidea, 65 Hyalospongea, 10,41 Hadromerida, 10, 42 Heterogangliata, 37, 48 Hybocrinida, 60 Haemacryma, 64 Heterognatha, 19, 56 Hydrariae, 43 Haematherma, 64 Heterokaryota, 39 Hydrida, 43 Haemocytozoa, 40 Heteromastigina, 39 Hydrocorallinae, 11,43 Haemosporidia, 9, 40 Heterometabola, 20, 58 Hydroida, 11,43 Halichondrida, 10,42 Heteromi, 66 Hydromedusae, 43 Hallopoda, 68 Heteromoidea, 66 Hydrophoridea, 60 Halosauriformes, 66 Heteromorphae, 69 Hydropneustea, 54 Halterata, 59 Heteromya, 50 Hydrosauria, 67 Halteriptera, 59 Heteromyaria, 50 Hydrozoa, 11,43 Hapalopteroidea, 59 Heteromyota, 16,51 Hydrozoaria, 43 Haplocrinacea, 61 Heteronemertea, 13,46 Hymenocarina, 53 Haplocyemata, 37, 63 Heterophyllidea, 45 Hymenoptera, 21, 59 Haplodoci, 66 Heteropoda, 50 Hymenopteroidea, 59 Haplodrili, 52 Heteroptera, 20, 59 Hymenostomata, 41 Haplosclerida, 10, 42 Heterosomata, 66 Hyparthropoda, 53 Haplosporidia, 10,40 Heterostelea, 60 Hypermastigina, 9, 39 Haplozoa, 60, 61 Heterostigmata, 55 Hyperoarti, 64 Haptopoda, 54 Heterostraci, 64 Haptopodida, Hyperotreti, 64 54 Heterotardigrada, 17, 52 Hypoparia, 54 Harpacticoida, 18,55 Heterotricha, 41 Hypostoma, Haustellata, 59 Hexaceratina, 41 60 Helianthoida, 44 Hexacorallia, 44 Hypostomosoidea, 66 Helicosporidia, 10,40 Hexactinellida, 10,41 Hypotremata, 65 Helioflagellida, 40 Hexactinia, 44 Hypotricha, 41 Heliolitida, 44 Hexanchiformes, 65 Hyraces, 71 Heliornithiformes, 69 Hexanchoidea, 65 Hyracoidea, 25, 71 87 INDEX TO Latin names

Ichthya, 64 Kustarachne, 55 Limicolae Ichthyocrinacea, 60 Kustarachnida, 55 Annelida, 52 Ichthyodorulites, 64 Vertebrata, 68 Ichthyopsida, 64 Limulava, 53 Ichthyopterygia, 67 Labechioidea, 43 Limulavida, 53 Ichthyopterygii, 64 Labellata, 55 Limulida, 54 Ichthyornes, 68 Labidura, 58 Linguatulida, 17, 37, 53 Ichthyorniformes, 68 Labyrinthodontia, 66 Linguatulodea, 53 Ichthyornithes, 68 Labyrinthulidea, 39 Lipocephala, 50 Ichthyornithiformes, 68 Lacertilia, 67 Lipodonta, 51 Ichthyosauria, 67 Laemodipoda, 56 Lipoptera, 59 Ichthyostegalia, 66 Laemophiurida, 21,61 Lipostraca, 55 Ichthyotomi, 65 Lagenidea, 40 Lissoflagellata, 39 Icosteiformes, 66 Lagomorpha, 25, 70 Lithistida, 10, 42 Lithobiomorpha, Icosteioidea, 66 Lamellata, 49 19, 57 Lithonina, 41 Ictidosauria, 68 Lamellibranchiata, 16, 50 Impennes, 68 Lamniformes, 65 Lithorhizostomeae, 44 Inadunata, 60 Lamnoidea, 65 Lithorhizostomatida, 44 Litopterna, Inarticulata Lampridiformes, 66 70 Brachiopoda, 15,49 Lamprosporales, 40 Lituolidea, 40 Echinodermata, 60 Lariformes, 69 Lobata, 12,45 Inermia, 41 Laro-limicolae, 69 Lobosa, 39 Infusoria, 39 Larvacea, 22, 63 Loliginacea, 51 Iniomi, 66 Larvata, 61 Lophiiformes, 66 Lophogastridea, 19, 56 Illoricata, 47 Larviformia, 61 Lophopoda, Insecta, 20, 57 Lasaniiformes, 64 15,48 Lophotricha, 57 Insectivora, 25, 70 Lateribranchiata, 50 19, Integricephalida, 54 Laternulacea, 50 Loricata Mollusca, 49 Integripalliata, 51 Latigastra, 18, 54 Intrasiphonata, 51 Latisterna, 55 Rotifera, 47 Irregulares, 60 Leanchoiliida, 53 Vertebrata, 67 Irregularia Lebetida, 10,41 Lucernaria, 44 Crinoidea, 61 Lecanicephala, 12,45 Lucernariidea, 44 Luciae, 63 Echinoidea, 22, 62 Lecanicephaloidea, 45 Ischnacanthiformes, 64 Lemuroidea, 70 Lucida, 63 Luganoidiiformes, 65 Isedrolotila, 50 Leperditicopida, 55 Lumbricimorpha, 52 Isocrinida, 21, 60 Leperditiida, 55 Lychniskida, 41 Isodonta, 51 Lepidocentroida, 62 Lychniskophora, 10,41 Isofilibranchia, 50 Lepidoglossa, 49 Isomya, 50 Lepidopleurida, 49 Lygogalaceae, 40 Isoplacophora, 49 Lepidoptera, 20, 59 Lyomeroidea, 66 49 Isopleura. 49 Lepidosauria, 67 Lyopomata, Lysophiurae, 61 Isopoda, 19, 56 Lepidosireniformes, 67 Lysophiuroida, 61 Isoptera, 20, 58 Lepidostei, 65 Isopygia, 54 Lepidosteoidea, 65 Lyssacina, 41 Isospondyli, 66 Lepisostei, 65 Lyssakina, 10,41 Isospondyloidea, 66 Lepisosteiformes, 65 Isuriformes, 65 Lepospondyli, 23, 66 Leptocardia, 23, 63 Machaeridia, 61 Leptolinae, 43 Macrochires, 24, 69 Leptomedusae, 43 Macrochiriformes, 24, 69 Jagoriniformes, 65 Leptophya, 59 Macrociliobranchia, 50 Juliformia, 57 Leptostraca, 56 Macrodasyidea, 13,47 Lernaeopodoida, 18, 56 Macrodasyoidea, 13,47 Leuconosa, 41 Macropetalichthyida, 64 Kamptozoa, 36, 48 Libellulides, 58 Macropharyngea, 45 Katapsida, 67 Libelluloiden 58 Macrosterni, 57 Kathapsida, 67 Liceaceae, 40 Macrostomida, 45 Keratosida, 10,41 Lichacea, 54 Macrotrachia, 50 Kinorhyncha, 6, 13, 36,47 Lichida, 54 Macrura, 56 Krikobranchia, 63 Limacomorpha, 19, 57 Macruriformes, 66 INDEX TO Latin names 88

Madreporaria, 11,44 Metanemertini, 46 Monopylaria, 40 Malacactiniae, 44 Metapsida, 67 Monorhina, 64 Malachichthyes, 66 Metastigmata, 55 Monorhyncha, 64 Malacobothrii, 45 Metatheria, 25, 70 Monotocardia, 50 Malacocotylea, 45 Metazoa, 6, 36 Monotremata, 25, 69 Malacopoda, 37, 52 Michelinoceroida, 51 Monozoa, 46 Malacopterygii, 66 Micramphibia, 66 Monstrilloida, 18, 56 Malacostraca, 19, 56 Microciliobranchia, 50 Monticuliporoidea, 48 Malacozoa, 37, 48 Microcyprini, 66 Mormyriformes, 66 Mallophaga, 20,59 Micropharyngea, 45 Mormyroidea, 66 Mammalia, 25, 69 Micropodi, 24, 69 Moruloidea, 36, 42 Mammifera, 69 Micropodiformes, 69 Mosasauria, 67 Mandibulata, 52 Micropygia, 54 Mugiliformes, 66 Mantodea, 20, 58 Microsauria, 66 Multisolenida, 44 Marellomorpha, 53 Microsclerophora, 42 Multituberculata, 69 Margaritaceae, 40 Microsporidia, 10, 40 Musophagi, 68 Marrellida, 53 Microthelyphonida, 55 Mutica, 70 Marrellomorpha, 53 Miliolidea, 40 Mutilata, 70 Marriocarida, 53 Milleporida, 11,43 Mycetophorae, 55 Marsipobranchii, 64 Millericrinida, 60 Mycetozoa, 9, 40 Marsupialia Mimetasterida, 53 Myctophiformes, 66 Coelenterata, 44 Miocoela, 36, 46 Myelozoa, 37, 63 Vertebrata, 25,70 Miomera, 54 Mylostomatiformes, 64 Mastacembeliformes, 66 Miomoptera, 59 Myodocopa, 55 Mastacembelioidea, 66 Mionelminthes, 36, 42 Myodocopida, 18, 55 Mastigophora. 9, 39 Mirientomata, 57 Myohyracoidea, 70 Mecaptera, 59 Miskoa, 52 Myophiurida, 21,61 Mecoptera, 20, 59 Mixochoanites, 51 Myosomata, 22, 63 Medamoptera, 59 Mixotermitoidea, 58 Myriapoda, 53 Megalichthyiformes, 66 Mollusca, 7, 15,37,49 Myrientomata, 57 Megalopoda, 62 Molpadida, 62 Mysidacea, 19, 56 Megaloptera, 59 Molpadonia, 22, 62 Mystacocarida, 18, 55 Meganisoptera, 58 Monactinellida, 41 Mystacoceti, 70 Megasecoptera, 58 Monadidea, 39 Myxini, 64 Megasecopterida, 58 Monaxonida, 41 Myxiniformes, 64 Megistanes, 68 Monhysteroidea, 14, 47 Myxinoidea, 64 Melicertida, 47 Moniligastres, 52 Myxogasteres, 40 Melonechinoida, 62 Monobathra, 60 Myxomycetes, 40 Melonitoida, 62 Monobathrida, 60 Myxospongida, 10, 41 Menotyphla, 70 Monoblastidea, 11,42 Myxosporidia, 9, 40 Memirae, 69 Monoblastoidea, 11,42 Myzostoma, 51 Meridogastra, 55 Monoblastozoa, 6, 11, 36, Myzostomaria, 51 Mermithoidea, 14, 47 42 Myzostomida, 7, 16, 37, 51 Merochaeta, 57 Monoceratina, 41 Merostomata, 17, 54 Monocyatha, 42 Merostomoidea, 53 Monocyathida, 42 Nahecarida, 56 Merotrypasta, 40 Monocyclica Naiadida, 50 Merozoa, 45 Coelenterata, 44 Naidomorpha, 52 Mesaxonia, 71 Echinodermata, 60 Narcaciontiformes, 65 Mesacanthiformes, 64 Monodelphia, 70 Narcomedusae, 43 Mesichthyes, 66 Monogenea, 12,45 Nasselaria, 40 Mesogastropoda, 50 Monogenetica, 45 Nautilida, 51 Mesonacida, 54 Monogononta, 13.47 Nautiloidea, 16, 50 Mesonemertini, 46 Monomerostomata, 54 Nebaliacea. 19,56 Mesoplacophora, 49 Monomya, 50 Nectaspida, 53 Mesosauria, 68 Monomyaria, 50 Nectonematoidea, 14, 48 Mesostigmata, 55 Monophyllidea, 45 Nectridia. 66 Mesosuchia, 67 Monopisthocotylea, 45 Nemata. 36, 47 Mesozoa, 6, 11, 36, 42 Monoplacophora, 15,49 Nemathelminthes, 28 Metacanthocephala, 46 Monopneumona, 66 Nematoda, 6, 14, 36, 47 Metacyathida, 42 Monopnoa, 67 Nematoidea, 14.47 89 INDEX TO Latin names

Nematomorpha, 6, 14, 36, Odonata, 20, 58 Ostariophysoidea, 66 48 Odontoceti, 70 Osteichthyes, 23, 65 Nematophora Odontognathae, 68 Osteolepides, 66 Arthropoda, 19, 57 Odontolcae, 68 Osteolepidoti, 66 Coelenterata, 36, 43 Odontopleurida, 54 Osteolepiformes, 66 Nematozoa, 36, 43 Odontormae, 68 Osteostraci, 64 Nemertea, 46 Odontota, 58 Osteostracoidea, 64 Nemertinea, 6, 13, 36,46 Oecioa, 44 Ostracoda, 18,55 Nemuraedes, 58 Oesthelminthes, 37, 59 Ostracodermi, 64 Neoacanthocephala, 46 Olenellida, 54 Ostracopa, 55 Neoblattariae, 58 Oligochaeta, 17, 52 Ostracophori, 64 Neocrinoidea, 61 Oligocnemata, 64 Ostrapoda, 55 Neogastropoda, 50 Oligoentomata, 58 Otocardia, 37, 48 Neognathae, 68 Oligomeria, 54 Oxyuroidea, 14, 48 Neoloricata, 15,49 Oligoneura, 58 Neomeniida, 15, 49 Oligotrichina, 41 Neomeniomorpha, 49 Oncidiacea, 50 Pachycormiformes, 65 Neoptera, 57 Oncoceroida, 51 Pachycormoidea, 65 Neopterygii, 65 Oncopoda, 29 Pachyodonta, 51 Neornithes, 23, 68 Oniscomorpha, 19,57 Pachyodontida, 50 Neosauromorpha, 67 Onychophora, 7, 17, 37, 53 Pachypodes, 67 Neoscyphozoa, 44 Onychura, 55 Paenungulata, 70 Neosporidea, 40 Oothecaria, 58 Palaeacanthocephala, 13, Neotaxodonta, 50 Opabiniida, 53 46 Neotremata, 15,49 Opalinida, 10,41 Palaeanostraca, 53 Nereidiformia, 52 Ophidia, 67 Palaeobranchia, 50 Neuroptera, 20, 59 Ophiocephaliformes, 66 Palaeocopida. 55 Nidulitida, 41 Ophiocistioidea, 62 Palaeocoxopleura, 57 Nippotaeniidea, 12, 46 Ophiocystia, 62 Palaeocrinoidea, 60 Nomarthra, 70 Ophiocystiida, 21,61 Palaeodictyoptera, 58 Nomomeristica, 52 Ophiocystioidea, 62 Palaeo-echinoidea, 62 Non-calcarea, 41 Ophiureae, 61 Palaeognathae, 68 Notacanthiformes, 66 Ophiurida, 61 Palaeohemiptera, 59 Notaspidea, 50 Ophiuroidea, 21, 61 Palaeohymenoptera, 58 Nothosauria, 67 Opiliones, 18,54 Palaeolamellibranchia, 50 Notidanoidea, 65 Opilionidea, 54 Palaeonemertea, 13,46 Notodelphyoida, 18, 56 Opisthandria, 57 Palaeonemertini, 46 Notommatoidea, 47 Opisthobranchia, 15, 50 Palaeonisciformes, 65 Notoptera, 58 Opisthocoela, 67 Palaeoniscoidea, 65 Notostigma, 57 Opisthocomi, 69 Palaeopantopoda, 54 Notostigmata, 55 Opisthocomiformes, 69 Palaeoptera, 57 Notostigmophora, 19, 57 Opisthogoneata, 53 Palaeopterygii, 65 Notostraca, 18, 55 Opisthomi, 66 Palaeospondyliformes, 65 Notoungulata, 71 Opisthoparia, 54 Palaeospondyloidea, 65 Nuda Opisthopora, 17, 52 Palaeostraca. 54 Ctenophora, 12,45 Opisthospermophora, 19, 57 Palaeotaxodonta, 51 Protozoa, 40 Ornithae, 68 Palaeotremata, 49 Vertebrata, 67 Ornithischia, 68 Palechinoidea, 62 Nudibrachiata, 43 Ornithodelphia, 69 Paleoconcha, 51 Nudibranchiata, 50 Ornithopoda, 68 Paleocopa, 55 Nummulitidea, 40 Ornithosauria. 67 Paleo-echinoidea, 62 Nymphonomorpha, 54 Ornithoscelida, 67 Paleoloricata, 49 Orthida, 48 Paleomorpha, 57 Orthochoanites, 51 Paleonemertea, 46 0:tacnemida, 22, 63 Orthonectida, 11,42 Paleotremata, 49 Octactinellida, 41 Orthopoda, 68 Palliata, 37,48 Octactinia, 44 Orthoptera, 20, 58 Palliobranchiopoda, 37, 48 Octobrachiata, 51 Ornithurae, 68 Palpigradi, 55 Octocorallia, 44 Osculosida, 40 Palpigradida, 18, 55 Octopoda, 16, 51 Ospiiformes, 65 Pandictyoptera, 58 Octopoida, 51 Ostariophysi, 66 Panisoptera, 59 INDEX TO Latin names 90

Panorpatae, 59 Pentamerida, 48 Pholidota Panorpina, 59 Pentastomida, 7, 17, 37, 53 Amphibia, 67 Panorpoidea, 59 Peracarida, 56 Mammalia, 25, 70 Panprotura, 57 Perciformes, 66 Phoronida, 7, 15, 37, 48 Panthysanura, 57 Percomorphoidea, 66 Phragmophora, 51 Pantodonta Percopseiformes, 66 Phryganoidea, 59 Mollusca, 51 Perennichordata, 63 Phryneides, 55 Vertebrata, 71 Peridiniaceae, 39 Phrynichida, 18,55 Pantodontida, 50 Perielytrodea, 57 Phrynophiurida, 21, 61 Pantopoda, 54 Peripatidea, 17, 53 Phthinorhabdina, 41 Pantostomatida, 39 Peripylaria, 40 Phthiraptera, 58 Pantotheria, 70 Perischoechinoida, 62 Phylactolaemata, 15, 48 Parablastoidea, 60 Perissodactyla, 25,71 Phyllobothrioidea, 45 Paracephalophora, 49 Peritricha, 10, 41 Phyllocarida, 56 Paracoleoptera, 59 Perlaria, 58 Phyllolepida, 64 Paracrinoidea, 61 Perlarides, 58 Phyllolepiformes, 64 Paractinopoda, 62 Perleidiformes, 65 Phyllopoda, 55 Parafilibranchia, 50 Perloidea, 58 Phylloptera, 58 Paramecoptera, 59 Permodictyoptera, 58 Phyllorhyncha, 46 Paramera, 44 Permodonata, 58 Phyllospondyli, 67 Paranemata, 45 Permoneurodia, 57 Physapida, 59 Paraneuroptera, 58 Peromedusae, 44 Physaraceae, 40 Paraplecoptera, 59 Peromela, 66 Physoclysti, 66 Parapsida, 67 Petalichthyida, 64 Physophora, 43 Parareptilia, 67 Petalodontes, 65 Physopoda, 59 Pararthropoda, 29 Petalodontiformes, 65 Physostomi, 66 Parasita, 59 Petanoptera, 59 Phytoflagellata, 39 Parastigmata, 55 Petromyzonoidea, 64 Phytomastigina, 9, 39 Parasuchia, 67 Petromyzontia, 64 Phytomastigophorea, 39 Paratheria, 70 Petromyzontiformes, 64 Phytomonadina, 9, 39 Paratrichoptera, 59 Phacopida, 54 Phytosauria, 67 Paraxonia, 71 Phaeoconchia, 40 Picariae, 68 Parazoa, 6, 36 Phaeocystina, 40 Pici, 24, 69 Pareiasauria, 67 Phaeodaria, 40 Piciformes, 24, 69 Passeres, 25, 69 Phaeogromia, 40 Pinnipedia, 70 Passeriformes, 25, 69 Phaeosphaeria, 40 Piroplasmidea, 41 Paucituberculata, 70 Phalangida, 18,54 Pisces, 64 Pauropoda, 19, 56 Phalangiotarbi, 54 Pithecoidea, 70 Pectinibranchia, 50 Phalansteriina, 39 Placentalia, 25, 70 Pectobothrii, 45 Phallostethiformes, 66 Placentaria, 70 Pectinifera, 54 Phanerocephala, 52 Placipennes, 59 Pedata, 62 Phaneropleuriformes, 66 Placodermi, 64 Pedicellinida, 14, 48 Phanerorhynchiformes, 65 Placodontia, 67 Pediculati, 66 Phanerozonia, 21, 61 Placoidei, 65 Pediculatiformes, 66 Pharetronida, 10, 41 Placophora, 49 Pediculidea, 59 Pharyngidea, 16, 51 Plagiaulacoidea, 69 Pedipalpida, 55 Pharyngobdellida, 17, 52 Plagiostomi, 65 Pegasiformes, 66 Pharyngobdelliformes, 52 Plagiotremata, 67 Pelagothurida, 63 Pharyngobranchii, 37, 63 Planaria, 45 Pelargiformes, 69 Phasmidia Planctosphaeroidea, 7, 22, Pelargomorphae, 68 Arthropoda, 20, 58 37,63 Pelecani, 24, 69 Nematoda, 47 Planipennia, 59 Pelecaniformes, 24, 69 Phasmoidea, 58 Planuloidea, 36, 42 Pelecypoda, 16, 50 Phlebobranchiata, 22, 63 Plasmodiida, 41 Pelicaniformes, 69 Phlebolepiformes, 64 Plasmodroma, 39 Pelmatozoa, 60 Phoenicopteri, 69 Plastidozoa, 36, 39 Pelycosauria, 68 Phoenicopteriformes, 69 Plathelminthes, 45 Penicillata, 57 Pholadacea, 50 Platodes, 36, 45 Pennatulacea, 11,44 Pholidophoriformes, 65 Platosomia, 65 Pentacrinacea, 61 Pholidophoroidea, 65 Platyasterida, 61 Pentacrinoidea, 61 Pholidopleuriformes, 65 Platycopa, 55 91 INDEX TO Latin names

Platyctenea, 12, 45 Polypiaria, 43 Proterandria, 57 Platydesmiformia, 57 Polyplacophora, 49 Proterospermophora, 19, 57 Platyelmia, 45 Polyplakiphora, 49 Prothysanura, 57 Platyhelmia, 45 Polyplaxiphora, 49 Protichthyes, 64 Platyhelminthes, 6, 12, 36, Polypoda, 37, 52 Protista, 7, 26 45 Polyprotodontia, 70 Protoblastoidea, 60 Platymalakia, 49 Polyptera, 59 Protoblattoidea, 58 Platypoda, 50 Polypterei, 65 Protobranchia, 16,50 Platyrhina, 70 Polypteriformes, 65 Protocicadida, 59 Platysiagiformes, 65 Polypterini, 65 Protociliata, 10,41 Plecoptera, 20, 58 Polystomea, 45 Protocoleoptera, 58 Plectellaria, 40 Polythalamia, 40 Protodiptera, 59 Plectognathoidea, 66 Polytricha, 41 Protodonata, 58 Plectoidea, 40 Polyzoa Protodonta, 68 Plectoptera, 58 Bryozoa, 37, 48 Protofulgorida, 59 Pleospongia, 36, 42 Platyhelminthes, 45 Protogastropoda, 49 Plesiocidaroida, 62 Porifera, 6, 10,36,41 Protohemiptera, 58 Plesiosauria, 67 Porocephalida, 17, 53 Protohymenoptera, 58 Plesiothecata, 17, 52 Porolepiformes, 66 Protomastigaceae, 39 Pleuracanthodii, 65 Porulosida, 40 Protomastigida, 39 Pleurobranchomorpha, 50 Praeheterodonta, 50 Protomecoptera, 59 Pleurocoela, 15, 50 Predentata, 68 Protomedusae, 43 Pleuroconcha, 50 Priapulida, 14, 47 Protomonadina, 9, 39 Pleurodonta, 50 Priapuloidea, 6, 14, 36, 47 Protonemertini, 46 Pleurogona, 63 Primates, 25, 70 Protonephridozoa, 36 Pleuronectiformes, 66 Prionodesmacea, 51 Protonychophora, 53 Pleuronectoidea, 66 Proactiniae, 44 Protoparia, 54 Pleuropterygii, 65 Proanura, 66 Protoperlaria, 58 Pleuropygia, 49 Proarthropoda, 53 Protorhabdina, 41 Pleurosauria, 67 Proboscidea Protorosauria. 67 Pleurostigma, 57 Mammalia, 25, 71 Protorthoptera, 58 Pleurostigmophora, 19, 57 Myzostomida, 16, 51 Protospondyli, 65 Pleurostomata, 65 Procellariae, 24, 68 Protosuchia, 67 Pleurotremata, 65 Procellariiformes, 24, 68 Protosyngnatha, 57 Pliomeria, 54 Prochelicerata, 53 Prototardigrada, 52 Ploima, 13,47 Procoela, 67 Prototheria, 25, 68, 69 Ploimoidaceae, 47 Procolophonia, 67 Protozoa, 6, 9, 36, 39 Podicipedes, 24, 68 Proganosauria, 68 Protracheata, 37, 52 Podicipediformes, 24, 68 Progoneata, 53 Protremata, 15,49 Podicipiformes, 68 Prolacertiformes, 67 Protungulata, 70 Podocopa, 55 Promammalia, 68, 69 Protura, 20, 57 Podocopida, 18, 55 Proparia, 54 Pruvostitoptera, 58 Podogonata, 18, 55 Prorhipidoglossomorpha, 49 Psammosteiformes, 64 Podophthalma, 56 Prorocentraceae, 39 Pselaphocephala, 49 Poecilopoda, 54 Proselachii, 65 Pselaphognatha, 19, 57 Poecilosclerida, 10, 42 Prosimii, 70 Pseudanostraca, 53 Poeobioidea, 52 Prosobranchia, 15, 49 Pseudaxonia, 44 Pogonofora, 59 Prosopocephala, 50 Pseudechinoidea, 62 Pogonophora, 7,21,37,60 Prosopora, 17, 52 Pseudocentrophori, 66 Poikilorhabdina, 41 Prosostomata, 45 Pseudocoelia, 36 Polyactinia, 44 Prosothecata, 17, 52 Pseudocoelomata, 6, 36 Polybranchiata, 49 Prostigmata, 55 Pseudocrustacea, 53 Polychaeta, 17,52 Protalcyonacea, 44 Pseudohemiptera, 58 Polycladida, 12,45 Protarthropoda, 29 Pseudolamellibranchia, 51 Polycyclia, 44 Protaxonia, 27, 36 Pseudonotostraca, 53 Polycystina, 40 Protelytroptera, 58 Pseudophyllidea, 12,46 Polydesmoidea, 57 Proteocephala, 12,45 Pseudorhynchota, 59 Polymastigina, 9, 39 Proteocephaloidea. 45 Pseudoscorpionida, 18, 54 Polymera, 54 Proteomyxa, 9, 39 Pseudosuchia, 67 Polynemiformes, 66 Protephemerida, 57, 58 Psittaci, 24, 69 Polyopisthocotylea, 45 Protephemeroidea, 58 Psittaciformes, 24, 69 INDEX TO Latin names 92

Psocoptera, 20, 59 Retioloidea, 42 Sagenocrinoidea, 60 Pteraspida, 64 Rhabdiasoidea, 14, 47 Sagittoidea, 21, 59 Pteraspides, 64 Rhabditoidea, 14, 47 Salientia, 23, 66 Pteraspidiformes, 64 Rhabdocoela, 12, 45 Salinella, 27 Pteraspidomorpha, 64 Rhabdogeniae, 41 Salmopercoidea, 66 Pterichthyes, 64 Rhabdophora, 42 Salpida, 63 Pterichthyomorpha, 64 Rhabdopleurida, 22, 62 Sanatoria, 20, 58 Pteriomorpha, 50 Rhachiglossa, 50 Sarcobranchiata, 49 Pterobranchia, 7, 22, 37, 62 Rhachitomi, 66 Sarcocystidea, 40 Pterocletes, 68 Rheae, 24,68 Sarcodina, 9, 39 Pteroconchida, 50 Rheiformes, 24,68 Sarcosporidia, 10, 40 Pterocorallia, 44 Rhenanida, 64 Saurabatrachia, 66 Pterodactyli, 67 Rhignogastra, 55 Sauria, 67 Pteropoda, 16, 50 Rhinocarina, 56 Saurichthyiformes, 65 Pterosauria, 67 Rhinogastra, 55 Saurischia, 68 Pterygogenea, 57 Rhipidistia, 66 Sauropoda, 68 Pterygota, 57 Rhipidoglossa, 49 Sauropsida, 64 Ptychobranchia, 63 Rhipidoptera, 59 Sauropterygia, 67 Ptychodactiaria, 44 Rhipiptera, 59 Saururae, 68 Ptychopariida, 54 Rhiptoglossa, 67 Scansores, 69 Ptyctodontida, 64 Rhizocephala, 19, 56 Scaphopoda, 16, 50 Ptyctodontiformes, 64 Rhizoflagellata, 39 Schistochoanites, 51 Pulicina, 59 Rhizomastigaceae, 39 Schizocoela, 27 Pulmonata, 16, 50 Rhizomastigina, 9, 39 Schizocoralla, 44 Pycnodontiformes, 65 Rhizopoda, 9, 39 Schizodonta, 51 Pycnodontoidea, 65 Rhizostomatida, 44 Schizodontida, 50 Pycnogonida, 17, 54 Rhizostomeae, 1 1, 44 Schizogregarinida, 41 Pycnogonomorpha, 54 Rhizota, 46 Schizomida, 18, 55 Pygaspida, 53 Rhombifera, 60 Schizonemertini, 46 Pygocaulia, 49 Rhomboganoidei, 65 Schizonotida, 55 Pygocephalomorpha, 56 Rhombozoa, 42 Schizopeltidia, 55 Pygopodes, 68 Rhynchobdellida, 17,52 Schizopoda, 56 Pyrosomata, 22, 63 Rhynchobdelliformes, 52 Schizosiphona, 50 Pyrosomatida, 22, 63 Rhynchocephalia, 23, 67 Scirtopoda, 47 Pyrotheria, 71 Rhynchocoela, 6, 13, 36, 46 Scleractinia, 11,44 Pythonomorpha, 67 Rhynchodipteriformes, 66 Scleropareioidea, 66 Rhynchoflagellata, 39 Scoleciformia, 52 Rhynchonellida, 48 Scolecomorpha, 49 Quadrumana, 70 Rhynchostomi, 54 Scolopendromorpha, 19,57 Rhynchota, 58 Scopeliformes, 66 Ricinuleida, 18, 55 Scorpiones, 54 Rachiglossa, 50 Rodentia, 25,70 Scorpionida, 18, 54 Radiata, 27 Rophoteira, 59 Scutibranchia, 49 Radiolaria, 9,40 Rostrata, 55 Scutigeromorpha, 19, 57 Rajiformes, 65 Rostroconchida, 50 Scyphomedusae, 44 Ralliformes, 69 Rotalidea, 40 Scyphopolypi, 44 Raphidioidea, 59 Rotatoria, 6, 13, 36,46 Scyphozoa, 11,44 Ratitae, 68 Rotifera, 6, 13,36,46 Scytactinata, 62 Receptaculitida, 42 Roveacrinida, 60 Scytodermata, 62 Reculoidea, 59 Rugosa, 44 Sebecosuchia, 67 Redfieldiiformes, 65 Rutoceratida, 51 Sedentaria, 17, 52 Redlichiida, 54 Seisonacea, 13,46 Regulares, 60 Seisonidea, 13, 46 Regularia Saccata Selachii, 23, 65 Crinoidea, 61 Ctenophora, 45 Selachoidea, 65 Echinoidea, 21, 62 MoUusca, 37,48 Semaeostomeae, 1 1, 44 Remigolepiformes, 64 Saccocirrida, 52 Semaeostomatida, 44 Reptilia, 23, 67 Saccopharyngiformes, 66 Semi-articulata, 61 Reptiliomorphoidea, 67 Saccosomatida, 16,51 Semionotoidea, 65 Reticularia, 40 Sacoglossa, 16, 50 Semostomeae, 44 Reticulariaceae, 40 Sagenocrinida, 60 Sepioidea, 51 93 INDEX TO Latin names

Septibranchia, 16, 50, 51 Squaliformes, 65 Suctoria Septibranchida, 50 Squaloidea, 65 Arthropoda, 59 Serosporidia, 41 Squamata Protozoa, 10,41 Serpentes, 67 Mammalia, 70 Sycones, 41 Sertularina, 43 Reptilia, 23,67 Syconosa, 41 Seymouriamorpha, 67 Stauracea, 44 Symbranchiformes, 66 Sigmatomonaxonellida, 41 Stauromedusae, 1 1 , 44 Symmetrodonta, 70 Sigmatophora, 42 Steganobranchia, 50 Symphyla, 19, 57 Silicoflagellata, 39 Steganopodes, 24, 69 Sympoda, 56 Silicospongiae, 41 Stegocephalia, 66 Synalcyonacea, 44 Simiae, 70 Stegosauria, 68 Synapsida, 68 Simplicidentata, 70 Stegoselachii, 65 Synaptera, 57 Sinupalliata, 51 Stelechotokea, 44 Synaptida, 62 Siphonapiera, 20, 59 Stelleroidea, 60 Synaptorhabda, 50 Siphonida, 50 Stelliformia, 60 Synaptosauria, 67 Siphonobranchia, 50 Stelmatopoda, 48 Synarmogoidea, 58 Siphonophora, 1 1 , 43 Stemonitaceae, 40 Synbranchioidea, 66 Siphonopoda, 50 Stenoglossa, 50 Syncarida, 56 Siphunculata, 59 Stenolaemata Synentognathoidea, 66 Sipunculida, 16,51 Bryozoa, 48 Syngnatha, 57 Sipunculoidea, 7, 16, 37, MoUusca, 49 Syngnathiformes, 66 51 Stenostomata, 48 Syntonopteroidea, 57 Sirenia, 25,71 Stensioellida, 65 Synxiphosurida, 54 Sirenoidei, 66 Stensioelliformes, 65 Sypharopteroidea, 57 Solenichthyoidea, 66 Stenurida, 61 Syringocnemida, 42 Solenida, 10,41 Stephanoberyciformes, 66 Solenochilida, 51 Stephoidea, 40 Solenoconchia, 50 Stereornithes, 68 Solenogastres, 15, 49 Stereospondyli, 66 Tabulata, 44 Solifugae, 18,55 Stethostomata, 54 Taeniodontia, 70 Solpugida, 18,55 Stichodactylina, 44 Taenioglossa, 50 Soluta, 54 Stirodonta, 62 Taenioidea, 46 Somasteroidea, 61 Stolidobranchiata, 22, 63 Taligrada, 70 Somphocyathida, 42 Stolonifera, 11,44 Tanaidacea, 19, 56 Sorophora, 40 Stolonoidea, 43 Tanysitrachelia, 67 Spatangoida, 22, 62 Stomatocrinoidea, 61 Tardigrada, 7, 17, 37, 52 Spathebothridea, 12, 46 Stomatopoda, 19, 56 Tarphyceratida, 51 Spelaeogriphacea, 19, 56 Stomatostigmata, 55 Tarrasiiformes, 65 Sphaeractinoidea, 43 Strepsata, 59 Tartarides, 55 Sphaerellaria, 40 Strepsiptera, 21, 59 Taxeopoda, 70 Sphaeroidocrinacea, 60 Streptoneura, 49 Taxocrinida, 60 Sphaerozoa, 40 Streptophiurae, 61 Taxocrinoidea, 60 Sphenisci, 23, 68 Streptophiuroida, 61 Taxodonta, 51 Sphenisciformes, 23, 68 Streptostylica, 67 Taxodontia, 70 Sphinctozoa, 41 Strigeata, 45 Tectibranchiata, 50 Spinigrada, 61 Striges, 24,69 Tectobranchia, 50 Spinulosa, 21, 61 Strigiformes, 24, 69 Tectospondyli, 65 Spioniformia, 52 Stromatoporidea, 43 Teleodesmacea, 51 Spiriferida, 48 Stromatoporoidea, 43 Teleodonta, 51 Spirigera, 41 Strongyloidea, 14, 48 Teleoplacophora, 49 Spirobranchia, 37, 48 Strophomenida, 48 Teleostei, 23,65 Spirobranchiopoda, 48 Struthiones, 23, 68 Teleostomi, 65 Spironotia, 49 Struthioniformes, 23, 68 Telestacea, 11,44 Spirotricha, 10,41 Stylasterina, 11,43 Telmatomorphormes, 69 Spiruroidea, 14, 48 Stylinodontia, 70 Telobranchia, 49 Spongeae, 36, 41 Stylommatophora, 16, 50 Telogonia, 47 Spongiaria, 36, 41 Stylopida, 59 Telosporidia, 9, 40 Spongiomorphida, 43 Stylopidae, 59 Telotremata, 15, 49 Sporozoa, 9, 40 Subholostei, 65 Temnocephaloidea, 45 Spumellaria, 40 Subholosteoidea, 65 Temnospondyli, 67 Spyroidea, 40 Subungulata, 70 Tentaculata, 12,45 INDEX TO Latin names 94 Tentaculifera Thrissomorphi, 66 Tubulosa, 44 Mollusca, 50 Thunniformes, 66 Tunicata, 7,22,37,63 Protozoa, 41 Thyroidea, 61 Turbellaria, 12,45 Terebelliformia, 52 Thyrostraca, 56 Turbinares, 68 Terebratulida, 48 Thysanoptera, 20, 59 Terricolae, 52 Thysanura, 20, 57 Tesselata, 61 Tillodontia, 70 Uintacrinida, 60 Testacea Tinami, 24,68 Uintatheria, 71 Echinodermata, 60 Tinamiformes, 24, 68 Uncinataria, 41 Protozoa, 9, 40 Tintinnina, 41 Unguiculata, 70 Testicardines, 49 Tjalfiellidea, 45 Ungulata, 70 Testudinata, 67 Tomiosoma, 45 Ungulates, 70 Testudines, 67 Torpediniformes, 65 Uranocyatha, 42 Tethyodeae, 63 Toxodontia, 70 Urochordata, 37, 63 Tetrabothridiata, 46 Toxoglossa, 50 Urodela, 23, 66 Tetrabranchiata, 16, 50 Trachelosauria, 67 Urodeloidei, 66 Tetracoelia, 44 Trachomedusae, 43 Uronemiformes, 67 Tetracorallia, 44 Trachylinida, 11,43 Uropygi, 55 Tetracotylea, 46 Trachymedusae, 43 Tetractinellida, 41 Trachypsammiacea, 44 Tetractiniae, 45 Tremataspidiformes, 64 Vaginulacea, 50 Tetradecapoda, 56 Trematoda, 12,45 Vampyromorpha, 16,51 Tetradida, 44 Trematosauria, 66 Veneracea, 50 Tetradontiformes, 66 Trepostomata, 48 Vertebrata, 7,23,37,64 Tetraphyllidea, 12,45 Tretenterata, 49 Volvocaceae, 39 Tetrapoda, 64 Triaxonida, 41 Volvocales, 9, 39 Tetrarhyncha, 46 Trichinelloidea, 48 Volvocina, 39 Tetrarhynchoidea, 46 Trichiaceae, 40 Tetraseptata, 44 Trichocorallia, 44 Tetraxonida, 41 Trichomonadida, 39 Waptiida, 53 Tetrodontiformes, 66 Trichoptera, 20, 59 Weigeltisauria, 67 Teuthoidea, 51 Trichostomata, 41 Textularidea, 40 Trichuroidea, 14, 48 Thalamida, 10,41 Tricladida, 12, 45 Xenacanthi, 65 Thalamophora, 40 Triconodonta, 69 Xenacanthoidea, 65 Thalattosauria, 67 Trigonotarbi, 54 Xenanthi, 65 Thalattosuchia, 67 Trigonotarbida, 54 Xenarthra, 70 Thaliacea, 22,63 Trilobita, 54 Xenophyophoridea, 40 Thallocoralla, 44 Trilobitoidea, 53 Xenopoda, 53 Thecamoebae, 40 Trilobitomorpha, 52 Xenopneusta, 16, 51 Thecanephria, 21,60 Trimyaria, 46 Zeomorphoidea, 66 Thecaphora, 43 Trinucleida, 54 Xiphosura, 17, 54 Tbecata, 43 Triplesiida, 48 Xiphosurida, 17, 54 Thecodontia, 67 Tripostomata, 48 Thecoidea, 61 Tripylaea, 40 Thecosomata, 50 Tripylaria, 40 Zacanthoidacea, 54 Thelodonti, 64 Trituberculata, 70 Zeiformes, 66 Thelyphonida, 18,55 Tritylodontoidea, 69 Zeomorphoidea, 66 Therapsida, 68 Trochelminthes, 28 Zeuglodontia, 70 Theria, 69 Trochosphaerida, 47 Zoa, 36 Therictoidea, 70 Trogones, 24, 69 Zoantha, 44 Theriodontia, 68 Trogoniformes, 24, 69 Zoanthactiniaria, 44 Thermosbaenacea, 19, 56 Tryblidiacea, 49 Zoantharia, 11,44 Theromorpha, 68 Tryblidioidea, 15,49 Zoanthidea, 44 Theropoda, 68 Trypanorhyncha, 12, 46 2^anthiniaria, 11,44 Thigmotrichina, 41 Tubicola, 52 Zoomastigina, 9, 39 Thoracica, 18,56 Tubinares, 24,68 Zoomastigophorea, 39 Thoracostoidea, 66 Tuboidea, 43 Zoophytaria, 44 Thoracostraca, 56 Tubulariae, 43 Zoraptera, 20, 59 Thripoides, 59 Tubulidentata, 25,71 Zygobranchia, 49 Thripsites, 59 Tubulinaceae, 40 Zygophiurae, 61

Classification of the ANIMAL KINGDOM

BY Richard E. Blackwelder

The classiiTX*st!!dit df irSfflSf^r^^ a

field in which discovery and revision are continu-

ing, even after two hundred years of study. Yet, the importance of classification in biology in- creases every year because the experimental and

practical fields find increasing need for accurate

identification of animals and for understanding of comparative relationships.

Classification of the Animal Kingdom is a

completely new classification system. It is de- signed to promote interest and study, elicit dis- cussion, and provide a usable single classification for reference for zoology students and teachers. This classification has three principal parts: of ( 1 ) the complete classification, including lists the phyla and of the classes and orders of all animals, living and fossil; (2) the justification for unusual features in the classification system; and (3) a simplified classification of Recent animals for student use. A bibliography of major recent classifications and indexes to common and Latin names are also included. Sponsored by the Society of Systematic Zoology.

RICHARD E. BLACKWELDER is an Associate Pro- fessor of Zoology at Southern Illinois University. He formerly was Associate Curator at the Ameri- can Museum of Natural History, New York, and at the National Museum, Washington, D.C. In 1961 he was President of the Society of Syste-

matic Zoology. He is the author of more than one hundred monographs and articles and com- piler, with Ruth M. Blackwelder, of Directory of Zoological Taxonomists of the World. Press

Carbondale, Illinois