ITALIAN BACKGROUND

by Carla Sari June 1977.

HUMAN AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Italy covers an area of 301,054 square kilometres (or 116,207 sq. miles). It is situated within the temperate zone. A glance at the map reveals its natural boundaries. To the north, the separate it from France, Switzerland, Austria and Yugoslavia. The rest of the country, with a coastline totalling 8,500 kilometres, is bathed by the , the , the Ionian and the Adriatic . Besides the Alps, which include some of the highest peaks in , another mountain chain, the Apennines, starts at the extreme western point of the Alpine area. The Apennines are the real backbone of the peninsula, running down through the country to the very point of the high boot, and then reappearing in the island of . The lowlands include the famous PoValley and a few other less extensive plains nearer to the coast, like the Tavoliere delle Puglie, in the South-East; the Salento between the Adriatic and the Ionian Seas; the , with as the capital; the Agro Pontino, near and the Tuscan Maremma. • • • x The climate of varies tremendously along the length of the peninsula. Mountainous , which constitute a large part of the country, are often very cold and windswept, with foggy and rather long winters. Summers are long and warm. Autumn is rainy and warmer than Spring. On the island of Sicily, drought is common. Four-fifths of Italy is hilly or mountainous, and most of this land is not suitable for cultivation. The development of the south has been greatly retarded by this, and by its physical inaccessibility from the rest of Europe. Until 50-60 years ago, malaria impeded the use of some of the lowland along the coastlines of .

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Italy’s main crops are cereals (including rice grown- in the ,-) fruit, vegetables and tobacco. Grapes are a traditional Italian crop and a major one in many regions. The cultivation varies greatly according to the different areas and the size of the farms. There are some large estates but the majority of farmers own no more than a few acres of land and on their land they carry out mixed farming. Tbe "latifondi" or very large estates owned by absentee landlords were confiscated by the government in the early 1950’s, broken up and handed over to peasant farmers who were to own them within 30 years. But the barren land still did not yield enough. Centres to give technical advice and machinery were not provided at the same time so that with the shift to industry in the late 1950’s many farmers were already moving to find better living conditions in the large centres and preferred working in large factories than on the land. Italy's 55% million people are not evenly distributed throughout the peninsula. Many are concentrated in the regional capital cities of Rome, Milano, Torino, Genova and Napoli. The north is heavily urban and industrial while the central and southern regions are mainly agricultural. , as a result of internal migration, has almost half of the entire population crowded in a quarter of the area, i.e. the so-called "industrial triangle" going from Genova to Torino and Milano. Nowadays, Sicily and have 13% of the total population. The principal mineral resources of Italy are sulphur (Sicily), iron (island of Elba and Valle d ’Aosta), small quantities of zinc and lead, and a substantial amount of mercury. However, the Italian sub-soil is naturally poor and of low productivity. Asbestos is mined in and and the industry has developed gradually. The marble industry, because of certain technical aspects and its economic importance, lies in a special category of its own. Quarrying is chiefly concentrated in . The Second World War brought great damage to the Italian electrical industry. A four-year project which ended in 1960, reconstructed the various plants. Later, the industry was nationalized. This caused profound changes in the structure. In recent times the output of nuclear thermo power exceeded 100,000 million kw. per year. A decisive moment came in Italian economy with the discovery of hydrocarbons. In the space of a comparatively few years, an industry of vast dimensions has been developed, which offers employment to tens of thousands and still has a considerable influence on investment and labour policies. The discovery and exploitation of methane resulted in the institution of the "Ente Nazionale Idrocarburi", in 1953. The artisans, heirs to century-old traditions, are generally flourishing and make a valuable contribution towards the overall industrial structure. Each has its own characteristic products e.g. ceramics in Romagna, , Campania, Puglie, and ; glass and crystal at Murano and lace at Burano (two small islands lying in the lagoon at ) while and Venice are famous for gold, silverware and jewellery. Volterra (Tuscany) is knovm for its alabaster and (Tuscany) for its onyx. Wooden carvings of sacred and profane subjects, and cuckoo clocks, are typical products of Alto Adigo, and richly worked leather articles are made in Sardinia. At Florence straw and raffia goods are highly appreciated. The Southern Italy Development Fund, founded in 1950, is a body that provides additional public aid to southern and , and is one of the first examples of planning. Throughout the years of its existence, it has interested itself in a wide gamut of projects. It helped towards the development of industrial areas, towards the construction or completion of hospitals, towards the construction of dams in areas xtfhere water and electricity were scarce. Various types of education and vocational training were also part of the Development Fund. Although not all projects were completed, it did achieve many of its aims. Tourism was perhaps the greatest factor in the economic development of the southern . Minorities can be found in Italy. They include Italian citizens of Austrian and German stock in the Alto-Adige, and the . of . They have retained their languages which are accepted legally and used in common with Italian. There are also other groups, consisting of persons who immigrated to Italy centuries ago and speak dialects based on foreign languages such as Albanian* Greek and Catalan. French-Provence dialects are common in Piedmont and in the Valle d ’Aosta.. The. Valle d ’Aosta (in the north-west) has always been administratively independent. The Vatican City and San Marino are two independent countries xvithin Italy’s boundaries.

A QUICK GLIMPSE AT MODERN ITALY Italy, as a nation, was merely a "geographical expression" until the middle of.the last century, The Italy of the late and of the early Empire gradually declined during the period of disintegration of the in the west. The peninsula fragmented politically, different regions following different destinies. A united Italy, under one crown or as a league of self-governing states, was the dream of poets and'historians and the aim of the King of Sicily, the Duke of Milano, and of Lawrence the Magnificent. But until it was achieved in 1861, the unification seemed impossible. Modern Italy has its origins in the late eighteenth century, when it was conquered by . The emperor was welcomed by some people, who saw him as a liberator from the tyranny of petty rulers, while a small minority of liberal took advantage of the presence of foreign revolutionary armies to organise new demooatic republics. In less than two decades Napoleon replaced the traditional system of land tenure with a modern system of unfettered private property. He centralised institutions, selected the government personnel on the basis of merit and created a bourgeois class of functionaries, magistrates and officials. The church’s land was sold to the highest bidder. The masses of the Italian nation were, however, hostile to the French, to their reforms and ideas and remained consistently so. However, most of the time there was no open rebellion, only sullen opposition. Napoleon soon proved to be a despot, not a liberator. By 1803-1805 it became clear to everyone that the French had come to stay, not to liberate, but there was no general anti-French insurrection in Italy. In any case, due to instability on oth er fronts, French troops had already been withdrawn from Italy before the abdication of Napoleon in 1814. In 1815, the peninsula settled down in the new order decreed by the Congress of Vienna: a network of states of various sizes, ranging from the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies to the small dukedom of Lucca. Nowhere was there a constitutional form of government. Only in Tuscany did the authorities concede a measure of tolerance, of freedom of thought and of the press. The hopes that Napoleon had raised were not dead, though. The forces which were to agitate for Italy’s unification were already marked. Two major obstacles were to be overcome: Austrians ruled the north-east of Italy and, the conservative element within the Italian society. Many Italians were tradition­ alists, attached to the past, loyal to the institutions of absolute state and the ideas behind them. They tended to accept a rigid hierarchical structure of society with the power concentrated at the top. The masses of the people had been kept ignorant for a very long time and had become politically apathetic. The liberal-minded Italians, recruited almost exclusively from the educated middle- class, lower middle-class, aristocracy and upper clergy, aimed at an independent nation based on a constitutional form of government, secularism, national sovereignty and free enterprise. The experience of Napoleonic rule, which brought the germs of liberalism fostered by the French revolution, convinced some people how much Italy stood to gain from a strong centralised government. Without the experience of free government for centuries, it took Italy forty years of trial and error to test the various methods and parties which gradually became engaged in the crusade for independence. Very soon after the Restoration (the Congress of Vienna), secret societies became active with the aim of overthrowing the Vienna settlement. In 1820-21, and aeain in 1881. ITTVr 1 51 TlCrC! t" CtoV n l 3PC ■? n o tn ro r r \ +- 1 ovn-irsi* T f nl •? nn 5. life, that the Italians got, perhaps for a brief spell of time, a sense of national identity. The League of Nations was opposed to Fascism and this was one of the reasons that spurred Mussolini to seek an alliance with Hitler. Many Italians, however, were against the German alliance and the King was compelled to arrest Mussolini and to sign an armistice with the Allies. Germany then invaded the north of the country and reinstated the dictator. Eventually the German armies were routed and Mussolini killed. Soon after the end of the Second World War in Italy there was a national referendum. Italy became a republic and the Royal Family went into exile. Since 1946, Italy has been under Christian Democratic leadership, a pious version of the first liberal regime. During ail this time, parties and factions have been battling mainly along ideological lines, and have lost their original differentiating characteristics. The emphasis on ideology has only led to divisive factional conflicts. In the fifties and early sixties the economic social transformation, which has affected other countries in , threw millions of Italians into the modern world and gave them a higher standard of living and even greater expectations. By the late 1960’s Italy was indeed approaching the meet advanced countries in its levels of industrial efficiency, consumer spending, school attendance, health care and traffic congestion and pollution. No sector of industry was excluded from the general growth. The steel industry tripled its production, the chemical and petrol industries, both private and state-owned, expanded explosively. Italian clothes and shoes made their mark on the main European markets. Building and the related industries of cement and bricks did excellent business. The most spectacular development was in the automobile industry, in which Fiat had a near-monopoly. Following this sudden industrial expansion, millions of farmers left the countryside to look for work in the cities of the industrial north. This represented the greatest mixing of the population that has ever taken place in united Italy. More and more Italians visited other European countries and millions of Europeans have come down to visit Italy's beaches and towns. The Roman Catholic Church and the are changing their traditional conservative stand. Many women have discarded their traditional role which confined them to the home and family and have become active socially and politically. The Women's Liberation Movement has developed and touched most provincial capital cities. rfA The economic miracle, however, has its reverse side. The building boom has damaged the quality of Italy's main towns. Landscape, unique in the world, has been scarred by the high rise flats in which most middle class and working class Italians now live. Mass-motorization has been artificklly swollen beyond the country's economic capacities. The exodus from the countryside has made more acute the crisis of an agriculture still regulated, in some parts of Italy, by outdated contracts. What leaves many Italians perplexed is that the economic miracle has not been paralleled by profound social progress. The conditions of workers still remain precarious and hard, the level of has soared and social services are quite inadequate in some areas. Public administration is unwieldy and the taxation system powerless against tax-evaders. In very recent times labor disputes, regional unrest (the regions wanted to become administratively independent in order to break down the bureaucracy) and the alarming spread of highly organized crime have shown once more that Italy's political structures are not those of a modern nation. Most other aspects of national life have changed but the political system has not. Perhaps the nation needs greater and more sustained threats. The energy crisis seems to have provided a real and lasting stimulus to prod it into attacking its problems more vigorously. 4. to remedy various local and individual grievances. By 1848, some of the malcontents had realized the need for sacrificing local animosities in a common cause. Soldiers from Naples joined with Tuscans, Romans and the Piedmontese army in trying to save the insurrection of Milano. The Sicilians asked a Piedmontese Duke to be their King. Once more, however, everything ended in mutual recrimination and mistrust. This state of affairs continued until, under the leadership and inspiration of three prominent figures in the , unification was achieved in 1861. The three men were Mazzini, Garibaldi and Cavour. Giuseppe Mazzini was a republican and nationalist, who lived as a revolutionary agitator, but always in exile. He launched numerous societies and newspapers to convince people that Italy could and must be united through the exertions of ordinary people. Mazzini’s practical application of materialism was by means of continual insurrections, which would make people conscious of their power and of how to use it. Italians found their greatest general of modern times in Giuseppe Garibaldi, the inspired leader of guerrillas. He called himself a republican and socialist, but in practice he served the monarchy. To Mazzini's disgust, Garibaldi surrendered to the king the dictatorial powers over half of Italy which he had conquered in 1860. Cavour, the Prime Minister of Piedmont, took over the Italian revolution after Garibaldi had invaded Sicily, and handed over the kingdom of the two Sicilies to the King of Piedmont. Cavour was a liberal, a moderate. The aim of his policies was the expulsion of the Austrians and the formation of a unitary state, rather than a separatist one. He was convinced that foreign aid was indispensable for getting rid of the Austrians, while Mazzini had wanted to rely only on the Italian masses. Piedmont became the model of the 19th century constitutional state and the asylum to liberal patriots from other Italian states. Because it lacked military power, Cavour sought alliance with Napoleon III of France. But this was done after Cavour had sent an expedition of Piedmontese soldiers to to fight the Russians in 1855. This had served the aim to win a seat at the Paris Peace Congress and therefore the right to asset in public that Piedmont had as much right as A_ustria to intervene in the other regions of Italy. As Mack Smith said, ''Cavour’s theoretical liberalism and practical Machiavellism both helped in realizing national unification". When Parliament met in Torino in early 1861, a new kingdom of 22 million people could be officially declared in existence. Only Rome and Venice remained outside and were both annexed by 1871. A liberal regime was introduced similar to the French system of political and administrative centralization, but without the benefit of the French traditions of national loyalty on the part of the majority of the people. The old-fashioned liberal conditution, the Statuto, promulgated in Piedmont in 1848, remained one of the main causes of the nation's continuing political immaturity. The country was crying for economic and social innovations and reforms, but the heirs of Cavour remained anchored to their bourgeois liberal principles. No wonder the new government was seen, particularly in the south, as a kind of institutionalized thief, taking money in taxes, young men in military service, and seeming to give nothing in return. After World War I, Italy faced great social unrest, which frightened the heads of industry. Unable to curb the revolts and unwilling to meet the demands of the workers, they financed a new political movement - facism, headed by . So between 1922 and 1943 the government was seized by Mussolini. At first he kept the democratic institutions of government, but after a few years he announced a dictatorship. Mussolini tried tc regiment all classes in the interest of the State. The classes were channelled into activities such as group singing, sports, campaigns, mass-rallies. Ironically enough, it was through this forced participation in group activities as vicarious participation in real political 7. might feel threatened by the women’s new independence. Women who do not work are isolated, and become depressed because they are deprived of the recognition and social support which they used to receive from the village community in the mother country. As the children learn English, they sometimes refuse to speak Italian or the dialect and communication within the family begins to suffer. The children become familiar with two conflicting behavioural patterns or standards. At school they are encouraged to think for themselves and to question authority while at home this is seen as rebellion. The roles of boys and girls are not so clearly differentiated at school and the pressure of the peer group to conform to standards and values in opposition to those of the parents makes many adolescents very resentful of the customs of their parents. Some go as far as feeling ashamed of them, develop a sense of inferiority and often deny their cultural heritage. The language barrier continues to be great for people who speak an almost en.'irely phonetic language. The education system appears too permissive and too expensive for people who are not used to facing various fees, expenses for uniforms, excursions, etc. etc. Medibank, superannuation schemes and the tax return forms >rove to be nightmarish for newcomers used to a kind of welfare system in these areas. Sometimes people are not aware of their existence. During the first few . months the so-called cultural shock proves unbearable, an almost physical kind of burden to carry. Without their caf& life, without the passe^giata (the next great institution of Italian life is the Sunday or late afternoon xrnlk along the main street of the town in one’s best clothes) without the colourful traditional festivals and all the other forms of public entertainment that create a special "tempo" in the lifestyle of Italian towns and villages, the immigrant feels very lonely and lost. When people emigrate they usually want their life to be better and easier but not different. It takes a long time for them to realise that the pattern of life they used to know is bound to change and that things have evolved rapidly even in their own home. The tendency is that of reinforcing the known trends, habits, traditions. An extract from "An Overview of Trends and Issues in Present Immigration to Australia" Notes for an Analysis of the Scalabrinian Fathers apostolate in Australia by Lidio Bertelli, June 10, 1976. "" Italian Migration The 1971 census tells us that on that date Italians in Australia amounted to 289,447 persons, the second largest foreign-born ethnic group, after the British. 82.5% were living in metropolitan areas. The census also confirmed that the "boom" of Italian immigration is over; not only less Italians come to Australia but also more Italians go back to Italy and Western Europe generally. The census figures refer only to the Italian-born. Estimates on the size of the Italian ethnic group (i.e. including the Australian-born children) vary from 500,000 to over 800,000. To understand the present Italian experience in Australia some differential characteristics should be taken into account. 1. "Old", "New" and "Very New" Italian Immigrants Pre-war Italians are the "old" Italians. Usually they are well established and successful. Although a relevant number, they are a minority. Those who came in the 50's and early 60’s (the "new" Italians) are the majority. A good proportion of them started their settlement process as farmers in isolated areas and sugar-cane cutters in . The attraction of the city and the availability of factory jobs in city areas pushed them 6

WHY MIGRATE?

Italian emigration has continued almost without interruption throughout the history of the Italian nation. It has been both internal; from the south to the industrial north and international to other European countries and to the and Australia. The very real and immediate problems of overpopulation and unemployment have made it a necessity. In the early 1920s it seemed to stop when the fascist regime embarked on a policy of colonialism and it was believed that only the conquest of foreign lands could rid Italy of the necessity to send its people abroad. But the country did not have the capital resources to develop new colonies. Other efforts like a programme of reconstruction of roads, buildings and the draining of marshes in proved inadequate for the same reason: lack of capital resources. After World War II emigration started again mainly to , Argentina, and Australia. It was an attempt by Italians from the poorest regions to solve their own social and economic problems. Italian immigrants in Australia come mainly from the north-east areas of the Veneto region, Friuli, Trentino; from the central regions of Abruczi and and the southern regions of and Sicilia. They represent a considerable diversity of origins being made of elements of diverse origins. Before the unification of Italy the inhabitants of various states, although politically separated, did not regard

Since the early 1970 s, the few people arriving from Italy seem to be driven to Australia not so much for economic reasons but for political reasons or because they fear the outcome of a new political regime. These Italians have had a better opportunity for education, have lived through some social changes and are probably less likely to suffer from cultural shock and have therefore greater expectations.

ITALIANS IN AUSTRALIA

ftafiaas form one of the largest groups from non-English speaking countries. The majority have come from rural areas and few of them on assisted passage, a scheme introduced after the visit of the Hresident of Italy to Australia in 1967. Italians who want to get an assisted passage have to meet specific requirements. Those who don't, usually borrow the money. For this reason, after arrival, many Italians have a double burden to carry and may appear to be only interested in short-term goals and in the acquisition of material benefits. The first few years are indeed filled with anxiety and frustrations. If possible, both parents work, often at unsuitable jobs and as a result there are a lot of industrial accidents. Women who work feel the stress of filling two roles, while the men V 8.

to , Sydney and Adelaide. From being 61% rural in 1933,. the Italian group had become 71% urban in 1961. This urbanization trend has become more pronounced in the last 5-8 years, A very large portion of the "new" Italians have either'primary schooling only or no schooling at all. Only a very small proportion have a tertiary level education. The "very new" Italians are those who arrived in the late 60's and 70’s. Not only have they had no experience outside the metropolitan areas but they tend to display higher social and economic expectations than the former two groups. The divisions in the Italian community are increased by the changed opportunities in Australian society itself. The "old" and "new" Italians tend to resent the expectations of the "very new" ones and to display paternalistic attitudes with regard to them. At the same-time the "very new” Italians cannot appreciate the hardships met by the former groups and tend to resent the fact that the Italian people most active in the social/economic activities within the community and society at large come mainly from these two groups.

2. Geographical Distribution "Little Italies" on the American scale rarely materialized. The tendency instead has been to move out from the inner suburbs as soon as they could afford the expense of purchasing a house, as it appears from Table 12. In 1966 the Italians were the third most concentrated group in Melbourne (after the Maltese and Greeks) and the fifth most concentrated in Sydney (after the Greeks, Maltese, Polish and Yugoslavs). The data of the 1971 census shows a still decreasing degree of concentration. At this time there were 104,088 Italian-born persons (4.3% of the total population) in the Melbourne metropolitan area. Before the war and in the immediate post-war period Carlton and Fitzroy were the areas where Italians could be found most concentrated. About 1960, however, the focus of the Italian community shifted more towards North Carlton as the poorer areas of Carlton were taken over by the most recent and poorer migrants. Since 1966 Italians have shifted from the inner suburbs to lox-r-cost suburbs such as Coburg, Essendon and Footscray in the north and west and Oakleigh in the south-east. They have also made a significant impact to outer suburban developments in the northern sector between Broadmeadox-js and Preston. Access to manufacturing, construction and other blue collar employment opportunities seems to have been a significant factor in these location patterns. Similar isolated concentrations also live in parts of Mordialloc, Knox and Lilydale. Italians account for about 13% of the total Catholic population in Melbourne. ""

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The Family System During the long centuries of Italian disunity the family became the one source of security a man could count on. Unable to give his loyalty and allegiance to a larger socio-political unit, he reserved part of it for the town that was his birthplace. The local people tended to become withdrawn and to develop their own distinctive weapons: outward ignorance, suspicion, non-co-operation and physical withdrawal behind the walls of their houses. In earlier times, when toxms were generally small, most residents in one "paese" were related and the combined forces of the extended family were brought to bear 9.

against the outsiders. It was a stronghold in a hostile land and the only place where one could find the people one could really trust. Within the extended family the Italian found help, comfort, consolation and allies. His responsibility and sense of obligation towards the clan has always been of much greater importance than his responsibility towards the State or his fellow-citizens. The larger family served as a unit of orientation while the nuclear family inside the clan continued to enjoy a certain amount of interdependence. This strong system of interdependence is being challenged in Italy nowadays by the younger generations along with most values that formed the structure of social and moral behaviour. No valid alternative models to replace the old ones have been found as yet, except for some experiments in communes and the free mixing of the sexes unheard of till some ten or fifteen years ago. The country is now in a state of ferment of social change, trying to grapple with the needs for social reforms and in some areas in a state of chaos. In Australia, however, among Italian migrants who arrived here from rural areas ten or twenty years ago, attachment to one's family seems to be the over-riding loyalty to which all others must be subordinated. ■ i Three themes seem to characterise this type of Italian family. It is extended and it does not disintegrate with emigration; it is nuclear yet relying in moments of crisis on the moral and/or financial support of the extended family; it thrives on the principle of service to the family, which means the welfare of the family takes precedence over that of the individual. Individuals share equally in fortune and misfortune and money is often pooled. A child, for instance, may be asked to sacrifice his or her ambitions for the advancement of the group. The central value of the extended family is the concept of honour, which involves being strong, virtuous and respected. It rests mainly on the conduct of the women. A man’s position is rather vulnerable, as his honour and dignity depend on the behaviour of the iromen in his family. This is why it is the duty of the man, the father, husband or brother to make sure that temptations do not occur. In some families the parent-child relationship is still based more on control than self-control because the child cannot be trusted to control himself. The spheres of activities are com­ partmentalised; e.g. it is a woman’s job to cook and look after the house even if she has an outside job. Small children are sporadically reprimanded and take part fully in the conversation of some of the activities of the adults, thus obtaining an early and complete grasp of customs. The highlights of the family are the Sunday dinner, and visiting. in Italy, where the tradition of the long lunch period has not changed, all shops close from 1230 to 3.30 for the siesta. Everything comes to a standstill. This pattern of work and home life serves the purpose of a longer period in which to eat and relax and also allows the family to spend several important hours together, thus contributing to family stability.

Education in Italy The general standard of education has been steadily improving between 1901-1970. The number of people holding a school certificate has greatly increased. As atfiole, educational standards in the three main regions of the country follow a different pattern.

In northern Italy, the general standard of education reflects the economic and social expansion and is also influenced by past history which was favourable to school attendance. In central Italy the general standard of education corresponds fairly closely to the average levels for the country as a whole, but also a higher percentage with no school certificate.

In spite of the steady improvement, the traditional dichotomy in Italian society has not been eliminated and pockets of illiteracy persist. This is very disturbing 10.

because as the development of the industrial and tertiary sectors is stepped up, the existing differences in living conditions become obvious. It is hard to say whether this is the result of the expansion of the educational system or of the profound social changes taking place in Italy. The schools, however, particularly in the less developed areas, have managed to break through the static conditions which prevailed in the past. Pre-School Education The aim of early education is to assist the family in the development of the child’s personality and to prepare the child for the compulsory schooling that is to follow . Enrolment is not obligatory and attendance is free. Most pre-schools are run by local corporations or private organisations. There are comparatively few run by the State. About 50% of children between three arid five years of age attend nursery schools. There is, however, a constant increase in attendance.

Primary Education The primary schools take in children from 6 to 11 years of age. The school is divided into two didactic cycles. The first cycle is made up of the 1st and 2nd grades and the second cycle of the 3rd, 4th and 5th grades. In the primary school, the curriculum for the 1st cycle is essentially all-inclusive but it becomes progressively diversified in the 2nd cycle. The passing from one grade to the next in the same cycle takes place without exams, since it is based upon an estimate by average of the marks recorded during the school year. The pupil’s non-admission to the next grade in the same cycle is envisaged only in exceptional cases and must be the subject of a report to the headmaster. At the end of each cycle pupils have to take written and oral exams. The Primary School Certificate obtained at the end of the second cycle qualifies the pupil to enter the intermediate school. New initiatives are now being taken in Italian education. A committee has been formed within the Ministry of Public Education to assess the proposals submitted by various schools, by local organisations, and by bodies in charge of the direction of educational institutions. The experimentation of a full-time school has been started, with complementary activities designed for after-school classes as well as special classes to be taught in additional hours and by permanent teachers. Also the study of the.European Community languages has been introduced experimentally. The school year begins on October 1st and ends on June 30th. Where full-time school programmes have not been implemented, the pupils attend the school six dayslk week from 8.30 a.m. to 12.45 p.m. Until a few years ago, the dopo-scuola (a program which provides supplementary lessons and entertainment in after-class hours) was almost generally considered the means by which the poor students could do their homework under the supervision of qualified persons. The students from families economically better-off or from middle-class families used to do their homework at home under the supervision of a member of the family,- or of a private tutor. Nowadays, the dopo-scuola is not only a place to do one’s homework, it has a real complementary function in regard to the morning school activities. Not all communities, villages or towns, can provide a dopo-scuola on a full-time program. In some areas, where there is a shortage of school buildings, schools still operate in shifts. . . 11. One thing to remember about primary schooling in Italy is that usually one sole teacher follows the children from grade 1 to grade 5. Teachers get to know the children and their families very well mainly through informal, but frequent, contacts. Attendance at nursery and primary schools has been completely free for many years now. In the primary school, the textbooks supplied are also free. A network of initiatives, which includes free transport for the pupils, the provision of meals and the awarding of subsidies is sponsored by the Students’ Benevolent Fund, which is a public body established in every commune. Its task is to assist in ensuring the universality of education in any way that may be necessary. Within the structure of primary teaching there are differential classes for children who, despite slight mental deficiencies or character anomalies can be expected to return to normal schools, or else to special schools. There are open-air schools for delicate children or children prone to respiratory ailments. Schools are provided for children suffering from serious anomalies of character and intelligence. Schools for physically-handicapped children and schools for blind and deaf-mute children are also available.

The Middle-School & Law No. 1859 of 31st December, 1962, brought in a radical reform of the system of compulsory education for children aged eleven to fourteen by standardizing all the existing secondary schools and instituting the single middle school. This reform has had profound repercussions, both educationally and socially as it pro­ motes full development of the new generation’s intellectual and mental energies by averting premature ’’streaming”. Before the introduction of the law instituting the single middle school, lower secondary education was provided in various types of schools; the old middle school, the vocational training school, the arts school, and of late, the experimental single middle school. The middle school is mainly a training institution for adulthood and citizenship. The training includes instruction in Italian and one other modern language, and from the second year onwards, optional instruction in Latin; study of mankind through history, geography and civics; mathematics and science. The new middle school also provides some guidance for the subsequent choice of school and occupation. One notable difference from the older school is the greater importance allotted to scientific subjects. Finally, the new middle school is intended for everyone. It was in application of this principle that classes were set up for backward children, coaching classes which represent a notable innovation in the system. These coaching classes are intended for children who have difficulty in following the first-year course or have failed the school certificate. The classes for backward children are reserved for maladjusted pupils who are emotionally disturbed or have slight mental or sensorial deficiencies, which are curable. Pupils are allocated to these classes on the joint decision of two doctors, at least one of whom must be a neuro-psychiatrist or psychologist, and the other a specialist in . However, sub-normal children are not accepted and special schools and classes are run for them. After three years study in the middle school, the pupils have to pass a State examination to obtain a certificate qualifying them for admission to all types of upper secondary education. To enter the traditional lycee, they must, in addition, pass a Latin examination. (Latin is an optional subject in the middle school). Upper secondary education is chiefly designed to train the student to meet the demands of development and progress in the community. This does not mean that this second stage in the Italian educational system mainly concentrates on the vocational aspect. At this level the schools are bound to take into account his future occupation and the type of job he will fill. 12.

Three forms of education thus exist at this level, which correspond to long, medium and short vocational preparation:., general schools, technical schools and vocational schools. A. General Schools Under the present system, traditional education is given in three types of schools; the classical lycee, the scientific lycee, and the institute magistrale. 1. The classical lycee is the type of school most deeply rooted in Italian tradition. Its chief aim is to train students for the through general education with special emphasis on the humanities in the narrow sense. Its duration is five years, of which 2 years are in the lower school (gymnasium) and 3 in actual classical secondary school 2. The Scientific Lycee The scientific lycee originally provided a four-year course. This was only lengthened to five years in 1945, as in the classical lycee, through the introduction of an additional class known as the "transition class". The scientific lycee provides general education at the same level as the classical lycee, but with more emphasis on scientific subjects. 3. The Institute Magistrale (teacher training college) Although included in the general sector, the institute magistrale, which was also set up in 1923, is not yet classified as a lycee because it succeeds the old "scuola magistrale". It has a dual aim; to-provide general education and to train primary school teachers. The studies are supple­ mented by practical teaching experience in primary schools, under the supervision of a teacher of pedagogics and qualified primary school teachers. Pupils holding the middle school leaving certificate are eligible for the Institute.

B. Technical Education Technical education trains manpower for certain medium-level technical or administrative jobs (upper middle management). As a result of the radical reform introduced under Law No. 685 of 21st July, 1961, pupils holding a diploma from a technical institute are now admitted to certain university faculties, mentioned below. There are seven basic types of technical institutes, divided in turn into different specialised branches, to cover the vast range of specialised jobs needed for the various fields of public and private employment. 1. The technical agricultural institute trains pupils for technical agricultural functions, by equipping them to run farms or carry out specific activities. : The agricultural expert's diploma also qualifies holders for the faculties of certified accountant and expert in commercial law, as well, as for administration-commerce. 2. The technical commercial institute trains candidates for the profession of certified accountant and as experts in commercial law, as well as for administrative, accounting and supervisor^ functions in the public service and private organisations, and in industrial and commercial firms. 3. Other technical colleges 4. The technical nautical institute 5. The technical industrial institute 6. The women’s technical institute trains girls in domestic science and women s occupations” 13 .

7. The technical tourism institute

All the courses last five years. The technical institutes enjoy self- management and self-determination for some of their course contents and orientation. To ensure the updating and best insertion within the social-economic structures of the institutes’ activities, an essential role is entrusted to the hoards of directors, organisations which enable both production classes and local deputies to participate in the formation of the technical sector. Several technical institutes of different specialisation give evening courses for student workers.

Special Schools of Technology These schools provide a two-year course, that may be attended by non-graduate engineers. They prepare experts in economics and technical organisation of production. At the end of the course, a diploma of technology is granted. Post-graduation courses: in some industrial and commercial technical institutes yearly courses are being held, aimed at developing and improving the knowledge of one of the subjects included in the usual curriculum of the institute from which the students come. At the end of the course a certificate of attendance is granted.

Vocational Training Vocational training is provided in the instituti professional!, first introduced on an experimental basis in 1950 and which has gradually spread all over the country. These institutes may be of different types according to the economic activities for which the pupils are to be trained. These include agriculture, industry, craft trades, maritime transport, women’s occupations, the hotel trade and commerce. The duration of the courses varies from two to four years in relation to the training requirements. The vocational schools aim at forming simultaneously the man, the citizen and the skilled worker. They include an average of 50% of theoretical teaching and 50% of practical work in laboratories and work­ shops. The organisational structure of State vocational institutes is characterised by their administrative autonomy, hased on State financing and on the powers that any institute has in disposing of the necessary guarantees in view of the achievement of their institutional ends.

Education in the Arts 1. The Arts Institutes (instituti d ’arte), provide further artistic training for pupils, and specialised training in applied arts, while developing the students' personality and technical and professional experience. The institutes are subdivided into "sections", on the same lines as the former arts schools they absorbed, but the education provided is fuller and more advanced. The Arts Institutes prepare the students to practice artistic handicrafts, through the study of cultural, technical and professional disciplines combined with an intensive apprenticeship in laboratories and workshops. They also sharpen the artistic aptitudes of the students for the creation of original products in the applied art field. The course lasts six years. Every Art Institute may have one or more sections (wood-carving, metal work, fabric design, embroidery, goldsmithing, artistic photography, painting, decorative arts, interior decoration, etc.). 14.

2. The arts lycees prepare students to specialise in painting, sculpture, decorative arts, stage design and architecture, coupling the arts education with a thorough general education. 3. The fine arts academies. Students are trained for various artistic professions in an artist's studio, where they work under his direction. 4. The academies of music prepare pupils to obtain a diploma for the instrument of their choice. 5. Academies of dramatic art and dancing. Actors and stage managers are trained in the 'Silvio d ’Ajnico’ National Academy of Dramatic Art in Rome.

Television Education In addition to the forms of education already described, mention should be made of the courses organised by the Ministry of Education in collaboration with the Italian Television Service. Three types of courses have been organised so far: - courses for illiterates, run for the last seven years, have recently been replaced by courses for the semi-literate, - complete courses of education at middle school level, for areas where no such school exists, and supplementary courses for all middle school pupils (run for the last nine years).

Organisation of Secondary Schools Each secondary school is in the care of a headmaster or headmistress who supervises the teaching methods and administration. He is aided by an assistant of his own choice, and an advisory board elected by the whole teaching staff. The latter is responsible for decisions relating to teaching methods and discipline. The teaching is co-ordinated by the Class Councils, which include all teachers dealing with the class concerned. Each class contains an average of 25 pupils in the lower secondary schools and 35 in the upper secondary institutes. The general average, is however, much lower. Owing to the autonomy enjoyed by the technical, vocational and arts institutes, their respective Boards are responsible for administration and accounts, economic and financial management. Teacher's Training Place of Training Length of Other Information Study

Institute Magistrale 3 To have access to the "Scuola Magistrale", (Primary teacher training students must hold the 1st cycle leaving college for teachers of pre­ certificate or sit for an entrance primary level). examination. The course includes theoretical and practical training. Students obtain the proficiency cert= ificate in pre-primary teaching. 1 5 .

Place of TraInins Length of Other Information Study

Primary teacher training 4 Entrants required to hold the 1st cycle colleges leaving certificate. The "Institute Magistrale" provides general training and at the same time trains primary teachers. and philosophy are the main subjects. The courses are supplemented by periods of teacher training in the primary schools, under the guidance of a teacher of pedagogy and a staff qualified in primary teaching. After 4 years of study, the students obtain the "Diploma Di Maturita Magistrale" (primary teachers’ f 'N proficiency certificate) after an .< examination. The certificate entitles students to compete for posts as primary school teachers. The certificate also secures access to the Department of Education and after a further year’s study (anno integrativo) to any faculty. Teacher training college 4 and Teachers training for special schools more and special classes undergo the same training as primary (or secondary) teachers but also complete special courses organised by corporate bodies, state run institutions or higher education establishments.

University or university 4-6 In secondary schools there are teachers faculty and university with a university training and those institutes of "magisteri" with a 2nd cycle secondary training, according to each subject. The majority!^ of teachers have a university training. In order to teach in the secondary cycle, candidates were required to have passed the State proficiency examination (abilitazione). Now 1st year pro­ ficiency courses in all disciplines have been introduced by a recent provisional law and are organised by the Ministry of Education, to replace the "abilitazione". The course leads to an oral and written examination on which depends the distribution of the teaching posts. University Education The State Universities and the Higher Institutes are both governmental and j autonomous. The university comprises of various faculties, whereas the Higher Institute is made up either of one faculty or more correlated faculties, all dealing with the same sector of studies. A separate position is reserved fir the Poly-technics, whose curricula is mainly technical. They include the faculties of engineering and architecture, and have their seats in Torino and Milano. 16,

Both universities and institutes have a legal status and enjoy administrative, didactic and disciplinary autonomy, though under State control through the Ministry of Public Education. A degree-course, the duration of which varies from four to six years, ends with the achievement of the academic qualification: "Degree Certificate". is taught either in the form of lessons or by the various practices of scientific or vocational nature. In its present structure, the university . system provides only one academic qualification: the degree or diploma. Degree or diplomas have an exclusively "academic qualification" value and do not enable their holders to practice a profession straight away. The qualification to a professional practice requires the passing of a State examination which will allow registration in professional roles. Along with normal degree-courses, universities can also run courses with more specific .aims. Such courses do not carry the achievement of an academic qual­ ification. Their purpose is that of aiding the students to get a deeper knowledge in specific branches. The Italian education system is being and will continue to be affected by a series of structural changes designed to enable it to adjust more effectively to the new requirements of society. The developments that occurred after the 1950’s disrupted the educational structures which catered for an essentially agricultural community rather than a society increasingly engaged in industrial and tertiary activities. The recent energy crisis is now disrupting the fairly new reforms. The students themselves are now asking for a total and radical reform of the school which will probably take place in the very near future.

Italian Parents' Attitudes to Australian Education Italian parents are used to a system based on examinations at the end of each school cycle with report cards that inform parents on the academic achievement of the students on a numerical grading. They are also used to seeing their children doing homework every day. If a child does inadequately in three or four subjects or fails in two major ones, e.g. and mathematics, he is expected to repeat the grade or class. The parents assume that the children are doing well if they are automatically promoted each year. The relationship with the teachers is constant but informal, particularly at primary school level. Even now, in spite of the various changes in educational philosophy, Italian working-class parents are reluctant to take an active part in school activities in Italy. They are very much the product of a stratified society and see their function as that of providing for the children, for their material welfare, while the teachers prepare them for employment. To the working-class parents the. school is not the place for the development of education for living, for social interaction and personality development but is an institution for academic preparation and above all for the preparation for employment. The parents want the school program to be related to this ideal and will participate if there is congruency between the approach of the school in terms of discipline and curriculum with their expectations. Otherwise they will not respect it. The open classroom, an egalitarian concept based on the philosophy that everyone should work at his or her own level can, in reality, be very inegalitarian unless there is adequate staff with each teacher prepared to face his/her responsibilities and explain teaching philosophy and practice to the parents. Italian students who have done some of their schooling iii Italy are likely to feel at a loss in an open situation. They are used to being.directed and might misinterpret the use of freedom. Most working-class parents do not encourage hobbies or interests because they are regarded as subsidiaries to becoming a professional person. Even reading books not directly relevant to one's chosen topics could be regarded as a waste of time. 17.

At school, on the other hand, some teachers ask the students to do assignments without giving sufficient guidelines. The students whose first language is not English tend to copy, lift entire pages or paragraphs from books and learn f relatively little from the exercise, until they have learned the necessary skills. Unfortunately, the structure of many schools, even in areas of high migrant density, has not yet taken into account the need of the majority. Staff selection and curriculum changes have always tended to support the native English speaker. In many Italian families, particularly those who migrated to Australia in the early sixties or before that time, the parents are likely to speak to the children in Italian or in one of the dialects and the children will reply in English or a composite of the two languages. The children generally speak to each other in English. The parents feel somewhat helpless, threatened and alienated in the situation. They fear the girls might be talking about dating with boys. They don’t understand the humour and the satire of certain gestures and expressions, typical of the Anglo-Saxon culture. They feel that the school contributes to the disillusionment of the family, the central institution in Italian society. If the school wants parent involvement in activities such as parents' nights or contribution to the curriculum, it must consider the advisability of having at least one Italian teacher on the staff. This teacher will then be able to explain clearly the curriculum to the parents, indicating the development of both social and employment skills. The reason for migrating was not that of moving to a country with a better social climate or better atmosphere. Theirnain concern is that of upgrading their economic sufficiency while, at the same time, retaining the extended kinship family. They want the best of the two worlds and will support the school insofar as it meets those needs. The presence of Italian teachers in the school and the inclusion of the Italian language in the curriculum will nbt only help to cushion the transition period and overcome the trauma of students who become demoralised when they cannot function at their usual level but, in the initial stages, will also help the family to find someone with whom they can identify. In the past Italian pupils or students were openly or tacitly encouraged by the school, by society and by the peer group, to forgo their ethnicity, to forget their language. The move to the recognition of the existence and value of a multicultural society and the encouragement given to community languages and cultures brought confusion to the minds of those students who had been taught to be and had chosen to be "Aussies*'.

List of places where up-to-date information on Italy, Italians in Australia and migrant issues, can be obtained. Ecumenical Migration Centre, Clearing House 133 Church Street, Richmond. Telephone 42 4S48 The Clearing House on Migration Issues (C.H.O.M.I.) is the documentation unit of the Ecumenical Migration Centre, a non-profit welfare and community education agency established in the early 1960’s. It provides Australia-wide unique information-documentation resources on: - the cultural background of the main ethnic groups, - the immigration experience in Australia and around the .world, - current issues in inter-ethnic relations (welfare, education and , employment conditions, political and religious participation, legal aspects, intergenerational differentials, etc.), - discrimination, prejudice and race relations, - ethnic and community organisations and services, - government and community programs and policies. 18.

CO-AS-IT (Italian Assistance Association) 304 Drummond Street, Carlton. Tel. 347 3555 ... - provides free counselling service by qualified social workers. - organises Italian classes for children of Italian families. - has been involved in projects which are designed to benefit all Italian migrants, e.g. - a survey on Italian housewives. - two child care centres will soon be operating in Brunswick and in Lalor- Thomastown, under the auspices of CO-AS-IT and the Federal Government. - it has been involved in the project of building a home for elderly Italians. - the halfway house project has provided accommodation for homeless women and their children. CO-AS-IT also has a Library Research Centre, a Welfare Rights programme, an Employment Resource Officer, and a Youth Worker.

F.I.L.E.F. (Italian Federation of Emigrants and their Families), 2 Myrtle Street, Coburg. Tel. 36 6883 - It was formed about 5 years ago by a few Italian workers who had been in touch with F.I.L.E.F. In Rome. Now it has branches in Sydney, Adelaide and all over . - The main aims of F.I.L.E.F. are the following: - To encourage schools and parents to take part in committees and school councils. - To encourage Italians and other migrants to acknowledge and take pride in their own cultures. - To encourage workers to participate in community life. - To inform Italian workers of their rights. Last year some 1,000 people were helped by F.I.L.E.F. in close co-operation with I.N.C.A., an organisation which assists migrants with pensions. F.I.L.E.F. has two full-time paid staff, two part-time paid staff and several voluntary workers.

Brunswick munity Health Services 61 Blyth (t.s Brunswick Tel. 387 4253 - provides _.ee health service. - collects information about needs by telling people what services exist. - is open every week day and on Saturday from 10.00 a.m. to 12.00 noon. - Ms. Vicky Bertella is the Italian Ethnic Health Worker. RESOURCE PEOPLE Mr. Re, Italian Consultate Tel. 26 1566 or 26 1763. Mr. Luciano Bini, C.I.C. (Committee of Co-ordination of Italians) Vice-President - organiser of the Italian Week. Tel. 62 5551 Mr. Lidio Bertelli, Sociologist with the E.M.C. (Ecumenical Migration Centre) Tel. 42 4948 Dr. Peter Wilkinson G.N.C, (Good Neighbour Council) Tel. 328 2421 The Director of the Istituto Italiano de Cultura Tel. 26 5931 or 26 4386 Mr. J. Italiano, Employment Resources Officer with CO-AS-IT, Tel. 347 3555 Mr. T. Padula, Italian Consultant and Secretary of V.A.T.I. (Victorian Association of Teachers of Italian) Tel. 347 2688

HOLDING LIBRARIES Oakleigh Sandringham Traralgon City Altona Northcote Ararat Regional Nunawading Dandenong Caulfield/Malvern Port Melbourne Coburg St. Kilda Valley Reg. Regional City Frankston South Melb. Geelong Reg. Keilor City Wangaratta REg, Hawthorn City West Heidelberg " Mildura Melbourne City Carnegie Camberwell/Waverley Mildura Shire Wimmera Reg. Moonee Valley 1 9 . List of Traditional Italian Public and Religious Holidays 1st January New YearTs Day 6th January Epiphany 11th February Stipulation of the Treaty & Agreement with the Holy See 19th March St. Joseph Easter... Easter Monday 25th April Liberation Day (From Fascism) 1st May • Labour Day 19th May Ascension Day (variable date) 2nd June Proclamation of the Republic 9th June Corpus Christi (variable date) 29th June St. Peter and St. Paul 15th August Assumption Day 28th September Popular Insurrection at Naples (W.W.II) 4th October St. Francis of & St. Catherine of Siera Patron Saints of Italy) 1st November All Saints 4th November Victory Day (W.W.I) 8th December Immaculate Conception 25th " Christmas 26th December St.Stephen

Every town and village haa a patron saint and there is a day of celebration, often on Sunday. Some of the public holidays are now being annulled in an attempt to fight the economic crisis in Italy. Holidays Annulled - from the beginning of January, 1977: 6th January 11th February 19th March 28th September Ascension Day in May 4th October Corpus Christi in June 2nd June (to be celebrated oh 1st Sunday in June) 29th June 4th November (to be celebrated on 1st Sunday of November)