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Received: 29 April 2012 / Accepted: 16 August 2012 © 2013 Sociedad Española de Neurología Neurosciences and History 2013; 1 (1): 28-38 Original Psychoactive plants in ancient Greece F.J. Carod-Artal Visiting Professor of Neurology. College of Medicine and Health Sciences. International University of Catalonia (UIC), Barcelona, Spain. ABSTRACT Introduction. Various literary and archaeological references point to extended use of different psychoactive plants along the eastern Mediterranean region. This article reviews key evidence of the use of psychotropic plants in ancient Greece. Research. The opium poppy Papaver( somniferum) has been used since the Bronze Age or earlier. Opium was used to induce somnolence in the incubation rituals practised in the temples of Asclepius (Asklepios). Nepenthe, described by Homer in the Odyssey, was probably an opium-based preparation; opium had been introduced to the Greeks by way of Egypt. On Crete, a Minoan shrine (1300 BCE) dedicated to the “poppy goddess” of fertility and health was discovered in the village of Gazi. Numerous golden seals from Mycenae and Boeotia show images of states of ecstasy associated with poppy consumption. Ritual inhaling of cannabis smoke arose on the steppes of Asia. Herodotus (5th century BCE) described rituals of inhaling cannabis smoke among Scythians and Mas- sageteans. Initiates in the Eleusinian Mysteries (1500 BCE–4th century CE), took kykeon, a psychoactive secret potion. It is thought that kykeon contained hallucinogenic substances that induced visions and the state of ecstasy associated with the Mysteries. Rye ergot, which contains lysergic acid amides, may have been one of the ingredi- ents of the drink. Conclusions. In the Archaic period in Greece, poppies, cannabis, and other plants such as henbane or datura were used for ritual and medicinal purposes. KEYWORDS Asclepius, Cannabis sativa, Claviceps purpurea, history, Greek medicine, opium, Papaver somniferum. Introduction Various literary and archaeological references point to Hallucinogens are substances that provoke false sen- extended use of different psychoactive plants through- sations or distort perception of the environment (cre- out the Eastern Mediterranean region. The purpose of ating illusions) without causing loss of consciousness this article is to review key evidence of psychoactive when taken in normal, non-toxic doses.1 They are plant use in ancient Greece and the cultural origins also known as entheogens (substances that stimu- of such use.4 late mysticism or divine communication). This word comes from the Greek roots en (full of), theo (god), Analysis and gen (create). Numerous cultures have used these substances throughout history, and at present, many 1. Ancient Greek medicine different ethnic groups still take part in rituals associ- ated with the use of entheogenic plants. For example, Aclepius, god of medicine mescaline and psilocybin-rich mushrooms are used by a number of Mesoamerican cultures. Amanita In Greek mythology, Asclepius was revered as the god muscaria and Ephedra sp. were once used in Indo-Eu- of medicine. The son of Apollo and the mortal wom- ropean religious rites. They were probably included an Coronis, Asclepius possessed the gift of healing. among the ingredients of soma, the sacred drink in According to Pindar (6th century BCE), Apollo made the Rigveda, and Haoma, used in the ancient Zoroas- love to Coronis, daughter of the king of Thessaly. trian religion.2,3 When he departed for Delphi, he left her guarded by a Corresponding author: Dr Francisco Javier Carod-Artal. Telephone (+34) 618684738; fax (+34) 969230407 Calle José Pellicer 46,7C, CP 50007, Zaragoza, Spain. E-mail: [email protected] 28 Neursci Hist. 2013; 1 (1): 28-38 white crow. Some time later, the crow informed Apol- lo that Coronis had taken a new lover, the mortal man Ischys, to whom she was now betrothed. Apollo then cursed the crow, which has had black feathers ever since (Figure 1), and murdered Coronis. Before burning her body on a funeral pyre, Apollo snatched his son Asclepi- us from her womb. Figure 1. The god Apollo offering libation, shown with a black crow. Museum of Delphi. FiguraFigure 2. 2.Asclepius, Asclepio, Greek diosgod of demedicine. la medicina National Archaeological griega. MuseoMuseum ofArqueológico Athens. Nacional, Atenas. Asclepius was raised and educated by the centaur Chi- ron, who taught him the art of medicine, the use of me- The Asclepeia dicinal plants, and pharmaka.5 But Zeus, envious of his healing powers and ability to resuscitate the dead, ended The figure of Asclepius was venerated in ancient Greek his life. After death, Asclepius rose to the heavens and medicine, and his successors practiced his art in a net- became the constellation known as Ophiuchus, the ser- work of sanctuaries and healing temples named ascle- pent bearer; his symbol is a serpent entwined around a peia (singular, asclepeion or asklepieion). Temples were staff (Figure 2). often located near a spring or river whose waters were said to have medicinal powers. The shrine of Asclepius His sons Machaon and Podalirius continued practising in Epidaurus was probably the most important during the medical arts their father had taught them. They were this period; other major shrines were located at Kos, considered lesser gods, and Machaon is associated with Knidos, and Pergamum. surgery. A passage in the Iliad narrates how Menelaus sustained an arrow wound and was cured by Machaon.6 Within these healing temples, the sick made a series of offerings and sacrifices to Asclepius and underwent rit- The daughters of Asclepius included Hygieia (the per- uals including one-day fasts, three days of abstinence sonification of health), Panacea (associated with univer- from wine, baths, and massages. The different build- sal cures), and Iaso (the goddess of recuperation). ings in the healing temple contained areas for physical exercise and special rooms for the sick. After finishing Apollo was also considered an oracular god, and a major their purification rites, the sick were led to the abaton or temple was dedicated to him in his sanctuary at Delphi, incubation chamber where they would participate in a where the Pythia or oracle revealed her visions or pre- practice called ‘dream incubation’. Asclepius would ap- dictions of the future. Apollo had the power to summon pear to a fortunate few in their dreams and cure them illnesses in the form of plagues (the so-called arrows of by touching the ailing part of their body (Figure 3). On Apollo), and also to cure them. other occasions, Asclepius appeared in the dreams of the 29 Neursci Hist. 2013; 1 (1): 28-38 sick and informed them of what was causing their dis- The practice worked by the principle of analogy; it was tress or provided a list of remedies that they should take believed that like followed like. Animals could therefore upon waking. Numerous offerings and votive deposits be used as vessels for illnesses, and their entrails were were left in the temples in thanks for cures provided by used after they were sacrificed. Logotherapy, healing the god. The ex-votos that have been found inform us with words, supplication, invoking the gods, commina- that Asclepius cured many diseases, treated ulcers and tion, epode and exorcism were yet other methods used kidney stones, and restored sight to the blind indicate by the priests at the Asclepeia, who served as interme- that sleep may have been induced by narcotics whose diaries between patients and the gods. Niktiday –cere- effects did not include the stupor provoked by the sola- monies with music and dancing– and nocturnal dances naceae family or the visionary trances caused by canna- to purge the body of illness were used in this ritual con- bis. With this in mind, opium is believed to be the main text. An example of the magical approach to healing in narcotic agent used in dream incubation. ancient Greek medicine is the story of how Melampus healed the daughters of king Proetus by splashing pig’s blood on their foreheads; the girls had been driven mad after refusing to participate in the rites of Dionysus. From Homeric medicine to the Pre-Socratic era While use of healing temples was on the rise, botanical remedies for treating wounds were also being developed. Homer’s Iliad contains a remarkably large anatomical vo- cabulary with more than 150 words, including kranion, osea, sphondyloi, pleurai, brakhion, yugulum, eakhis, and splankna. It also describes nearly as many wounds with high mortality rates and in various locations, including the head, thorax, abdomen, limbs; most were caused by Figure 3. Scene of a dream incubation in which Asclepius appears. lances, while others were caused by swords and arrows. Epidaurus. In the Iliad, Homer relates how Achilles treats and ban- dages the wounded arm of his friend Patroclus, which Theurgic medicine indicates a certain familiarity with techniques for treat- ing war wounds. Ancient medicine was based on mythological beliefs and the idea that human beings were inferior to a divine Later on, in the 6th century BCE, secular schools of power. Sickness was interpreted as punishment by the medicine began to be founded which distanced them- gods, and such punishment could either be collective selves from the temples of Asclepius and their magical (plagues, arrows of Apollo) or individual (leprosy, blind- and spiritual approach. This was the birth of pre-Socratic ness, insanity). Some sick people might be possessed by and pre-Hippocratic medicine, which was further devel- a malignant spirit or daimon, or as in cases of epilepsy, oped at the schools of Knido and Cos. suffer from the effects of a curse. These schools began using a scientific approach to -an Theurgic medicine in ancient Greece was magical in alysing symptoms, formulating the diagnosis, deter- nature and concerned with both prognosis and preven- mining the prognosis, and prescribing treatment.
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