DOCSLIB.ORG

Psychoactive Plants in Ancient Greece Original

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Psychoactive Plants in Ancient Greece Original Received: 29 April 2012 / Accepted: 16 August 2012 © 2013 Sociedad Española de Neurología Neurosciences and History 2013; 1 (1): 28-38 Original Psychoactive plants in ancient Greece F.J. Carod-Artal Visiting Professor of Neurology. College of Medicine and Health Sciences. International University of Catalonia (UIC), Barcelona, Spain. ABSTRACT Introduction. Various literary and archaeological references point to extended use of different psychoactive plants along the eastern Mediterranean region. This article reviews key evidence of the use of psychotropic plants in ancient Greece. Research. The opium poppy Papaver( somniferum) has been used since the Bronze Age or earlier. Opium was used to induce somnolence in the incubation rituals practised in the temples of Asclepius (Asklepios). Nepenthe, described by Homer in the Odyssey, was probably an opium-based preparation; opium had been introduced to the Greeks by way of Egypt. On Crete, a Minoan shrine (1300 BCE) dedicated to the “poppy goddess” of fertility and health was discovered in the village of Gazi. Numerous golden seals from Mycenae and Boeotia show images of states of ecstasy associated with poppy consumption. Ritual inhaling of cannabis smoke arose on the steppes of Asia. Herodotus (5th century BCE) described rituals of inhaling cannabis smoke among Scythians and Mas- sageteans. Initiates in the Eleusinian Mysteries (1500 BCE–4th century CE), took kykeon, a psychoactive secret potion. It is thought that kykeon contained hallucinogenic substances that induced visions and the state of ecstasy associated with the Mysteries. Rye ergot, which contains lysergic acid amides, may have been one of the ingredi- ents of the drink. Conclusions. In the Archaic period in Greece, poppies, cannabis, and other plants such as henbane or datura were used for ritual and medicinal purposes. KEYWORDS Asclepius, Cannabis sativa, Claviceps purpurea, history, Greek medicine, opium, Papaver somniferum. Introduction Various literary and archaeological references point to Hallucinogens are substances that provoke false sen- extended use of different psychoactive plants through- sations or distort perception of the environment (cre- out the Eastern Mediterranean region. The purpose of ating illusions) without causing loss of consciousness this article is to review key evidence of psychoactive when taken in normal, non-toxic doses.1 They are plant use in ancient Greece and the cultural origins also known as entheogens (substances that stimu- of such use.4 late mysticism or divine communication). This word comes from the Greek roots en (full of), theo (god), Analysis and gen (create). Numerous cultures have used these substances throughout history, and at present, many 1. Ancient Greek medicine different ethnic groups still take part in rituals associ- ated with the use of entheogenic plants. For example, Aclepius, god of medicine mescaline and psilocybin-rich mushrooms are used by a number of Mesoamerican cultures. Amanita In Greek mythology, Asclepius was revered as the god muscaria and Ephedra sp. were once used in Indo-Eu- of medicine. The son of Apollo and the mortal wom- ropean religious rites. They were probably included an Coronis, Asclepius possessed the gift of healing. among the ingredients of soma, the sacred drink in According to Pindar (6th century BCE), Apollo made the Rigveda, and Haoma, used in the ancient Zoroas- love to Coronis, daughter of the king of Thessaly. trian religion.2,3 When he departed for Delphi, he left her guarded by a Corresponding author: Dr Francisco Javier Carod-Artal. Telephone (+34) 618684738; fax (+34) 969230407 Calle José Pellicer 46,7C, CP 50007, Zaragoza, Spain. E-mail: [email protected] 28 Neursci Hist. 2013; 1 (1): 28-38 white crow. Some time later, the crow informed Apol- lo that Coronis had taken a new lover, the mortal man Ischys, to whom she was now betrothed. Apollo then cursed the crow, which has had black feathers ever since (Figure 1), and murdered Coronis. Before burning her body on a funeral pyre, Apollo snatched his son Asclepi- us from her womb. Figure 1. The god Apollo offering libation, shown with a black crow. Museum of Delphi. FiguraFigure 2. 2.Asclepius, Asclepio, Greek diosgod of demedicine. la medicina National Archaeological griega. MuseoMuseum ofArqueológico Athens. Nacional, Atenas. Asclepius was raised and educated by the centaur Chi- ron, who taught him the art of medicine, the use of me- The Asclepeia dicinal plants, and pharmaka.5 But Zeus, envious of his healing powers and ability to resuscitate the dead, ended The figure of Asclepius was venerated in ancient Greek his life. After death, Asclepius rose to the heavens and medicine, and his successors practiced his art in a net- became the constellation known as Ophiuchus, the ser- work of sanctuaries and healing temples named ascle- pent bearer; his symbol is a serpent entwined around a peia (singular, asclepeion or asklepieion). Temples were staff (Figure 2). often located near a spring or river whose waters were said to have medicinal powers. The shrine of Asclepius His sons Machaon and Podalirius continued practising in Epidaurus was probably the most important during the medical arts their father had taught them. They were this period; other major shrines were located at Kos, considered lesser gods, and Machaon is associated with Knidos, and Pergamum. surgery. A passage in the Iliad narrates how Menelaus sustained an arrow wound and was cured by Machaon.6 Within these healing temples, the sick made a series of offerings and sacrifices to Asclepius and underwent rit- The daughters of Asclepius included Hygieia (the per- uals including one-day fasts, three days of abstinence sonification of health), Panacea (associated with univer- from wine, baths, and massages. The different build- sal cures), and Iaso (the goddess of recuperation). ings in the healing temple contained areas for physical exercise and special rooms for the sick. After finishing Apollo was also considered an oracular god, and a major their purification rites, the sick were led to the abaton or temple was dedicated to him in his sanctuary at Delphi, incubation chamber where they would participate in a where the Pythia or oracle revealed her visions or pre- practice called ‘dream incubation’. Asclepius would ap- dictions of the future. Apollo had the power to summon pear to a fortunate few in their dreams and cure them illnesses in the form of plagues (the so-called arrows of by touching the ailing part of their body (Figure 3). On Apollo), and also to cure them. other occasions, Asclepius appeared in the dreams of the 29 Neursci Hist. 2013; 1 (1): 28-38 sick and informed them of what was causing their dis- The practice worked by the principle of analogy; it was tress or provided a list of remedies that they should take believed that like followed like. Animals could therefore upon waking. Numerous offerings and votive deposits be used as vessels for illnesses, and their entrails were were left in the temples in thanks for cures provided by used after they were sacrificed. Logotherapy, healing the god. The ex-votos that have been found inform us with words, supplication, invoking the gods, commina- that Asclepius cured many diseases, treated ulcers and tion, epode and exorcism were yet other methods used kidney stones, and restored sight to the blind indicate by the priests at the Asclepeia, who served as interme- that sleep may have been induced by narcotics whose diaries between patients and the gods. Niktiday –cere- effects did not include the stupor provoked by the sola- monies with music and dancing– and nocturnal dances naceae family or the visionary trances caused by canna- to purge the body of illness were used in this ritual con- bis. With this in mind, opium is believed to be the main text. An example of the magical approach to healing in narcotic agent used in dream incubation. ancient Greek medicine is the story of how Melampus healed the daughters of king Proetus by splashing pig’s blood on their foreheads; the girls had been driven mad after refusing to participate in the rites of Dionysus. From Homeric medicine to the Pre-Socratic era While use of healing temples was on the rise, botanical remedies for treating wounds were also being developed. Homer’s Iliad contains a remarkably large anatomical vo- cabulary with more than 150 words, including kranion, osea, sphondyloi, pleurai, brakhion, yugulum, eakhis, and splankna. It also describes nearly as many wounds with high mortality rates and in various locations, including the head, thorax, abdomen, limbs; most were caused by Figure 3. Scene of a dream incubation in which Asclepius appears. lances, while others were caused by swords and arrows. Epidaurus. In the Iliad, Homer relates how Achilles treats and ban- dages the wounded arm of his friend Patroclus, which Theurgic medicine indicates a certain familiarity with techniques for treat- ing war wounds. Ancient medicine was based on mythological beliefs and the idea that human beings were inferior to a divine Later on, in the 6th century BCE, secular schools of power. Sickness was interpreted as punishment by the medicine began to be founded which distanced them- gods, and such punishment could either be collective selves from the temples of Asclepius and their magical (plagues, arrows of Apollo) or individual (leprosy, blind- and spiritual approach. This was the birth of pre-Socratic ness, insanity). Some sick people might be possessed by and pre-Hippocratic medicine, which was further devel- a malignant spirit or daimon, or as in cases of epilepsy, oped at the schools of Knido and Cos. suffer from the effects of a curse. These schools began using a scientific approach to -an Theurgic medicine in ancient Greece was magical in alysing symptoms, formulating the diagnosis, deter- nature and concerned with both prognosis and preven- mining the prognosis, and prescribing treatment.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Experiences of Disengagement from Mental Health Services: an Interpretative Study
    EXPERIENCES OF DISENGAGEMENT FROM MENTAL HEALTH SERVICES: AN INTERPRETATIVE STUDY by CHRISTOPHER WAGSTAFF A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Nursing, Health & Population Sciences College of Medical & Dental Sciences University of Birmingham 2015 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT Whilst there is evidence of a range of effective treatments available for people with severe mental health problems (SMHP), people frequently disengage from mental health services (MHS). This thesis investigates experiences of disengagement of people with SMHP and comprises two studies: 1) semi-structured interviews to elicit the experiences of people with SMHP and a history of disengagement from MHS; and 2) building on those findings, focus groups with staff from assertive outreach teams (specialising in providing care for people with SMHP and a history of disengagement). The participants were those perceived as the most disengaged from MHS yet they were willing to engage with the research. Interpretative phenomenological analysis was used to develop themes for individual participants and then across the participants. Disengagement from MHS was part of a wider experience of a limited connection to social structures, including an ambivalent and complex relationship with MHS.
    [Show full text]
  • Hallucinogens - LSD, Peyote, Psilocybin, and PCP
    Hallucinogens - LSD, Peyote, Psilocybin, and PCP Hallucinogenic compounds found in some • Psilocybin (4-phosphoryloxy-N,N- plants and mushrooms (or their extracts) dimethyltryptamine) is obtained from have been used—mostly during religious certain types of mushrooms that are rituals—for centuries. Almost all indigenous to tropical and subtropical hallucinogens contain nitrogen and are regions of South America, Mexico, and classified as alkaloids. Many hallucinogens the United States. These mushrooms have chemical structures similar to those of typically contain less than 0.5 percent natural neurotransmitters (e.g., psilocybin plus trace amounts of acetylcholine-, serotonin-, or catecholamine- psilocin, another hallucinogenic like). While the exact mechanisms by which substance. hallucinogens exert their effects remain • PCP (phencyclidine) was developed in unclear, research suggests that these drugs the 1950s as an intravenous anesthetic. work, at least partially, by temporarily Its use has since been discontinued due interfering with neurotransmitter action or to serious adverse effects. by binding to their receptor sites. This DrugFacts will discuss four common types of How Are Hallucinogens Abused? hallucinogens: The very same characteristics that led to • LSD (d-lysergic acid diethylamide) is the incorporation of hallucinogens into one of the most potent mood-changing ritualistic or spiritual traditions have also chemicals. It was discovered in 1938 led to their propagation as drugs of abuse. and is manufactured from lysergic acid, Importantly, and unlike most other drugs, which is found in ergot, a fungus that the effects of hallucinogens are highly grows on rye and other grains. variable and unreliable, producing different • Peyote is a small, spineless cactus in effects in different people at different times.
    [Show full text]
  • Mythic Metamorphosis: Re-Shaping Identity in the Works of H.D. Sarah Lewis Mitchem Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the Virgin
    Mythic Metamorphosis: Re-shaping Identity in the Works of H.D. Sarah Lewis Mitchem Thesis submitted to the faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in English Thomas Gardner, Chair Frederick M. D’Aguiar Paul Sorrentino April 13, 2007 Blacksburg, Virginia Keywords: H.D., Imagism, Mythic Metamorphoses, Asklepios Copyright (Optional) Mythic Metamorphosis: Re-shaping Identity in the Works of H.D. Sarah Lewis Mitchem Abstract In section fifteen of the poem The Walls Do Not Fall author Hilda Doolittle (H.D.) address her audience and articulates the purpose of the poet in the following lines: “we are the keepers of the secret,/ the carriers, the spinners/ of the rare intangible thread/ that binds all humanity/ to ancient wisdom,/ to antiquity;/…every concrete object/ has abstract value, is timeless/ in the dream parallel” (Trilogy 24). H.D. mined her own life for charged relationships which she then, through writing, connected to the mythic characters of antiquity whose tales embodied the same struggles she faced. Reading concrete objects as universal symbols which transcend time, her mind meshed the 20th century with previous cultures to create a nexus where the questions embedded in the human spirit are alive on multiple planes. The purpose of this research project is not to define her works as “successful” or “unsuccessful,” nor to weigh the works against each other in terms of “advancement.” Rather it is to describe the way she manipulates this most reliable of tools, mythic metamorphosis, in works stretching from her early Imagist poetry, through her long poem Trilogy, and finally into her last memoir End To Torment, taking note of the way she uses this tool to form beauty from harsh circumstances and help heal her shattered psyche.
    [Show full text]
  • Athens, Central Greece & Peloponnese
    Athens, Central Greece & Peloponnese Athens – Olympia – Delphi 6 Days / 5 Nights Day 1 – Arrival in Athens Upon arrival at Athens International Airport, you will be met by our representative and transferred to your hotel. Balance of the day at leisure. If time permits depending on your arrival time to Athens, you may enjoy one of our optional tours. (Cape Sounion or Athens By Night Tour with Traditional Greek show). Day 2 – Athens After breakfast at hotel, pick up for our Athens Sightseeing Tour. Our Athens Half Day Tour begins with a panoramic drive around Syntagma square, passing by many sightseeing hot spots such as National Garden, Hadrian’s Arch, St. Paul’s Church, Parliament, Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Catholic Cathedral and Schliemann’s House. We will then drive past the Athens Trilogy which includes the University of Athens, the Academy of Athens, and the National Library. Our licensed guide will make you feel as if you are experiencing firsthand Athens’s old and new history as you look at these stately buildings. We continue for a photo stop at Panathenaic Stadium, otherwise known as Kallimarmaro Stadium, where the first Olympic Games took place in 1896. As we proceed, we pass by Zappeion and the Temple of Olympian Zeus. Last but not least, we make our way to the archaeological site of Acropolis, an UNESCO’S world heritage monument and we visit Propylae, as well as the small Temple of Athena Nike. Of course, our visit shall not be completed without the Parthenon and Erechtheion. The expert guided Athens sightseeing and museum tour continues with a pleasant short walk passing by Herodion and Dionysos Theater, in order to visit the New Acropolis Museum.
    [Show full text]
  • Corinth in the First Century Ad: the Search for Another Class
    Tyndale Bulletin 52.1 (2001) 139-148. CORINTH IN THE FIRST CENTURY AD: THE SEARCH FOR ANOTHER CLASS Dirk Jongkind Summary A consideration of living spaces in ancient Corinth suggests that it is not possible to characterise its society as one made up merely of a very small number of élite alongside vast numbers of non-élite who were extremely poor. The variety of housing suggests the existence of another class. Introduction The city of Corinth had a glorious Hellenic past before its destruction by the Romans in 146 BC. Yet when it was refounded in 44 BC, it was not rebuilt as a Greek city, but as a Roman colony. Due to its economically strategic position near the Isthmus, the city prospered under Roman emperors. The apostle Paul wrote letters to the church of this city. According to some scholars (Theissen, Judge, Meeks), class-distinctions and social tensions within the church played a major role in the background against which Paul wrote. Though it is admitted that the Corinthians, like others, had ‘the poor always with them’, it is also argued from primary evidence that a portion of the Corinthian church belonged to the upper class. This view has recently received heavy criticism from Justin Meggitt, who in his comprehensive and lucid study Paul, Poverty, and Survival divides Roman society into essentially two groups: the élite and non-élite. The latter led a life just above starvation level: ‘In their experience of housing, as well as in their access to food and clothing, the Greco-Roman non-élite suffered a subsistence or near subsistence life.’1 According to Meggitt, this non-élite group 1 Justin J.
    [Show full text]
  • Resounding Mysteries: Sound and Silence in the Eleusinian Soundscape
    Body bar (print) issn 2057–5823 and bar (online) issn 2057–5831 Religion Article Resounding mysteries: sound and silence in the Eleusinian soundscape Georgia Petridou Abstract The term ‘soundscape’, as coined by the Canadian composer R. Murray Schafer at the end of the 1960s, refers to the part of the acoustic environment that is per- ceivable by humans. This study attempts to reconstruct roughly the Eleusinian ‘soundscape’ (the words and the sounds made and heard, and those others who remained unheard) as participants in the Great Mysteries of the two Goddesses may have perceived it in the Classical and post-Classical periods. Unlike other mystery cults (e.g. the Cult of Cybele and Attis) whose soundscapes have been meticulously investigated, the soundscape of Eleusis has received relatively little attention, since the visual aspect of the Megala Mysteria of Demeter and Kore has for decades monopolised the scholarly attention. This study aims at putting things right on this front, and simultaneously look closely at the relational dynamic of the acoustic segment of Eleusis as it can be surmised from the work of well-known orators and philosophers of the first and second centuries ce. Keywords: Demeter; Eleusis; Kore; mysteries; silence; sound; soundscape Affiliation University of Liverpool, UK. email: [email protected] bar vol 2.1 2018 68–87 doi: https://doi.org/10.1558/bar.36485 ©2018, equinox publishing RESOUNDING MYSTERIES: SOUND AND SILENCE IN THE ELEUSINIAN SOUNDSCAPE 69 Sound, like breath, is experienced as a movement of coming and going, inspiration and expiration. If that is so, then we should say of the body, as it sings, hums, whistles or speaks, that it is ensounded.
    [Show full text]
  • Development and Validation of an Ultra-Fast and Sensitive Microflow
    Drug Testing Research article and Analysis Received: 6 June 2016 Revised: 9 July 2016 Accepted: 10 July 2016 Published online in Wiley Online Library: 10 August 2016 (www.drugtestinganalysis.com) DOI 10.1002/dta.2042 Development and validation of an ultra-fast and sensitive microflow liquid chromatography- tandem mass spectrometry (MFLC-MS/MS) method for quantification of LSD and its metabolites in plasma and application to a controlled LSD administration study in humans Andrea E. Steuer,a* Michael Poetzsch,a Lorena Stock,a Lisa Eisenbeiss,a Yasmin Schmid,b Matthias E. Liechtib and Thomas Kraemera Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a semi-synthetic hallucinogen that has gained popularity as a recreational drug and has been investigated as an adjunct to psychotherapy. Analysis of LSD represents a major challenge in forensic toxicology due to its insta- bility, low drug concentrations, and short detection windows in biological samples. A new, fast, and sensitive microflow liquid chromatography (MFLC) tandem mass spectrometry method for the validated quantification of LSD, iso-LSD, 2-oxo 3-hydroxy- LSD (oxo-HO-LSD), and N-desmethyl-LSD (nor-LSD) was developed in plasma and applied to a controlled pharmacokinetic (PK) study in humans to test whether LSD metabolites would offer for longer detection windows. Five hundred microlitres of plasma were extracted by solid phase extraction. Analysis was performed on a Sciex Eksigent MFLC system coupled to a Sciex 5500 QTrap. The method was validated according to (inter)-national guidelines. MFLC allowed for separation of the mentioned analytes within 3 minutes and limits of quantification of 0.01 ng/mL.
    [Show full text]
  • How Hippocratic Traditions Revolutionized Greek Medicine Presenter: Emily Siniscalco Faculty Sponsor: Robert Sullivan
    A Sense of Humor: How Hippocratic Traditions Revolutionized Greek Medicine Presenter: Emily Siniscalco Faculty Sponsor: Robert Sullivan The Hippocratic Corpus is a collection of medical texts written by Hippocrates, an ancient Greek physician, and his students. These texts describe specific medical practices followed by Hippocratic physicians and contain many observations about diseases and their progression in the human body. Ancient Greek medicine did exist before the development of Hippocratic medicine; however, it was much less organized and sophisticated. Here, I aim to identify the ways in which Hippocratic medicine revolutionized medical traditions in ancient Greece. This research is based on analysis of multiple Hippocratic works, including Aphorisms, Epidemics, Affections, and The Hippocratic Oath. These works are all original documents developed during and after the life of Hippocrates in the fourth and fifth centuries BCE. Examination of such texts reveals the influence of Hippocratic tradition on many advancements in Greek medicine, particularly in the way physicians understood and treated diseases as well as the way medicine was practiced as a whole. In particular, Hippocratic tradition contributed to Greek medicine by removing disease from a supernatural context, increasing accurate prognoses based on detailed observations, and promoting personalized medical treatments. These were all significant developments in western medical tradition, as they increased the accuracy of prognoses and effectivity of treatments, ultimately resulting in a higher standard of patient care. This presentation will primarily focus on Hippocratic methods of observation-based prognosis and the effects of such methods on physician-prescribed treatments. Additionally, it will briefly address the ways in which Hippocratic medicine has influenced modern medicinal practices, and the ways in which modern medicine could still learn from the ancient Greek Hippocratic tradition.
    [Show full text]
  • Continuity in Color: the Persistence of Symbolic Meaning in Myths, Tales, and Tropes
    Georgia Southern University Digital Commons@Georgia Southern University Honors Program Theses 2016 Continuity in Color: The eP rsistence of Symbolic Meaning in Myths, Tales, and Tropes McKinley May Georgia Southern University Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/honors-theses Part of the Children's and Young Adult Literature Commons Recommended Citation May, McKinley, "Continuity in Color: The eP rsistence of Symbolic Meaning in Myths, Tales, and Tropes" (2016). University Honors Program Theses. 170. https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/honors-theses/170 This thesis (open access) is brought to you for free and open access by Digital Commons@Georgia Southern. It has been accepted for inclusion in University Honors Program Theses by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons@Georgia Southern. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Continuity in Color: The Persistence of Symbolic Meaning in Myths, Tales, and Tropes An Honors Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Honors in the Department of Literature and Philosophy. By McKinley May Under the mentorship of Joe Pellegrino ABSTRACT This paper examines the symbolism of the colors black, white, and red from ancient times to modern. It explores ancient myths, the Grimm canon of fairy tales, and modern film and television tropes in order to establish the continuity of certain symbolisms through time. In regards to the fairy tales, the examination focuses solely on the lesser-known stories, due to the large amounts of scholarship surrounding the “popular” tales. The continuity of interpretation of these three major colors (black, white, and red) establishes the link between the past and the present and demonstrates the influence of older myths and beliefs on modern understandings of the colors.
    [Show full text]
  • Wave-Based Acoustic Modeling of the Epidaurus Theatre
    Wave-based acoustic modeling of the Epidaurus theatre Konstantinos Kaleris, George Moiragias, Gavriil Kamaris and John Mourjopoulos Audio & Acoustic Technology Group, Electrical & Computer Engineering Department, University of Patras, Greece. Summary The acoustics of the ancient theatre of Epidaurus have been evaluated in the past via measurements and models. However, the topic still remains open especially with respect to the contributions of the specific architectural elements to the theatre's excellent acoustic performance. Here, the study focuses on 3 novel aspects for a better understanding of the theater's acoustics: (a) introduces a wave-based acoustics simulation of the Epidaurus theatre based on a flexible but simplified 3D geometric model (b) matches temporal and spectral features of measured and modeled responses, The wave model considers direct, reflected, diffracted and mixed reflection - diffraction sound paths for calculating the theatre's acoustic Impulse Response (IR) in several listening positions, from the front rows of the lower tier to the last rows of the upper tier. For exact tuning of the model, such simulated IR discrete temporal features due to the calculated sound paths are examined through time-distance matching, allowing thus direct comparison to the theatre's measured IRs and further interpretation of the effects of each of the architectural features of the theatre. In order to precisely match the simulation to measurements, the acoustic behavior of reflecting and diffracting surfaces/edges is incorporated in the model through application of special filters, developed according to the spectral characteristics of the reflection and diffraction features of the measured IRs. From the study it is deduced that sound diffraction plays a major role in the theatre's acoustics, assisting signal reception especially at the distant positions.
    [Show full text]
  • The Higher Aspects of Greek Religion. Lectures Delivered at Oxford and In
    BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIET OF Henirg m. Sage 1891 .A^^^ffM3. islm^lix.. 5931 CornelJ University Library BL 25.H621911 The higher aspects of Greek religion.Lec 3 1924 007 845 450 The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924007845450 THE HIBBERT LECTURES SECOND SERIES 1911 THE HIBBERT LECTURES SECOND SERIES THE HIGHER ASPECTS OF GREEK RELIGION LECTURES DELIVERED AT OXFORD AND IN LONDON IN APRIL AND MAY igii BY L. R. FARNELL, D.Litt. WILDE LECTURER IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD LONDON WILLIAMS AND NORGATE GARDEN, W.C. 14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT 1912 CONTENTS Lecture I GENERAL FEATURES AND ORIGINS OF GREEK RELIGION Greek religion mainly a social-political system, 1. In its earliest " period a " theistic creed, that is^ a worship of personal individual deities, ethical personalities rather than mere nature forces, 2. Anthrqgomorphism its predominant bias, 2-3. Yet preserving many primitive features of " animism " or " animatism," 3-5. Its progress gradual without violent break with its distant past, 5-6. The ele- ment of magic fused with the religion but not predominant, 6-7. Hellenism and Hellenic religion a blend of two ethnic strains, one North-Aryan, the other Mediterranean, mainly Minoan-Mycenaean, 7-9. Criteria by which we can distinguish the various influences of these two, 9-1 6. The value of Homeric evidence, 18-20. Sum- mary of results, 21-24. Lecture II THE RELIGIOUS BOND AND MORALITY OF THE FAMILY The earliest type of family in Hellenic society patrilinear, 25-27.
    [Show full text]
  • Kleonai, the Corinth-Argos Road, And
    HESPERIA 78 (2OO9) KLEONAI, THE CORINTH- Pages ioj-163 ARGOS ROAD, AND THE "AXIS OF HISTORY" ABSTRACT The ancient roadfrom Corinth to Argos via the Longopotamos passwas one of the most important and longest-used natural routes through the north- eastern Peloponnese. The author proposes to identity the exact route of the road as it passed through Kleonaian territoryby combining the evidence of ancient testimonia, the identification of ancient roadside features, the ac- counts of early travelers,and autopsy.The act of tracing the road serves to emphasizethe prominentposition of the city Kleonaion this interstateroute, which had significant consequences both for its own history and for that of neighboring states. INTRODUCTION Much of the historyof the polis of Kleonaiwas shapedby its location on a numberof majorroutes from the Isthmus and Corinth into the Peloponnese.1The most importantof thesewas a majorartery for north- south travel;from the city of Kleonai,the immediatedestinations of this roadwere Corinthto the north and Argos to the south.It is in connec- tion with its roadsthat Kleonaiis most often mentionedin the ancient sources,and likewise,modern topographical studies of the areahave fo- cusedon definingthe coursesof these routes,particularly that of the main 1. The initial fieldworkfor this Culturefor grantingit. In particular, anonymousreaders and the editors studywas primarilyconducted as I thank prior ephors Elisavet Spathari of Hesperia,were of invaluableassis- part of a one-person surveyof visible and AlexanderMantis for their in- tance. I owe particulargratitude to remainsin Kleonaianterritory under terest in the projectat Kleonai,and Bruce Stiver and John Luchin for their the auspicesof the American School the guardsand residentsof Archaia assistancewith the illustrations.
    [Show full text]