2 Amerasia Journal 2011 Portrait of given toCharles Warren Stoddard,1897. Courtesy ofHuntingtonLibrary, SanMarino,Calfornia. Amerasia Journal 37:2 (2011): 2-27

Miss Morning Glory: Orientalism and Misogyny in the Queer Writings of Yone Noguchi

Amy Sueyoshi

In 1898 a young Japanese man in his early twenties sat depressed about his new life in America. Low-wage jobs could neither pay for housing nor adequate food for Yone Noguchi. He had grown exhausted from doing domestic work for Americans whom he thought smelled like rotting cheese. He considered giving up on life itself when letters from acclaimed Western writer arrived just in time. Upon seeing Stoddard’s handwriting, Noguchi’s bosom trembled with delight. Sweet let- ters full of affection and love would boost him to heavenly bliss. Noguchi lavished kisses on the letters and pored over them re- peatedly basking in Stoddard’s love. Noguchi would then de- tail his affair with Stoddard, along with his frustrations living in America, in a book titled The American Diary of a Japanese Girl. Under the pen name Miss Morning Glory, Noguchi may have produced Asian America’s earliest queer works. As transgressive as this text may appear, Diary more poignant- ly reveals how Asian American authors could reinscribe restrictive ideologies of gender, race, and sexuality even as they hoped to protest their marginalized existence. While Noguchi aimed to cri- tique Orientalism, he produced a work that promoted America’s appropriative romance with . He took on a specific female persona to appeal to American readers and created a frivolous, child-like maiden. With this protagonist Noguchi then enacted his same-sex love through the cover of a heterosexual affair. His life and writing powerfully reflect the complicated and contra-

Amy Sueyoshi is an Associate Professor in Race and Resistance Studies and Sexuality Studies at State University. She has pub- lished on topics ranging from cross-dressing, same-sex marriage, and Asian American pornography. Her book titled Queer Compulsions: Race, Nation, and Sexuality in the Affairs of Yone Noguchi will be out in 2012 with University of Hawai‘i Press.

3 4 Amerasia Journal 2011 who directly challengedunfairdepictionsofChinesein America. the ranksofacclaimed Asian America writerssuchasSuiSinFar, as “agroundbreaking workof Asian American fiction.” lutionary textwhentheyreprinted Diary,whichwasdescribed Press more seriously invested inwhattheybelievedtobearevo- narrative herendered nearlyimpossibletoread asqueer. ist, forwarded fantasticnotionsofJapanesefemininityinaqueer Noguchi, theOrientalistwhohadintendedtobeananti-Oriental- those ofthe‘Mikado’thantohumanbeings.” characters closerto peopled by it, land,’ ashehimselfwouldput lications generallyas“usingJapananexoticOther, a‘fairy Japonisme. In1991,SusanNapiersummarizedNoguchi’spub- against pushed or to subscribed he whether debate significance Existing works discussing Noguchi and Diary An Orientalistoran Anti-Orientalist? fetish. aesthetic an as Japan on focused specifically that entalism off inJapantook est - ofJaponisme,aformOri birth the with ideas aboutJapanthathehopedtocritique,while American inter facing dauntingsocialforces. Noguchiwouldreinforce thevery unconventional intimaciesandprofessional achievementwhile dictory waysinwhichthoseperceived asnot-Americanforged would likelynotholdmuch appealasasubjectofstudy. Yet No- participated in reinforcing existing stereotypes about himself or resisted discrimination,an Asian in America whomayhave dedicated tounderscoring waysinwhichpeoplestruggled with Japanese American. Within Asian American Studies,adiscipline presentStates a than rather Japanesenational himasatraveling of Japanaswellhislessthanten-yearresidence intheUnited Perceptions ofNoguchi’sworkaspropagating exoticdepictions opponent of gender stereotyping.” heroine,” Marxinthesameyeardeclared Noguchiasa“tireless ryn Halverson described Miss Morning Glory as “no feminist yond rigid definitions of gender. Though literary historian Cath- ditionally pointed to Diary as evidence of how Noguchi saw be - Noguchi projected amore authentic Japan.Edward Marxad- Franey, to According fiction. Orientalist of critique a thus and Franey described “important modernistwriter.” ignored the Japanese immigrant whom some have declared as an unsettled amongliterarycritics, Asian Americanists havelargely While thedebateoverNoguchiandDiary’s Diary as asatire of American misperceptions 5 Noguchiremains excludedfrom 3 In 2007, Temple2007, UniversityIn 2 Incontrast,Laura significance seems ’s sociocultural 4 - 1 6

Miss Morning Glory 5

7 - - 11 In addition addition In 8 “Pray, write me of- “Pray, 10

9 While numerous publications by historians such as Robert Robert as such by historians publications While numerous - un relatively remained still Noguchi 1890s, late the in Yet to the charged characterizations that Japonisme produced, No- that Japonisme produced, characterizations to the charged enacted by illuminate how Orientalism own actions guchi’s American to shape early “Orientals” themselves would come Asian gender and sexuality. notions of Noguchi came to the United States in 1893 in hopes of becomingNoguchi came to the United States in the home of essay- refuge an English-language poet. He found Japanese men. other young did as in Oakland, ist to him while liv- as he began writing He fell in love with Stoddard worked to- In the decades that followed, Noguchi ing with Miller. East poet bridging becoming an internationally recognized wards close By the time of his death in 1947, he had published and West. on a variety of books in both English and Japanese to one hundred topics on art and culture. Love guchi’s guchi’s intimate life and writings aptly reflect how Orientalism, - culti who immigrants compelled Japonisme, and in particular, ways. conflicted in so do to Americans white with intimacy vated trace how rac- Anthony Peffer and George Lee, Nayan Shah, of pathological sexu- a discourse created ism and xenophobia turn of the century, at the women and men ality for Chinese “Orient” how an aesthetic fascination for the few works discuss sexuality. American Asian by shaped be and shape also would Noguchi made significant headway into America’s literary and America’s literary and Noguchi made significant headwayinto with an internationalist bo- intimate growing arts community, much artful, while Japan as that embraced community hemian repulsive. be to Japanese the found nation the of dard’s attention brought relief to Noguchi’s unending loneliness. to Noguchi’s unending loneliness. relief attention brought dard’s No Stoddard. to heart his opened Noguchi letters, emotional In was thee!” Stoddard “Have my love and kisses to guchi declared, their “divine” and Noguchi thanked God for as sweet as “honey,” the make it would that beautiful so interaction relationship—an world “warm and kind.” Noguchi suspected that even the entire angels must be jealous of their relationship. known. He missed Japan and felt incurably depressed. Stod depressed. incurably felt and Japan missed He known. ten!,” Noguchi pleaded on October 8, 1897. “Oh love! I love you,” 8, 1897. “Oh love! on October pleaded Noguchi ten!,” Noguchi letters brought Stoddard’s weeks later. three he declared he that write Noguchi did excitedly So pleasure.” “unspeakable letters on the very same day he to Stoddard’s responses sent off thrilled Noguchi to tears. Stoddard them. Letters from received 6 Amerasia Journal 2011 and —and—and—whatmust Isaywhentheycomeatonce?” stand youmore, toloveyou,liveinperfectpoetrywithyou— under to you, “Tosee relationship. their for mean might move the what of possibilities the all with overflowed mind Noguchi’s relationship withStoddard was something hecouldnotforsake. all!—That’s all indeed!” The promise of pursuing a more intimate me that I must be with you I will come to you—That’s all!—That’s proved to beworthy enough reason to move. “If you command to “anewlifeoflove.”Stoddard’s wishtohavehimbyhisside must gotoWashington toenjoywithyou!”Helookedforward like to see you—how Ilongto see you,howIlongto see you!—I Washington, D.C., Noguchi answered ecstatically, “Ofcourse I Noguchi’s senior, reminding him ofhisloversduringyoung- chi’s race mesmerized Stoddard, who was more than thirty years When Stoddard invitedNoguchitovisithimathishomein Stoddard in turn adored the youthful Japanese boy. Nogu- California, Berkeley Library, University of Courtesy ofBancroft Stoddard, c.1890s. Portrait ofCharles Warren 12

- Miss Morning Glory 7 - - 16 He longed to hold and caress He longed to hold and caress 15 14 Upon hearing of Noguchi’s liter Upon hearing of 13 Noguchi’s and Stoddard’s mutual affection grew just as Ja- as just grew affection mutual Stoddard’s and Noguchi’s On February 2, 1903 when Stoddard found that Yone had had Yone found that 1903 when Stoddard 2, On February ary success in London, Stoddard trembled all over with delight. delight. all over with trembled Stoddard ary success in London, of his Noguchi, which beautiful picture” He gazed at the “most side. No- his desk to keep it constantly by his he had placed on chin,” “delicate mouth,” “too sensitive face,” “sweet sad guchi’s love. and care for Stoddard to called all hands” “beautiful and And he would willingly oblige. how declined, despite “progress” or economic growth. America growth. or economic “progress” despite declined, how pan America and sparked a romance of their own. The two na- oth- each through desires deepest their to satisfy struggled tions foreign feared modernizing Japan, which had previously A er. realization in its with the West ties to make sought imperialism, that it could no longer maintain its isolationism. Many Japanese of hopes in values and styles, technology, American embraced - of Japan Americans, For West. the of “progress” the adopting on by industrializa- to a cultural malaise brought a cure fered some life had intellectuals felt that the quality of Victorian tion. - wild with excite so he became book to him, latest his dedicated himself. Stoddard knew what to do with ment that he hardly I that had you been here “[m]y love was great Yone, to wrote my as you, fondling long, day all lap my in you held have must Yone he would have folded very own.” In the darkness of night asleep fallen have would two The him. embraced and arms his in until Noguchi held have would Stoddard and pillow one upon place your lips to called to Noguchi, “come, morning. Stoddard kiss.” mine in one long rapturous er years when he gallivanted across the “South Seas” in search search in Seas” “South the across gallivanted he when years er Stoddard their correspondence, in Early affection. of same-sex from you: always, to hear from I have waited “[l]ong confessed, the firstknowledge of you, I have wanted to know you, to meet you, to be with you in closest sympathy.” Though he “How intimate. more barely to grow yearned Stoddard knew Noguchi, to say to you; I so long I have so much here: I wish you were and more you better and know you to see you, to understand book of poems a copy of Noguchi’s requested Stoddard more.” that so leaf fly the on message a include he that commanded and it always. he might treasure Noguchi’s hands as well as feel their caresses. Stoddard craved to Stoddard caresses. Noguchi’s hands as well as feel their of Noguchi, in fact all of him as “God made him—naked see more child,” “as clear as and not ashamed.” Noguchi was a “dream as water—as sweet as milk.” glass—as pure 8 Amerasia Journal 2011 imagery ormetaphors. Voice oftheValley (1897)aswell,NoguchievokedminimalJapanese to Japan,norevokedmetaphorseasilyassociatedwithJapan. lished in1897, poetry of book first Noguchi’s In “Orient.” earliest publications,heresisted evokingpredictable imagesofthe etry, ratherthanpoetryexceptionalforitsJapaneseorigin.Inhis hopedhisworkwouldreceiveNoguchi po- meritasexceptional Two musical productions, Twomusical write for America, and depend solely on thevalue of his work.” Chronicle, in his“nativedress.” JoaquinMillerexplainedtotheSanFrancisco quests forhispictures, hemadeitapointnottobephotographed allow whitestoracializehim.In1896,asNoguchianswered re- When Noguchimadehisliterarydebut,headamantlyrefused to An Anti-Orientalist tion rooted inanappreciation fornature. turned toJapansatisfyitshungerforapurer, spiritual civiliza- American prisonandfantastic “moonlit”adventures. also builtupontopicsnotparticularly “Oriental,”suchaslifeinan from anearlierperiodofJapan. Prose and poetryintheseissues markers ofslanted,slit-likeeyesandmore traditionalhairstyles and an angled nose. divergedBoth illustrations from the usual woman inkimonowithlarge yetclosedeyes,unbridledwavyhair, issue from thesameyearfeatured whatappearstobeaJapanese hair appeared dressed in Western suits. The cover of an additional illustration likely of Noguchi and Takahashi with chin-length black stereotypicallyany imagery. Japanese June1898issue,an Inthe in 1898, illustrations and text in the two recovered issues lacked immigrant artist Kosen Takahashi on his own journal titled a “good”Englishlanguagepoet. an “honest sweet gentleman” who would assist him inbecoming to bemadeof“ivory”grew intimatewithhis“Dad”Stoddard, guage. The “sensual” “boy poet” from the “Orient” who seemed differencestional andcultural gendered with andracializedlan- In passionateletterstooneanother, theyeroticized theirgenera- fueledStoddard’s primitive as beautifully andNoguchi’s affair. ment.” fulfill- and wholeness for yearning a by another one to drawn Hosley noted, “[l]ike lovers, Japan and the West were eventually Noguchi vocallyprotested insultingappropriations ofJapan. 18 Perceptions oftheUnited StatesascivilizedandJapan “He objects to that sort of interest, saying that he wants to not one out of fifty poems made explicit reference explicit made poems fifty of out one not 22 When Noguchi embarked with Japanese WhenNoguchiembarkedwithJapanese The Mikado 19 and The Geisha 17 Art historianWilliam Seen and Unseen, 23 , outraged Twilight

pub- 21 In In 20

Miss Morning Glory 9

26 The The 27 opened lateropened which Geisha, The 24 As Noguchi noted, “the vogue of 25 which reflected pervasive American views of

a comic opera, made my true Japanese The Geisha, a comic opera, made my true San Marino, California - the non out blurted even Americans white ” Some Courtesy of Huntington Library, Courtesy of Huntington Library, 1898. Twilight, of The Cover In 1902, Noguchi even more scathingly criticized the novel novel the criticized scathingly more even Noguchi 1902, In Japanese culture and femininity in its romantic tragedy between tragedy femininity in its romantic and culture Japanese a U.S. Naval officerstationed in Nagasaki and a self-sacrificing Madame Butterfly, The of Japan. When The treatments their ridiculous of because him 1890s, theatergoers Mikado arrived in San Francisco in the early Japanese love triangle be- a of enjoyed white actors’ enactment Gil- Englishman W.S. Yum-Yum. tween Nanki-Poo, Ko-Ko, and bert, the author of The Mikado, poked fun at Japan with his silly line. story outlandish and names He added, “Miss What’s-her-name” acted “ridiculously” in “ridiculously” acted What’s-her-name” “Miss added, He - a “smil of Noguchi reminded appearance Her “absurd” Geisha. ing puppet. effort goodwill a in Noguchi to musical the of song theme sensical annoy- Noguchi found the practice to connect with his ethnicity. the musical as a grave injustice upon Japan. ing and declared at San Francisco’s Tivoli Theater in fall 1897, presented white women girlish Japanese women in yellow face portraying dainty, operaAs the with English men. overtures enjoying the romantic the for run long a predicted critics nightly, capacity to filled house “sparkling musical comedy.” The Mikado or heart pained, as I thought it was a blasphemy against Japan; howheart pained, as I thought it was a blasphemy absurdity.” its on gallery or pit the from shout to wished I often 10 Amerasia Journal 2011 accurate portrayal. ing worksonJapan,NoguchideterminedtoassertDiary asamore ined a diary of her adventures in America. Dissatisfied with exist - in himselfthedelicatelyfeminineJapanesemaiden,and heimag- a noveltitledTheAmericanDiaryofJapaneseGirl.Hefoundwith - in southernCalifornia,newinspirationcametohim theideaof Los Angeles. Though he found only the drudgery of menial labor ated Noguchiintheirmisrepresentation ofandinsulttoJapan. nese Nightingale—nearlyallthemajorworksofJaponismeinfuri- vada mountainlionstocherish. jettisoning thebook from atranscontinental trainride for theNe- character” thathardly appeared Japanese.Noguchiimagined “Nippon a was protagonist female affair.”The sad completely Long would be betteroff sweeping streets thanwriting such “a rate depictionofJapaninawork“fulllies”and“craziness.” book, JohnLutherLong,“Mr. Wrong” to highlighthis inaccu- a certainmistake.Noguchisardonically called the authorof the Purchasing thepopularbook,according toNoguchi,wouldbe ships betweenEastandWest through thedynamicsofgender. heart. The Orientalist classic articulated unequal power relation- Japanese maiden whokills herself aftersuffering from abroken a “dead fish’s eyes.” She disapproved of “savage” earrings and and earrings “savage” of disapproved She eyes.” fish’s “dead a like thatofanalligator.” Blueeyesreminded MorningGloryof or Hell. appearedAmerican women’s mouths large, “something hair, acolor associatedwiththehairofred demoninJigoku also neverimagineherself beingcovered, inparticular, withred wavyhairtobe“badluck.”MorningGlorycould She believed cans swarmedherandtuggedatthesilksleevesof kimono. soon asshesteppedoff herboatinSanFrancisco,uncouth Ameri- unattractive, andnonsensical.MorningGloryrecounted howas foregrounding Americans—rather thantheJapanese—asalien, Americans whenitwasunpopulartodoso. name SuiSinFar, more boldlyassertedthehumanityofChinese in fact the sister was of Edith Eaton, who, writing under the pen ately passedasJapaneseforherliterarycareer; Winnifred Eaton was ChineseandwhosefatherawhiteCanadian,deliber Watanna, thepseudonymofWinnifred Eaton,whosemother Japanese, didnotescapehiscriticism. woman whoclaimedtobe go atall.” “Onoto Watanna’s Japaneseplaymadesuchamess.Iwouldn’t In spring1899,Noguchi“tired of[SanFrancisco]”trampedto Even theplayA JapaneseNightingalebyOnotoWatanna, a 31 The Mikado, The Geisha, Madame Butterfly,Madame Geisha, The Mikado, The 32 worked against texts of Japonisme by DiaryworkedagainsttextsofJaponismeby 29

30

Noguchi noted, and A Japa- 28 -

Miss Morning Glory 11 - -

37 34 All of the criticisms sat All of the criticisms sat 36 35 Further pages critiqued American pages critiqued Further 33 hardbound cover, a Japanese woman Japanese a cover, hardbound

’s Diary of center the In Morning Glory explicitly refused the superficial “love” of ’s descriptions of Japan, for the most part, highlighted Diary’s descriptions of Japan, for the most part, highlighted immersed exotic,in andflowery, finally misogynistic language, destabilized have that might that the statements so much so that they have the potency would hardly American supremacy 31 pag- While approximately carried in their assemblage above. norms American openly critiqued of her 261-page publication es than 85 pages explicitly more and exposed cultural relativism, not only painted Japan as in- articulated Orientalist themes that barbarism, but also mystical at times to the point of ordinately trivial. portrayed its women as hopelessly - sup delicately her hand her left elbow as on leaned in kimono in hand poised with brush ported her chin. Her right hand stood the hairs with down upside the brush held yet she write, if to as paper lan- a vase sat in to red her side, a bonsai tree A facing up. a reveal to opened doors paper rice while above, from swung tern yard filled with green bamboo. Aroundthe illustration, Japanese designs of lotus blossoms, wildflowers, and birds imprinted in car be would imprint yellow The cover. the decorated ink yellow ried through the entire book on every page as it set a picture frame book on every page as it set a picture the entire ried through the of corner left the In text. the for life plant and birds Japanese of in chop suey letters. the title of the book appeared cover, An Orientalist to be a “mad Glory may have appeared As much as Morning a radical creating single-handedly Asian bitch,” a protofeminist American critique, she was not. Asian “haughtily cold” diamonds, accessories that allegedly made made that allegedly accessories diamonds, cold” “haughtily women beautiful. American When in a fancy for paper lanterns. merely Americans, rooted she bit of Japan, a to share Glory Morning Americans entreated refused to accommodate their racial “[T]hey fantasy. implored role I’ll not play any sensational Japanese ditty. me to sing some atten- not to accept the insincere preferred for any price.” She of the surface little beyond see who could Americans of tions of Japan. their own expectations habits in art, leisure, child care, consumerism, and conversation, consumerism, child care, habits in art, leisure, “freakish.” eminently “Americans were concluding its difference as an aesthetic, exotic, and alien nation. For in- and exotic, an aesthetic, as difference its in Japan home her bamboo at described Glory Morning stance, whis it as Sara!” Sara! “Sara! window, her against brushing 12 Amerasia Journal 2011 as she walked, “like rhythmic prayer unto the sky.” pered “sayonara.”Wooden slipperswouldalsosing“karancoron” dolly, fancyingImight hear afewscratchesofhumanvoice.I Likewise, MorningGlory recounted, “Isqueezedmyeartothe watered my friend Miss Poppywithlove. Bye-bye, littlegirl!” she tendedtoherplantsonelasttimedeclaring, “I Hills cottage, in achild-likemanner. WhenshemovedoutofherOakland Morning Gloryinfantilizedherselfbytalkingtoplants anddolls self potentlikethemightythumbofMr. Edison.”Inparticular, it- make can thing little Oriental an such how wondering finger alized herselfinthefaceofagreater power:“Ilookuponmy turning onthelightwithsingle push of abutton, she trivi - in its“oppressive” nature “palsie[d]thespirit.” to “free-born,” “modern” American women. “Orientalrhetoric” Japanese womenremained extremely behindthetimesasopposed men couldneverjoin theranks of more civilized Americans and men wouldneverpermit“ladies...tostandinthecar.” Japanese “girls” as“wares” fortrading.Incontrast,”gallant”SanFrancisco little understanding ofloveentrenched in“oldbarbarity,” saw Inromance, “beheaded.” pan wouldbe with “Japgentleman,” the president in America, thosewhomockedthenation’sleaderinJa- While political cartoons could freely poke fun at the “big-hearted” incomparisontotheUnitedStates. positioned Japanasbarbaric Diary alsoprojected adiminutiveMorningGlory. When University ofCalifornia,Berkeley Courtesy ofBancroftLibrary, of aJapanese Girl,1902. Cover ofTheDiary American images inhislaterpublications. explicitly evoke “Oriental” Noguchi soughttomore 39

38 Diary also also Miss Morning Glory 13

44 Di- 41

Through Morning Glory, - Nogu Through Morning Glory, 46 40 Despite Noguchi’s original aim to present present Despite Noguchi’s original aim to 45 47 Morning Glory’s ignorance of kissing closely paralleled ignorance of kissing closely Morning Glory’s 42 Morning Glory’s vanity also paralleled Yum-Yum’s obses- Yum-Yum’s vanity also paralleled Morning Glory’s 43 While Ewick characterizes Noguchi as “interpreting. . .the . .the as “interpreting. While Ewick characterizes Noguchi Images of “pretty teahouse girls” and “doll-like” Japanese girls” and “doll-like” Japanese teahouse Images of “pretty faltered in its ability to hold long-term appeal even among among even appeal long-term hold to ability its in faltered ary whites hungry for Japan: Sales that started well declined disap- pointingly by 1903. spirit of his own land” to American authors, Japanese critics have,American authors, spirit of his own land” to depictions elaborated on the inaccuracy of Noguchi’s conversely, For example, of Japonisme. as well as his opportunistic embrace “non- or “negligible” had Noguchi that noted has Sato Hiroaki existent” knowledge of the deep significance of things Japanese, “catchy found Noguchi had having left the country at nineteen. has simi- things convenient for ‘advertisement’.” Keiko Wada the Japan to ride used deliberately that Noguchi larly asserted pocketbook, though, Noguchi’s for Sadly Japonisme. of tide chi deliberately set out to portray a sense of femininity different femininity different a sense of set out to portray chi deliberately - po that America, one “novelty, embodied that of everyday from images not so doing so, he projected But in “beauty.” and etry, characterizations. existing from different women strikingly similar to Morning Glory proliferated in print women strikingly Glory proliferated similar to Morning media. beauty. her in reveled too Glory Morning Yum-Yum, to Similar and “shapely” mouth, traits She cherished her “sweet little” feet to uniquely beautiful according Japanese women that made her would She believed that every man who met Morning Glory. fall in love with her. kissed it. I laughed, saying that the doll was the thing for my the thing for my that the doll was I laughed, saying kissed it. starting to kiss.” to learn how sion with her own beauty in the musical that Noguchi detested, detested, beauty in the musical that Noguchi sion with her own - for her wed in The Mikado prepared Yum-Yum As The Mikado. I sit and “Sometimes herself in the mirror: ding, she scrutinized much so it that I am why is way, Japanese artless in my wonder attractive than anybody else in the whole world? Can this more in her loveliness.” is lovely and rejoices be vanity? No! Nature passages in the musical Noguchi protested, The Geisha, in which Noguchi protested, passages in the musical to Englishmen to teach them how implored Japanese “girls” kiss. as a protest against Orientalist works, the text became one Diary as a protest In Japonisme. of works number of to the growing addition more - in Noguchi’s empowered Ewick David expert Orientalism fact, “centrally important in fash- him as further by citing volvement ioning” the literary movement. 14 Amerasia Journal 2011 versus West.” shy stars”doomed duetodifferences intheirbackgrounds, “East to Noguchi’s description of his pairing with Stoddard as “two butterfly being forever separated by obstacles in nature ,was akin and dragonfly different,a vastly yet similar lovers, winged two as he had come “rather lately to understand”Stoddard.as hehadcome“ratherlately how Noguchideclared thathecouldnolongerbeartobeapart that she must continue “flying.” The fictional narrative parallels ic.” MorningGloryexplainedthatshewasa“bird ofpassage” “to understandeachother”astheairbetweenthem “grew trag- suffered from astroke. Oscarprotested thattheyhadjustbegun Angeles toOscarinthebook,hetooknewsasif hehadjust mance. When Morning Glory announced her departure from Los ro- real-life their reflecting Noguchi, and Stoddard between ety liest queertexts. liest More remarkably, Diarymayserveasoneof Asian America’s ear A QueerDiary Native Hawaiians. and Japanese specifically Rim, Pacific the from lovers preferred that he would send to Stoddard. Stoddard, similar to Oscar, also Strongdio ofJosephDwight day forasketchofhisface next the one night,Noguchi,inSeptember1897,hopedtocallonthestu- express hisaffection forStoddard. After dreaming ofStoddard than American women.Noguchisimilarlyusedportraiture to As Oscarpainted,heconfessedtoliking“Oriental”womenmore had neverpreviously allowedsuch“closescrutiny” ofherface. came a siteof intimacy betweenthetwo, because Morning Glory painting of Miss Morning Glory’s portrait be- instance, Oscar’s of themselves to further their respective loves; in the book, for andNoguchialsousedportraits night.MorningGlory into the and Noguchi, thoughts of their loves would occupy them deep sessed byStoddard’s correspondence. For both Morning Glory lettersinthesamewaythatNoguchiappeared pos- in Oscar’s with Stoddard. For starters, Morning Glory became engrossed Noguchi’sownexchanges parallelswith Oscar tookondistinct nounced his plans to return to Japan.Similar metaphors and the thoughtofneverseeing Noguchiagainwhenan- brances” solongashelived. Stoddard additionally grieved over Noguchi asapoetshould be “free” and“remain free ofencum- Noguchi considered marrying a woman, Stoddard insisted that The novel compiled multiple moments of separation anxi- separation of moments multiple compiled novel The 50

48 Morning Glory’s affair Glory’s Morning herloveinterest with 49 Morning Glory’s tale of herself and Oscar as 51 When - Miss Morning Glory 15

- - 52 In

Di- Such 59 Morn- 58 - By press 53 The queer The 56 as a secretly gay text, a secretly as Diary, Noguchi portrayed Morning 55 57 Moreover, Noguchi’s later public confession that Noguchi’s later public confession that Moreover, 54 “campy” quality also marked the work as queer. As an as queer. “campy” quality also marked the work Even more suggestive are the instances of same-sex affection affection the instances of same-sex are suggestive Even more Diary’s that charged the text with queer implications. When When implications. with queer the text charged that Diary employed similar techniques of subtext and gender inversion of employed similar techniques of subtext used publications turn-of-the-century other that characters key to assert male same-sex sexuality in covert ways. Glory as outrageously mindless, calling herself a “trivial Jap, only Jap, “trivial a herself calling mindless, outrageously as Glory lanterns” as she explored acquainted with cherry blossoms and an Oriental girl, “I must remain America. Morning Glory declared, moonlight.” spring the in softly smiling blossom cherry a like Miss Morning Glory was in fact him and the narrative was about Morning Glory was Miss public those longing for more his own life may have prompted Morning Glory’s af- to read romance of same-sex representations a man and a man, rather fair with artist Oscar as one between a man. and than between a woman ticulating Morning Glory’s and Oscar’s Morning Glory’s ticulating romance. in the two in a kimono, Ada her friend dressed Glory Morning of “supposed-to-beAda’s enactment Japanese chic” laughed at Ada caught Morning affectionate. physically and quickly grew my “It was lips. fully on her kisses neck and lavished Glory’s first taste two of young the “We kiss,”reported Morning Glory. ladies in wanton garments rolled down happily on the floor.” admired she in a quarry, laborers passed by Glory As Morning as so do to Oscar beau her prodded and bodies rippling their look at their muscles!” “O Oscar, well. She declared, rhetorical tools for expressing intimacy signaled how Noguchi’s how Noguchi’s intimacy signaled tools for expressing rhetorical ar inspiration for served as the powerfully with Stoddard affair arythen,highlights, notonlyNoguchi’sintention todepict same- deliberate move his but also format, in a creative attachments sex under the cover of heterosexuality. same-sex romance to express about women, Japan, andaesthetic style, exaggerated comments as “camp.” America could be read her mind, an eternally cheerful demeanor would be the most im most the be would demeanor cheerful eternally an mind, her portantmake. contribution“Orientalgirl”could thatan ing Oscar to admire male bodies, Morning Glory imagines an Glory imagines an male bodies, Morning ing Oscar to admire entirely if not queer, same-sex gaze that could be decidedly erotic gay. According to cultural critic Morgan, Tracy men admiring homosexu- and homoerotic significant held muscles men’s other al overtones. ing Glory’s vanity reached hyperbolic heights when she imagined ing Glory’s vanity reached by her window going home to write in his journal that a squirrel “[m]y neighbouring Jap Girl is rather attractive isn’t she?” 16 Amerasia Journal 2011 “ show great art—manyhintsofintuition.” she Japanese or American. There are touches here and there that me thatyouthoroughly comprehend thenature ofthegirl—be just Japanesewomen,but American womenaswell.“Itseemsto believed theworksoabsolutelyauthentic,representative ofnot Stoddard it.” in sayings witty and wise naïve, many are There impressed with itthanever. Itis something uniqueinliterature. point, Stoddard foundDiary vations as “shrewd, satirical, and amusing.” ing commentary;Brooklyn’s Citizen forty recovered bookreviews seemedtopickuponNoguchi’sbit- let alone misogyny, pages. Indeed, only oneoutof inits nestled appeared aware of critique scathing ofthe American Orientalism, rial they hoped to read—gendered hopedto rial they that andracializedwritings ent.” Diarymore appropriately indulged America with mate- turn-of-the-century Americans reveling inthemagic ofthe“Ori- Angeles wrote, “[w]eallloveyouMissMorningGlory.” bit ofthing.” fiance with a man too genteel to hit me. Woman is a revolting little af- to never mind my fixed well-nigh I husband? a by beaten be to virtues ofdomesticviolence:“Doyouknowhowinteresting itis disdain forwomenappeared whensheoutlinedthe top overthe take her time finishing her meal. her finishing time her take Ada’s dishtoslurpdownhersushi,justafterreassuring Ada to her ownserving,shegrabbedmore hesitant American friend ing Glory enjoy eating raw fish, for example, that, after she finished ous portrayal of Japanese culture and women. So much did Morn- extreme passagesappeared implausibleintheirpurportedlyseri- familiar with Japan. If unaccustomed tosatire inOrientalisttextsandthatwasevenless than refuted, presumptions abouttheFarEastforanaudience nese culture and gender representations only reinforced, rather interesting “Christmasgift,”idealparticularlyforwomen. ty,” “artistic,”andeven“naïve,”Diarywouldserveasauniquely in theauthenticityofbook.Described as“charming,”“dain- In thewintermonthsof1902to1903,enchantedreviewers believed ing normsorexistingideologies. stereotypes- subvert workfailedat challenge, the asapolitical ful useof“camp,”ifunderstoodastheexaggeration ofcultural wazatorashi” ortheatricalandunnatural. The illegibility of Noguchi’s outrageous accounts of Japa- of accounts outrageous Noguchi’s of illegibility The Still, readers generally interpreted the representations as true. 61 JapaneseliterarycriticJunya Yokota calledthetext Diary might be evaluated for its success an “extreme delight”:“Iammost 60 67 What’s more, Morning Glory’s Instead,Noguchi’swork left noted MorningGlory’sobser 62

65 64 The From his vantage Herald ofLos 66

63 Few Few - - Miss Morning Glory 17

- 74 His 70 Poetry 68 His move His move 73 69 72 ’s very “girlish quality” would make his very “girlish quality” would Diary’s In other personal letters, he wrote, “wom[e]n “wom[e]n In other personal letters, he wrote, 71 pictures since they revealed his “interesting per his “interesting since they revealed pictures

- about wom Noguchi’s views how light on shed Diary For Noguchi, nature, not women, more likely embodied the the likely embodied not women, more For Noguchi, nature, In 1915, Noguchi expressed embracing Japonisme as an op- Japonisme as embracing expressed In 1915, Noguchi à la Japonaise” took precedence over reality. took precedence demonstrated his male to adopt and enact femininity in Diary demonstrated his male privilege to take on femininity to enhance his fictional persona. Noguchi believed best of feminine qualities. Using feminine pronouns to refer to to to refer best of feminine qualities. Using feminine pronouns power, as symbols of beauty and mountains, waterfalls, and trees as Nogu- nature from diverged to women, however, references logic. chi described their stupidity and inexplicable work a financial success. In effect, he used the racialized Japa- nese female form to his advantage definitivelyas began he more A Misogynist Moreover, nature. female about assumptions in pejorative mired en were Noguchi as similar to Atsumi described Noguchi scholar Ikuko of the beauty of wom- romanticization men of his era in his most en. For these men, who glorified women as aesthetic objects, imagining the female gender as having any significant intellect in society became impossible. active participants or skill as sonality. . .and his point of view,” even though critics had called had critics though even view,” of point his .and . sonality. as Japanese pictures.” of absurdities them “a confusion fulfilledfantasies of Japan—rather thanreaderschallenge about a clever literary through notions of Japan their preconceived crossings. work of identity - Ja insult to vehicle a than rather freedom creative for portunity as Orientalism of productivity the promote to began he as pan - justifi could one Noguchi, to According West. the by understood no matter if they proved a variety of images of Japan, ably project “positive” in as the imagery appeared As long a bit exaggerated. its Noguchiflattery, stood unopposed to Japan’s- commodifica with painter James Whistler’s delight tion. Noguchi declared “ personal correspondence explicitly revealed his unflattering sen- unflattering his revealed explicitly correspondence personal to Stoddard wrote 1900, Noguchi timents of women. In March included in Chicago and about meeting writer Onoto Watanna his thoughts on her deficienciesas a woman: “She is artfully She is but she has no sound mind and sweet philosophy. clever, afterall!” woman [are] [are] very revengeful” and that “woman is the most difficult in existence.” creature 18 Amerasia Journal 2011 valued himlargely forthe exoticimplicationsofhisrace. Noguchi may signal his own discomfort with lovingaman who his same-sexaffairnist tonarrate Stoddard, with misogynist the images of himself in Western suits. even though hehad previously insisted on only distributing kimono, a in him featured figures. Tellingly, pictures ary these graphs whichhehopedtosendoff topublishersandotherliter ously express hisopposition. ducing a workwith mainstream appeal that would simultane- presenting his ethnicity. As Noguchi more deliberately evoked anese likelypushedNoguchi totakeamore practical approach in taken inyourJapanesekimono?” tographs, theoneyoumention inyouresteemedfavorasbeing “Would youbesogoodastofavor uswithoneofyournewpho- inquired, politely They file.” “on keep to version newer the ed returned previous Noguchi’s andrequest inasuit photograph strategic. In May 1901, the publisher Funk& Wagnalls Company and itssequelLetters By critiquingandcateringto American ideasofJapan,bothDiary learn more about American life. Parlor-Maid completed asecondbooktitledTheAmericanLettersofJapanese fit. saw he as identities gender,class ethnic, and leable Morning Glorypoints tohis “protean identity,” playingwithmal- Some literarycriticsargue thatNoguchi’s“performance”as American Pressures to capitalizeonhisethnicity. ered hercriticismsof America withexoticdepictionsofJapan. cessor Noguchi).” Letters cover, authorshipwasattributedto“MissMorningGlory(Yone san and more obviously revealed Noguchi’s authorship. On the the formoflettersfrom MorningGlorytoherfriendMatsuba- appealing femininity—tomakehiscritiqueabout Americans. male persona—theembodimentofadainty, exotic,andtherefore fe- Japanese well-to-do specifically a adopting to resorted guchi straints ofexistingideologiesethnicity, gender, andclass,No- ethnic, gender, andclasspositions.Precisely becauseofthecon- personation, however, more tellinglysignaled therigid realities of Sometime around 1901 Noguchi took anew set of photo By the time Diary Diary, suchastheway“charming”MorningGlorydeliv- , in which Morning Glory worked as a domestic to articulated many

revealed Noguchi’sowndilemmainpro- reached American readers, Noguchi had 75 Byusinganabjectfemaleprotago - 79 82 This second publication took publication second This RequestsforperformingJap - 81 The move proved astutely proved move The themes similartoitsprede- 77 Hisim 76 78 80 - - - -

Miss Morning Glory 19 - 84 - Eibei no Jyusan AmericanDiary of

A savvy opportunist, A 87 The one group whose plight whose group one The 85 pejorative comments on Afri- on pejorative comments Noguchi would make additional references to buying additional references Noguchi would make All of these characterizations point to how ideas of raceof ideas how to point characterizations these of All 83 86 In the summer of 1903, Noguchi opened a “Japanese bazaar” Almost all of his comments about people of color had ori- Almost all of his comments about American ideas of race significantly informed Noguchi’s and and Noguchi Story of Yone a Japanese Girl, but also When nen. Noguchi gazed upon African Americans for the first of standard what over worried and “horrid” them called he time, beauty existed “in their tribe.” He looked in his dic- up “coon” America, but Blacks in about more tionary eager to understand so-kind “ever that concluding definition, the with dissatisfied was as animals allied to them,certain, I am American don’t consider the bear.” a Chinese girl for “a pile of coins” and the “savagery” of Chinesea Chinese girl for “a pile of coins” and women’s “deformed” feet. When Noguchi as Morning Glory de- at the thought of he recoiled bated names to assign his new doll, one Charley.” “Charley” since “every Chinee. . .is named nic Americans. He literally City. York in New Roof Garden at the Madison Square and Japan from trinkets sold he as identity ethnic his from profited made seven to twelve dollars each night. home-grown in the United States informed Noguchi’s view of eth of view Noguchi’s informed States United the in home-grown with whom Noguchi did sympathize, albeit with condescension, albeit with with whom Noguchi did sympathize, theAmericans, as did many bohemians at to be Native proved theon savages noble as Indians American romanticized who time observations about of extinction. Noguchi made additional verge - nannies imparting “grammat “famous Jewish noses,” “European” ladies,” and “poor” York ical hodge podge” to the babies of “New thing but turning the grinders who “don’t know one Italian organ handle.” gins in a distinctly American context. Noguchi noted that even a even that noted Noguchi context. American a distinctly in gins “San whom to of ladies” the “honorable list on is servant” “black car. on a street up their seat give would gentlemen” Francisco for their feigned devotionWhen Noguchi criticized white women a nigger he noted that they would rather “mumble to Christianity, the bible.” song than a chapter from the “Orient,” he worked strategically to promote his work. If his work. If to promote he worked strategically the “Orient,” would be Noguchi - this strategy however, was less conscious, color of people newest America’s even how example of an come them. perceived Americans escape how white could not in the writings, as demonstrated can Americans and the notjust Chinese in The can he rode the tide of exotic Japan while living in the United States. tide of exotic Japan while living in the United States. the he rode But then back in Japan, he marketed himself as a westerner in the 20 Amerasia Journal 2011 compelled himtomakethemostofhissituation. us ofhowlarger cultural andsocialforces shape ourmost per ny, andall-toocovert same-sex sexuality, Noguchi’s Diary reminds became impossiblewiththe vastmajorityofhisreaders. sive narrative, his intention tohaveDiaryserve as a protest piece Noguchi’s careful considerationincreating anengagingyetinci- and artists,Diary’s“campy”tonebecameindiscernible.Despite networks ofwriters fraternal permeated turn-of-the-century that those unfamiliar withtheculture ofexcess, decadence, andsatire ary asawindowintoNoguchi’ssame-sexaffair. Furthermore, to between aman and awoman would neverbeabletoimagine Di ence thatcouldonlyseemeaningfulcouplingasarelationship a critiqueof American stereotypes ofJapanvanished. An audi- When readers understoodthetextliterally, Noguchi’swork as Asians face writing for white and heteronormative America. but mostlywhite American ideasofJapan. Asian someJapanese, informedby American perspective—one presented a truly “Japanese” Japan, he ultimately articulated an in theJaponismetradition.EvenasNoguchiinsistedthathe proved notsodifferent from hiscontemporaries’textspublished ness inrelation totheWest. Intheend,Noguchi’srenderings trivialized Japanesewomen,andhighlightedJapan’sbackward- however, reinscribed only mystique andexoticism ofJapan, the book, The intimacies. same-sex Noguchi’s on treatise covert a as held evenby Americans sympathetictoJapaneseandalso can Japonisme. The book American Diary ofaJapaneseGirl, Noguchihopedtocritique Ameri- Through connotations. exotic its of all and race his for him hemians. Still, he grew disgusted with white Americans valuing violent racism,relished more favorableattentionfrom adoringbo- and professional achievement.Noguchi,whofaceddailyactsof fulfillment personal both out sought heternormativity,he and as Yone Noguchinegotiated multiple pressures of racism, Japonisme, As partoftheearliestwaveJapaneseimmigrantsto America, Conclusion came tenseinthe1930s. Tokyoin living while relationshipJapan’s when Westthe with be- underwent anotherstrategicmovetoidentifysimplyasJapanese Japanese press promote to expertise.He hisEnglishlanguage In the midst of its apparently disturbing Orientalism, misogy- that crevasse precarious the reflects text the reception, its In 88 Socialpressures andbarriersnodoubt pointed outshort-sightedpresumptions served served The The - - Miss Morning Glory 21

- - (accessed - Vin (:

- After Noguchi re 89 Orientalism 90 Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies American Diary of a Japanese Girl, An Annotated Edition, American Diary of a Japanese Girl, An Annotated I would never have been able to clarify the most interesting most interesting I would never have been able to clarify the : s Japonisme Comes to America: The Japanese Impact on the Graphic Arts, on the Graphic Arts, Japonisme Comes to America: The Japanese Impact

54:3 (1991): 627-628. (New York: Harry Abrams, 1990). Harry York: 1876-1925 (New An East-West Noguchi: Yone of English Writings “Selected Susan Napier, Literary Assimilation,” - Weis Meech and Gabriel P. tage Books, 1978). For Japonisme, see Julia berg, For more on Orientalism see Edward Said, Said, Edward see Orientalism on more For Yone Noguchi, The Yone Edward Edward Marx and Laura E. eds. Franey, (Philadelphia: Univer Temple sity Press, 2007): vi, xi, xii, xviii, 149; Cathryn - Halverson, To “‘Typical American Books and Bewitching Japanese Girls,” Arizona kio Smile’: Bad Quarterly 63:1 (Spring 2007): 72. October 22, 2006). www.temple.edu/tempress/titles/1765_reg.html See http://www.temple.edu/tempress/titles/1765_reg.html In his most intimate life, Noguchi yearned for something less life, Noguchi yearned for something In his most intimate

1 3. 2. 4. cknowledgment

A Notes ished ished for the value of his character rather than the signifiers of 1903, 1897 to photographs from recovered In three ethnicity. his rather Western in himself of images personalized sent Noguchi al- the latter had though even to Stoddard, than Japanese dress him in a kimono. On to see preference explicitly stated his ready on Stoddard” dearest my “For inscribed Noguchi 1897, 4, July vest. In jacket, and wearing a bow tie, a photograph of himself in a necktie, jacket, pictures April 1903, Noguchi took two more to Stoddard. and vest, and sent them off sonal decisions and its resulting implications for love and work. work.and love implications for and itsdecisions resulting sonal These paths both deliberately taken and foisted upon us are often riddled with conflicting desires and competingvalues. Noguchi - West navigating of difficulties the to testify writings queer his and in male privilege and heteronormativity, ern imperialism, racism, and financial stability. for self-determination the struggle to be cher implications.laden with socio-cultural He preferred arguments arguments without invaluable Tina Takemoto’s feedback. Arnold Pan’s astute I thank Russell Leong and editorial suggestions also made this paper stronger. for their detailed comments and encouragement. Ramón Gutiérrez turned to Japan in 1904, he continued to write Stoddard letters letters Stoddard write to continued he 1904, in Japan to turned him in Japan. Stoddard, of love, inviting him to come live with - in the United States, taking up correspon remained however, America dence with other young Japanese men who migrated to a heart died from Stoddard such as Issio Kuge. In January 1909, again. Yone attack without seeing

22 Amerasia Journal 2011

17. 16. 15. 14. 13. 12. 10. 11. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5.

Wadsworth Atheneum, 1990); ToshioWadsworthWatanabe,1990); Atheneum, (Hartford: William Hosley, andLifein Victorian Idea:Art Japan The America Bancroft LibrarySpecialCollectionswillbehereafter citedasBSC). C‑H 53(Berkeley:Bancroft LibrarySpecialCollections)(allpapers from the wise and Otherwise,”1900,Charles Warren Stoddard Papers, BANC MSS January 31,1903,CEL, Charles Warren Stoddard, Washington, D.C.to Yone Noguchi,London, February 1903,CEL,no.153. Charles Warren Stoddard, Washington,D.C. to Yone Noguchi,London,2 January 1903,CEL,no.154. Charles Warren Stoddard, Washington, D.C. to Yone Noguchi, London, 31 CEL, no.4. Charles Warren Stoddard, Washington, D.C.to Yone Noguchi, April 1897, 1897, HM37890,HuntingtonMSS. Yone Noguchi,San FranciscotoCharlesWarren Stoddard, August 18, Charles Warren Stoddard, May12,1898,HM37905,HuntingtonMSS. dard, October30(?),1897,HM37896,HuntingtonMSS; Yone Noguchito Huntington MSS; Yone Noguchi,SanFranciscotoCharlesWarren Stod- Yone NoguchitoCharlesWarren Stoddard, October8(?),1897,HM37895, Charles Warren Stoddard, August 6,1898,HM37909,HuntingtonMSS. CADimond, to YoneMSS; Heights, Huntington The HM37906, Noguchi, 1898, Warren4, Charles July Stoddard,CAto Dimond, Heights, The chi, Manuscripts willbehereafter citedasHuntingtonMSS); Yone Nogu- tington Manuscripts(SanMarino:HuntingtonLibrary)(all Yone NoguchitoCharlesWarren Stoddard, May12,1898,HM37905,Hun- raphy (New York: Oxford UniversityPress, 1999):478. Yone,” John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes, eds., collection willbehereafter citedasCEL); Yoshinobu Hakutani,“Noguchi, the from letters (all Society,1975) YoneNoguchi The (Tokyo: ed. sumi, (March 2000):23; Yone Noguchi,CollectedEnglishLetters, no.9,Ikuko - At YonejirōNijyūkokusekisha guchi no Futari Noguchi: Isamu to , Tokyo, Japan (hereafter cited as KSC); Nobuo Shiga, “No- [n.a.], [n.t.],[n.d.],Scrapbookof Yone Noguchi,KeioSpecialCollections, feminine gentilityratherthanacommitmenttoJapanese American equality. ited. Itmore aptlysignaled America’s culturalconsumptionofJapanese lim- was Japonisme of confines Without the by defined acceptance doubt, a Immigration Before Exclusion(Urbana:UniversityofIllinoisPress, 1999). Peffer,George Anthony in SanFrancisco’s Chinatown(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress, 2001); ple UniversityPress, 1999);NayanShah,ContagiousDivides:EpidemicsandRace Tem Robert Lee,Orientals:AsianAmericansinPopularCulture(Philadelphia: - Maude Eaton(Urbana:UniversityofIllinoisPress, 1995). ries on SanFrancisco Chinatown. Annette White-Parks,SuiSinFar/Edith guchi whohumanizedChinesein America withhersympatheticshortsto- Sui SinFar, amixed-heritageChinese Canadian, is a contemporary of No- Ibid. no. 154;CharlesWarren Stoddard, “NotesWise, Un- If They Don’t Bring Their Women Here: Chinese Female High Victorian Japonisme American National Biog ,” Kaigai Ijyō Kaigai 592 - Miss Morning Glory 23 - - - HM37937, (Urbana: Uni- (Urbana: October 30, 1897, 14-15; “A Musical Musical October 30, 1897, 14-15; “A Wasp, November 22, 1896, Scrapbook of Yone No- Yone of Scrapbook 1896, 22, November (New York, 1917). (New York, Onoto Watanna: The Story of Winnifred Eaton Winnifred Story of The Watanna: Onoto San Francisco Chronicle, October 17, 1897, 5; “Dramatic and Mu- San Francisco Chronicle, San Francisco Chronicle, Chronicle, Francisco San versity Press, 2003). versity Press, 29. Hosley, Embracing Embracing Yoshihara, Mari 1991); AG, Lang Cie and Herbert York: (New Uni Oxford York: (New Orientalism American and Women White East: the For For more on the significanceof theirinterracial, bicultural,and intergen erational affair see Amy Sueyoshi, “Intimate Inequalities: Interracial Af- Amy Sueyoshi, “Intimate Inequalities: Interracial see erational affair Noguchi, Yone Life of Love in the ‘Heterosexual’ fection and Same-Sex History 29:4 (Summer 2010): 22-44. 1897-1909,” Journal of American Ethnic [n.t.], guchi, KSC. Seen Noguchi, Unseen: and Snail - Monologues of a Homeless(San Fran Yone Barnett, 1897): nos. 1, 3, 19, 24, 43, 50. and Porter cisco: him- to referring twice, just Orientalist language used pages, he 51 Out of in one poem and as “a heathen idol” in the Orient” self as a “muse from Doxey, William Francisco: (San the Valley of Noguchi, Voice Yone another. 1897): 16, 42. Noguchi,TwiYone (May 1898), Huntington MSS; Noguchi, Twilight Yone light (June 1898), Huntington MSS. Gilbert, The Mikado W.S. “Through “Through the Opera Glass,” Comedy,” Comedy,” November 7, 1897, 5; Owen Hall, San Francisco Chronicle, sical Review,” The Geisha (London, 1896). Huntington MSS. by Himself Noguchi Told Noguchi, The Story of Yone Yone (Philadelphia: Jacobs, 1915): 16. W. George Noguchi), The American Diary of a Japanese Girl (Yone Morning Glory Miss Co., 1902): 60, 75, 80. Stokes, F.A. York: (New “The Flight of Japanese Butterfly: Yoshihara, Mari Orientalism, National- American Quarterly 56:4 ism, and Performances of Japanese Womanhood,” (2004): 975-1001. Diary, 238-40. Miss Morning Glory, Birchall, Diana versity of Illinois Press, 2001). versity of Illinois Press, 1903(?), Stoddard, Warren to Charles York Noguchi, New Yone Yone Noguchi, Dimond to Charles Warren Stoddard, August 26, 1899, August 26, 1899, Stoddard, Charles Warren Noguchi, Dimond to Yone HM37916, Huntington MSS. 36, 50, 56, 101-102, 105, 126. Diary, Miss Morning Glory, Ibid., 73-74, 78, 121, 125, 135, 152, 167, 229, 230, 258. Ibid., 14, 229-230. I borrow the term “mad Asian bitch” from performance artist Denise performance artist Denise Asian bitch” from the term “mad I borrow Asian and America Asian of stereotypes Uyehara, who satirically protests Denise Uyehara, “Hello (Sex) play. American woman in her one-woman

18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 32. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 33. 34. 35. 36.

24 Amerasia Journal 2011

51. 50. 49. 48. 47. 46. 45. 44. 43. 42. 41. 40. 39. 38. 37.

MSS. guchi to Charles Warren Stoddard, May 12, 1898, HM37905, Huntington Warren Stoddard, MSS; August 18,1897,HM37890,Huntington Yone No- Miss MorningGlory, Diary,136. Yone Noguchi,SanFrancisco toCharles Huntington MSS. chi, SanFranciscotoCharlesWarren Stoddard, September1897,HM37891, 1904, CEL,no.356;MissMorningGlory, Diary, Charles Warren Stoddard, Cambridge,MA,to Yone Noguchi, August 1, Austen, 46. Charles Warren Stoddard, MSS; 1897,HM37891,Huntington September Miss MorningGlory, Diary, wrote toNoguchiofhowDiaryinspired him. ed. (Amherst: University of Press, 1991).Stoddard infact Pagan: TheDouble LifeofCharlesWarrenGenteel Stoddard,JohnW. Crowley, Austen, Roger See novel.” gay “first Francisco’s San as Austen Roger Diary evenpredated Stoddard’s ForthePleasure ofHisCompany,citedby notated Edition 13(1995):8;Wada, andCanadianStudies American 56;Noguchi,Diary, An- Hiroaki Sato,“Yone Noguchi: Accomplishments &Roles,”Journalof See http://themargins.net/bib/D/d15.html (accessedJune8,2011). Miss MorningGlory, Diary, 4, 6,7,57,88,92,98,122. Gilbert “honourable lovestory.” MissMorningGlory, Diary, 66. The Geisha,could only blushwhenherfriend Miss Ada inquired about her Morning Glory, evenmore bashfulaboutintimacy thanthecharactersin Hall, TheGeisha Owen (Ph.D. dissertation,UniversityofCalifornia,Los Angeles, 2002):31-34. for GenderandSexualIdentityinMulti-EthnicSanFrancisco,1897-1924” the conclusion of the text. Amy Sueyoshi, “Race-ing Sex: The Competition Overland Monthly, who poured teafor white men cheerfully felldead by Chronicle,Invariably thesedelicatewomenintheSanFrancisco Wasp, and Yone NoguchitoBlanchePartington,1899(?),CEL,no.49. Ibid., 46,64,129,237. Miss MorningGlory, Diary, 10, 11, 53,61,96,160,242. fusion ofpidginEnglish.Noguchi,Diary, AnnotatedEdition,xviii. which anoccasional “sayonara”or“shoji”appeared inthemidstofapro- aggressively inserting Japanese, in contrast to contemporary novels, in interpretation thatNoguchi likelyhoped toproject authenticity bymore Miss Morning Glory, Diary, kin, TheChicagoEveningPost,November29,1902. lettering’s deliberate attempt toevokethe“Orient.”Frederick W. Good Miss MorningGlory, 1998): 375-409. eds., Kitty: Mad Asian Bitch onWheels,” Holly Hughes and David Román, O Solo Homo: The New Queer Performance(New York: Grove Press, , 32. , 134-144. Diary, cover. Onecritic picked uponthe “absurd” (London: Ascherberg,Hopwood &Crew, 1896):8. 4, 6, 14. Laura Franey asserts an alternative 127-128; Yone Noguchi,SanFranciscoto 191-92, 205,215; Yone Nogu- - Miss Morning Glory 25 - - 66 11, 11, Kosho Kosho Wandārando - Diary have with Nogu Albany (NY) Times Union, Novem- Times (NY) Albany October 20, Gazette, (MA) Worchester at the Asian American Sexualities conference at Sexualities conference American Asian at the , October 26 1902, Scrapbook of Yone Noguchi, KSC; Dal KSC; Noguchi, Yone of Scrapbook 26 1902, , October - (India America in Novel Homosexual The the Game: Playing New York York New KSC; Noguchi, Yone of Scrapbook 1902, 4, December 221. For additional examples on Morning Glory’s obsession with her 221. For additional examples on Morning Glory’s Yonejirō Noguchi Senshū, 64. Such likeness did Yonejirō 60. For more on reading Miss Morning Glory’s on reading 60. For more Diary, Glory, Miss Morning 69. see Halverson, Ada as homoerotic, with Miss interaction 175. Diary, Glory, Miss Morning chi’s real life that editor Frank Leslie chose not to include the section of Leslie chose not to include the section of life that editor Frank chi’s real article form of with Joaquin Miller in a condensed the Japanese girl living it had used a pseudonym for Miller because Diary, even though Noguchi out. came book the before author the of identity the reveal likely would 1899, September 11, Stoddard, Dimond to Charles Warren Noguchi, Yone Charles War Noguchi, Bayonne, N.J. to Yone MSS; HM37917, Huntington D.C., November 5, 1901, CEL, no. 100. Washington, Stoddard, ren Tracy D. Tracy Morgan, “Pages of Whiteness: Race, Physique Magazines, and - Elia and Mickey Beemyn Brett of Public Gay Culture,” the Emergence Anthology Transgender Bisexual, and Lesbian, Gay, son, eds., Queer Studies: A 1996): 282-290. University Press, York New York: (New For Noguchi - Nogu discussing the book as autobiographical, Yonejirō see chi, Roger Austen, Roger Austen, napolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1977). - online at: http://intergla Susan Sontag, “Notes on Camp,” 1964; available Fa- cial.com/~sburke/pub/prose/Susan_Sontag_-_Notes_on_Camp.html; (Ann bio Cleto, ed., Camp: Queer Aesthetics and the Performing Subject Arbor: 1999). I thank Eng-Beng Lim for raising this University of Michigan Press, question of “camp” in Diary the in March 2009. the University of Chicago in March 183, 69. Diary, Miss Morning Glory, Ibid., 119. 113, appearance see 5, 8, 9, 15, 50, 65, 110, Ibid., 152. Ibid., his 175. credit, Noguchi To perhaps included a handful of critiques He pointed to Japanese men’s lack of romance, of Japanese masculinity. position of and the submissive superiority, of male their overblown sense make hardly would pages five totaling vein this in comments Yet women. Diary, Morning Glory, equal status. Miss of women’s him a trumpeter 61, 167-169. Junya Yokota, “Noguchi, Yonejirō to Shin Seiki,” (2001), 77. see reviews positive of For examples Noguchi, KSC; Yone of Scrapbook 1902, Presbyterian Noguchi, KSC; Philadelphia Yone ber 15, 1902, Scrapbook of Journal, Noguchi, KSC. Yone Independence, December 18, 1902, Scrapbook of Weekly Noguchi, KSC. Yone 1903, Scrapbook of (NY) Citizen, January 11, Brooklyn See Japanese. artificially as book the declare critically more did handful A Journal Providence , December 8, 1902, Scrapbook of Yone Noguchi, KSC; Philadelphia Yone las News, December 8, 1902, Scrapbook of Noguchi, KSC. Yone December 13, 1902, Scrapbook of Press,

52. 53. 54. 56. 55. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64.

26 Amerasia Journal 2011

83. 82. 81. 80. 79. 78. 77. 76. 75. 74. 73. 72. 71. 70. 69. 68. 67. 66. 65.

Miss MorningGlory, Diary, 44-45. CEL, no.66. Funk &Wagnalls Company, New York Cityto Yone Noguchi,May3,1901, no. 322. Helen Bridyman, Brooklyn to Yone Noguchi, New York, May 1, 1904, 56, 63,98. 116, 118, 185.Forexamples ofexoticdepictions,see ibid., For examplesofcriticism,seeMissMorningGlory, 4,53,57,96,104,115- The AmericanLettersofaJapaneseParlor-Maid(Tokyo: Fuzanbo,1905). Temple University Press, 2002): 303; Miss Morning Glory (Yone Noguchi), (Philadelphia: History inCultural Essays America: Asian Early Collecting America,” JosephineLee,ImogeneLim,and Yuko Matsukawa,eds.,Re- Edward Marx,“’A Different ModeofSpeech’: Yone Noguchi inMeiji can; seeBirchall. and whiteparents wouldclaimtobeJapaneseandwhiteorsimplyMexi- negative connotations,somuchthatmixedraceindividuals of Chinese Sin Far wrote of how being of specifically Chinese descent had unbearably travels through America wouldhavedrawnfewerreaders toDiary. Sui his journaling fisherman Chinese laboring century,a the of turn the At Diary, AnnotatedEdition,xiv. The argument asserting Noguchi’s “protean identity” appears in Noguchi, I thankTina Takemoto forpointingtothispossibility. D.C., November5,1901,CEL,no.100. Yone N.J.toCharlesWarren Noguchi,Bayonne, Stoddard, Washington, for beautifulgirls”attheturnofcentury;seeHalverson,51. “vogue on howNoguchi capitalizedonthe Halverson elaborated Cathryn 1897); YoneNoguchi, Yone Noguchi,SeenorUnseen:MonologuesofHomelessSnail(SanFrancisco, 58. Avon, NY to Blanche Partington, Oakland, CA, August 17, 1900, CEL, no. Yone NoguchitoLéonieGilmour, July1901,CEL,no.84; Yone Noguchi, Yone NoguchitoCharlesWarren Stoddard, March 19,1900,BSC. women. Halverson,64. Diary Ippan Kyōiku Bukai Ronshu 17(1996):83;CathrynHalversonalsodescribed “ Ikuko Atsumi, Ibid., 80-81. Yone Noguchi,TheStoryofYone Noguchi Told byHimself, nist Campfrom MaeWest toMadonna(Durham: DukeUniversityPress, 1996). Camp seeMoeMeyer, tool “camp”asapolitical For of Poetics and ed.,ThePolitics Los AngelesHerald, City, November7,1902,CEL,no.124. Charles Warren Stoddard, Washington, D.C.to Yone Noguchi,New York (New York: Routledge,1994);PamelaRobertson,GuiltyPleasures: Femi - as reflecting Noguchi’s views about American as well as Japanese as well as American about views Noguchi’s reflecting as ,” tsuite,” ni Āmusu Eseru Li’ Ananberu ‘WagaYone Noguchi December28,1902,Scrapbookof Yone Noguchi,KSC. The Voice oftheValley . 81. 3, 19,27,54,55,

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Osaka Gakuin Osaka 63, 78, 151, 223; Yone No- Yone 223; 63, 78, 151, Mixed 6:7 (1987): 188. Paul Spickard, Blood: (Tokyo: Takemura Shobō, 1938); Kei - Takemura Nari Nihonjin (Tokyo: Ware Eibei Eibei Noguchi, no Jyūsannen, Yone 93-94, 103; Noguchi, Yone of Story 59, 63-66. While Noguchi clearly articulated American ideas of race, Japan clearly articulated 59, 63-66. While Noguchi valuing fairer Noguchi’s earliest lessons of racism in would also provide “Meiji Nakazawa, Kazutoshi people. white necessarily not though skin, 45 Kikou no Kangeki,” Shinchō America Century Identity in Twentieth Intermarriage and Ethnic (Madison: 1989). Press, University of Wisconsin Ibid., 102, 105, 129. Ibid., 61, 89. other about comments pejorative additional For 259. 172, 258, 129, Ibid., Diary, see Miss Morning Glory, people of color, guchi, guchi, H 53, BSC; Papers, BANC MSS C‑H 53, BSC; Stoddard ber 21, 1905, Charles Warren Austen, 167. Yone Noguchi, to Léonie Gilmour, July 5, 1903, CEL, no. no. CEL, 1903, 5, July Gilmour, Léonie to City York New Noguchi, Yone 217. Noguchi Yonejirō no “Noguchi Rondon: Yonejirō ko Wada, no Ayamekai ,” Naifun Yonejirō Noguchi, Yonejirō 2000): 14. 41 (March Daigaku Gaikokugo Ronshu graphs of Yone Noguchi, April 1903, Huntington MSS. Noguchi, Yone graphs of January 27, 1905, CEL, Stoddard, to Charles Warren Noguchi, Tokyo Yone no. 365; Issio Kuge, “The Stoddard, Heights” to Charles Warren Photograph of Yone Noguchi, July 4, 1897, Huntington MSS; two photo two MSS; July 4, 1897, Huntington Noguchi, Yone of Photograph

87. 84. 85. 86. 88. 89. 90.