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© 2011 – Sigrid Lipott All rights reserved - 2 - ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I would like to express my deep gratitude to the University of Trieste and to IUIES for providing me a scholarship during these three years of research and doctorial activities, giving me an excellent opportunity to dedicate to the study of a topic that has always been of particular interest to me and to carry out a field work abroad. I am grateful to Prof. Georg Meyr, who accepted to be my mentor, approved my project, helped me with the organization of the work and supported me in becoming assistant. I thank all the Professors I met during my Ph.D. in “Transborder Policies for the daily life” in Gorizia and in particular to its coordinator Professor Luigi Pellizzoni and previous coordinator Professor Alberto Gasparini, as without his teachings a relevant part of this thesis may have not been successfully accomplished, and to Prof. Anna Maria Boileau who gave precious help in order to clear up the methodology process. Last but not least I have to convey a special thank to all professors, public officers and experts who helped me during my time spent in Slovenia and Sweden, both through professional suggestions and through concrete collaboration to the good outcome of the research. I will list them here according to alphabetical order. Dr. Rosario Ali Taikon, Romani magazine E Romani Glinda. Prof. Lars Dencik, Professor of Social Psychology, Roskilde University. Dr. Stefan Mikaelsson, Chairman of the Plenary Assembly of the Sami Parliament Dr. Tina Friedreich, representative of the Roma community in Slovenia. Dr. Myrelle Gyllenback, project manager assistant, Roma Cultural Centre in Stockholm. Prof. Leena Huss, Hugo Valentine Centre, Uppsala University. Dr. Domino Kai, development officer at the Equality Ombudsman in Stockholm. Prof. Dr. Miran Komac, former Director of the Institute for Ethnic Studies in Ljubljana. Dr. Larisa Lacatus, Roma Cultural Centre in Stockholm. Dr. Lars Lindgren, principal analyst at the Discrimination Ombudsman and currently working at the Living History Forum within the mission based on the report Roma rights – a strategy for Roma in Sweden (SOU 2010: 55). Prof. Dr. Sonja Lukanovic, present Director of the Institute of Ethnic Studies in Ljubljana. Dr. Mojca Medvesek, researcher at the Institute for Ethnic Studies in Ljubljana. - 3 - Dr. Maja Mella, Director of operations, Svenska Tornedalingars Riksförbund- Tornionlaaksolaiset. Prof. Dr. Hans- Ingvar Roth, Professor at the faculty of Education at Stockholm University. Dr. Maurizio Tremul, president of Italian Union. - 4 - LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CoE Council of Europe CSCE Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe EBLUL European Bureau for Lesser Used Languages EC European Community ECHR European Convention for Human Rights EU European Union FCMN Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities OSCE Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe SR Social Republic TEC Treaty Establishing the European Community UN United Nations - 5 - TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3 ABBREVIATIONS 5 INTRODUCTION 10 PART I THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK INTRODUCTION TO PART I 17 CHAPTER I PRELIMINARY QUESTIONS: DEFINING AND ADDRESSING ETHNIC MINORITIES 1.1 - The concepts of minority and ethnicity 18 1.2 - Anthropological and sociological perspectives on ethnicity 25 1.3 - Origin of ethnic minorities 28 1.4 - Types of ethnic minorities 30 1.4.1 - The case of Roma transnational minority 35 1.4.2 - The meaning of ethnos in Northern and Central- Eastern Europe 39 1.5 - Types of majority- minority policy 41 1.5.1 - Assimilation 42 1.5.2 - Pluralism 44 1.5.3 - Population transfer 45 1.5.4 - Continued subjugation and extermination 47 1.5.5 - Legal protection 48 1.6 - Towards an almost legal definition of ethnic minority 50 CHAPTER II MINORITY RIGHTS STANDARDS IN EUROPE 2.1 - The international protection of minorities: from the origins until the Cold War 56 2.2 - Instruments of minority protection after 1989 60 2.2.1 - In the framework of OCSE 63 2.2.2 - In the framework of the Council of Europe 71 2.2.3 - In the framework of the E.U. 74 2.3 - Existing standards of minority protection in Europe 80 - 6 - PART II EVALUATION OF MINORITY RIGHTS IN SLOVENIA AND SWEDEN INTRODUCTION TO PART II 85 CHAPTER III MINORITY PROTECTION IN SLOVENIA 3.1- Ethnic structure of Slovenia 86 3.2- Ethnic minorities in Slovenia 93 3.2.1 - The Italians 96 3.2.2 - The Hungarians 101 3.2.3 - The Roma 103 3.3- Minority policies 110 3.3.1 - Under Yugoslavia regime 110 3.3.2 - After the independence of 1991 111 3.3.3 - In the wake of the E.U. accession 112 3.3.4 - Latest tendencies 113 3.4 - Legal protection of ethnic minorities 115 3.4.1 - Application of international agreements 117 3.4.2 - Constitutional provisions 118 3.4.3 - Education 120 3.4.3 - Use of language 122 3.4.5 - Political participation and representation 125 3.4.6 - Cultural life 127 3.4.7 - Information and the media 128 3.4.8 - Cross – border cooperation 130 3.5 - Conclusions 131 CHAPTER IV MINORITY PROTECTION IN SWEDEN 4.1- Ethnic structure of Sweden 139 4.2- Ethnic minorities in Sweden 145 4.2.1 - The Sami 146 4.2.2 - The Finns 148 4.2.3 - The Tornedalen Finns 150 4.2.4 - The Jews 152 4.2.5 - The Roma 153 4.2.6 - The Finland Swedes 156 4.3- Minority policies 158 4.3.1 - The assimilation policy from 1870 to 1935 158 4.3.2 - Towards integrated pluralism after Second World War 160 4.3.3 - In the wake of the E.U. accession 162 4.3.4 - 1999- 2009: an official recognition 163 4.3.5 - A new strategy since 2010 165 - 7 - 4.4- Legal protection of ethnic minorities 168 4.4.1 - Application of international agreements 174 4.4.2 - Constitutional provisions 175 4.4.3 - Education 175 4.4.4 - Use of language 177 4.4.5 - Political participation and representation 178 4.4.6 - Cultural life 181 4.4.7 - Information and the media 182 4.4.8 - Cross – border cooperation 186 4.5- Conclusions 192 PART III ASSESSMENT OF THE PRACTICE OF MINORITY PROTECTION INTRODUCTION TO PART III 204 CHAPTER V COMPARATIVE EVALUATION 5.1 - Comparative assessment of minority protection in Slovenia and Sweden 205 5.1.1 - A different starting point… 205 5.1.2 - …leading to some similarities 207 5.1.3 - The understanding of “national minority” 209 5.1.4 - Educational system 210 5.1.5 - Use of language 211 5.1.6 - Political participation and representation 212 5.1.7 - Cultural life 212 5.1.8 - Information and the media 213 5.1.9 - Cross – border cooperation 214 5.1.10 - Provisional conclusions 215 CHAPTER VI CASE- STUDIES AND SURVEY 6.1 - Aim of the empirical research 219 6.2 - Sampling method 220 6.3 - Presentation of the questionnaire 222 6.4 - Collection of results 226 6.5 - Analysis of results 228 6.5.1 - The Hungarian locally concentrated minority in Slovenia 228 6.5.2 - The Romany transnational minority in Slovenia 241 - 8 - 6.5.3 - The Tornedalian locally concentrated minority in Sweden 254 6.5.4 - The Romany transnational minority in Sweden 268 6.6 - Community membership feelings 282 6.7 - Final evaluation 286 CONCLUSIONS 287 APPENDICES Appendix 1 - Questionnaire in English language 295 Appendix 2 - Questionnaire in Hungarian language 300 Appendix 3 - Questionnaire in Slovene language 306 Appendix 4 - Questionnaire in Swedish language 311 Appendix 5 - Example of questionnaire cover letter 317 BIBLIOGRAPHY 318 SITOGRAPHY 325 - 9 - INTRODUCTION When we consider the patterns international relations in Europe are developing along, we must recognize that they cannot be appreciated only on the basis of inter-State relations. Nation-States are facing profound transformations under the pressure of broader powers, both at sub and at supra-national levels. In the framework of The European Union and of the different structures of the European States, new actors are playing, with proficient results, on the stage: federates entities, transnational groups, regions, Länder, provinces, municipalities and, last but not least, ethnic minorities.1 The minority question, or in other words the situation and rights of minorities, is closely linked to the universal principles of human rights, to democracy, peace, development, stability and the pluralism of cultural and political development in the modern world. The question of ethnic minorities is therefore connected to with fundamental determinants pertaining to the existence of individuals, groups and communities. Sometimes the minority question is regarded as a relic from the past, as a reactionary reflection of nationalism and ethnic exclusiveness, or still as an obsolete approach toward human beings, amounting to another limiting factor in human universality.2 On the other hand insistence on cultural and linguistic diversity enables us to recognize how these diversities link into the whole, thus shaping European identity. Shared historical experience, in which clashes, but also mutual attractions have derived from diversities of language, religion, value systems and ethnic awareness or adherence, provides content for two processes; integration and disintegration. These run in parallel, either stimulated or discouraged, depending on the dominant forces and options for a particular political moment. In these processes, the coexistence of majorities and minorities has a fundamental significance, essential for the future shape of Europe. A lot depends on the positive outcome of this coexistence: not only internal stability of the individual countries that make up the common whole of Europe but also the way in which Europe’s joint shape crystallizes from the relationship between the member States. ___________________ 1 See G. Conetti, International and transfrontier relations, ISIG magazine, December 2004.