Local Communities' Attitudes and Support Towards the Kgalagadi
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sustainability Article Local Communities’ Attitudes and Support Towards the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park in Southwest Botswana Naomi Moswete 1 , Brijesh Thapa 2,* and William K. Darley 3 1 Department of Environmental Science, University of Botswana, Gaborone 00704, Botswana; [email protected] 2 Department of Tourism, Hospitality and Event Management, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA 3 College of Business and Innovation, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]fl.edu; Tel.: +1-352-294-1656 Received: 16 January 2020; Accepted: 12 February 2020; Published: 18 February 2020 Abstract: Protected areas are of national importance and have developed into sources of benefits while in other situations have sparked conflicts among stakeholders, including residents from adjacent local communities, and park authorities. In this study, we examined community residents’ attitudes towards the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP) in the Kalahari region (SW Botswana). This study assessed factors that influence support for, or opposition to, the KTP. A questionnaire with semi-structured questions was used to gather information from head of households (N = 746) in nine villages in the Kalahari region. Overall, positive attitudes and support for the KTP as a transfrontier park were documented, though tangible benefits were limited. Further based on analyses, literacy, proximity, and employment status were key variables that influenced support. In addition, any increase in residents’ perceived benefits, land ownership, conservation awareness, and local benefits resulted in increased support for KTP. The implications indicated that communities near the KTP (Botswana side) need to be consulted, while further communications between the KTP management and authorities and adjacent villages are required to initiate effective community conservation programs. Additional programs and community outreach initiatives would also enable positive attitudes and support of KTP. Keywords: conservation; Transboundary Park; residents; attitudes; Kalahari; southern Africa 1. Introduction Parks and protected areas are generally associated with benefits and related values (monetary, pride) by local residents due to improved quality of the environment, and other social and economic benefits including employment [1–10]. However, local residents’ attitudes towards protected areas in the developing world have been mixed [1,3,11–17]. Research has identified various factors that influence negative attitudes such as, human-wildlife conflict [14,18–22], land claims [23–25], restrictive policies and access regulations to collect non-timber forest products (e.g., nuts, wild mushrooms, berries, seeds, medicinal plants and herbs, etc.), and livestock grazing [18,24,26–30]. Conversely, positive attitudes have been influenced by community and personal economic benefits largely derived from tourism [4,22,31–37]. As evident, there are challenges faced by stakeholders (i.e., local residents, resource managers, park authorities, tourism planners, developers, and conservation organizations) with respect to the balance of conservation priorities and livelihood needs [7,38–42]. In general, rural people in developing countries experience hardships and have had difficulties with minimal resources due to climate change, limited agricultural production as a result of Sustainability 2020, 12, 1524; doi:10.3390/su12041524 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2020, 12, 1524 2 of 17 unreliable rainfall and recurring droughts, and population growth in villages flanking protected areas [6,10,13,21,26,34,43–47]. In southern Africa, livelihood activities with sole dependence on forest and rangeland resources have caused, and in some instances, exacerbated soil and land degradation [48,49]. Subsequently, instances of conflicts over natural resource use between different stakeholders that include park authorities and adjacent local communities [15,24,50–52] have also fueled unsustainable livelihood activities such as illegal hunting, overharvesting of rare species of flora and fauna [32]. In response, rural communities have resorted to new livelihood ventures, such as park-based community ecotourism and wildlife safaris enterprises in the form of Community-based Organizations (CBOs) or Trusts near or in Protected Areas (PAs) [5,47,52–55]. In Botswana, the government has introduced the concept of community based natural resource management (CBNRM) and community based organization (CBOs) (e.g., wildlife based Trusts) as a strategy to diversify rural livelihoods and reduce competition for the same resources among stakeholders [24,49]. It is through such initiatives that rural communities are encouraged to establish CBOs (Trusts) to develop community-based tourism enterprises from which they collectively plan, make decisions, manage and operate tourism enterprises and share benefits [5,56,57]. Thus, many rural communities especially those found in or near resource rich (i.e., fauna, flora, and cultural-heritage) protected areas have formed CBOs/Trusts which are comprised of one or several villages with equal rights of ownership and management. For instance, local residents of Khwai, Sankuyo and Mababe villages in the Okavango Delta region were found to benefit from ecotourism ventures via their CBOs/Trusts [54]. In the southern Kalahari region, marginalized communities with CBOs/Trusts accrued benefits from ecotourism activities tied to wildlife in PAs [33,47,58]. Likewise, residents of Khawa village and Ngwatle, Ukhwi and Ncaang settlements, all are located in the Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) derived benefits from CBNRM - safari hunting operations through their CBOs/Trusts [56]. WMAs are areas reserved by the government for wildlife uses and other conservation activities. Permitted land uses are for consumptive or non-consumptive wildlife utilization. These areas are situated in the buffer zones of PAs and mitigate land uses conflicts, and are used for migratory corridors for wildlife [59]. Overall, tourism activities that occur in all types of protected areas create opportunities (e.g., tour guides, entrepreneurial activities (e.g., beadwork for souvenirs)) as well as lead to increased competitiveness as destinations [3,5,35,36,60,61]. Hence, it is important that local people are actively involved in all spheres of decision-making with regards to community-based ventures [33,37,62], and conservation of resources (i.e., fauna, flora, and cultural heritage) [7,53,63]. 2. Site Context The southwest Kalahari region is popularly known for and is associated with the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP) that is conterminous with Botswana and South Africa (see Figure1). KTP is the first transboundary protected area to be created in southern Africa [48,64,65], and has become important for conservation as well as sources of livelihood for local people that reside within or adjacent to it [5,7,41,52,58]. In Botswana, national parks and game reserves were created to safeguard and maintain wildlife resources, preserve biodiversity, integrate conservation and development activities, foster ecological education and promote park-based tourism to benefit environmental resources and people [41,66,67]. The government’s commitment to conservation and preservation of the natural and cultural resource base, and the promotion of sustainable utilization of such assets are evident [29,68]. The protection and preservation of wildlife resources inside and/or in the Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) or buffer zones of PAs have created increased numbers of wild animals in some parts of Botswana [69]. There has also been benefits in terms of improved grass cover and biomass for wild animals and for grazing domesticated animals—goats and sheep. It is also in these WMAs that local people have established CBOs through which they venture in tourism—e.g., photographic tourism and community camping sites for wilderness or nature-based tourists. 3 of 16 Agriculture in the Kgalagadi region only benefits a number of small to medium scale commercial farmers [48,64,71], and there is over exploitation of tree resources, especially adjacent to villages and settlements [39,47,72]. Thus, recent recommendations include the necessity for alternative livelihoods Sustainabilityin which rural2020, 12people, 1524 could use rangeland in a sustainable manner to benefit themselves and3 ofthe 17 environment [29,32,41,50]. FigureFigure 1. 1.Map Map of of Botswana Botswana depictingdepicting Wildlife Manage Managementment Areas Areas (WMAs) (WMAs) and and the the location location of of Kgalagadi TransfrontierKgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP) inPark southwest (KTP) in Botswana southwest (P.G. Botswana Koorutwe). (P.G. Koorutwe). InAdditionally, the case of thethe Kgalagadi,Kgalagadi region studies has have high identified unemployment that rangelands along with have limited supported opportunities a diversity to ofinitiate wildlife income and generating livelihood activities activities [47]. such The as KTP game offers ranches opportunities (Tsabong, to Maubelo further capitalize and Maralaleng on and villagesdevelop Trustcommunity-based/CBO located in ecotourism Tsabong, Kgalagadi initiatives south) [32,33,47,61]. [32], subsistence The recent hunting, emphasis and on gathering sustainable [70]. Agricultureecotourism initiatives in the Kgalagadi demands region that local only people’s benefits involvement a number of in small tourism to medium ventures, scale especially commercial those farmersthat reside