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Home , Kannada grammar, Third declension

KANARESE

With Graduated Exercises

BY HAROLD SPENCER, B.A.

REVISED BY W. PERSTON, B.D .

MYSORE CTrY PRINTED AT THE WESLEY PRESS 1950

PREFACE

The revision of `Spencer's Grammar' was undertaken some years ago at the request of the Rev. H. H. Newham, at that time General Superintendent of the Methodist Missionary Society in Mysore State, the Mission Press having published the original edition, as also its predecessor, the `Elementary Grammar' of the Rev. Thomas Hodson (1859). The work could not be taken up at once and has had to be done in oddments of time. When it was decided to make a revision, it was agreed to make it fairly thorough that it might reflect, to some extent at least, the changes which have taken place in written and spoken Kanarese as a result of the notable literary renascence of the period since this grammar was written. The year after l Mr. Spencer's book was published, that is, 1915, is commonly regarded as marking the appearance of a new interest in the history of Kanarese literature and a new effort to make the language an effective medium of expression in the, modern world. This was the year of the establishment of the Sahitya Parishat, the Kanarese Literary Academy. As fruit of the labours of the founders of the Academy and their coadjutors great changes have been wrought in the language as popularly written and spoken. The movement represented a reaction away from a highly Sanskritized style of writing, a style of resounding compound , ornate figures and labyrinthine sen- tences, and towards the natural idiom of Kannada as found in old ballads and folk tales. Its result is seen in substantial literary achievement of considerable variety. From the point of view of language the consequence has been to forge a fresh style for popular writing and journalism, as also for factual statements in history and branches of modern knowledge. Characteristic words and idioms have been restored to use which undeservedly had been allowed to lapse. No change has been made in the general form of Mr. Spencer's book. The features which distinguished the first edition are retained, namely, the graded exercises in translation and a certain amount of exposition . The transliteration of

iv Kannada words in Roman letters which characterized the first edition throughout, has been abandoned after the first three lessons, except in the case of technical terms of grammar. A chapter has been added on the forms of Kanarese correspondence CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS as an aid to those who take the language examinations appointed Page 6, col. 2, third letter, read "i" for " 1". for missionaries . 10, footnote 1, for r read r. Of the colleagues whose opinion Mr. Spencer was able to 13, third line from bottom, read ri fore. obtain during the composition of his book none remains in the 16, right hand column, read ihri for jhri and ri throughout the column . country. Mr. Spencer was good enough to send from England 17, left hand column ; read thri for Fhri and ri throughout the column . a series of notes he had made. The opinion of the colleagues 18, in jnipaka long a has got detached from tvs ; the form should be who have taken the place of those whose names were quoted WV ; cf. the footnote. in the original preface has been elicited from time to time on  48, small type pare, after "plural", read comma for stop and the small various points. Pandit K. Hanumanta Rao has been consulted letter for the capital in "If". on doubtful matters. 56, footnote, read "samiaya rupa" for "samia yarupa." As in the composition of this_work, so in its revision, the old 121, line 11, the subscript s` in dam Qt has got broken. and standard have been used, Dr. Kittel's edition of 126, footnote one, add "For other exceptions, see p. 300." Sabdamanidarpana, his own grammar based on that, the 145, add to the paragraph ins mall type: "See further on this subject Hosagannadanudigannadi of Krishnamaehirya (1838) together footnote on p. 338." with Dr. Kittel's monumental dictionary. So also more recent 154, Vocabulary, under +d,Aoti ; for "pron. and", read "and pron." books such as the University of Mysore Kannada Keipidi, the 161, footnote 5, for (n.) read (1 n.). Silivyikarana of the Basel Mission Press, Sabdidar§a, the 165, footnote 1, last line, for the semicolon read a comma. Madhyama Vyikarana of Mr. T. N. Srikantaiya, and others, 166, footnote 8, remove the stop after "Past". have been consulted. An occasional illustrative example has 223, footnote 4, read "INS true, truth (1 n.)". been taken from these works. It is hoped that no breach of 227, 9th line from bottom of page, after "rat) he is not" read rights or etiquette has taken place which may not be met by "(35'2d), yes, he is)". In the following line after "no" read grateful acknowledgment. "not ours (ad''Llo yes, - ours)" . Acknowledgments are due to my assistants in the Diocesan 230, small type pars, delete "etc.", at end. Office for clerical and other help, as also to our Kannada 246, footnote 6, for "n." read "m. ". Literature Department and the management of the Wesley 248, sixth line from bottom, read 8 for t. Press for exemplary patience. 285, footnote 3, read "see" for "sec". W. P. 347, footnote 2 to be read thus : edom pitiable ; iddun (Kan . vthta) Bangalore, pity ; delete footnote 12. April, 1950

ABBREVIATIONS

A (in 3A) for the 3A interj ., interjection CONTENT'S acc ., interr., interrog .,interrogative adj ., irreg., irregular INTRODUCTION PAGES adjctvl ., adjectival Kan., Kanarese adv., adverb loc., advbl., adverbl ., adverbial m., masculine CHAPTER I alt., alternative n., neut., neuter LESSON I. THE --- B (in 313), the 313 declension neg., negative c. (cum), with nom., Combination of Vowels with Consonants cf., compare p., page EXERCISE I...... 6-17 conj., conjugation partc., ptc ., ptcp., LESSON II . THE ALPHABET (contd.)-Combination of conjunction ptcpl., participial Consonants with Consonants-ExERctsE II cont., contingent pf., perf., perfect -Semi-Vowels, or Semi-Consonants-Ex. dat ., pers ., person decl ., declension plu ., plural ERCISE III...... 18-25 e.g., for example postp., postposition LESSON III . MUTATIONAL COMBINATION OF LETTERS ex., example pref., prefix (4oq~ sandhi)-EXERCISE IV...... 26-30 emph., emphatic pres., present f., feminine pro., pron., fut., future redupl ., reduplication CHAPTER II gen., rel., relative LESSON IV . CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS-Classification honfc., honorific a., sing., singular according to Origin-Classification accor- i.e., that is Sk. (Skt .), ding to Grammatical Use- impv ., imperat., imperv.,imperative tad ., tdb., tadbhava AND CONJUGATIONs-The Three Declen- mood tr., transitive () inf., infin., infinitive mood vbl ., verbal sions-Gender-Number-Case-Person- inatr., voc., TheTwo Conjugations-Moods, Tense and intr., intrans., intransitive (verb) ...... 31-39 LESSON V. THE -Masculine-THE FIRST CONJUGATION-Imperative-Present Tense-SYNTAX-The Present Tense-De- monstrative -The Sentence EXERCISE V...... 40-45 LESSON VI . THE FIRST DECLENSION (contd.)-Feminine -Personal of the Third Person- THE FIRST CONJUGATION (contd.)-Future Tense-SYNTAX-The F u t u re Tense- Translation o£ `And '-EXERCISE VI. ... 46-49 LESSON VII. THE FIRST DECLENSION (contd.)-Neuter- THE FIRST CONJUGATION (contd.)-Past

viii ix VERBAL Tense--SYNTAX-The Past Tense-The PAGES LESSON XVI . USE of PARTICIPL99---Coatotnpo- PAGRi Crude Form of compounded with raneous or Successive Actions-Manner, Means, Cause-Verbal followed -The de ddj dJvaru, God- EXERCISE VII...... 50-53 by a Negative Verb-Participles followed LESSON VIII. THE -MaSCUline-THE by a Finite Verb having a different Subject FIRST CONJUGATION (contd.)-Contingent -EXERCISE XVI ...... 106-114 Form-SYNTAX-The Contingent Form- LESSON XVII. NOUNS OF RELATIONSHIP-PRONOUNS-First Interrogative Sentences-ExsRcxsE VIII- ... 54-60 Person-Second Person-SPECIAL USES OF LESSON IX. THESECOND DECLENSION (co. ;td.)-Feminine THE PLURAL-Honorific Plural Dvandva- -The FIRST CONJUGATION (contd.)-Im- sam4sa-TaE IRREGULAR VERB 'A perative Mood-SYNTAX-Personal Pro- Continuative Forms of Verbs-Perfect nouns of the Third Person-Postpositions- Forms of Verbs-The Verb %d) with the The irregular verbs, mW, tad), ;kJ, -#ALSJ, Dative Case-ExERCI8E XVII...... 115-125 azda, fact)-EXERCISE IX...... 61-65 LESSON XVIII. PRoNouNs(contd.)-Emphatic and Reflexive LESSON X. THE SECOND DECLENSION (contd .)-Neuter Pronoun aaida tdnu-Third Person Neuter -THE FIRST C O NJ UG A T I O N (contd.)- Pronoun-THE I N'S T R UME NTAL CASE-- Negative Mood-ExERcisE X...... 66-69 EXERCISE XVIII ...... 126--132 LESSON XI. THE THIRD DECLENSION-The Third (A) LESSON XIX . VERBS ENDING IN '44o im, ETC.-THE Declension -- THE FIRST CONJUGATION IRREGULAR VERB foa hoqu- EXERCISE (contd.)-Participial and Infinitive Forms- XX...... 133-141 (contd.)-Interrogative Pro- The Verbal in emda-EXERCISE XI. 70-78 LESSON XX. PRONOUNS LESSON XII . THETHIRD DECLENSION (contd.)-The Third nouns oipdgi yavanu, 44~) e-Repetition (B) Declension-THE FIRST CONJUGATION of Pronouns, em-WORDS OF NUMBER- OF (contd .)-Negative Forms-The irregular WORDS OF QUANTITY-THE DATIVE THE POINT OF XX...... verbs, oda, agat ria, ejria-EXERCISE XII. 79-85 TIME-EXERCISE 142-155 OF LESSON XIII. REcAPITULATORY-Conspectus of Regular LESSON XXI. WORDS MANNER-PRONOMINAL ENDINGS Declensions-Construction ofFinite Verbal ATTACHED To GENITIVE CASE - USE OF Forms-Paradigm of First Conjugation INTERROGATIVE WoRDs-THE LOCATIVE Verb-SYNTAX-Use of Crude Form of CASE-ExERcisz XXI...... 156-164 UNINFLECTED WORDS Ozaia avyaya-Used Nouns-Emphatic " Affix enra - EXERCISE LESSON XXII. as Postpositions, along with Relative Parti- XIII ...... 86-94 LESSON XIV . THE SECOND CONJUGATION-Paradigm- ciples and as independent Adverbs-as Adjectives-Uninflected Forms partly or The irregular verbs, few, of o.), 9#,pdoa declinable-Conjunctions-Onoma- EXERCISE XIV...... 95-99 wholly topoeic (Imitative) Words-Interjections- CHAPTER III Affixes-ExERcin XXII. ... 165-180 UNINFLECTED WORDS (contd.)--Notes on LESSON XV. CLASSIFICATION OF DECLINABLE WORDS- LESSON XVIII. Nouns-Pronouns-Words of Number and some Indeclinables-EXERcisz XVIII. 181-188 UNINFLECTED WORDS (contd.)-Unconjuga- Quantity-Words of Manner-Adjectives LESSON XXIV, ted Verbal Forms-ExERciss XXIV . ... 189-196 and `Adjectival Noun&'-EXERCISE XV. 100-105

x LESSON - XXV. SOME COMMON IRREGULAR VERBS, tdda bare PAGES possibility, etc.-tftia denoting Relation- PAGES -.5W =au-tsrb agu-Combination of tut) ship-wria in Passive significance--urb and lad-Combination of tiria with with Aadeu modalu and Wao ;9.) muntu- Uninflected Verbal Forms-EXERCISE XXV. 197-202 EXERCISE XXXVII...... 263-269

LESSON XXVI. RELATIVE PARTICIPLES-The Translation of LESSON XXXIV. IDIOMATIC USES OF SOME COMMON VERBS 44u-Ex. English Adjectival Clauses-ExERcisE alatrb hogu-antfo haku-Waa XXVI...... 203-209 ERCISE =IV ...... 270-275 LESSON XXXV. USES OF THE INFINITIVE-Compound Sen- LESSON XXVII. RELATIVE PARTICIPLES (contd.)-The Trans- tences with Change of Subject-Infinitive lation of English Adverbial Clauses- Purpose--Usages resembling Accusative Temporal-Local-Final-Manner and of Infinitive Degree -Comparative - Causal - Condi- with Construction-Infinitive as tional and Concessive-Appositional use of Verbal Noun-Passive Conjugation-Other Methods translating the English Passive- Relative Participles-The Relative Partici- of 6 ar-W36 ple takka-The Tense of Relative DEFECTIVE VERBS-tPD bal- ue6 ol-ExERCisE XXXV. Participles-EXERCISE,XXVII. ... -- 210-220a 276--286 LESSON XXXVI . THE I M P ER A T I VE MOOD-ABBREVIATED LESSON XXXVII. NEUTER PARTICIPIAL NOUNS-THE NEGA- FORMS OF PRONOUNS AND VERBS-REPETI- TIvEs mt) ills, 00 alla-The Translation TION OF WORDS-EXERCISE XXXVI. ... 287-292 of `Yes' and 'No'-EXERCiss XXXVII. ... 221-229 LESSON XXIX. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES-Concessive Clauses CHAPTER IV -Idiomatic use of UddA adaru-ADVERSA- TIVE CLAUSES-ALTERNATIVE CLAUSES LESSON XXXVII. IRREGULAR VERBS-Class I--Class II-#Ja kuri-Class III-Section (a)-Sid tnnu- AND WORDS-ILLATIVE CLAUSES-EXERCISE a XXIX- 230-238 4~{ (e 4a) ennu (annu)-Idiomatic Uses in Reported Speech- LESSON XXX. ADJECTIVES AND THEIR EQUIVALENTS-Des- of 44a-.Joda endu criptive Nouns-'Adjectival Nouns '-Kar- aod3 in translating Clauses of Reason= .hod .) madharaya Samasa and Adjectives-Nouns in translating Final and Jussive used Adjectivally-Relative Participles- Clauses-Direct and Indirect Speech- EXERCISE XXX...... 239-245 EXERCISE XXXVII...... 293-302 ADJECTIVES AND THEIR EQUIVALENTS (contd.) LESSON XXXVII. FURTHER IDIOMATIC USES OF LESSON XXXI. )4a Sanskrit Adjectives-Sanskrit Adjectival ennuva, sot) emba-.)ot);34) embavanu, Nouns-To distinguish Sanskrit from .)oWo ;*da embuvudu, etc.-.)odd endare- Kanarese Words-Comparison-EXERCISE e9od ante-ExERcisE XXXVII...... 303-309 XXXI...... 246-254- LESSON XXXVX. IRREGULAR VERBS (contd.)--Class III (b)- LESSON XXXII. THE CASES-ACCUSATIVE-DATIVE-GENI Class III (c)--&)da baru-&Isev l biju-Class TIVE--EXERCISE XXXII...... 255-261 IV-4ioi33 iyu--nai...) sdyu-Class V-4 da LESSON XXXVII. IDIOMATIC USES OF tiri)-fin in Adverbial kedu-0dj bidu-eadda hora4u-vzma sense-tfC0J4a ayitu representing Com- kanu-Class VI-4ria nagu-ExERcisE pleteness-Neuter Forms in sense of XXXVX...... 310-317

LESSON XL. RwAPITULATORY-The Order of Words PAGES and Phrases in a Kanarese Sentence-The The Order of Clauses in a Kanarese sentence -Translation of the English Infinitive Mood-Co-ordinate Clauses-EXERCISE XL...... 318-325 KANARESE GRAMMAR LESSON XLI. THE TRANSLATION OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES (contd.) -Adjectival - Adverbial - Noun Clauses-EXERCISE XLI...... 326-333 INTRODUCTION CHAPTER V KANARESE GRAMMATICAL USAGES CONTRASTED WITH ENGLISH LESSON XLII. KANNADA SANDHI-Kanarese Sandhi -Kanarese Sandhi-EXERCISE This handbook is designed for the use of those who desire XLII...... 334-339 to learn the modern form of Kannada (anglice Kanarese), their LESSON XLIII. SANSKRIT SANDHi-Sanskrit Vowel Sandhi own mother tongue being English. The obvious initial obstacle -Sanskrit Consonant Sandhi-EXERCISE in this endeavour is that of acquiring an accurate pronunciation XLIII...... 340-350 LESSON XLIV. SAMASA-Sanskrit Samosa-ExERcIsE- of the words of the language. And here Kanarese does present XLIV ...... 351-356 considerable difficulty to a foreigner who knows no other Indian LESSON XLV. Kanarese Samosa-Hybrid Samosa-EXER- language . It may be hoped that, when the work of the Phonetics clsE XLV...... 357-367 Association of the Mysore University has been more fully there will be a possibility of affording a clear and LESSON XLVI . CORRESPONDENCE IN KANARESE ...... 368-376 developed, accurate account of Kanarese pronunciation such as would form APPENDIX I. NOUNS OF RELATIONSHIP ...... 379-382 a reliable guide to a foreign student; but that time is not yet. APPENDIX II. CARDINAL NUMBERS (NEUTER FORMS)- In the paragraphs which follow, the roman alphabet, pointed Fractions ...... 383-385 used to indicate Kanarese sounds . This use APPENDIX III . IRREGULAR VERBS ...... 386-396 where necessary, is APPENDIX IV. IMITATIVE WORDS ...... 397-399 is explained in Lesson I. But all such suggestions as are there APPENDIX V. THE CALENDAR, TIMES AND SEASONs-The made amount to no more than an approximate indication of the Day-The Week-The Month-The Year proper sounds. A passable pronunciation can only be achieved -The Rains-Cycles ...... 400-404 with the help of someone whose mother tongue is Kanarese. APPENDIX VI . LIST OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS ...... 405-406 When the pronunciation difficulty has been partly overcome VOCABULARIES (1) KANARESE ...... 407-430 it is important that as soon-as possible a beginning be made in (2) ENGLISH ...... 431---444 NOTE ON PUNCTUATION ...... 445 the use of such sentences as may be learnt. To help make such INDICES (1) SUBJECTS ...... 446--4.48 use intelligent and to facilitate the acquisition of fresh (2) KANARESE WORDS ANNOTATED IN THE sentences, certain features of Kanarese grammatical usage which LESSONS ...... 449-452 make it differ from English are here discussed in a preliminary way.

INTRODUCTION 3 2 KANARESE GRAMMAR Take the Kanarese sentence en ,, ;60r\A ,z~ o3a~a zSeM Its ending shows that it is an adverb and, generally speaking, anna (nu) tangi(ge) bale [y] (annu) begane taruvanu.' a Kanarese adverb will always show that it is such by one o£ eri e3~ Translated literally, it says, `(The) elder-brother to (his) younger- a number of endings such as, age, ane and, especially, sister (a) bangle quickly will bring." In the Kanarese sentence ein dgi. But in Kanarese it is not only words which English there is nothing in the order of the subject, the indirect and direct regards as adverbs that take the adverbial ending. Nouns and objects which calls for comment, as it corresponds with the adjectives which complete the sense of a verb and are used, as normal English order. The adverb, as in English, is brought as we say, predicatively also have the adverbial ending. For example, near to the verb it modifies as the sense will allow ; but here the sentence, 'The boy grows tall', is rendered z3s o3.:~s~~ beleyuttdne. a difference comes to view. In Kanarese, the adverb practically d~~r1 huduga(nu) ettara[v]dgi . in sentences never follows the verb it modifies, in the English fashion, but Here the word for 'tall' is adverbial in form So adjective complement, precedes it. This is connected with the general rule in Kanarese where the verb 'to be' occurs with a noun or will take adverbial that the finite verb closes the sentence. the complement, according to Kanarese usage, 40'A 'ad In the transliteration above, the letter in square brackets form. 'That flower is red' is translated U Z&r~4, may be disregarded, for the present. It is one of a few letters d hu, [v] (u) kethpagel . ide. copulative, which, for the sake of euphony, are inserted between the crude In colloquial speech, the verb 'tobe',thus used as a the forms of words and grammatical endings. The letters in the is often omitted and with it the adverbial ending of tl 4o ;~ small brackets are case endings. They here stand for the fact predicative noun or adjective. Thus we may say, that, in formal Kanarese, practically all nouns and pronouns in d huvu kempu. Examples of this usage are to be found on page 21 . UO=rat sentences have case endings. Let us add a short sentence to our first example : ;~ taruva The word ucK~~ anna (nu), above, must be translated adj e9 ~~ e5diz:~ bale [y] (annu) 'the elder brother', and z,~4o~L-c~ bale [y] (annu), 'a bangle'. anna (nu) adannu' chdpe [y] (a) mele iduvanu, 'The elder-brother bangle will place it on the mat.' Here, the word It is to be noted that Kanarese has neither definite nor indefinite who brings the article. In the Kanarese sentence above the nouns themselves taruva, 'who brings", represents a grammatical form which is convey a complete and clear meaning; but in some sentences peculiar to the family of languages to which Kanarese belongs. . There are no relative pronouns the sense of the indefinite article of English is represented by It is called a relative participle includes in itself the sense the adjective t,,0d,~ ondu (n.), tQz-~, obba (m. and f.), in Kanarese. The relative participle finite verb of an English 'one', and the definite article by the demonstrative adjective of both the relative pronoun and the ej d, 'that', 'those', or * i, 'this', 'these'. This is easy to adjectival clause. It is participial in form and, as an adjective, would be the understand as 'the' is a demonstrative adjective like 'that' and qualifies the word which in in English. If we speak 'this', and 'an' or 'a' is just a shortened form of 'one'. antecedent. Analogies are not wanting or a sound as 'ear-splitting', Attention has already been drawn to the adverb Z3e7~4 begane. of a policy as 'forward-looking' the two participles are equivalent to 'which looks' and 'which 1 With reference to these transliterations it ought to be noticed that in crude form kedipu, 'redness', is elided on Kanarese writing no letter is ever silent (the units in a doubled consonant are 1 In this word the final u of the elision offinal u is very common, exception), and this applies to the transliteration. the addition ofthe adverbial ending age. Such no 3 Or 'which brings'. A vocabulary is given below. ' adu, 'it', with the acc. ending annu.

I{ANARESE GRAMMAR -INTRODUCTION 5 splits'. `Battle-scarred' is an example of similar use of the Another difference between English and Kanarese is that in past participle. The relative participle covers the sense of such the latter, when addressing persons, and even with reference to instances along with all the constructions in which English uses people not present, the singular number can only be used in the relative pronouns and relative adverbs. It has other uses also. case of juniors and servants (Lesson XVII). These are discussed in Lessons XXVI and XXVII ; but it is as well to accustom the mind to the form as soon as possible. Words used above The sentence above illustrates the fact, also, that, in Kanarese, (The Pronunciation must be learned from a Munshi) the place of what in English are called prepositions is taken by etc anna, elder brother UCS4a adannu, it (acc.) ' postpositions' . That is, the particles which govern nouns and ooh tangi, younger sister znt chape, mat pronouns (in Kanarese chiefly in the genitive case) come after u4 bale, bangle &~d mile, on the words they govern and not before. Thus &~d mile, ' on', z3P riN bigane, quickly iduvanu, he will place comes after za,Da chape, `mat'. taruvanu, he will bring :~OL~J tandu, having brought Our original sentence might have been written : °.: nJ~uonA z-oci,~ ondu (n.) ZN2~ obba koduvanu, he will ta4oJ~~ tom 4ACL'd~ anna (nu) tafgi (ge) bale [y] (annu) (m. and f.), one give tandu koduvanu, `The elder-brother will bring and give a bangle ej a, that, those (adj .) ennu, say to his younger-sister.' But the form oz tandu, which is here -6~ i, this, these (adj .) 4oC:S~ endu, having said translated `will bring' is a past participle and so means, `having zd)dJ7j huduga, boy tied bida, it is not wanted brought' . The illustration is chosen for the sake of the -~&ti ettara, height (must not) observation that a Kanarese sentence rarely tolerates more than beleyuttane, he 4elgciNJ helidanu, he said one finite verb. One verb in the sentence only will be finite in grows zntjt4a baradu, it is not form. Verbs which, in English, would be co-ordinate with it a6,p hu, flower becoming (must not) are put in the form of the past participle. As if we said, in 4a q kempu, redness -N--e)vtS,) saladu, it is not , English, `The brother having brought will give'. 4o-A kerkpage, red (adv.) sufficient Other points in which Kanarese usage differs from English -ae ide, it is 'Uad~ kudadu, it is not fitting are, (a) the use in Kanarese of )off endu, the past participle taruva, which brings (must not) of the verb cad ennu, `say', at the end of speech directly Endings : nom. c~ nu, and eto u reported and in certain similar situations, and (b) the Negative acc. ecad annu, (all decls.) Mood of the Kanarese verb. The former point is dealt with dat. A ge in Lesson XXXVII ; a simple example is, z3~d soda ztewdTt~ gin. e9 a bida endu helidanu, `he said, "(you) must not"' . tl~~d bida, advbl. er\ agi, UA age, e3 ane z3_F)dtia baradu, 7u-atz~) saladu, a,f;dd,) kudadu in Exercise I ,(p. 15), are examples of the Negative Mood. The use of the mood is not very common in conversation, except in the above and a few other words.

The Kanarese Alphabet Vowels,

APProximate Commonly Commonly Kanarese Phonetic I Kanarese Sins used in Signs ApproximatePhonetic used in Equivalents I Transliteration Equivalents ITransliteration I CHAPTER I A or a a aia,t~ + ri or r a : a e e LESSON I I i e: e The Alphabet ai ai As will be seen from the table opposite there are in the W u u YN o 0 Kanarese alphabet fourteen vowels, thirty-four consonants and e.M u : u 'tom o : o two other letters. We shall consider the pronunciation of the ri or ,r au au various letters briefly.

Consonants' With reference to Kanarese vowels it is to be noted that they k h n take their character not only from the position in the mouth kh kh where they are sounded but also from the presence or absence of p p prolongation. Amongst English vowels the varieties of a in `stand' n 8 g ph ph gh gh and `star' differ in sound but not necessarily in the time they za b b n or ng take to pronounce ; but as between U and ej there is not only bh bh a (slight) difference of sound but the long letter is invariably z~ tr, ch or c m m prolonged in pronunciation. That is the significance of the tph chh or ch o:a 1 Y sign : attached to long vowels on the opposite page. 1 r or r r There is no Kanarese vowel sound which has an exact d~,h jh I l equivalent in English. r 77 u v e~ The a in `about' (phonetic a) and u in ` but' (A) 1!3 t t fo have both been suggested as equivalents. Both sounds a th th sh or s are heard. The latter is nearer the normal Kanarese d s s pronunciation but the Kanarese sound is made with h ct dh h h the tongue slightly lower than in the English. The n l former sound (a) is heard in a word like 40 sari, "t t rh (transliter- `right', where the pronunciation of e5 a approaches the ated 9, ii, ti and th th n before con- -~ e. The tendency to variation may be O sonants of the sound of a_ d I, td, ki and illustrated in the fact that some Kanarese words have groups) dh dh two forms, in one of which -) e takes the place of "°5 a; a h h e.g. M~ channu or z&Fad chennu, beauty and t~w For the secondary forms of the vowels see p. 13 . s For the secondary forms of the consonants see pp. 18, 19 . challu or 2aka chellu, scatter.

KANARESE GRAMMAR THE ALPHABET (I Is produced with the tongue lower still. It differs Kanarese grammar recognises this for a diphthong little from a in `hard' or `father'. (U+w). The sound is approximately that of ow in The vowel in `it' or `him' resembles the Kanarese `now'. The-English sound is best represented by au, vowel but is pronounced farther back in the mouth the Kanarese sound by au. and with the tongue lower. Closely resembles ee in ` seen' or i in `machine '. The Consonants It is produced with the tongue slightly higher than in The thirty-four consonants are divided into twenty-five the short vowel. classified and nine unclassified consonants. The u in `put' or `pull' is produced not so far The classified consonants are divided into five groups, which back as the Kanarese vowel and with the tongue in a represent sounds produced respectively in the throat, the palate, lower position. the roof of the mouth, the teeth and the lips. Each group The long vowel is pronounced with the tongue in contains five consonants, viz., a voiceless consonant unaspirated a slightly higher position than in the short vowel. It and aspirated, a voiced consonant unaspirated and aspirated, is near to the sound of ue in `rue' or oo in moon'. and a nasal consonant. a~~ It may be doubted whether these are true vowels. In the table below, as on page 6, the consonants have the form Syllabic consonants would be a better name. The which indicates that they are combined with the short vowel nearest suggestion that can be made for their pronun- U a, as is the custom in schools. ciation is that of a trilled r joined with a very close short u, with lip spreading. Voiceless Voiced Groups Nasal a The e in `men', though produced with the tongue Unaspirated Aspirated Unaspirated Aspirated slightly lower, is practically equivalent to this vowel. 7~ ga Is pronounced with the tongue slightly higher Guttural' a k kh ~' gh i? than in the short vowel. It resembles a in `mate' or Palatal' z~ ch' chh z; j jh ' 7le ey in `they' ; but whereas the English sound is a Cerebral' e3 t r3 th d ~ dh n diphthong (ei) the Kanarese vowel is pure. Dental t th ~S d dh N n This is almost equivalent to i in `pine' or ei in Labial' ph z-~ b bh ~~ n `height' (-a+i) but the Kanarese sound is best represented by w. Perhaps every pure Kanarese word 1 Or Velar, i. e. pronounced with the aid of the soft palate. 2 Hard, as in `good'. M Uo336 which now begins with once began with (ay). a As ng in `king'. a., 'w The lengthening is the only distinction in sound Produced by the arched tongue in the palate just above the teeth. 'Resembling ch in `chain' ; but the English sound equals t plus (sh between these two. The o in 'or' is produced- with d the tongue lower than in Yea. 'w resembles the vowel in 'ship') while the Kanarese sound is represented by tp, (see the note on S p. 11). sound in `sew' ; but the English sound is a diphthong " With the sound of ny, as in 'canyon' . (ou) and is pronounced further forward in the mouth. ' Or, according to current terminology, Retroflex. That is, bi-labial .

lO KANARESE GRAMMAR THE ALPHABET 11 The unclassified consonants are- consonant v Z are-pronounced - with the tip of the tongue against odoY,dr4,e.) l, ;~ v,6s', ;;~ sh,"1s,Z6h,0is the upper front teeth. The sign added to the phonetic symbols Note that as the vowel M a is inherent in each of the forms in the above of the :9 group on page 6 indicates dental pronunciation. The table, it would be more strictly correct to transliterate them by the syllables English consonants, t, d, are intermediate in place of production ka, kha, etc., than by the consonants k, kh, etc. The subject is referred to at greater length later. between the Kanarese retroflexes and dentals; and the Kanarese dentals are intermediate between the English t and d and the Notes on the Pronunciation of the Consonants English 'point-teeth' consonants represented by th in `thin' and 1 . In the pronunciation of the aspirated consonants, there is `then' . A noticeable difference between the Kanarese dental correspond the English sounds represented the nothing to to by letters and the English'th' is that the former are plosive and the combinations th and ph in `thesis' and `photo' . AKanareseaspirate latter is fricative or rubbed. It is impossible to prolong the is the unaspirated sound with this difference that it is accompanied pronunciation of the former but easily possible with the latter. by a heavy out-breathing. If an attempt be made to pronounce The greatest care must be exercised to distinguish, both in speaking a such words as `bulkhead', `log-house',' pit-head' and'tap-house' and in listening to others speaking, between the sounds of the without pausing before the letter h, an approximation to the retroflex and the dental groups, and between both these groups and corresponding Kanarese aspirated consonants may be reached. the English sounds . The munshi should be asked to produce these sounds until the 4. The unclassified consonant ;;~ v does the work of both learner can recognize and reproduce them without hesitation. English w and v. Before the vowels e a, el d, tN u, eve u, Q ai, 2. The consonants of the cerebral or retroflex group and 2u o, ~- o, L' au, it closely resembles w in sound, though the the unclassified consonants t sh and 0 l are pronounced with the English letter is produced to a larger extent by the lips. d v tip of the tongue curled back and touching the roof of the before 'a i, -6s 1, vlj ri, ) e, e and the consonants uL y and mouth as far back from the front teeth as possible. Some 6 r resembles v in pronunciation, but with a difference. In English writers detect a likeness to t, d and n in the northern pronouncing the Kanarese letter the upper front teeth do not English pronunciation (i .e. with the rolled r) of 'mart', 'hard', touch the lower lip as in English. `barn' as contrasted with 'mat', 'had', 'ban'. The Kanarese sound represented by 6 s differs from the 3 . The consonants of the dental group and the unclassified 5 . English sh in 'ship' in this that, while the English sound is made ' The consonant d r in the modern language represents two consonants, with the tip, the Kanarese sound is made with the blade of and eJ of ancient Kanarese. The latter was rougher or more rolled in takes sound than the former and there are traces (of which, however, people are the tongue. The sound of ;~ sh its character from the not conscious) of this difference in popular pronunciation. This is why fact that it is pronounced with the tongue-tip bent back and there are two phonetic symbols for d r. touching the palate as far in the rear as possible. That there is x The modern consonant 10 l represents the two ancient consonants a clear distinction in sound between 6 and ' is evident from the and W, though their pronunciation was not exactly alike. The ancient difference in the manner of their production, While in the case of and when consonants are retained in Dr. Kittel's Kannada-English Dictionary, ;i~ the tongue-tip is raised and bent back, in the case of 6 it is turned words containing d r or 0 l are not found in the expected place, they may be found by referring to eb r or W l. down and the sound made with the arched tongue on the palate. aQ ' But the letter t in 'pit-head' corresponds to neither ki nor t. 6. In colloquial speech the initial vowels a3 e, is e, o, :kQ: o

THE ALPHABET 12 KANARESE GRAMMAR 13 of vowels shewn on page 6 has a secondary are often combined with a consonantal sound and pronounced Each the form ye, ye, wo, wo, respectively ; e.g., in 2QOLL ondu, 'one' and )Odj used in combination with consonants . These are shewn, with their eradu, 'two' ; but this is not to be regarded as correct : at least Kanarese names, in the following table. The table on pages 16, 17 shews all the combinations of the consonants with the vowels. care must be taken not to exaggerate the consonantal sound. 7. While, with the above modifications, the English trans- Vowel (Prim- Vowel(Second- ary Form) ary Form) Kanarese Name literation given in the tables of vowels and consonants represents approximately the Kanarese pronunciation of the several letters, ~te3i~hi3~ talekattu the general observation applies to them all that a correct "dQ ili pronunciation can be acquired only by the painstaking imitation Mato gudisu of a reliable Indian teacher. Msb;~ Me OF gudisina dirgha READING EXERCISE &z= korhbu end file ed, king ; e1O depth ; szd present world; tN, (prefix) &AOn,w korhbinili contiguous, subordinate ; uvn3 food ; .A left side ; :dti door ; ,t1:3JJ ttw vatru suli nz3~~ saw ; "-' prayer ; 4-d obstacle ; zed shore ; t4 wealth ; smoothness ; to path ; ue) strength ; its tree ; d, juice ; ;;SZ:dJJ aJ e? qS9 vatru suli #1 control ; eon money. ~~ etva ~~ etva with Consonants Combination of Vowels aitva It was observed above that the form of the consonants given z,A otva on pages 9 and 10 indicates that they are combined with the short vowel e3 a. Each of them, therefore, constitutes a syllable in itself; t, Z otva nz autva thus ;~6=vasa (not vi) ; ;~,O=mara (not mr); uda=arasa (notars). d This 'inherent vowel' is represented (in most cases) by the In order to combine a consonant with any of these vowels, upper part of the consonant sign (-J), which is called the talekattu, or 'crest' . This is the secondary form of the vowel U a, and we must first remove the crest . from the consonant as shewn in the table on pages 9 and 10, and it is used instead of the primary form when the vowel is then add the secondary combined with a consonant to form a syllable. form of the vowel. Thus, if it is required to represent in A normal syllable in Kanarese consists of either a consonant Kanarese the sound ke, the crest must first be removed from combined with a vowel, or (at the beginning of a word only) an -d ka, leaving the form -4. To this the secondary form 'e e is uncombined vowel . Hence the primary (i.e., uncombined) forms added, resulting in the form 4e ke. It is to be remembered of the vowels given on page 6 are found only at the beginning that the crest is retained with the secondary forms of the vowels eN u, UV; u, @?J ri, D6~~~ ri, :d,~ : of a word. A consonant can be combined only with the vowel thus ku, dr~ ku, 4~ kri, -d kri. Note also that the following which follows it, never with that which precedes it ; thus the word letters have no crest t3 e~ 2J uo'N arasa consists of the three syllables a-ra-sa, not ar-as-a. si kha, r ha, ja, 'W na, . ta, . M na, ba, v la.

14 KANARESE GRAMMAR . THE ALPHABET i 5 The consonants d* jh and o6a y, in combination with the ejcid but z3tze-~ it is wanted (must) zltri vowel -s i, take the forms SOS; jhi, o~,T yi, instead of d, o9~e . *10,~ say (impv. 2 s.) it is not wanted (must not) In the combination of d,~ m with this vowel two forms are *14 to say (inf.) uew6~ it is permitted (may) z3z (impv. zuzdd,~ found, ZTe~, Z,4, mi. ;::~~~ m and o6,) y, in combination with the come 2 s. irreg.) it is not becoming (must vowels z, o, tQ o, take the forms ;r mo, art mo, 03'z yo, ZJd, to come (inf.) not) ~)U'6WL enquire d,r@daS,) o3.r~ yo, instead of ;S,\S;, 4~,Jr~, 01,),Z, oL,0e . (impv. 2 s.) : it is not fitting (must not) It will be seen that if etv (,)) u, were joined to d v, thus, , go (impv. 2 s.) ;TimS, it is not sufficient the form would be identical in appearance with ;:~~~ ma. In order to 4rvi to go (inf.) N-e)t-~ it is sufficient avoid confusion the vowels tN u, eJ\n u, zN o, to, when combined U4 wash (impv. 2 s.) interrogative affix with --~ v, take slightly different forms, thus, 4 vu, *; vu, ;~p vo, A few simple sentences are given below ; similar sentences ;,Pt vo . The same forms occur when these vowels combine with may be formed with the words of the reading exercise. p and ph : thus, q pu, ;~R pit, 4z po, 4~ po, 0 phu, z~~e~ z3e3~ chila beku, a bag is wanted. 0 phu, q~ pho, ~e pho. z3~d meju beda, a table is not wanted. If it is required to write a consonant uncombined with any Ae Aj;~~10 ninu hogu, you go. _s vowel, the crest (if there is one) is removed, and the sign i~cJZ~J7jc~J Zadd,ridd,~ huduganu barakudadu, the boy must attached in its place : thus, :5a k, z~6 ch, ;::~ p, Z;' r, %0 1. not come. Where there is no crest the sign -6 is attached to the right e5tid ;e4 UdW6~ ddare nivu barabahudu, but you (plu.) 6 hand corner of the letter ; e.g. So" kh, n--` re, u` j, -.0 n, U6 t, may come. 6 n' b, U6 1; but the style in the case of n is slightly different, 17 nl ndnu eke hogabdradu, why must I not go? EXERCISE I cSDr~ ~ziz3Q ~ ndnu hogabiku, I must go. The words in this Reading Exercise should be committed to X61 U4 kai tole, wash (your) hands. memory, all of them being in common use. 76 ;Uz'~ saude saku, the fire wood is sufficient . then AAer wall o6R;~ which (adj.)? ~.i z3eVa aushadha beku, medicine is wanted. 4JSii now i~ medicine e5e7 there ~ ~ UizoV 4e1,~ eshtu rupayi beku, how many rupees is what (pro.) ? d.re)mo9,) rupee god are wanted ? tip cattle book zdo,,d~ri(4,)) boy -m~L N¢74,rtt,8 ahtu sakd, is this much sufficient? *u bag JU game so j e3~,~ 7ne4j ashtu sdladu, that much is insufficient. z3e~ life this (pro.) A3 A straight (adv.) uO Zz)t t5t:S~ that (or it) so much (so ;~L alli vichdrisu, enquire there. %S zsz illi bd, come here. ~eF" you mzt7 road many) as this m-;)A 4e0,) hdge hglu, say so. you (plu. or -A why ? e4o~ so much (sa Accusative ending annu for s.) r~o3~ favour many) as that 1 [y] omitted as often in colloquial speech, The: honfc . singular is used for the plural . ~~ he hand how much ' Singular for plural as sometimes after numeral adjectives. s table firewood (how many) ? On the interrogative particle L joining 4a9~) final em is elided .

. 1 The form 9- is an alternative for Z~6

THE ALPHABET 17 KANARESE GRAMMAR 16 Combinations of the Vowels and Consonants Table Shewing the Alphabet with the 01~ e jai to. '~+o 'au u V:~) air,Pri ~e 1 e5 a e9 d '., i g4 i em u eva ri Vowels :6 kri 4 ke 4e ke y kai 4J~ ko 4,Ae ko TO kau Velar -d ka ~n kd -& ki 4-e ki 9~-~ ku . ~dj~ ku % kri khri -3 khs!khee e -3khai, La kho Oat kho W-'O khau Consonants Lt khu AA khu ~~ khri a) kha sn khd .0 khi khi g;~ ;e TS'O 117 gri n ge At ge A~ gai Aa go 7iJ go gau ne gi 7i,~ gu TiSm gu gri 7i ga rte gd r\ gi ;,~, ghe ghe t% ghai Oj; gho 0,2t gho ;R ghau 0,2 ghu a. ghri *,, ghri ;'e o~ gha ghd ' ghi 2e ghi 0,) ghu Z03e M3~ r,3 rt, 7iri M3 he hi hai Rio Z03,Ze Rio Z';1 nau M,1~ 2% riri ha 207e nd Zrg rii zj~9 e rii 2za riu riu 2~, chri 2$ the 29e the 2% chai di; cho zis-)e cho za-*"O chau 2 chri Palatal 2$ cha za7c chd 2$ chi zS~ chi zl~ chu chu ,) chhri ~ chhe ep chhe eke chhri ~a chho ~e chho V chhau chha e; chhi e9e chhi ep chhu e~Pchhu 0 chhri ~ chha ep jri Z2 je dt ji q6 jai v-~ jo ie jo zT- jau V azjd 29ji e ft z;') ju UA ju z.,6 jri ja 4, jhri 4 jhe 4e jhe 4~jhai 6*,.rojho #,nt jho ~ jhau d,~,n jhd W,3 jhi e. n jhi jhu s jhu ,) jhri d* jha 'o"Y'r, nri ra,3 ne ~x3e ne 'X3~ n"ai ,rS r@ ho a'3J~P no ' ''~ n"au nd '-^"g hi '.'ae ni -,-Y'~ flu n"u -WI) nri '.' na tri e to et to t~ tai Ure) to kz.,~t to U', tau -~td ~3ti ~3e ti e33 to to e~ tri Retroflex e3 to -d~ thri 6 the 6t the 6 thai 6,r@ tho 6st tho f-I thau z--,) the e thi se thi ~ thu t,r; !ha ~.~ thri 6 tha dri z9 de z9e de ~~ dai ZU do ds;t do ffD dau c3~ da a di at dl d~ du dA du zt da z, dhri dhe It dhe dhai Ja dho JJe dho ;!I dhau dhd s dhi dhi ,~ dhu dhu ~o) dhri 16 I dha 7z J nri M ne t ne nai ?U ,no rUt no M~ nau ¬ i) nd t~ ni ni m nu nA nu nri M na Cue ~) 9 to to y tai 9a to tnt to V tau ,; Z2~~ to tri 9t Dental to 3-.@ td 's ti t ti ~ to . z3~ tho zr thau Z3~ thri thri z3 the de the 6~ thai tho tae z~ tha the q~ thi 4)e thi q~~~ thu t~A thu Z~', dri z3 de 6e de 6~ dai z3,r,~ do dat do r3--z dau zi =-~D dd n di nt di c,) du z~A du zip dri da dhri dhe e dhe z3~ dhai z,~a dho r, e Ad ZjTz dhau zs~ dha n dhi Ept dhi ' dhu dhu c~6 dhri dha nri N ne ~t ni % nai Ns no e no i~' nau i~~~ nd N ni ;,e ni nu nu ' nri N na Ad o pe ae pi 3~ pai ;~p po ape po ;f~ pau pd 'L pi ~t pi pu ;,z pu zt, pri Bi-labial pa ;U-,) phri 4y phe 4.4 phi ,6 phai * pho pe pho jphau ;p-,) phd phi phi phu 0 pha ~~ phri pha z bri 23 be et be z% bai z1a bo eqe bo z3O bau zn bd zj bi z')e bi 2J-~ bu z~A bit ~~ bri ;~ 2J ba bhri 23 bhe 23e bhe Z~ bhai ~a bho Z~~~e bho ZP bhau zp bhd 2~ bhi i;,e bhi 23J bhu z~,A bhu bhri 2~,, 2~, bha mri ;!,~ me ;1,~e me ;!;% mai ;;Sa mo ;&F~e mo ;~~~ mau and ~~ mi zz-~) mi d,~~~ mu ma ~~ mri ;:~~~ ma ;~~~ o~O yri ol.~ ye o54 ye 0% yai O&r,) yo o3,r;t yo (:dfD you 03~ OZ,3 yi 09.n yi o~~ yu 03JJr) yu u~') yri Unclassified ~ ya yd re rai CJ; ro OS)e rd d, rau di; ru ~~ rri rri 6 re dt d ra om rd t) ri be ri dj ru lau lri e~0 lri e3 le e3e le e36 lai e3J) to e3,s;e to Uv v la e~ ld OD ii eye li U) lu U'r@ lu ~,~ ~~ vri ;;t ve 4t vi i vai vo o3,pe vo vau vd Z vi ne vi 4 vu ;,p vu ;~6 vri ;~ va 8 ie se 6~ iai gs io 73Ae so ar"a iau 6,~ iu 6~ iri 11 iri 8e 6 is b si be ii ;e sho -'- shau t shri shri 8 she 4-e she A~ shai ms; sho 3J ;ea sha M-e) Ad shi 4e shi p shu shu sri sri --,~ se Ne se sai Na so "r~e so 4'7~) sau sa %--e~ sd %~ si ,%e si ~~ su ,4iz su hri ~~ hri 8 he u8t he ~~ hai e5a ho u&Pe ho 5'z hau i36 ha on ha 30 hi 3oe hi e,>,) hu eoa ha ~~ ~~ lri -4. lri 4 le 4e le 4~ jai 4J~ to Owe to lau la YZ Id I ii Ie if v,~ lu qj~ if, 2