S of :It - ;:IWU::; POLITIC/\L PARTIES in POL SIA Finn MELANESIA

$S of :It - ;:IWU::; POLITIC/\L PARTIES in POL SIA Finn MELANESIA$

'fHL EIC;I)'\[S OF :iT - ;:IWU::; POLITIC/\L PARTIES IN POL SIA finn MELANESIA

Ir'Cl \:!c 1 f Februaf'Y, 198J }'urlc~:t

I, "

II 10 ?anF~u Pati 10 IncJcpcn Ill: ;.IC)l!; I' "I ul' 111 Un'Ltecl Par }--i 0F'le f s rl}-\O,f~rll:;;-_~~: r),-ll-)-!~-V 17 o ;; " !i (J :1.:1 1 i' ,1 J' L ~/ J7 ot ~-'l (:: 2' Pc 1 i ·t i C (1 J 1- r't _i ::; J 2,

2L " , v 1"1 Ud,ELJ"cl,1 n 1':)\!i 'J,/ '- l.. CJJlI/ tJC:,:I{ L~ r-L\l\f}-I 2S l.J a g'c i. (J}~ll::~ _'" 26 () -C 1-"1 cr' ]) () 1. 'j \/ C" r) 7 .~. I 28

IV. C (J I:~ LJ" r 3 CI ::: 0 FClrlv. () iti 11 T)(-:J:lO crc1 t i. C P" LX-' '\.' 33 :~~ UlTHild rji :) 3 ) V. FPJ:N CH PO LYlrE ;:; I/\ !\utonomis t ,;

VI. FIcH 38 ALliance Pa 38 National Federation P rty 41 42 Fijian NationaList Party

VII. NEW CALEDONIA If '7 VIII. CONCLUSION

r()llC\~Jir~f~ pclge P(11)ua;',1c'v] c;tline(3.--Sorr~c 1< .) Foliticcl1 DcvE~lopments, 19 4-197 10

38 .)

.: )' 1. .J \J

c~ \/ 1 n p Tn ( '. r; t r i I J:1 i [' Ii C t I ,; !i Lit i cal part J. e c; i I J F 0 1 yn c s i a ,1 n c!

1~el;II1csia J_D a sarich for comm011 features in the origins of these o

rmuJation of political parties allows for

tho broadest se pc in studvin~ political party activity in the South

Pacific.

itJl ["'o2.itic :: ()rr~clnization,:; which regc!rcJ themselves 2:1:3 parties and which arc general so regarded. (Hodgkin 1961:15-16)

available th South Pacific nations as independence drew near,

p () 1 i it C (J 1 r ,! l' Li f' ,H' n t i 1\ f (.'1,'/ C oun trio;; of the region .

The oldest In 19onous political parties still functioning in

the South Pacific are those in French Polynesia, although the names

of the parties nd the key personalities have changed over the years.

(French Polynesia also has parties that are extensions of Metropolitan

They will not be discussed here.)

The party system opcr2tin~ in Fiji since the early 1960 ' s is unusual in the Pacific by vir'tuc of its communal nature. In Papua New Guinea,

multiple parties were active by 1971, principally as Parliamentary

groupings and soon thereafter in active pursuit of electoral support.

Parties in Vanuatu, with one prominent exception, began to develop

in the early ]970's. The first party in the Cook Islands began to

function in 19GU and had no effective, organized opposition for almost

C1. de.cade.

Alt110ugh ?1elaI1es n artics are active In New Caledonia, their

impact seems to have cen minimal, at least until recently. Political

parties in Solomon Islands seemed to have evaporated with independence' 2

It .lS too

0:arl'! t()

nc'\·v gC)\fcl'lrlITlCIlt,

the'

,--, ("'}' ,.! ('j

o J-t r'/) (\T: -.' j

j (

our\tric~; .1Tl tl t~ 1-1 Pa.. c i .C i c:

l,'"

ifiei~!.nt actoY'~; ln thc political system--

Papua He'vJ Frenell

Pc enCI'J Caledonia, h'itIl f'lelanccc;ians

the Til rit~v 11'1, 1: i.Ci111.,/, and cccnomicdl1y, rcrprec3cnt:3

a \1111.qUC· political ~3Y ten! :i.n;:he l·Cf,J.on. J'."_ l. l..JC' party system will be

cll.~;CU:;:;cd L1'1"C1/, b\lt it {lu c; nut: Cit dny of the generalizations

made here foY' S lj-tll PacifJ_ l

In all five countries, political parties emerged during the

colonial period. The ·t~olc l:he~3C political partie::; played provides a

common framework with which 10 examine individuaJ country experiences.

F'unction of PoJ.i.tical. Parties

One function of political parties ln the reglon was mobilization

of support. This support ~lCI.S so t nationally, regionally, or from

a spr;cific ~jCCt()lF sue]) ;-]s tJlc educated elite,

-the :~0mbers of 1:J-10 !lational J_cgislature, or other

institutionalized groups. This political mobilization had several,

often overlapping, purposes: 3

-- -·i- In 11 rt: :~ (\ '!~1'; I-~ -!_ a l..,t~/ p:rlOL~11dJn~-3 c01Jl d be accept ~cl dIl '\/ .t--h(~ ·-"VC"CIlj,l"'J.r: col n_iCl~! in~~;titllt·ion -1·· _0- l ])C c~ n u ~ t'.: L: (' j u :-; t: i fie c~ r: ;.] 1 j": tl flc:.t tIle: r-'dl~)ty l:ecoTTles a Tr:ear:~~ te\ ,.--1 , ~ 1 ,. ;j l~:~:; L r1ation,~11i[3r:l r3-n(j a rLcltiorlcil C()I1SCJ_C)U~;r1(~SS --st UJ..;lt 'r~l~ (lC"'i(~:J.nT)rn no!: of p()litic,_~~J pl'cgl'c.llnS clnc1 trLc~ Jj('") ~~- :"i. -j ...j. ':1 J. l' :-,( •. ,; (1:'(] te· initiate politicaJ char:ge --(~c:lrr~.rnt:_r~i I~l_tc ~:/i·t:Y: tJ':c; p 1.11d.CC: __ ..lc:~) cf',(J.J.Il :',,1 ,~):.:,.~. r J') '~:11r~ i,:l}'-\ :',' tCJ C1-~(~111cn'g,c the eXl.stl.ns iIi d i. z'~~ C. T\ ',-> 1,,1 :~; :1. c ,~_ :~") J~\ ,~:~ :-} :l.

f\ secon litica] parties In the South Pacific

'l'h i?

founders or most outh Pacific political parties were educated within

European politic01 systems. Ttlis SITlilJ.l, Wes"tern-educated eli-te

adopted the political models they had observed and studied. Thus,

the political parties provided the Europeans with a local political

systc~:n they c()ulcl undel-,~;tanc]--.its po~;sibl(~ irrelevance to the indi-

genous S ys tern not;;J i th ~3 teeln d iJl G' ) The traditional operating style of polfrics ln the South Pacific

However, four of the five countries

Cooks) ;, ve

\'1hich a r~la~J ri.t party or coalition of parties rules, a formal,

r'ec()gni:~ d sition challenges the former', and the majority ln the

legislature selects the government leader who also serves as chief

eXCcllti\lC~. concept

of consensur; _Ln c}c:cision-m.::lking has p;J-ven \"TeJ.Y to majority rule.

However, in actuaJ practice, consensus 1S still the guiding principle,

at least within the governing party or coalition, with great effort

often exerted to brins together vastly divergent viewpoints. It lS

betwee11 the diffe1~en't nar,·ties that "the Westminster~ voti.I1g system

ac1:ually seems -to i1pp ., pint ,. cler;cY"'i'j).in~~ tIle fc\r'rnatioI1 of" irldi.-

genou,::, J.PS in Melanesi~ and Polyn Sla.

. " . i Th that the initiEi 1 :Lnc J. genou s - D.:lC:; e l

lel Tn cae}) C()u.[1.tr)~1 c.1eve1uped ill

t11C: c on i aIdd min i ,;[cat i () n . In ~,~()rnc

,~, .1 '1 -t 11 eeln 1"1 .:i_ a 1

}i _"." I to :.-:; U T t r..' ..

u, F',J.pu<] Nev.' French

Po cd of Ch:ll1 e W2S acccp-tatl.e or

n \vitII the dil'ection the colonial

il ;Il:' n i :-:: :"\', I J ! : i i

( -' .. ~ ) "f J::,: r: (j:: )•

/\s coun-t(~1'""\-r'('.c]cti()n , second party then formed that was

influenced by expatriates, opposed to

th e incJi gon u party, and primarily concerned with pl'otecting the

:';tatus quo. 1'Lis :c, CO]1cJ party, therefore, supported the colonial

ac1rninistr'ation. This counter-reaction occurred in Papua New Guinea,

Vanuatu, and nch Polynesia. It fails in the Cook Islands,

F probably because O. -"- the lack of a sizeable and influential expatriate

community. Here the OppOSl 100 to the initial party was also

indigenous. Fiji, with its Indian/Fijian split, lS SUl generus. 1 c~ _l:;'-~ r (: det i c)n -- (11' i en t (1 jT , Following this! additio'lal indigenous-based parties developed--

perhaps in opposition to the initial indigenous party, perhaps in

o:ppo~) j~tion fc)rrnt,~d fo}~ independent 5

c: cc,n o . , I} r',] n ,0;.i e . 1 t :; t,vh()~;c lC;tc1C1 s11ip 1n] t be

n 'In

and oLe v n t ion 11 ) (\t!hich I -tl[z1t style: of

auth()ri'~y in

Tn "tt-l succe din r action-oriented, expatriate-

influenced party, thls characteristic of strong individual leadership

often was not present. n the second set of indigenous-based parties

to faturn:i? 11 t d I~ a i nbc presen t, a 1ttl CJ U g 11 not a ~:;

frequently as in the initial set of indigenous parties.

The de'Ie lUI'jd'ccl,t of poIitical parties in Papua New Guinea seems

to fit this description almost perfectly. The Pangu Pati developed as

a dil'ect l~eaction to tIle !\u~;tr'alian admird3tration, ,;cf::king self-

government and, u]i: ately, independence, from a colonial power that

considered such a development desirable in theory, but only after an

extensive (p rhaps thirty years or more) period of preparation. Its

the Independent Members'

·ss a p tha~ an assemblage, led by expatriates and dedi-

cated to 0PP slng the P u l'ati Cit every opportunity. One party

that developed fl:Ynn tile ,1 ::,n n(~ent j'1cmbers I Group ",(:t,3 the Unit:ccl

Party, expatriate--lecl \\lith ,:~ policy b2.sed on a deep antipathy to

The United Party favored the

maintenance of an unchanged colonial svstem and believed that the Pangu

Pati was made tIp O.f dal1gc~rolls r)~.dicaJ_s. G

.f t: ] 1 I:-lclc cnc:J Tl.t l'ileJT:lJf:l")2") , C;r~()11p, con.si::-:;ted maiI11 y7 of

lot rlCl(l SC)Jne expatlr~L(]tc SUI)port.

cons] ering self-government and opposing both the

infJucnco 111 Tile Independent r-1 ("~ !T1 L c~ ::--. Party was generally considered to be

ail in the Papua New Guinea Highlands,

1"1ie11c1el c;m:kJT"c', one of the founding members of the Pangu Pati,

~c'a.p i c1

COUrtll'V un-I:il l()iJO '(-Ihon hc "la,; "C'eplacecl as Prime

up nor the United

Party, the expatriate-based political groups, had such a single WiJ S dominating leader. The peoplers Progress PartY/led by Julius Chan who b came Prime Mini ter in 1980. Iambakey Okuk abandoned the

I\I ,~l t j. on J P ,=1 :c·t \" , nly later to lead a party with the same name although with no apparen~ ties to its name-sake.

Var!Uc1tu aL;o seems to confonr, to th1.s model ".'ell. The Vanuaaku

Party 'ria f rr:icc' iTI }',,,,cl:ion to the policicf; of the Condominium admillistr0tion, with the party founders hoping to protect ·the country's land from foreign encroachment, to obtain more control by

Melanesians, arld, final to secure early independence. The British, although inclined to depart from one of the last vestiges of the

Empj~re, were opposo~ the French who hoped to remain in Vanuatu indef:Lnitely. ) 7

, ..... c} (~

f - ~ I : i f__::l '.'<.l

I ~.

"[' 11

12:\' it at C\ICI""1)/ QPPol't1Jnit:/ ..

(:1'" kc'/:nli,vic:ual in the fcnnation ot ti,e Vanuaaku

\l (-in tlc} -t u. "

h n OC] 01.11:, althou,13h C~erarcJ J.cymC1ng, ~;ecretc.lrv

) l' J~ f1 C 1. P0.1 f !' ~?~ n c c;· 1') [1 0 rl C S P0 k, e ~; In (~:l 11

'I' (> ! .. i. :.\:: \ ' ", t ! L '/ 1 ;' 1.11 t.)l (

) \Ie' ch :,istration. In

ow(~r' was not l -t=crested in

h The Cook I~; land ~3

In addition, the Cook

Islands Party filled the leadershio vacuum created bv colonial

Tile Un i ted CCK,Je I s landers formed to oppose Albert Henry

and the Cook Islands Party but, as an institutionalized force, was

i1r)t)~ to f?rncr'ge Clnd COT1s()lic:l{~:.te its

strcnsth was the l)~ cr -ti.c F2rty, a].so fornlecl i.n reaction 1:0 the

n • Cook Islands F',3r,t~l .. In to the ca.ses of Papua New ,-,Ulnea and

·tIle ~cneraliz~1tions in -tha,"t t]1e

~'_'c1il~g T DemocY'ati Pe,rty, t\lbert !, TlT"l h ~L I -;_

I'e J. d. t i \1 (-:; small ["lumher of e~:p~i-tri.2tes in the Coo}~s as compared to

the 'J': [1 C l' Sou t 11 P ,,1 C ; r:i c I 01 a n () ~; c>: ,1m inc cl h C l' C • o From the foundation of the Cook Islands Party ln 1964 until l1is

removal from office in 1978, Albert Henry's personality dominated the

party and the country. ])1'. TO:r1 Davie;, founder of the DemocraLic

Pclrty Cln d cu.rr'cnt 1y Prirn 1

tion's activity throll However, Dr. Davis has

not dominated his party to th same de~rec as have many other Pacific

.,".., , -, ~ . t I'(:.I'l.C.'.Il _L ~~. C]_

S", formed to oppose Pouvanaa and the autonomist

pO.L1CJ.e f\ 1 t 11 () U there was a later division in the

conservative ranks betwccn Gaullist and non-Gaullist groups, the early

development of political parties in French Polynesia seems to fit the

model posited here. Pouvanaa a Oopa reigned over the autonomist

parties in French Polynesia for several decades, although his leadership

became more symbolic than real, especially after his deportation to

Fr'ance In 1959. The expatriate and demi parties, as well as Pouvanaa's

successor parties, have provided no similar dominating and charismatic

figure around whom supporters could

The origin of political parties in Fiji was quite different from

that i.n the other s tates Df l:e 1,lIle s ia and Polynes ia. The Alliance

Party, a multi-racial clition, developed out of a combination of 9

--llli,'II: r ). ,~,.(,-)" 1,l"i,! l!\'lcpc:::ndcncc bei.ng fCJ1'cecl on them !1:/ (~r'(~"-j'1' PJT1'1_,~iI:(t\(\( :~.I.,,{lC~ !;:.Lrl t.1; Irlclianpoliticdl activisrn --I~urlC)r,r:.~(-~:.n 'Ccax' ()f ~~_rl ir:~r~ c1om.iI~!arlCe in an iT1cle_penc:1e~.n·t Fiji - -j'i vl c:i 'LJ ,,'.,j -1 hl n t}1 T11 di iHi C OIIlmun i ty .

The National Federation Party developed because of the Indian fear that the Europeans would manipulate the Fijians to the detriment of IncLian in~:(·re~.:;t," and (1 dCJ'f' concern over the land tenure system and its act on economic prospects for the Indian communi.ty. The third

Fijian party, the Fijian Nationalist Party, formed a decade after the other parties and half a decade after independence. Although It lS

it 13 not relevant to this analysis.

Ratu Mara and A.D. Patel, the founders of the Alliance Party and the Nat on rar-ty, respec"tively, exerted si:rong leadership

COU:ltrv ilc,; C J 10"': \,.;ith (1 3110rt conclusion and sljggestions f01' fUI'tI1cl' stUCl\l (~~'f-= the:. c1'}(1. \) 10

I, TlJE: t,

;-:!: I n t J. n F' ,OJ Pu a Nc 'v c; u .i. n c a, t 11 c caY' lie s t

o r. F'c,n?;u'~; founders I,;cre stuclen·ts at the Admini:;ty'ativc College' in art Moresby and began to gather regularly

Thi::; ,,'dS the "Bully Beef Club", so named

j\ustr,aliarl 111cclt. They had been the

victin~s "j a 19[,:1 Au:;tl'd:L~(~n Covernment decision to institute t,·;o

uhli serVlce--onc for expatrlates and

{,U:; ,I 1 ), ;:; \' C- I'ell l'c: ~) p c ct. ~:; ..

lJnti h r: "I;~ co 0<1 Y S Cd Ie f01' both expatriat e and

Paplld New Guinean pubJic servants, although their lack of training and

education meant thE't at the? t c Papua Ne,'l C;uineans \-.'cre excluded from

hi r level f'osi.ti.ons. 'i'L i:; J.9 G:1 change meant that, even Here a .. . the r Co q u :U) J. t c Sk1 11 ;::; for a top positionj

the s~lary(and hence, the status and prestige as well) would be lower

than tllilt of an c:

Gllincans in the Public Service had a cap put on their career expectations.

The Australians believed that by making this change they were

helping prepare ua New Guinea for self-government Hhen nationals

I~) -~ .~ l~J .~ :-, ,~C' C P -\ (_.~, . r ,--., -: ;-, l ., .. '\, -'.- -1- 1, r-.:..~ T) J 1 (' C' -.. ' '"""' p \·}O\11c.1 '.... " U In._ 1 _. ,C' 0, 1 .:J _" L' .'••L _, I.. J J.] 1 ,.. 1 , J U ...... _ c) e. r V..L l_ '" but ,'!hile the nation

would be unable to pay Australian level salaries. The Papua Ne,'!

Guinean reaction was a ues~ioning as to why Australia was not preparing

Answers

..t; Pangu lS an acronym l' Pidgirl wore] for~ p ) .~~~ ~Tj ~D ~ ____1 ,.,H (fJ 1--1"] ru (1) , .' r~ :f m [--.1, r+ () eL ::J 1.0· n I) ....,h--! ~~, j / ..... (1) hi I'· O"C1 ) C\ efj (') I· I r~ ) \:J 1"'1)' cJ c, C C:L. ;J d , ,- (l) lj IfJ rn 0 ('0 C n. )"11 I,-t » H :1~ ~. r:; en ;.0 ::1 ,J 'lJ f-·...-.. r--~' ::J In '.., c:J n, ([J ~lJ 0 J: 0 rL Cj ID (1) d C- O C- J f--·-' f-U ,...---, ~1 !---.J. [t) ! ') CD .. 1- C\. ::1 If) C ,CJ ;l; (I, I-'~; ill 'J (-~ f-··j en (!) ',J 0 (',I ~j }- .. :::':""'i (D ' :5 ," .,-, (0 "'" L~--< (Ie) Cl (-t \}':.1 'j '-J r:::: ".:", mO 0 0 ,..... n ~-"'~ CD (fJ ::1 (1) -.] C H) " I-t) (I) ('J, ( I, n) ;] '-" :.J '"f-t) I.n CJ' n, :1> ):. I-t; en .~ -_! rl. I--·J ('.) (1) en :> Gn III :01 (0 1-' t-~ C\. Uj Ui en ,., f-- J l-,--1 --J ,--f .J (0 I!J (1) V\ (1) :j ~~) I J (') (1) 'J '-r) r:J - : __ 'J (11 ;'1 () _/ o-'t' J' --J r :-; ' ... CO ~.-j I., :-:> .~) ( '-r-l <: (--t '-' (Jj U· I·J ,j ("~ 1___ '-~ ,) 1 ( ;::: 1-" :J .. c:: J f· • 0 '<: » '-'1· r. !{.-J z l'l .'-, GJ c: ~~~ ~'--l I,n r,' t·,) :-T> I I I!·) If) 0... l~ 1---" U-, ~ ·...·1

:~ t-rJ 1-< lC) II"m IT) e] en C) » t·, CD f--j L' ,..] ,,1 1--1 j___ J ll-J'-0 n C) ~b ,-.J L' t"=, t"rj <~: II'-~co tTj 0, t-~ 0) 0 'T! ... -,~ trJ ~~ l~LO >--] ~~ UJ

l--' (0 e.r) ~-- +: I~ I l--' co ---l CD

If-JG,.') ~J l--'

~ !§~) ~m

',"" ~Ii f-~ ILO '.,il','·"li" '-.l 1, Cd '~ i \) 11

i') ~,1 r1 ::J

.r 1 c·]i 1 j C~ LC'll:dl r,:'Jatinn';]lip .

()C; :.1 ',.1 d t i

o p' r ,; p (: ::: I: J. v C' S ;ving and working throughout the j-- 'r,', ~..;- .''1-1-- l~ )....:-.L L Ln fOI'Eled anej they

,. (I: r' t 'j:ra n ..'.1 :" I

(] ~-.; ", -I J. (" Slonsto the Select Committee

c)n n ,; 1 j tll : 5 'v

--Unification of Papua and New Guinea --Dl,;cc\[lti r:i!.l ('j un [:':i,ccil:i r:l 0101',11:0,; by ",.'11ich [uroj.'("HI candidate ~~oul clc-!rn:~r12-1_:e -tIle legislativ(~ systcln. --A clCCY'0'l,;C' in the Tl1.1ml'Cr of official membc.r!; of the Houc:;e ()f /\~;r-;("nll :'l.>/ --The os ab1ishmont [ a Cabinet --The 1'0 nization of Administrative Departments --The appo ntmcnl of ,;enior P,C1puans and New Cuinean:::; as assistants to the Hc:ad,) of Dc;:pc:rtments " ., --The. repLlce.ment ot the Adml.nlstrator by a }i:lgh Comml.sslcner --The Australian government immediately take steps to prepare Papua New Guinea for self-government.

They criticized Australian l-ule, warnlng of a likely breakdown

In the relationship between Australia and Papua New Guinea and

1 conflict between black and white.

In March, 1967, a~ enlarged group prepared a further submission

den,inding

-- I !Tun e d i at c: 11 Y1 1.1 - -- 1\ Ch i e f . n i c,l: e 'C' ..11, C Cl bine t 1,v i t h full ex e c 1.1 t J. V e power s by 1 9 6 8 --IJocaliza-tion of Il:LtJYl Pll]Jlic cr'Jice positions --Transfer of Pa ua New Guinea from the Australian Department of Territories to the partment of External Affairs

fiean t p (] 1 j:: i cal :1 r T. Y }L:.c] ;; en ;) C'l'II. II (S t e p 11 en 1 9 7 2 : 5 5 ) 12

lClG7, an Pangu Pati state-

u,';'.' of A:·;s(~mbly (1:)CE-197/) further

c 1(1.1) ositi n as follows:

internal ~;clf-governmcnt ,cfter ,in a PC()Pl' tc per.; ~() g;~ir'l eXI)cricJ1CC -- Tr\, d c~ !') (_~ n d n C~ d :-:-.: t 1-1 (1 r i_ n ,::_~ ~~ ~~ -l~ (21) in -t]1 i ;::; p}"'() c c ~~~); J'1 () -t Cl r' get o ~a1~c to b spt as y -~: -·-t~;rli.Cy r'(~1.1'\I(~ ':Jl1C} iii;, d; Pangu meant O)lC man, ('ne cO',..lntl"y, nc pcop}.c: - - F' i_ cJ x~~ i 11 C], r; t:he rcd t iOL,1 1 1,clnguage --L:ncOUJ~i~l 1'(~ ('COI'l(iTnJ (: _V(~ TI1CI1-L:, j_rlcluclirlg ~~J dC)(11;.:J.ir'lg (J.r Tlr·.-t-C ic)nal 111 t n }7C(:11'lE; c:.rlc1 (~l T~~,()I'(::: eqllitabJ.c incorne ciistr'.ilJutj.on ~-Stirnlll('Lt r'C.1,}',n -j. v r;'t:rncnt

---21 "LI1-)r)Ol'\-t L·}le CCIC'[) l~ ~~. \; C fl1 (J \/ C: In (-? n t --Lanr1 ref 1'1'1.

On,:Ly nine: to eleven C1CCO'.lnt:; vary) of the SI, members of the

Second Ilouse of i\:;sembly th,:lt open d in lJunc, 19G1I, ,,,ere Pangu Pati

1\ 1t1J011 th r 1'1cmbers supported the party, the

Pangu Pati se med to hav little p pulaI' appeal. It operated

initiaLly (lS a Fa::'liamen}cy party, playing the role of "loyal

opp()sition " to the coloniaL nistration's legislative dominance and

~f;

1" e 1- U S J_ n. G t c) ace l~) t " rn i rl i s t C I'i a .1 f I .P 0 sit.i 0 T1:3 •

ctive of Pdn~u Pati members seemed to be distant from

most In addition,

initicl1 the J'clngu Pati If(lS pi,j.maY'i.ly a cOd3tal--based party, seeking

n' to f,clin ~; IIpPO}'t the [11 land:; . Even though they had some success

(two winning Pangu Pati candidates in the 1968 election were from the

Highlands), they were viewed in the early days as geographically

~10:3t observers contend that tIle Pangu Pati did not ,,,rant to be coopted by the administration. Hnwever, it is equally plausible to contend that the Pangu Pati refused these so-called ministerial positions because almost no real Dower went with the titles. Had there been power involved, the Pan~u Pati might have accepted them in order to work from within for change. 13

t1 1-' \l('o ::'V

(J (, r: -. 1 ~"J. a .J_ i oS t f (-: J.in f·: i 11 t 1"1 i S c 0 t~ n t r~ y

cin' unnff:i-cia

the c1 v r t11(:. r!(J.l-.ty~. (Woolford 1976:17-18)

Pa n ,11 1\11: :il r:ll r· :.' 1<,::(,<1 in both thc Ilou,;c DC Asr;crnbly ·;,net

Perhaps tLi:; ,',cnse of isolation helped them t develop a co11crent policy and was a factor ln stimula- ling a strong sen c of sl ity behind the Pangu Pati leader,

Michelel SOJTlcH'C, 1;'1110 ])(ccamc the fil'~3t Chief Hi nister and them Prime

Minister from independence to March, 1980. (Ballard)

Jt ; rl ;,.; U J t]: n 01 i J1g : ] I, 1 I l: h c I' ,1JIi', U Pat i w ,1 ,; 11 0 toppo,; e d [1 Y d 11 e ")( pat J.:' i a, t e s . For example, two young Australians, Tony Voutas and

Barry Holloway, were instrumental in assisting the Pangu Pati and in cflannc:lling it,3 energicr; in the early clays of fOl'mation. Both have served as Ministers in Pangu Pati-dominated governments. In addition, thorn were many Australians, perhaps younger and more liberal than the average expatriate serving in the territory, who

Suppol'ted the Panrru( __ J Pati1s aSIJirations. And, finally, there were many

~') ~ ~ .0.1..1'--'_~_.\'."""-""~.jlbT l' l l' rl i r. rr l,rJ'~t_)l "-1'''-''' 1 ~-1 T~,_~_C~d.L-i -- -, l E" -, 0' e.~ Y> s in Australia, 1-- .... )_...... J-•.• 0...... as the 1960's ended, who supported early self-government and independence for Papua New

Guinea. One could also argue that the colonial government was trying to move Papua New Guineans into policy-making positions at as rapid a pace as possible. There "fa s , however, a cd'fliet,.. through the early 1970's within the Australian Government between the Department of tr1(:: j)(~p,:lr")trncnt External Affairs and/of Territories over the inevitability of inde- :~lldr':ic:;matic personality. In 1967, o 1\' tr'ouIJJ (1 2bc)ut :his

hi:;: ,I o nd within the broad coalition governments he 1 d until hi.:; fa:L'_ :1.n r:arch, 19Z10. His name has come to be

One observer told this author that

of the population still believe that Michael Somare is Prime Kinister.

The Pangu Pati's aggresSlveness ln the House of Assembly and the

uncertainty '.":i',:1.1.... dini" the C',i7,P of the pal~ty' s sUPI~'ort on the eve of

the opening of Lhe :::ccond IIouc;c of /\:3c;embly in 19[:,e c;·tir:lUlated .'1 :::;tcon,g

r'c c:1c t :.1.. on f I'e)rr. EL(J 11::" c: XI) (~t:c i c_·~t: C IYLC; TTllJ (~l'S • Just before the House convened,

they 0 : h Incl Cin en! j/cmbcr':; f C:r'oup--an eXl:l'ernely loose grouping

that the expatriates hoped would serve as a locus for indigenous

j .. ~ ~~J ~3 .C C 1 t, n; ::i t be pressured to join with the Pangu

F'd.t j . .1.. n (~J (, 1"1-/: 1< c~ rill") 1-' :_~ , an instr\lment

for tl1C cxpatr,Lltc,:; to oppo:':oc the Pangu Pati' s every move. The

expatriate leaders were able to attract well over fifty of the 94

Hou:::;e of I\ssemb members to the Independent Members' Group,

instilling among many a fear of the Pangu Pati as a force seeking to

dominate the I-!ouse proccedin~s. The expatriate leaders also played

upon the fears of the early constitutional development that the Pangu

Pati was encouraging. 1S

I ~,n 'i'hey

I ,,-1

(;: \/ l n :.; :1 i: r: t ~ 1

n1CI;ll~' ~T}lC ;--~ (lILf-) n~ot ion !lCn-Pdnr~U Pati Jflcrnbcr o Ell -t l-C C e i \le, th c S UI,port 0 f :~Jl c I nclcpendent ~1cmbcrs' Grouj:". Its

conSJ_ crable flexibility was also its greatest weaklless; a constitution

for party wa~ drafted bllt never adopted, and several attempts to

convert it directly into a political party failed. (Stephen 1972:136)

The: Jeac)(:r:;!lip (' f the J>c1e rel1d co n ttlemberc)' Croup was clearly

pcnetT'atecl tJ-, i': I ]~nds and and later settled there. No =;ing1e

in (-J :i. \1 .-j (J tl ·-l.l ,l om il1,Jllt fOl'C(,.

Cut of trle I,-Ide n erlt ~;er;lbc,,'s' Group, hO\

an aer'onvn for C Members included

Tiel 1':;, "lith the former dominating COJi!pas:3

policy, including

--Opposition to the minority that was pushins for early ~3 (;.1 f - g() ~J er1 TiTlll~:rl t --The view that economic development depended on foreign investment which reouil'cd Dolitical stability (meaning no change) --Demands for impl'o~ed edu~ational opportunities --A desire for an efficient and non-political Public Service. (Stephen 1972:158)

United Party

In March, 1971, ass changed its name to the United Party.

Despite this alteration which the leadership hoped would overcome the

appearance of domination by highlanders and expatriates (Loveday and

Wolfers 1976:21), the United Partyr s platform, issued in August, 1971, 16

j~ I

It 1,ticuL1 cd thee Ifigh1anclel'?' r fear of being

o'lecv'i:,cl;;,ccl ,:inc] ruled in an inclependent Papua Neh' C;uinea by those

from the New Suinea coast and the islands. o Til., tlnit'-'Il P,!l"t-y pJdtform included a cilll Cor ultimate ;:;c~Jf- ernment and independence, but only following the development of a

strong economy, the broad expansion of educational opportunities, and

a clear indication that the people of Papua New Guinea wanted this new

status. There was a great emphasis on private ownership of the means

of pr~oducti()n, the, ne_cd for' forcirsn invesment, and the advantages of

a multiracial society. As one would expect given these elements in

the party platform, the United Party received strong support from the

col().n i IJ.1 (J (J rn j. 1) j_ ~-; t ,:-1. t i () n . ( !3cdLJCc1)

The Uni d Party, however, suffered from several weaknesses.

Its policy was based on an anti-Pangu, pro-status quo position rather

than taking a Oosltlv forward-thinking approach. Furthermore,

party unity and party c tment were somewhat illusory, many members

having joined for the same reasons they originally join~d the

amorphous and policy-less Independent Members' Group--fear of the

Pangu Pati, fear of the concept of political parties themselves, fear

of early self-government and independence, fear of being overwhelmed

by people from other parts of the country. (Woolford 1976:116)

Finally, the United Party initially was expatriate-dominated, and this

provided another limitation on its appeal to Papua New Guineans. :)

J:) (; CO) t~.,_.:.:~~~~~_. ~~~ ~(:_ll'.L y o Rab(l.U 1., cl.ncl

Warren Dutton, an expatriat The People's Procress o Party was established afler' disiJlusionment and personal and policy differ"'-nces set in Hith the Inclep'?ndent nembers' Group. T'.,ne People's

Proi"re,"C; Fart:y ''-/el':; a l)U inc'::'-j-cricn'l:c'.clpar,'ty, maint'lining clo,-;c links

with the white, urban business community and favoring a moderate

c naticnalisrn with controlled foreign investment. It stressed

that the timin 0 C" crtant as assurlng

~c t12d tl1c best pos~3ibJ_e goverI1rrlent wit11 a strong

ceo Ii ent nation. Its policy

p :;i I ,I I:: ',-/ .,. I' It' 'l :lve,: \,!cre br'oacJ. U1 tint.] tel y ,

the People' (', Y Pdct ipated in Michael Somare's

Coalition Governments wi~h Chan serving as Deputy Prime Minister In

control of tIl OnQInJ.C~ pCirtfolios. Throughout the party's

developJncnt, C'hclTI lld.S 'pcr:tE1irlccl t11E: l.ea.del'. A non-charismatic

personaJity, n is considered to be an excellent technician and

manager.

Natio~r"lal Par-ty

The National Party was organized 1n November, 1970, by Iambakey

Okuk and Thomas Kavali. It formed partly out of the reaction of

university students to expatriate control of H: ghlands' national

politics through the United Party. The National Party was originally I) 18

"} -l C ~) J~ l __ ~ (. " '-..' tIl IIi J. rJ. n d J '''1 e r s 0 n G,t' -tI"}c F'arlgu

1 llJ~l .~-() '- c: [ Pangu. ~'he f:aticinal o Part

Okuk, however, after

leaving the }Jational Party + create another party--the short-lived o

, . . E178. Unlike the e a I' _L 1 C r VC1'~,:L 0 n

the National Party, this time it opposed the Pangu Pati, mainly

th Cilbinct.

Other Politic~l Parties

'rhc~)"-' ar'c :: VCI'd} otl)(')' lctlVC political partie,;, TitO,,;i: ,vith

Papua Bescna, organized by Josephine

Abaijah in June, 1973, originally demanded independence for Papua.

l__'h'18 gracually1 -, change-d to a call for Papuan autonomy and respect faY'

Papuan cuItU1"e. Within the confines of Port Moresby and the Central

PY'ovince, Pa Ud Bc,,;ena J-1d had con,;icJer'able elocto:ca1 8ucces,:;,

although its inI)U-t i_nto poli.cy-making has not been great.

The Mataungan As,::;ociation, led originally by Oscar Tammur and later

by John Kaputin, was formed in May, 1969, on the Gazelle Peninsula

oppose the establishment of a multi-racial encouraged governing council. purely regionally-focussed and/the Tolai

-1---=1 peop I,e; to l_C.. on c and political affairs in the

Ga~:,elle.

Alliance formed ln 1980 by John Kaputin and

Father John Momis lS ln the ~rocess of preparlng the party's platform. 19

-:":.hc Cil.(:lrl- 1<:1,lk ~_~ (].J.itj.on -t:l1(~t -L~c·;.--:plcc1 t~}le. SOJTlare GO\!ernrne.I1"L.

never been a single country; rather it was

a f! C J. Jeti 0 1'1 0 ..: ;3 C' c: i c t i. C ~3 (.1 :-1 ci a s t c1. tele s ~3 C <.) 11e c t ion d t t fl ("1 t .. 'r

l () 7 '0 • '7 ') _L... ,._' I ,~ ••__ (" ";:i.nce scI f - go v e:en rne n t :Ln 1973 and

evc:n "lore c1rametically since" independence ill 1~17S. But the roots of

r dn::/ atic.';ldl c()n~;ciousness lay, to a significant

politically. They werelhe first to form a lasting political party

In th errJ. r'\'. The cancel)t of political parties was unknown to the

) populace an en endered, if anything, feelings of suspicion, mistrust,

and .f ':)ar. In the J ~H)i:J election::) for the I-[ouse of Assembly, many

Pangu candidates felt the need to hide their party affiliation from

the voters--21 ou some commentators argue that party affiliation

was nat a political iability. (Woolford 1976:21)

Althou the Pangu Pati had some expatriate support, most

expatriates reacted negatively to this new element in Papua New

Guinea politics, forming the Independent Members' Group to oppose the

Pangu Pati t provide a home within the House of Assembly for non-

?angu ?ati meTll), r:,; and to ,1enonCltrate that Pangu 'had, in reality,

Iittle SUPPC)l~t. Parties continued to form and develop during the

Second House of Assembly and, by the opening of the Third House in

1972, dlrnost E1J.~_ JncrnhCr\~3 \'.7C y' (1. 1~.lffiliEltecl 1"with p(l.rties. I) 20

\l(][IY f IT] (~ I. \·7 () 'J l' (l () ) C th 600 candidates had been

'! ''1 ("'l ~_ j I L , •

L ~1 '7? O~I. 1"\ -i .!- 1 i j

c:i 1"1 C_: -C r (2 C -t-~ j_ v c U U fl -t- ]~)r W ~i c.1 (~} , o ! ~l J. I~_cr1 e. r"(:-TTlaj.nj_ng for' ·tJ-1C d.:r'tie() \~j(.lS to bu:i 1

Thcre ape J_:\ iC.:ltionc; that the Pangu Pati ledd(~:cship conc;ciously

to() k iJ cC- ion :::; t :=timuldtc the fOI'rrldtion of othc1~' poLitical parties

and, thus, to cncoupace the developnent of a party system ln Papua

Ncv! C:u inca. After the 19G8 elections, Tony Voutas said that political

development ifI Papua New Guinea required more than one party and that

he \iJould ilnother. ( ~; t c en 1972:90) Donald Woolford argues

that th initi 1 aggr ssivc style of the Pangu Pati might have been

designed to push th uncommitted members of the House of Assembly into

a group from which another party and, hence, ultimately a party

sy::;tem, 'V-!oulci en1i:'.rgc. (Woolford 1976:116) This, of course, was what

happened. The eclr'ly Panz,u Pati policy of establishing itself as a

"loyal oppo,;tLon" TnJ t: ,11;; j,c seen as d maneuver to encourage a

party c;y:c;tc::m. Th r\Ul r~ 12 Pilt i, t h us, use cl the C v01 v i n [', We s t min s tel'

system to encourage furt:llcr the development and institutionalization

of th,Cj-t c;ystcm. 21

T ~!- 'T J .L _.L. It

-_._----

r-'dl'ty, I']i" ;"! st uI:.tr'')'-T>?idc: poli.t =.crJ.1 pcl".Ct.y ~Ln

V"n1"l in I:!] f Idnd ownership dnd land

~!qhn'~-' ali ,I. ,,' ',._ ',C ,-_-'

:';pcidl /\;ncT'ican:,;, on the i::31ands of Efate and :3anto.

By mid-IS7l, a group of ni-Vanuatu had begun discussions of how to orgalll.::e to ccmt:::'ol thi land alienation, and in June, 1971, they established the New Hebridean Culture Association under the leadership, aITlong other',;, of Father (.valter Lini, an Anglica.n pl'iest. In addition to it,; conCCT'r/i; over l,lJlcl, thi,; group's goals included the promotion

f' V!lnuatu cu:Ltuce and the advancement of ni-Vanuatu socially, educationally, economically, and politically within a multi-cultural society. The discussion of these issues quickly evolved into politically-oriellted questions, and in August, 1971, the

Association became the New Hebrides National Party. It changed its

1077 name once again to the Vanuaaku (Our Land) Party in January, .L J I I •

(Kele-J

The party was originally, as It still is today, principally anglophone in membersh Host of the early leaders \.\'ere civil serVlce employees of the British Administration, presenting a problem for the. party leaders who, at the same time, worked for and opposed the fkitish. The first National Party Congress, held in early 1974,

--Proposed a tightening of the immigration laws --Re-examined the elitist education system --Offered a plall for the nationalization of all expatriate- o\,;,n e c1 1 all d --Encouraged the development of cooperative societies as a base for economic development --Discussed political progress toward a unified government. (Sope 1974:36) o

:::c t,"j ll:J t ~t1 H '.--.1 t'1 Cll I~-,1 , i--· J I ,.--j • ~t> '"T1 OW L'L' 1 H t-rj 1(D-" '-3 --J HN ~) D :1> t~

CO I"J'-1 U-' I~ +c

I~....J Ul

If--J,0 --J en I l§ 22

(~~ ~-: (~ r t Ii (,I r: 1i. t.i ]. p d:C tie. l n t "]; Sou t h Pac i fie, t 11 e

() P "Celt 'd,J::: (; n~; n~; U~; -hui 1c1 ing, a J,ong proc e s ,; In

\0,1":11 te 1'"

u Party's leader since its formation, was

c;elr'ct,-cc] Chief l'~in:i;::;'.('l' ':n iJovcmbc'r, 1979, and became the fir'st Prime l''linist:cc of t]H~ n':;\,,]'! independent ,;tate of Vanua!u in ,July, 1980.

1\1 thou thc:!'c ]1.\ ve dPPill'c:nt )lCC!\ cl1allenge~; to l1i,; 1cader'ship,

they ha ve: not ,C\;nouni: cd to lTiUC 1;.

UPNH

rn1 .Ld Uni Ti Ie J. P 1l1,,'::i 11 de:: Nouvcl1c~; llebl·:ide;::; (UPNH) ',oJc.lS fCJrmcd c rn 1) r', 1 9 7 1, 1) T-~:c c. n c r-i Tn C? 11 1 i v i n L~ i r1 V(~l rl u a t U \-111 () l'e act e d through t]', strongly andharplyto the udcJen activism of the anglophone ni-Vanuatu/

Vanuaaku Part The Frencll fear of these neophyte political activists

Ivac:' ne:L te:lcd ~:'Y d VanlJ aku F\,rty-sponsored march in Vila in

!\ugust" 1971, 1, eJc-H1QTlstl'at t-he5.I"I ~;UJJpOl~t fOl"'nc:w instituted

nlum rcpulations controlJing land speculation. This march was

::;,lgru··lcant.. f' as the first ti~e an indigenous group had demonstrated against foreign interests in Vanuatu, even if it was in support of a colonial government decison. (kele-Kele 1977:24)

The driving force behind the UPNH were French settlers and businessmen Vlho had earlier joined together In a Citizens' Committee to protect their interests by opposing the new regulations on the sub-division of land. The UPNH HilS more broaclly--based than the

Citizens' Comnittee, although the three components of the UPNH did not remain united for long. The first group consisted of wealthy French 23

,I ,t l

), ,j the ]. I'l.L 1.. } rn s atus quo." CKelc-Kele 1977:26)

I1unl})er1 tha.n the f'~)I'ln("J.r grcll!=>. The third group was made up of some o ""I r: (I .L -J u government

The participation of this

last more

than a PUT'':"; Ll1ropcalL Cand over'i'lhelrningly French) political

oJ~gani zn.-t: .ion ..

The UPNlI had thrice principal stated alms,

--Maintain the Condominium system until evolution allowed a new rational and reaJistic orientation ---Cr'c.'lte d ~;(;c:'r'i't;Jr\!-C"ncr',ll for th(~ Condominium l\cJrnini~;trat.ion --Eliminate roperty litigation and improve the possibilities for inr:1ividuiil O\~:n(:)' ip of land (i.e., protection by the colonial administration of European land transactions) (Kele-Ke1e 1977:26-27)

By the end of 1972, the UPNH appeared to be a party in name only,

unable to accommodate the different vie'i'ls of the ultra-conservative

and the moderate Fr nch factions and losing the ni-Vanuatu taxi drivers

who quiCkly and correctly concluded that the UPNH had little interest

ln their grlevances.

The UPNII was particularly unsuccessful in mobilizing French~educated

ni-Vanuatu, generally being viewed as the party of French settlers and

businessmen. A common perception was that UPNH policy coincided with

that of the French residency and, in particular, that the UPNH was an

instrument to restrain increasing ni-Vanuatu activism and to delay

(Sope 197 1t:3S) 'J

AC!,;:I/UCl'iH

(/\C1'!ji) j (j '.Ie J.t) /"1 (-, (} I)ij j nf ccmbc:,', 1 ~i ') ~; ,

i- o

I! ":'"tl I" ril:"-~e cl1(Jrnpior~.cc~_ C I' ~\; n . lJCl,llJ

': 1] l',) , l'lLlrlCcJ to C' looking !:owa:ccl an

If,authentic

p 0'::> l!1atic.n. I' O( Co 1 c·· Kell9 7 7 : :):] ) The UCNH accused the Vanuaaku Party

ITJ1(: ReJr'ucl. 1"31"'0 1:(:;.~i.~::::: '--lr; gcln \.Jitl''l {:"111 ;l~_;~-;ault ()n {~l polic(~rrkln (-'inc] qui c k J Y c ,; C ' 1 ("i :i n ' ,J hi )' 1 :/ c u n ten t i 0 U 'c:' pol i t :)_ c .:t 1 disputc . ']' h e Rarua family owned a s\lccessfuJ combination dance hall and bar in the tovm of SCJnto. One of the fi've F~a1:'ua brothers, Shern, vIa,,, arrested by a white Fren h gendarme in November, 1973, for assaulting a policeman on duty. A :3cconcl'brothey" Lincl::~ey, ,,'as al~')o cH'Y'csted for trying to prevent the arrost of Shorn. The gendarme was accused, and apparently . 1+ f "h • 'h ''1 ' • • -' gUJ, Ly, 0 - jJ1'uta1lty. '1 _C aY'rcsi~ oentereo arounc L~ Cllspute J_nvo.L v:Lng two families and the first policeman's marrying a ni-Vanuatu woman from the island of Tongoa. Because of the French police b1:'utality and a perception of bias on the part of the French Ina~istratc who heard the case, the Vanuaaku Party became involved, ing a series of demands: --The immediate and unconditional release of the two brothers --Establishment of a "peoples' coupt" to try the French B;endarme with the Vanuaaku Partv reorcsented at the trial --~~gal reform so that-peo~le could bring charges against police off 1,C021',3 --Right of appeal by ni-Vanuatu from Native Courts to a higher COU1~t . The french and British agreed to the release of the Rarua 81:'others pending an appeal and accepted the other demands in principle. This set off a recection amClni" the French and mixed-race francophonec.~ in r~r'onl \..)('-"--t,,c~, t ".-/. '1'}1("..L _ .J..r",c+-<....1.. ."~ 't-'n:o+• (-I.. l_ -i-h",'- 1 C :,',i \. c11, U c1.' ['r-') c.,yt-}·~ ""I""'-" ~J w'-'ret__ _ nn-t'_ \.J ~ J "'antel) 1 ) I'L'tL.. , nevertheless, were successful in business there, seems to have further excited the emotions surrounding these events. 2S

f }' 1 De::;pite the UCNII

('l -: '-.~ __ L 11r' ~nd I) hecome involved in politics in the

'~'j'l cluth ntj.c5~t\T r t]-li~:.; Cc.Jr1C~(~11rl for ~1cla__n(~r_;.ic:n involvcrnent ,"-ll oliti ~c:, tho'Ji')l ,;inccr'c, \'li,\S limited to the Ifaffdirs of lf (1) /\:30,5 tiO:l n,e dic;tinci' from the affail°s of the o archipcJ (Kele-Kele 1977:29)

~i.cl(~n·\. lcct\' PCl ,\ Eur'opc,:,n, Perny Belaveuvc, mayor of Vi1a,

clT'l d ~~ (',: Cl~ C -t a J~;Y' (

In addition to the n:ulLi-1',.)J~i:l1 a'opecl:, tJw UCNH's policy

j_rlc~lud(~d the followin~ fc~a·tllr)es:

- - T 0 by' i n,i', t (I t 11 C (I t t (' n t jon 0, t J1e a cJ m.i n i ,'; t rat :i. 0 11 it ,3 Pa ,; t fa i 1 ures --To press fc)r' ]_~lW rc[ornl to -tIle gen~ral bel-1E~fit of all ni-VanllattJ --To assure the maintenance of respect for the law. CKele-Kele 1977:29)

t1ANH

The third expatriat -based party, the Mouvement Autonomiste des

Nouvelles Hebrides (MANli), was created in January, 1974, in Santo by

French settlers as a direct reaction to Condominium concessions to

the VanuacJ.ku Pay,tv in the Fax-'ua Brothers r case. The MANH was openly

hostile to the Vanuaaku Party and to ni-Vanuatu ln general, making

no pretense about the desirability of multi-racial political forces.

(Kole-Kole 1977:31) The ~orr formal goals of the t~NH were set out

In 1974 and included

--Steady evolution of the territory toward an autonomous status --Establishment of mUGicipal councils as the basis of political awareness dl-ld mana~emcr1t --Pro ss to a"t-tal.Il a 1'cy'ritori_al Assembly-"type of governmerlt (Kele-Kele 1977:31) \) 26

T'}--l lCj77 >'jt,~T}I Corlgr)(~~::;~~~ C:'~_I)r.'ef;Sed (~OnCerrl trlc1t tIle 11i ...-Varluatu

would not be re v for independence before 1984 or 1985 at the

The Cr-:-,ni')'c ,~ oldi:r,ed tlli1t orderly development required

first cconolnic i.ndcI)CIIClellce, fc)llowed by self-gover'nment and, lil-timately,

political independenc . into a () coop~rative relationship with IJagriamel (see beJ.ow), and at the snore forma.l, ~llthougll still ].:377 (~()n(~re~_;f_;, 1~:J"l.-i_C~ 1:JCCrJ,YT':(: (~·l/lo()se ,aJ~J.iaJLce.

NilgrL--:lJ'lel f rmed in 1 DC, 2 ,.Jrounc1 the cllarismatic leadership of

riginally b

island of Sant (cl1thoug]} )\] gr'iamel' s influence hcu3 ~)ince spread to

a number of other islands), dedicated to the return of alienated

land that had ]) en neither cleared nor developed by foreigners.

Nagriamelts reaction to continued European encroachment on Santo was

intene; i fied by" [rw3 tration in d ("ding Hith the Condomilli um

Administration and the land 1aHs. Nagriamel wanted independence from

both France and Britain (or, at least, autonomy from any Vila-based

government, perhaps in a loose confederation) and 11as often been

called a "custOEll1 movement because of its desire to I'eturn to a

system based on tradition for the regulation of society. Although

until 1974 Nagriamel might be considered a movement with the aim of

maintaining traditional culture, since then it has been an active

participant in the Vanuatu political system--including contesting

elections.

Although Nagriamel and the Vanuaaku Party held quite similar

views on land and on the role of Europeans in Vanuatu, suspicion

developed between the leaders of the two groups. The Vanuaaku Party 27

C1- .i l-l\/an-t=::·; :i.fl t:}-)C P,rj.ti 1'1 ~:~icl nee and ang} one Chul'chmen

h 11 in ,', ;\nothccr no,c;,; j1 ' 1e

fOT~T~'ldtior; of" -li-'~-~0. V[~T':U c~_~l<:,l T~,]Tlt~y'- \f,7,:::'~_3 t~hc rC(11' of tl"1C (~lnglop11c)ne ! (Y~-1 U Jd l"l

1 1 :l. (.ld r th(~t StC\' n~:;, a~'; a/Ttcc:l}:',I\O cult" leac1c:;r , \~lould becornc thE~

r.ln IJl r:dT1. nal !:; oh: !;J:ldll :Cor i~ ,;elf-governing or independent

~ \]r:ln tlrJt

hat CC)O]'cl','ltion ,,'ith t110 rcench would benefit

hin, in particular in protecting him from the 8ritish under whose

jUyl:i,,:;dict he normally would fall. O(el e-Kcle 1 ~r77 : 33) He began

to r:tOVC towaccl ,J r'ilpproc)icJnenl: VJ.1.th the:: French in 197Lj thr'ough the

~lAtJIT, lnd Li.s c1i!3dffection tC)',var'cl the British and the unglophone

Van1.ldiJku Filrty c]ec:pl.'Jl cI. rrh 1977 c111icin.ce \~itJ1 t11e MA}JII seem~.; to

have been based on mutual convenience.

Another foreign influence on Nagriamel 18 American--the self-styled

libertarian Phoenix Foundation of Michael Oliver. Details of this

reJa'::ionship are quil co murky and little known, although it seems

to include at least financial assistance and political advice.

Stevens declared Santo independence from the rest of Vanuatu

severa] tlmes, most recently in the abortive rebellion of 1980.Despite

Stevens' defeut and J21l1ng, Nagriamel will probably continue to be

significant uS a political and social force in Vanuatu.

Other Political Movements

In addition to thesc partlcs, there are a number of more localized

movements in Vanuatu, inclUding Jon [rum, Kapiel, Tabwemasana, Frend

Melanesia Party, and Natdtok Efate. 'rhO[30 are all of limited scope or

participate minimally ln the national political system. 28

T,;ln'~;:;1.1(' \,7('1'" dt 11·" '('r"ter of politic,.ll ,) tivity In VclnUZ\1:u

Kele-Kcle argue thdt for both the Vanuaaku Party and Nagriamel-- o (Kele-Kele 1977:34)

ilcTnnlc:: c !-ltc~11~,~(5 dJ~)()1~lnc1 lanel alierlc-:ltion and tile colc)-

Ilial il

"l:111'0111:h the C nclorninium /\cJF'\ni~;trat:ion, Cd.me to be vicI~ed by the 111(11-

genous parties as the source of the problem. For the Vanuaaku Party,

cap}y incJepcnc!cn c seemed the only answer; it~o policy wa~; dr'iven in . . Inceptl_on.

condurt and, in [(jct, the very eXlstence, of the expatriate-

influenced parties were based on a reaction to the activism of the

Vanuaaku Party. The land policy of these colon parties was quite

clear even if never explicitly stated: the colons Houlcl retain control

over the land they had ma~~ed to alienate under Cold as well as

modern) colon'l 1 1"'-110', this control was to be retained at any cost.

, . , r. '-'1 lIlf)Ll"'Urncnt t clchic:vc thi~; gOil1 WC\ po~:;tponement of independence,

delay of self-government, and protection of the status quo. Another

lI1strument was to form an alliance with New Hebrideans--be they taxi

drivers or Jimmy Stev I1~;--whc;'e mutual convenience Ivas served.

There Here several other historical divisions in addition to the

indi ous/expa-triate cleavage over land. One, of course, was the

anglophone/francophone language split among the Melanesians Hhich

~-'-.(."hp differin~nodern 'TID11. '~ a.. n-+--1 L th~ ~ C1 '--1 L.,. - two groups were subject to pressures. 29

These ;:pllts

L((J :i n l) eJ.:r\-t: \'1,' (1 :1. v i :L ('111 ~:l

On the widely separated

5:C;!'lnd:; of VillJU"-rtU, ,;Clmc 1(![1 :'anguar;cc; ore spoken, C(lCfl languace

i c: ent .i ~.~ y. ( ?~ a. t i ~) n all("-1 n g u age S d l'e

This fragmentation

was n t reflect d directly in party divisions, alttlough it represented

a keen challen c to c dcv lOllD2I1-t of politi.cal parties.

) 30

L J1 i.. -L 1,l21C]

1,a·!~ /\ltc;:y,t 11 n'V,\7. o J.>egan

II :1 b crt 1I r, c"/ t:c i c :J t 0 ~,i: i Tn U 1ate c h Cl n g C' _1 nth e Coo k sin the

mid-19Li·O'~3 thro the Cook Islands Progressive Association CCIPA)

branches in AUC~_;3.ncl and Rarotonga. The CIPA was formed in 1944

becau~~e of scontent with some of the economic policies of the New

flio': l'dtion, (';;\ ccidl1V those relating, to prclducing and

'1' 11 C :I. ,1 C k 0 f reI i 21 b 1 c S II i PP i Il g ;3 C r vic e s

fo:c -the c:xport f 10(',[llY-'l'ro c1 u ce c; agt-'ic u1 tura 1 proc!uct s rne ant that

food often would rot on the docks forcing many Cook Islanders to

abandon cash cropping. The CIPA warlted to secuy'e a shi.p with wtlich

to export cash crops and hoped to establish a cooperative store in

l\ar)otO!ll',d.

Concerned with economlC matter~as were other leading Cook Islanders,

Albert Henry also had a strong interest in political reform as a result

of his experience in New Zealand labor politics. In 1945, his political

thoughts included some vaguely conceived ideas about elected councils

in the Cooks, possible input Cook Islanders into the appointment of

the New Zealand Resident COffiDissioner, and representation of the Cooks

in the New Zealand Parliament. (Hancock 1979:67)

Albert Henry failed initially to effect significant change or to

find an appropriate role for himself in Rarotonga. He returned to 31

CI PII. .i f; \! :i t e (I I [c n l'V to

C "1 r~.-j,(:l~l (:~drn._i_nj._:.-~·t'T'(~J-t··1_0n' ;:~ fa:i.l.1.,11'C t:c, !Jl'()\l.ic'le (1 In(~al1i;1gfuJ. l"'ole fOI'

modern poJitical sector resulted ill a leadership vacuum in the Cooks.

Many of those Cook Islanders who had the capacity to play a leadership

role had left, mainly fcr New ~caland, where there were better

Henry quickly mobilized :c:upport upon his retu:cn

to Rarotonga and gained control of the emerging indigenous political

system, drawing on the techniques he had learned in New Zealand. He

maintained strr)nr'. control r]\i' th(' f'.()Ver'nrnent for (]lrnoc;t fifteen year's.

Albert Henry's campaign in 1965 for the Legislative Assembly ) (established under t11 new Constitution passed by the New Zealand

sized changes for the future,

drew on links with the Dast, and committed him to self-government for

If UH:: Ccwk:;. 1. (:nlC)1l tr,:!ted Jli,: expertise a~:: a leader ",nel an orator,

~-:::;J)O"llSec:l (~ T\,\I(:lfare-.st2te pllilos()I-)l"lY'. (Stone 1966:173)

Oddly enough, despite his leadership in the campaign, Henry was not

permitted to run for office because of restrictive residency require-

ments established b'/ the Ne,0 Zealand administration. After the over-

whelming victory of his supporters, inclUding his sister as his

surrogate, the regulations were changed and he won handily in a

by-election. \ C,

l 1'-

c iCl1 'I'.. :1.iving be~JO]1d the

':1 ~ i ~.~J71:SSFr) Accor(_lir1f~ 'to STone~ tl-1CSC

1: nr1~y') \'!(:1~::~ c)ff::;et 1'>y thc: d.i\Jc:r'~~i ~/ 1\",n-[: , ~_:;CJ 1. ,'1 ancl g(:C:L~l'a .i_c(~111~/ \·]}-1ic}·1 ... Y}oul(O] 1TlJ~'C (]·t·t~:·:~T:-~~·)'t~2-; (:it t~:~iifi C)r"g~111i~'~c.1tion difj:-ic\..llt~. (StC)rle 1971: S8)

" \1 I'r} j

The United

,:-~ -)~ HOlrlcl/cr, the

~ CCJ() : ;.i i: I c! " r ) I \: :; ;)

)

Tn I ~i G H nrv I c; ::J t l'tl C t U l' e c1

Cn k Islanders to contest tha year's

n j 1('0 1i. l"ule of th e Cn L;l'Ulc!S as vJl1at

J.l domain and their per'Cl3 lon of 19norallce

and complacency on the Dart of his colleagues and his party. Despite .. . \"] 1. n '~'; "l, n r?; ,51 x

unablf:: to transform itc; If ir,to a more formal, lasting party. Reasons

for this included the superior organizational ability of Henry and,

pc :3 mol',,: ,~J'lrl()~'tdnt, t:\C di~;tast(o of many individual members of the

United Cook I~;landerc; for t 1\E': vccy concept of a political party. Even

the six United Cook Islanders in the Assemblv were unable to act as a

(Stc)rle 1~17l: 397) Later, many of the United Cook 33

,-1- .;

1 ',--, 'P

a.s cd

~3i·ti·:JJ_l t l\ll)CI1-i= l1enI"1,\/ .: T~ -:=hc: l.97 clecti()n.~3. The Democratic Party

2nd the cconoDlc, SOCl ,and litical stagnation of the Cook

D.-lvi,~ IslancL. Zln(2 hi,; 1'0 ]')\.;er,;. J.,"-,lanned to stim\llrJte.. ~ ~ - ,.:JFrowth in tIle pY'iVd: C' ~:C'c'l l' ,me] to j'IY',Hlcn p,lrl~jcip,ltion in the political ::;y~;tcm, providini3, for the fir,;t time, i!.nin~;t:itution to mobilize tIle OfjPO-

~;\.lmmdry

Ron eombe believes that earlY New Zealand policies resulted ln the replacement of traditional authoritarian control of chiefs by s ilar a thoritarian control of the colonial government. This resulted in a :;it'.lation in the Cook,; \vhcre

The public are used to accepting that whoever holds the power does largely what he likes; they have had no other experience. - - (Crocombe 1979:1)

experience led, especially in the political sphere, to a passivity, dependence, and lack f c nfidence and experience. (Crocombe

Thi~~;, plu~; t!('\,.J '/'('

Tr:n rty defeated Albert Henry, although it

]

fit: If rlr'~v' C:r'OJIl oi:.r-~i_ce i:-or~ cJ_E::c·t:or"\al

'i'hc n(~mo Pdtie Pcc?'!:y today ~;ccm::; tel be c()nfr'ontinc; seri.otlS ecor1omi.(~ prol)lcms i_r-l tllC Cc)ok~~ as well as i.nterrlal leadersl1ip

Cl1cillE~~_ngc~s • 35

actj 1.11 FrC:l h l·'lnc::~ vcr the p iJ ::; t t 11 r e e dec ,c Cl fe' ~; - - the aut 0 n 0 -

The a\ltonorni::;t,,; :'Iade their' fir,;t o the Led by Pouvanaa a Dopa,

the'y h I·d tn )'C:;!:C)Y'C d Po1ync::d.an identity to I'r'cnch Polynesia.

Pouvanaa had bC0n a correnter brought up 1n rural Tahiti and a World

He ~v(u; a t'.JUlHling member of the Comi t(~ france Libre

that supported Free France and De~aulle in the territory. He initially

hoped that thrau th development of a political party with repre-

sentatives on all the i~land of French Polynesia he could secure a

con :; t :i. t U 1 ('n

t~ Pouvonaa, enunciated 1n the

19u9 clectora] carnpalgn, was anything but radical demanding

-·-~A rlev~' clfl libcYl(~lJ C()11st:-itu.tioYl fOl' Tahiti --L,:::)calization of tl,(: civil service --1\(:l:urnto ubli.c c\lr;toc1y of c(~rtilin alienated lanel - -t:s tabIishmcnt of c cmrncrcia1 and agricu1 tura1 cooperative ,; t ..') providE~ easier cr j_·t~ to 1'ahiti.aJ1S --EstabJ.ish laws repardil1g minilnllffi wage and wor}(ing conditions --Establish local c~ntrol of the foreign exchange system as a means to lessen the ti t economic ties with Metropolitan France. (Tagupa 1976:4-5)

By the mid-1950's, the Comit~ Pouvanaa, renamed the Rassemblement

Democratique des Peuple Tahitiennes (RDPT), had begun to oppose more

stron~lv ,-."J ../ the policies of the French administration and French

commercial influence. Pouvanaa at that time talked about autonomy

for French Polynesia, social reform, Tahitian as the official

language, and localization of government jobs. :) 36

,; I .. ~. ~~; CXi~:tC:T1C o pdcti

" j i, ~ ,. j -(. v. {. I '~ ,,' 11: I I' , :! .

o tl-l(::: s atu::::; un.

He himself

"I (1 ,; the ~; ]' :i r i t \) '.,1 1 e cJ rJ e c ,::h cfi r~; t Polynesian 1. C d cl c r ,; inc e 1 84 :-2

l,vhen the French first r'uled ;~'ahiti. lie offer'cd hope for restoration

of a Polynesian identity while still providing Tahitians with the

security of the l'rcnch community. Hic:~ support in the 19LJO' sand

early ]950's came from rural Polynesians in the Protestant Church,

the unions, and veterans organizations rather than from the tradi-

lion,,! !) lit' i, l J I d I,j :; II) (' ),'\ ('Ii.

r)c:~~r>itctl1(" -.1 01 or rc:;i:;tdnce Pouvanaa embodied to tJF:

colonial administration and to foreign commercial interests, his

leadership was weak and he proved unable to unify his party behind

pragmatic end:;. (Thomp:-;on and Aclloff 1~J71:38) The more practical

role of political combat had to he left to others. The RDPT became

the first well-established grass-roots party in French Polynesia.

Although it, or its successors, received the most votes in the

majority of the elections throughout the 1970's, the unwillingness of

the French Government to yield power plus the lack of trained Poly-

nesians and a general disin~erest all probably contributed to the

length of time it took fox' the autonomists to attain their goals. 37

(' ') , r~' :) ,] , I : (j

vJ<1> ,-] n c1 ~:~ U r 1 tc(1, d.t J.CI:]~~t .1_ T1 t [I C. i 11 it i a 1. ~-::; -t: ,=1 g ~~ s , by tl1e /l

t~rc::qt.1cJ:tly, o 'Tl1C lLclrnCE; c]lctngccJ as cl:i.d the

Papeete, was most often in the key leadership position. In the

very early years, the parties such as Poroi's Union de D6fense des

Inttr~ts Tahitiens in 1947 and his Union Populaire Oc~anienne (UPO)

In 19 1+9, expressed concerns similar to those of Pouvanaa about the

need for greater local control. The UPO was itself formed in antici-

pation of P')UVanEla' S oI'gdnizing a Ilc)litical movement. As events

un f 0 1 cl cl, t h (' ,; uc c c' :; ,; e,l' :; Lhc c, [!(!rtic:; ::;uch iJ,; Poroi' s Union pour

) 1n 1953 and his Union Tahitienne (UT)

In 1957 took on more of cl anti-RDPT character. One reason for this

constiJ.nt C}'lilflge o.f party J1aJTIC and c()mposi"tion was -the continlling

cJt'tc;rrlrJt -t:C) cl-r';l\-] ~-. e('2tl-1CJ" t:1'lC:? cl:i.;.;pc'lr'cltc: con~)cl'va.ti.v(~ fC')l"ces (3.g,~lj_rlst 38 I")

r' }C:; :iT: Fiji, the Alliance Party ,'lnd

r T ,~ _1_ ...,. ~, .,eJ cl.J erne:CFsccl in the 1960'5. ,30urce

oj _lli l' or]~:r;:; :lIr,] :ll(' .i:! 1- 1l nee:; 11 [:he5.1' development have been

i:dP cJ:-; ',0;[\1']'(' in thc" P(1e:i~fic, JlIdinly (1,3 cl l'e,3ult

The Alli(1n~e Party, a multi-racial coalition, was formed in

Harch, 10G ,im;nccJiately (:lfter the 1956 ?;eneral elections. The three

major coalition partners were the Fijian Association, Indian

National Co~gress, and the General Electors f Association.

rncnil)(:y':; ill the: /\11i nee]' l'tv included the i\ll-F:ij i Hus1irn Political

Front, Fiji 10~~ rity Part'>, (Hw;lirn), Fotuman Convention, I\otumc!l1

Association, and the Tonsan Association.

The Fijian Associatio~, the largest and most powerful component

of the /\lli.cln e Party, formed :tTl 3anuary, 1~j56, to protect Fijians

aga ins t tLc Cc dl'cd res u:Lt:; () f ii thrcat enecl s trike by Indians in the

It wJsthe first significant effort to organize

the Fijian ccmrnu~ity on a national level outside of the institutions

established llnder -tl1c British CololliaJ.. administration (i.e., the "Great

COUTlciJ of Chief~; and tl: fi:j ian Affairs BoclrcJ). l\fter the 1956

sugar strike threat recedcd, the Fijian Association continued with

the genera1 goal of encouraging Fijian solidarity under Fijian

leadership to protect fijian po1itica1 rights. (Ali 1973:173)

During the next few years, the fijian Association was not very

active. However, in the early 1960's, several factors contributed TABLE 3 FIJI--EVOLU'PION OF POLITIC!\L PARTE-:S

FIJIAN ASSOCIATION (January, 1956)- , ALLH.NCE P,;RTY C()I~GHESS (Mi1 rch, 19t;fi) INDJ1}N. NATIONAI, (1965) " EUROPEAN ELEC'rORS' ASSOCIATION (19't7) \ GENERAL ELECTORS' ASSOCIATION

FEDERATION OF CANEGROViERS ) CITIZENS' FEDERATION 7NATIONAL FEDEHATTC'fl PARTY (March, lq59) (l9hO) (June, 190t)

c o o • .. A. - .39

to '1 many Fijians.

l.c(~tiorl in 1963 of :fC\l2T~ rnernber)s of

l: 0 t h C' L c p: i ~; 1 a t i v f~ Co u n c i 1 o lc 1:' ,. ,1 1 :i :', (' t :1 , ~i. '

t: () D" ;", :i 1 i ;: e Third,

Fi :i :I. ct n f~ r c ,=:.1 i ? edt:1a t a \) c J 1 - 0 r g a 11 i zed po], i tical in ,3 tituti0 n 'll 0 U 1 cl

help pr'otect th

tutionaJ neg ti(jlon:~ WitJl thc' !3riticdl. This was especially important

in light of increasing United Nations pressur'e on Gr'cat Britain to

grant ear'ly incl pendence to Fiji--against the Fijians' will.

Although the leacler'ship of the Fijian Association included some

who hoped to use it as a means to establish Fijian dominance

nationally, a r and more powc~cful group, including curcent Prime

Minister Ratu Mara, believed that Fijians could best secure a

in the Constitutional Conference and in the country,

in general, as ~el] as guarantee a long-term stability, thr'ough a (No'.C,ton 1977:2.6) multiracial 2]1ian0'0'./ (Later on in Fiji's histor'Y, Ratu Mara was to

t-JOI'k 'Jel'V' clos(~ with his Indian opposition and, at several stages,

I:10,3t ]"~0'cntly -'-ll late 1980, he quec,tionecJ publ.icly 'dhether Fiji might

not be better off with a single, multi-r'aeial party~ The first annual

convention of the Fijian Association in June, 1965, in a close vot~

, •J a utnOl'J. 7,e( Ratu Mar'a to enter' into negotiations with the Indian

rJation~l Congress. 40

~.~ e. rl cl Tn ,1:::: t In the Alliance Party was the General

I~ 1 e c t L' s' /\ ~:~, s () c..~ ,1 c1 t }_ C) rl, i t ~; c. 1 f 1. n (-: ): i s t e f1 Ce S:lnee 1 9 q 7 . Shortly

after -tllS fo]~ma·tioI1 of he AJ_liance Party, the ctli.T1ese AssociatioTl,

a community organization based in Suva, joined the General Electors' b({ """ (. . .. l;'S ~3 cciat' ion --(1 logical ,;t D one result of the Constltutlonal 'A

talks vl,i,; (:;1 t [i,l; Ch.Lne:·; vJerc :included ""ith European," in the

• lh nllm:) T' of inc! iduals covered by the General

El'c:ctors' s ciai:i n was l'cla-ti.ve2.y sffiQll, their irlfluence was not.

Europeans played a decisive role in the formulation of Alliance

policy. TIl Y ,\ :;0 played ,I kev p,lrt in negotiat:i.ng \oJith the Britis1!

to a.~)~:;llr'e tI-~;] \11 cl, cue t IIl' " 0 l: h e pol i tica 1 s y s t: C In inan i n cJ e pen c1 e n t

Fiji would secure Fijian/European dominance over the larger Indian

population.

Cooper1a-tioI1 between Europeans and FijiaJ1S In the Consti.tutional

talks resulted in their obtaining a greater proportional representation

in the new Legislature than each would have received based on its

percentage of the population. In addition, the Fijians, by now

outnumbered in the country by Indians, were able to obtain virtually

permanent protectioll ac,-~ainst unwanted Constitutional changes.

The final major actor in the Alliance Party was the Indian

National Congr'e:c;::i, forme J.n ,H'ly 19f5S a,3 a moderate Indian Party.

It opposed the National Federation Party because of policy differences

and personality conflicts between the respective leaders. The Indian

National Congress hoped that cooperation with the Fijian Association

within the Alliance Party would help resolve the serious land tenure

problems of the Indian population. 41

rrh !\11i{~nce Pd~l"1ty \~?tl~~~ fC'}l"lTrlC:d 2~:; "(3.11 umbrella of electol"'al

cc;,n'J nJcncc 0" (/\11>:,'1 l~)7l:IJ'7) It was a means to demonstrate to

elect ral system despite the Indian claim, through the National

Federa~ion ParLy and other voices, that only a corr®on roll was

clCC(-~:pta_}Jle• Ur\(:Jel' a communal olccto:('al system, members of one

community or "thnic group vote for candidate~) of t:JlciI' grOUT) only.

Under a common

roll all l.'accs vote together. I'iji's 1970

Indian, "mel 3 i,;cneral membeI',;

elected from communaJ rolls and 10 Fijian, 10 Indians, and 6 general

rnernl.)Cr~~~3 c J...e ct cJ Y"'() TTl r1cl-t ~i l-L(~t] on,lon) roll,;.

li:,ily '.\ ']1,1', !Ill: till"'" lit,! 1.11 I dl'tj,cipdl:Jlli" l'I',dll.L'/.at:J.0!l\3 \.val;, 1:0

National Federat n , and was based on three common views:

--Oppositicfl t -t}-lC COflCC1)t ()f COTI1TI10n elector)al l"'()lls --Opposition to the immediate granting of independence --Support for the 1966 Constitution. (Ali 1973:174)

The structure of the Alliance Party allowed the coalition members to maintain their distinct identities. Participation in the political system was thrcugh the constituent organizations to which

individual loyalties were attached rather than through direct individual participation as/members of the Alliance Party. (Alley 1973:174)

Nat nal federation Partv

The other major political party in Fiji, the National Federation

Party, also had its origins in the sugar cane fields. After several

unsuccessfuJ attempts to organize Indian canegrowers in the 1940's and d J.UIl

IjJ n~r t with the Colonial Sugar Refining

Company (CSR) to repJac n expiring in 1960. Indian. corlcern::;

included TTI,]ny Id gri '1(111(;1' '.oI11LCh re~3ultecl in great distrust of tile

company, a general dissatisfaction with colonial rule, and a deep

Ln ss viith the land t n\Tre s,y~~tcm that virtually excluded

(!\U,cy IJ73:13~j)

'J'.Th (.'. ...T:"' c.J (....' '.'...',···l-t.·.· ._;._ (,").;"1 '." -1- 1"-' ... , . •. .- . ... \.d]. n (-~ ,;·-~1~1 ers became the Citizens' Federation I 19G3 Legislative Council elections.

I !i (! i (I r1 \111'; t '! and c () n c e nt rat c don In d i ,,1 n de rna n d s

for a solution to he land issue and for better conditions in the

sugar :i.ndustry.

i'I',li'r'll II II l'dl'l.y ('J:IC1'!"c'd 11\ ,Tun 1 () (j II, u n d c l'

1\ .• Pat l, ,] It(lJ·i ::; rna tic i c1 c 1 () 1', u e "-ih 0 had beenthe. 1.:1\,,1 y cr f 0 I', eH1 d (,J

leader of, Indian eanegrowers. In addition to this core group, active

supporters included the predominantly Indian Fiji Teachers' Union based

in Suva and most Indian civil servants. The National Federation Party

extended its influence by propagandizing against the power and influence

of the Europeans and strongly opposing the communal election system,

demanding a common roll. (Norton 1977:79) Under the flamboyant and

militant Patel, many Indians joined and supported t]le party.

Issll8s

Fear '/FI.~~ a common el('T'!(:nt 1.11 the formation of both the Alliance

Party a~d the National Federation Party. The Fijians and the Europeans

feared the prospect of an I~dian majority controlling an independent

Fiji. The Indians feared that the Europeans, using the Fijians as

tools, would do nate -tJ12 systcrn. Land tenure issues and communal (Ie.nee, (~n I.Cr.-] r'!r--~,ti rl~~" 1::laf; CJ\/ T1l'"\r31'1girlg, -t1--1e situi)'tion

J,n tIle cal')J_~i r~-:;1(j :nid(.1 , ,"

Lane D'/iTl C ;; ') J)C'

,,' .ll 's wlth Indians f2rmin~ the land only as

prol: c at

Fijlan land was plae d into a native reserve while other Fijian land vJa~; cle:~igr~at(:;d :c c 1c:(·'-!.~,,;c (rndilj]_)7 to IrlcJi(Jr1~:;). As thesE~ 1I1diar1 leases expired, the Native Land Trust Board returned much of the leased land to -l:hc nativ rcscrvc~-t 2CCOJ-nrrloeJatc fu"tu.rc Fijiar1 land requiI'cments.

'1'h i s J 0 c: ,; f LUi c1 ('1 V (]1 J'll', f r I ase plus shorter Deriods for new lea.,se intc'n,;:if ied tJeD III ,i"ln cone rn th,lt their very Iivel ihood

\,.J ("1 S (~- n d Cl n C~. r c (} . rT'~nis r'E)~~~t.lltc::d irl

actor involved the nature of the electoral roll. ~; inco th J ') D I tl)(' Tncli ns had IJoen dcn;anc1ing ('1 common roll, and it sensitive political ~LSSUC decades. The cC)JruTluna1 l'oll meiJnt~ th2.t the Indians "Jere never properly represented in the territory, especially after 1945 when the Indian community surpassed the Fijian in size.

The Fijians equated the communal roll with the maintenance of their ethnic identity and control of what they perceived as their own country. Without this electoral system, many Fijians believed they would inevitably become second-elass citizens, dominated by the more modern, more aggressive, and better educated Indians. T1,e 196-5 )

., , " )~Lll

l' ,): i '; ,

c)l~i ~_~,j_.(I-l.J ,();')C):' c:r:COtlr1 Elged t:l~e Inc:Jic]11 population

A political party seemed to be vital to protect

Fi j ian intCf'" ::; t s ln th Constitutional talks and subsequently.

It was per'hap::; inevitable that the f;y;:3tem of communal voting, .. \,Jith its communal constltucnclCs, would lead to the development of

) IJ litical parties structured alon~ ethnic, rather than national,

lines. Although the Alliance Party tried to construct a multi-racial

coalitioI1 appeaJ.inE to alJ thnic sroups, actual membel'ship of

ir1cii v i duals is the component organization of Alliance. Thus,

indiviclualE, r oyalty goes to the appropriate ethnic entity. The

National federation Party's efforts ln developing a cross-ethnic

appec.l1 ,,;eeTrl;:3 to have been virtudlLy inc-,ignificant.

One m,:'ljor \./e,:;knc:;:; of ;;UC}1 a political system :LS that its communal

nature leads to a lack of competition for the votes of the varlOUS

ethnic group:3, \..;hich me,u,,:; t'nat pal'ties can som(~times ignol'e the

demands of their ovm constituent communities. (Alley 1973: Li07)

Anothel' weakness of the Fijian system was that parties were "themselves

insufficiently institutionalized to effectively orchestrate mDre than

*The British had ed th~t some sort of a cross-ethllic voting system would break dow~ commun~l barriel's. The Fijians made some concessions in this direction at the London talks but not enough to change the natUl'e of the system. 'I S )

(iI' .' "

1.. 11') i j)] ;' ,i 11 t I

() r- j-' ,-] C '1. ,:1

In rile:

Although nc,t formed until 'lIter the end of colonial rule, the

Fijian IJationalist Pa-c'ty rncl'it::; at lca:-~t a mention hcr'c. This par'ty

is overtly anti-Indian. The Fj.ji,:ln Nationali::;t Party has deliberately

::;tiJi!u] L(l 1'(1(:)[1 dIII,li'/IJli::rr::;; the i'dct'>,':; fClunder, ~;(J)ci,]:;i Uutaclr'ok,],

has propo,secl that all Fij i,'ln c: i tizcns of Indian p

repatriated to India . (The vast majority of Indians were born in

., ,- -, Fi~~).i d.nr.J have.' 110 J. :LnK,c; Tndia; migrat n [roln F.i~~l i

unreali:;tic. ) Buta,lrok untended that c1 'L indo endence, Fijians

capitUla ed and lost controJ f th nation. (Ali 1977:19iJ) He

cc)n"t rl(lcd "tl'Jat ("J t~\Jl')OJ)c(~"lrl- inatc'(i Alliance Party i::5 using the rural

I~ijj.an ITld.sses for its OWI~ lectora1 ends and the Fijians galn nothing

from thi s. (Premdas 1979:200)

P'1 ,-..... " 1 II co r 1 ] J. a n ln the 1977

elect :Lon~; . bserver attributes the party's success, albeit limited,

to the eco~omic problems engendered by the world recession in the

mid-1970's, the breakdown in communication between the Fijian

ParliclTIlC n tan d the elcctcn'ilte, and the weakening of th e Fi:i ian As so-

ciation and the complacency of the Alliance Party after its 1966 and

1972 eJectoral victories. ClUi }977:l~J3) LjG )

;\ ! t {. r ] (I 7 7, !l! (. r i

'-"'1-' I (.A. -'-. It has

a comeback and recent y approached the Soviet Union for funding. " . t l"t oi, ~~ (:ndJ,YSJ.~;

has een some increased participation of late, but locally-born

,Frcnchme n have cantinuecl tel dominclt:e the system.

}'oLitical partie~:; bc~gan to eTI\('rgc: after v]o:clcl \']ar II.

to vote in 19 l rG, ,11Lhough th~~ franchic;e 'Nas limited t . , (:l ln t nc ~)al'.

" t:}lC: ~)(l.Il-tj_(~s'J " :1 c(Jl"\ly a1.-tI1oug}1 t'hese

The Union Cal~donienne

L"l 'J' itcue h' d~; CJ 1': c n u inc

lowey' i_TIcomc Europeans. (j'icTaggcll"t: 192 ) 'T'",tne UC slogan Has litHO

rd.CC'.;3, orle natioI1 J1 ,c111C] i·~ r.<'(:"l:::3t"1'1e ,fir~=;t gJ~'()'Ul) tC) cJ,!.'Cih' f1elarlcsiarls il1tO

New Caledonia's political life. The UC attacked big business, banks,

and big agriculture, opposed com~unal voting, and supported universal

suffrage and greater self-government. (1-1ellor) Later, this commit-

ment to internal self-government would become a call for independence.

Until 1972, the UC either controlled, or Has the largest party in the

majority coalition controlling, the Territorial Assembly. It declined 'J thereafter althoughAhas recently experienced a resurgence. (Ward

lS80:1~lC)

Despite the electoral successes between 1953 and the early

1970's, the eels support was based on opposition to external forces-- I) i3 )

i.;. .1

c1Y; d /\<1 ~.~. r f :~tc;lcl that the Ue!e:; ,inability to mobilize

L,,;o q! 1 :; t ie'!"l j'hat

that continued to dCCl'CdC;C :in size alid the decline In the po,.;er' of

( '1'11 0 'II P n ,1] 1 c1 1\ ell 0 f r 1 9 71 : .3:J 2 )

Tl1e greatest COT1S-t I1t OIl t11c forces clemaI1ding aU"toIlomy was

lL l'lldtivc. One observer concluded

" 'I'll .J Cd J roc 11 (J :':; ) 1 i c~· v cl \~.J l--t ~l tit i~; a 1 h r(:1)' S C (=1 Pa b 1 e 0 .f ~c]li.0ViIl~~--a_ ma~ y':i-~ r th ,;e in t>,vor of autonomy. But i l ~ll c.' i'l !JCJ () I Ii 1,-] 'v'I' (" I l })(' ) r (; ! ( r::JclIlcnt ,!!lV" ::\:ch policy. ( [\1cTa ggar't : 1 ~I 5 )

T11 l'O U n()r"'r:(an(j'~; ()pr)o~;ition Cd.Ir:.c:. fl'()TI1 a gr'oup

r O .1. (; cJ co on 1.J L:nc ne ct,,,,rn e l"'S in No UTnc El \.;ho

hoped for a (~1 :;C1' relatioll }lip ,.;ith Frdllce. ( VI Zl r cl 1 9 8 0 : 1 9 l) ) 1,vi th

the French I\dministration and Paris on their side, plus their total

dominance of New Caledonia's economy, they have been able to block

UC hopes.

In the late 1960's, a challenge to the ruling system arose with

the return from France of some young, educated Melanesians. This

group was interested in reasserting Melanesian identity, addressing

problems of land and of malntenance of Melanesian culture. The Front

Uni pour Ie Liberation de Kanaks (FULK) eme1'ged after several

later indep n cnc .

"lndcl:pc:nciance Ka.nak" meant tha't

Mcla~csiar1s, as t11e orig i.l~j_ I)opula-tion of New Caledonia, were the

rightful rulers of an independent New Caledonia. (\-Jard 1980:195) 1+ 9 )

VITI. C !'J :. i'

\.-

J. ;'1

, " '~l n(~ I " ..J t11,1t e I' l'c: a 1 .it •

r _, , l.\ L r t".' ~/ () (1 c: v C~ 1 () I) c1 i c1 ~; 0 J. n

th P j i

C(=:U_Tltc~l'-r' (".lctiC)TI () rl '~_' () ~' :1. e :; the n f 0 I'rn edtCi

genous party.

usually in oPPoc.:;ition t i,ther tl"lC original iI1digenolls party orl

the expatriate party.

rrhc C CC)ll d ~\C; n r'(:l] !\(]f'nC\I 'via:; that the (:aY']i.c~~t indir;cnou:;

party formed around sincle individual. Some of these individuals

were charismatic personaJi les; others were not. In the expatriate-

The nex-t lndlgerlOtlS par-ti_ s -to :form of-ten cer1tered around a particular'

incliv:iclull II t1: u

strong 1_c2cj(~rsl1i.p chdrac·tcri[~ J.CS as In the (~arli_cr par-ties.

Papua New Guinea's experience as described above followed this

VaDl.ldtll aJ_so matched this Juodel

C1032 The un:!ty ar:l0np: angJo ne indigenes and the apparent

inability of the francophonc J-!cJanesians to organJ_ze apart from the

french expatriates discouraged the establishment of a second set of

indigenous political parties.

The history of French Polynesia seems to coincide with this model

as HeLL. The indigenous party opposed the colonial administration under ,So )

it. In t l1e

f irc:~ t pdf' r()l~TnC~c1 (~J.~~; f~l I~e.r_)lllt ()f I"legl.ec-t= of tr1c co1onicll IJ()\ve1.' and

c1 Ly

pa~ty formed, however, probably because of the small number of resident

expatclate~;.

" •• T.L J. J J~ from the rnoch~l than did the other's .

i:'oth the Alliance Part). ,"rid the Nat:ion,:l1 feclerati.on Party ",Jere

ldtccl more to the ethnic make-up of Fiji and

}'11e 2 rjrninistrati_on's O]lCJ S regarding land, the timing of inde-

contr:ibut c1 t t: 0 c: :; t ,Ib J. i :; h partic ::; . Strong pt~r~;ondl

leader~:;hip VJas resent in both pa~tles.

Tl}11]~3, tYl(? t;",7() D:erlc~:r'(.11.i~:(:ltic)rl::~; r:~acle to e;·:IJlcl.in I)()liticC:ll1)2~rt~:/

development in Melanesia and Polynesia seem to hold. One question

remaining is why politicaJ parties did not form and continue to

operate elsewhere in the region--in Tonga, Western Samoa, American

Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Niue. As discussed on page three, two

central functions of political parties ln Melanesia and Polynesia were

to moblllze support and to communicate with t]le colonial power.

Perhaps in these other area traditional means were sufficient to

mobilize suppo~'t and c:cL::quc-lte mechanisms existed to allol,-J for

communication Hith the colonial pOh'er.

~ second uestion is why was there not a stronger individual

leader in the expatriate partles. The answer may lie with the need ~) } )

11'-1',' I: (}i~;I),lr'(~ltc cxp,ltriate~; clnc1 nationals

1 1 into d[) cJJ!po;;iti [l :;tru (lU'C. I cr 1l(:l ~::; (~1 Tnor1e c()11cctive leclc1el~sYti_p

Another cnl(,:;)~:lcm thd 1: a1:'1,;("6 out of this st lS ~1}1e.tlle:t' t"here

This u.

1)_~-' .j

(~ 1"1 ] lr'" r'l> I dtc

nd Vanuatu (with 100 languages),

pcJl'ti ]lc1VCl"',I',i ; aI, rather' tJldn nation''ll, appeal.

A fifth question involves why 1n New Caledonia and French

Polyrle~3ia c:;irnilal' colonia:1 institution,"}} str'ucturc,; led to quite

different results. The dn~;\'J(:r',; prolklbly lie :in differ'ing ['1'E1nc11

national intercE;ts In the two territol':icE; and in cultural differences

betv.'ecn them. ) 52

;\1_i.~ A.h~,ed, lt~~he Fl_i_,ji ~-~e:~er2..1 ~_~l(~C_f~ n?":~:~ "? 8. C ~ f .1. C :~:. s ~:.2L..:L , 8: 1 71 - 1 P(), ~ 9?

~\J.i, .;\}:r~ed, lf~h~? ?i.~i. ~(?!leral 2:"ec-:~(;r: 8f'" 1977", lTo'J:-'r~.?,l 0: ",-p..;;.?c:c.;;c"-,,,-l-,-~"",i-",c,---,:;",;,-:"",i-=s t 0 r- .'I: , }, 2 ( h) : 1 8 9- 2 () l, 1 9 '7 7.

R.~., ~e'/~10n~ent o~ ?oli~i(:~l P~rt~e2 ?i~i, ':l'h n .i. • i • Alley, The .-'-7-",-,:..;;:...~~-:-,:-"",-~~,,-.- in "- LJ • Dissertation, Victoria Cniversity, ~ellington. 1 0 7J.

Ballard, J.A., HPclitica1 Parties in Pa~ua New Guinea" in }{artlf'.iro :\lkui fed •• ?oli tic·ql ?ar't:'As of 8.nd :he Greenwood Press, in draft. Brook~ield, Harold C., Colonialism, Deve1o;ment and Indenendence: The Case 0" the Me12f'.esian Islands in the South Pacifj.c, (' , . d .,'. . t' D "',, d 1 q ~ ') vam8rl ge unlverSl y ~ress, vamorl ge, /(~. Crocombe, Ron, "Forces Sharing the Arena" in Cook Islands Politics: The Inside Story, Polynesian Press, Auckland, 1979.

Danielssof'., Bengt and ~arie-Theresa, Voruroa Man Amour: The French t1ucle::>r T~sts in -:1:8 Pacific, Penguin books, New York, 1977. -

Da vi rl son, J. ',V., "The Decolonization of' Oceania", Journal of D '.,.' 'U. + .. a c 1 .~ 1 C J, 1 S \, 0 ry , 6:1J3-1U,8, 1971. Davis, 'l'om, "The Democratic Party" in Cook Islands Poll tics: The Inside Story, Polynesian Press, AU~kland, 19?G.

Griffin, James, "P~pua 3(~sena", 'l'1orlrl Revi.ew, 14(J) :3-15, Oc-tober, IG75. Haas, Anthony, '''I'hree Years After Internal Self-Government: The Cook Islands General Electinn--1968", Journal of Pacific :ii:3tory, 4:1J6-1 4 5, 1969. Hancock, Kathleen, Sir Albert Henry: His Life and Times, Methuen Publications, Auckland, 1979. HOdskin, T., A:"'rican Political Parties, Penguin Africar. Series, -Lannon, 1961. Jupp, James and Marian Sawyer, "New Hebrides, 1978-79: Self Government--By Whom and For Whom?", Journal of' Pacific History, 14(4) :208-220, 1979. Kele-Kele, Kalkot Matas, "The Emergence of Political Parties" in Kalkot Matas Kele-Kele, et.a1., New Hebrides: The Road to Indenendence, University of the South Pacific, 1977. Kiki, A1hert Maori, Kikil Ten Thousand Years in a Lifetime, Frederick C. Praeger, New York, 19~8. ) 53

L,nVf?da_.:/, ~}r::·t'?~·,~ :'l;-:r-' :~c:\'/:lr~: ? ':/01 f'c;r-;-~ J P:lr~:_:~es :,-:n.d :;:J!"'l i.1.:~~rt ~.n. l-~'?r,~.;8. I~{--:\\' ,T:l1_:1e~_1 1 Of;ll--l1..Z..S. , =::~~~it:J.~e n7'-' /'.:nf~l,~ed :-~oci2.1 8.nd :':c0no l11,ic ?f';'0?,n::::;, Pn,+: ~:I);c::~'t',:.', lQ7'S.

IJ 0 vee: :} ~/, Pete r , II Pa !:""' tie s i. r1 ~? :. ~"' 11 ~~ ~ ; e 'S ~~ ~l i !l r; ~, l 972 - 1. 97 L~" t I r. s t ~. t u t. e of Sp~;elo~~ent Studies Disct.l~si.on ?np~~r No. R2, University () f Sus s P:X: J J ~ i [-:~h ton. :; P"P t e ~ :J e ~, 1 '? ~,7 5•

r;:acQDn;:-,ld, 'j2rrie, "Imperial Remnants: Decoloniza.+:ion 2nd PnliticCil Cran[~e in tb.8 l3ri ~ish IJaci.:ti-: Islands" if'.. l~.? :(ir::~, ed •• Oceania and Beyond: ~ssavs 6n the Pacific Stnce lq~5, lq7~ ('rE'''r,\voodv ...... \:; .. Drec',.J,. ... ).~), "'c's"'-nor+'1,--,,- \"~L,, _~, G, ('onn'--' ... , .,' ,".

T' 1 r""l ..... • " :vr c Tas; ;:" art, \,'[. Donald, "New Ccl1edoni;o. and the !' rencn ",onnec "lnn in F. ?KiJi.. ~~, \:?d., rceania and :~elf0.!j(:: .••

Meller, Norman and James Anthony, fi~i Gees to the Polls: ~he Crucial Le~i~lative Council Elections n~ 1961, Easf West c· 1 'Q / 'r"vel....'" n + e_. r ',)... r e_''" .... ), H0 n.. ",j,,,, ...~ ,,1\,,(, ..... "~A., .1 .', 0 \"R • -

~feller, Nonnan, unpublished materi'~l.

Norton, Robert, ~ace and Politics in Fiji, St. ~a;tin's Press, Npw York, 1977.

P <1..r ].: e r , fL ~~., " l'a p ua ~ i ewe; u i n r: a" i n (.; 0 Y' rl 0 n C; r C' e nwoo dan cJ Norm 8. n Harper, ed., Australia in ~orld Affairs, 1966-1970, University o~ Jritish Columhia Press, vancouver, 1974•

Plant, Christopher, "New Hebrides 1977: Year of Crisis", Journal of Paci~ic History, 1)(4) :194-204, 1978.

Premdas, R

Somare, Michael, Sana: !n Autobio~raDhy o~ Michael Somare, Niugini Press, Port Moresby, 1.975. Sope, Sarak, Land and Politics in the New Hehrides, South Pacific Social Science Association, Suva, 1974 (?).

Stephen, Davidl A History oT ?olitic81 Parties in ?::>,Dua New Guinea, Landsdowne Press, Melbou~ne, lq72.

Stone, David, "Sel!-Govern!:'.en.t in. the Cook Islands, 19h5", Journ.a' o~ ?aci~ic Uisto~YJ 1:168-178, 1966. :~; t c)n e., ~_.\ r:.1 V J. (_~ .. ~ (:;).1 - p. L1 1 I1. t 1'1 c: COO k, I ~3 1 (3- Ii c\ ~::;, T1--t C (~o v (:. r·Itn1 e Ii t c3. n cl {J,,") 1 it i c r,~_'):t" ;~n~-'-;~~~·_-=-~-- t E:', Pl"t. D. Di s~s el~t(J.,i: i on, P,U S tT"\a.1.i.a.n ~Iaflonill U~J(::rsJty', Carl)' -r;'a, lJdnl1dry, 1(371 ) :3ton:" David ,J., llTl1C 1Zi,; of the Cook Is 1 c:lT1d;·: ------,Tournal of the PnlyrH';;i..c.:!l~nci(,ty, 7 11(\): rJ-l1Q, 1 (lfi~) .

TaE;upa, \'Jillic1m, ]J o litics in French Polynesia, 13 i;S-197S, Nel'! Zealand In,;titutc of Intcr'ndtic'r~al ;\ffaJl"3, WellingtoIl, 1~)/(3. ) 'Tagupa, Vlilliarn, llSorne !lsl)f?ct~; of !!odern Politic,; dnd Personality Hi - Fl'ench Polyn(~siaf!, ,Jour-nul of Pacific History; 9:13:j-1LIS. 197 1l.

'i']IO!iljl:;(JI!, '/il'i',i ni'l dnd :Ji,T:'c! .'\(11 [f, The Fl'CllchPdCific I,;lanc1:;: i.~' 1") e n C }'1 .F n 1 v n (? :~.; j_ (~l (:1 rl (1 !'I '_'~ ~.'l Cd.l C~ c:J c)_n i (~ , [J Yl i v C': 1-' S it-y- 0 feel J~l~};~la Pr'e~)s, Ber)}:.~elcYT, 1~l71-.

1/1a.rc1 , ;\1 (J J1, 'f rIll! C~ Tndep nc1cncp Movement and the Plan Dijoud ln New 1c clc 0 n :l ,J ", '.JtlrllilJ ~~__J~_~~ciflC IIi.:; l:o!'y, 1~)(3) :1~33-1()(l, ,July, 1900.

vJolf!?),::,:-;, EdHrJrd P., 11/\ E:}:or-' II5:::;tol'Y of Political Pclr'ty Activity in

1 p,~]r)ua, I'Tc~.·,] ('~tl'~_rlc:a,", 1." t,l:L'tJl \\Jcl:igElfli Sernin(lr , ri()y)·t r"[()l'e~;])'y', 1~J70.

Wol fers, LdHar r ] ,J\ilCC ation'3 ,Jncl Co1oni,'ll 1\,11e in Papua Nel'! ~--l-~I(.'-~J~('" r-'--;-!--~7")---"------I '--~.,_"'-ll.;--r-(C() (' \u-r;-:-\ .1~1 ~. _u~~, /\ J: .I.i.',. '.'. '. ,. _,.\', : •. .ICt ' __ ., ,J,} ,11 _.... j,

(,'10(;:1 ford, d , I'd pua i) CI-! eu jncd : Tn itLa t ion ,:lncL TncleIH:ndencc, ~I , 'C' t- 1" ] l' -, -1 q-'7 l::----·- -.----- ) Uni 1/1: r:',; t (,!' :) \) ( C 11 :;! ,111- d l' r'e :: 1\ ~_l~) "" c" , ... _ (,l, .L ,. )•