ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR: PERCEPTIONS ANALYSIS OF MICRO AND MACRO
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR IN AN ORGANIZATIONAL SETTING
Joshua T. Delich, B.A., ME.D.
Dissertation Prepared for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
UNIVERSITY OF NORTH TEXAS
December 2015
APPROVED:
Jane B. Huffman, Major Professor Don Powell, Minor Professor Douglas Otto, Committee Member Miriam Ezzani, Committee Member James D. Laney, Chair of the Department of Teacher Education and Administration Jerry Thomas, Dean of the College of Education Costas Tsatsoulis, Dean of the Toulouse Graduate School Delich, Joshua T. Organizational Behavior: Perceptions Analysis of Micro and Macro
Organizational Behavior in an Organizational Setting. Doctor of Philosophy (Educational Leadership),
December 2015, 214 pp., 35 tables, 6 figures, references, 528 titles.
Understanding organizational behavior (OB) has profoundly influenced organizational
performance and how people behave in organizations. Researchers have suggested various
micro and macro organizational behaviors to be the impetus for high-performing organizations.
Through a policy capturing approach this study builds on these findings by specifically examining the perceptions of micro and macro organizational behaviors in an organizational setting. The participants (n =181) completed a Micro and Macro Organizational Behavior
Perceptions Questionnaire. Results showed perception differences exist between subordinates and supervisors. Additionally, participants perceived job satisfaction to be the most important micro organizational behavior, whereas organizational design was perceived to be the most important macro organizational behavior. However when comparing hierarchal positions in the organization, supervisors weighted leadership as the most important and subordinates weighted job satisfaction as the most important organizational behavior. While these findings only scratch the surface as to how organizational behavior is perceived, the implications challenge leaders to close the OB perception gap. Correspondingly, organizational behavior thinking may result in
improving individual and organizational performance.
Copyright 2015
by
Joshua T. Delich
ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Dr. Huffman, I want to gratefully thank you for the remarkable support, guidance, and sincerity you showed me during this process. You will always hold a special place in my future career endeavors. It is my privilege to have worked under your guidance.
To my dissertation committee, thank you for the thought-provoking insight you provided me along the way. Thank you for what you taught me during the doctoral program.
To my brother Caleb, thank you for the many conversations we had over the years during my research, you unknowingly ignited the fire inside me to keep persevering. Brotherly love forever. Rachel, Jennifer, Eve, and Charity, “Little Josh” is done. Thanks for checking in on my progress throughout this journey.
John and Trudy, your enduring and unconditional love and support laid the foundation that made this all possible. When you turn the pages of this body of research, know that each page was because of you. Dad and Mom, you are as deserving of this degree as I am. Love you.
Daddy’s beautiful little girls, Rae’ven-Hope and Nylah-Rae, you were, and will always be, an inspiration for me to keep going. While you probably will never remember Daddy’s research days, I will always remember your little voices asking me: “Are you doing research?
When will you be done?” My precious daughters, your dad is finished. I love you.
Finally, and most importantly, I would like to thank my wife, Desirae, for the unwavering love, incredible support, selfless acts, and compassionate understanding you gave me during this long journey. I will never forget the sacrifices you made. I am so blessed, and honored, to call you my wife. And despite this landmark in our lives coming to an end, it is only the beginning of many more amazing milestones we will achieve together. My soul mate for life, I love you.
We did it!
iii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES xi
CHAPTERS
1 INTRODUCTION 1
Background 1
What is Organizational Behavior 3
Historical Origin of Organizational Behavior 4
Statement of the Problem 5
Statement of Purpose 6
Research Questions 6
Significance of Study 6
Delimitations 7
Assumptions 8
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework 9
Definition of Terms 11
Organization of Study 14
2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 16
Organizational Behavior 16
Micro and Macro Dichotomy 18
Micro Organizational Behaviors 21
iv Stress 21
Job Satisfaction 25
Creativity 28
Leadership 32
Macro Organizational Behavior 38
Organizational Structure 39
Organizational Design 48
Organizational Change 54
Organizational Development 64
Contingency Theory 72
Policy Capturing Approach 74
Social Judgment Theory 76
Lens Model 78
Single System Design 78
Conclusion 79
3 METHODOLOGY 82
Introduction 82
Research Questions 83
Research Design 83
Policy Capturing Approach 83
Defining Judgment Policy 86
Population 87
Pilot Study 89
v Data Collection Procedures 90
Instrument Design 90
Instrument Questions 90
Instrument Considerations 92
Instrument Validity and Reliability 92
Limitations 96
Policy Capturing Approach Limitations 97
Data Analysis 98
Summary 99
4 RESULTS 102
Overview of Data Collection 102
Materials 102
Questionnaire Instrument 103
Descriptive Statistics 104
Questionnaire Response Rate 104
Demographical Data 104
Statistical Analysis 106
Characteristics of Data 106
Least-Squared 106
Cue Usage 107
Data Results 109
Conclusion 116
vi 5 DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS 119
Introduction 119
Review of Organizational Behavior 119
Overview of the Study 120
Summary of the Results 121
Perceptions Theorization 123
Discussion 126
Concluding the Eight Studied Organizational Behaviors 126
Insight on Findings of the Study 130
Implications 134
Recommendations 135
Leveraging, Understanding, and Managing Organizational
Behavior 135
Interlocking Organizational Behavior Thinking with High-
Performing Attributes 137
Future Exploration into the Field of Organizational Behavior 139
Concluding Thoughts 143
APPENDIX
A. DIFFERENTIATING ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR SUBFIELDS 146
B. DEFINING ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR 150
C. STRATEGIC PLANNING PROCESS/CHANGE MANAGEMENT
MODELS 152
D. LENS MODEL SINGLE SYSTEM DESIGN 155
vii E. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION OF BRUNSWIK’S LENS MODEL 157
F. QUESTIONNAIRE FOR DETERMING THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN ADMINISTRATOR AND TEACHER PERCEPTIONS
OF MICRO AND MACRO ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR IN AN
ORGANIZATIONAL SETTING 159
G. HIGH-PERFORMING ORGANIZATIONS, HIGH-PERFORMING
PEOPLE, AND HIGH PERFORMING LEADERS 174
REFERENCES 178
viii LIST OF TABLES
Page
1. Definitions of Organizational Behavior ...... 17
2. Differentiating Organizational Behavior Subfields ...... 19
3. Micro vs. Macro Organizational Behavior: Issues, Research, and Applications ...... 20
4. Creativity...... 31
5. Leadership Effects ...... 34
6. Leadership Styles ...... 35
7. Organizational Structure – 3 Key Components ...... 41
8. Organizational Structure Types ...... 42
9. Organization Structure – Tall vs. Flat Organizations ...... 44
10. Organizational Structure – Dimensions Impacted ...... 45
11. Mechanistic vs. Organic ...... 49
12. Montzberg’s Five Organizational Design Configurations ...... 51
13. Classical and Neoclassical Organization Design ...... 52
14. Organizational Change ...... 55
15. Receptivity to Change ...... 56
16. Organizational Change Types ...... 57
17. Strategic Planning Process/Change Management Models ...... 63
18. Organizational Development Goals ...... 67
19. Organizational Development Types ...... 71
20. Transparency, Communicability, Coherence, and Transferability Defined ...... 94
21. Demographical Characteristics of the Research Sample ...... 105
22. Normalized Usefulness Index Across All Participants ...... 108
ix 23. Logistical Regression Coefficients for Demographics Assessing Micro and Macro Organizational Behavior Preference ...... 110
24. Logistical Regression Coefficients for Weighted Cues Assessing Micro and Macro Organizational Behavior Preference ...... 111
25. Cue Means and Standard Deviation for T-Test Analysis ...... 112
26. Mean Differences in the Weighted Cues for Teachers and Administrators ...... 113
27. Perception Importance: Micro or Macro Organizational Behavior ...... 114
28. Perception Importance within the Organizational Behavior ...... 115
29. Perception Importance with the Organizational Behavior - Macro ...... 115
30. Perception Importance of the Eight Organizational Behaviors ...... 116
31. Attributes of High-Performing Organizations, People, and Leaders ...... 138
A.1. Differentiating Organizational Behavior Subfields ...... 147
B.1. Organizational Behavior – Definitions and References ...... 151
C.1. Strategic Planning Process/Change Management Models ...... 153
G.1. High-performing Organizations, High-performing People, and High-performing Leaders ...... 175
x LIST OF FIGURES
Page
1. Organizational structure types ...... 42
2. Flat organization and tall organization ...... 43
3. Mechanistic and organic characteritistics ...... 50
4. Determing organization development interventions ...... 69
D.1. Lens model – single system design ...... 156
E.1. Mathematical formulation of Brunswik’s lens model...... 158
xi CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Organizational behavior is important to leaders, managers, employees, and consumers; and understanding it can make us more effective leaders, managers, employees and consumers.
- Richard Sims, 2002
In Chapter 1, the background and historical roots of organizational behavior are discussed. The theoretical framework that supports this research study is disclosed to better explain the vacillating behaviors observed in an organizational setting. Furthermore, the following sections in Chapter 1 are: problem statement, purpose of the study, significance of the study, delimitations, limitations, and assumptions of the study. Lastly, Chapter 1 concludes with definition of key terms and organization of the study.
Background
Through decades of research, the study of organizational behavior (OB) has yielded a multitude of attributes that lead to high-performing organizations. Researchers in psychology, sociology, political science, economics, and other social sciences have systematically attempted to explain and develop a comprehensive body of organizational research that explain the attributes that lead to organizational performance (Greenberg, 2011; Miner, 2007; Owens &
Valesky, 2011; Wagner & Hollenbeck, 2005). If leaders are better able to answer the questions of how to design organizations to become superior performers by identifying what specific actions need to be taken, then leaders can implement systems to drive organizational success
(Epstein & Manzoni, 2004). In an attempt to discover the fundamental attributes that lead to high-performing organizations, scholars have turned to the study of organizational behavior for the answer (Colquitt, Lepine, & Wesson, 2009; Greenberg, 2003, 2011; E. M. Hanson, 2003;
Miner, 2007; Owens, 2001; Sims, 2002; Wagner & Hollenbeck, 2005).
1 Leaders need to know how to manage behavior effectively in the organization and to identify the connection between organizational behavior and performance to become a high- performing organization (Hitt, Miller, & Colella, 2006). Furthermore, Hitt et al. (2006) goes on to purport that improved performance in an organization requires taking a strategic approach to organizational behavior by organizing and managing people’s knowledge and skills.
Understanding organizational behavior has influenced organizational performance and how people behave in organizations (Clegg, Barling, & Cooper, 2008). As Sims (2002) acknowledges, recognition of organizational behavior has empowered leaders to better understand the myriad workforce issues, therefore, altering leadership behavior to increase an organization’s performance and effectiveness. By recognizing and understanding the impact organizational behavior has on performance, leaders can better ascertain what attributes lead to high-performing organizations. Subsequently, leading researchers in the field turn to organizational behavior when identifying the organizational attributes that are responsible for the difference in performance levels among organizations (Colquitt et al., 2009; Greenberg, 2011;
Miner, 2007; Owens, 2001; Wagner & Hollenbeck, 2005).
Researchers have spent decades studying organizations, people, individuals, and the reasons why some organizations perform at unprecedented high levels, and other organizations make a descending plunge to dismal performance. How does this happen? Connellan (1978) posited the majority of an organization’s problems are derived from human performance problems; thus, a change in human behavior means a change in the performance results of the organization. Organizational behavior has been identified as the crucial variable for achieving success, and is considered the fundamental underpinning that helps leaders identify problems, ascertain how to address the problems, recognize the complexities within the organization, and
2 establish whether change needs to occur to make things better (Miner, 2006b; Sims, 2002).
Organizational behavior is used as a means for enhancing organizational effectiveness and individual welfare (Greenberg, 2011; Robbins & Judge, 2007). Research shows that organizational behavior affects performance levels within an organization.
What is Organizational Behavior?
The field of organizational behavior has evolved from the various disciplines of psychology, sociology, political science, and economics; therefore, notably being defined as the study of behavior of individuals and groups within an organization (Cummings, 1978;
Greenberg, 2011; Schneider, 1985; Wagner & Hollenbeck, 2005). Greenberg (2011) defines organizational behavior to be a multidisciplinary field that seeks knowledge of behavior in an organizational setting by systematically studying individual, group, and organizational processes.
Organizational behavior is the study of individual behavior and group dynamics in an organization, primarily focusing on the psychosocial, interpersonal, and behavioral dynamics in organizations; thus, morphing into an applied discipline that is an interplay of practice and application (Miner, 2006b; Nelson & Quick, 2009; Wilson, 2001). Organizational behavior researchers seek to describe, understand, and predict behavior in the environment of formal organizations by focusing on individual, group, and organizational dynamics (Miner, 2005;
Sims, 2002; Wagner & Hollenbeck, 2005).
Researchers have also identified organizational behavior as the actions and attitudes of people in an organization that attempt to understand, explain, and ultimately improve the attitudes and behaviors of individuals and groups in organizations (Colquitt et al., 2009; Sims,
2002). Organizational behavior differs from related fields (psychology, sociology, political science, and anthropology) in the fact it specifically focuses on individual and group behavior in
3 an organization (Northcraft & Neale, 1990). As Owens and Valesky (2011) purport, “. . . organizational behavior is an area in which social scientists and school administrations can seek to collaborate, however imperfectly, to bridge the gulf between arcane academic inquiry and the everyday challenges of improving the performance of schools” (p. 65). Organizational behavior has evolved into a growing field of study that provides a plethora of information for 21st century leaders who are interested in improving organizational performance and identifying the attributes that lead to high-performing organizations.
Historical Origin of Organizational Behavior
The study of organizational performance, organizational theory, and the origin of organizational behavior dates back to the era of the Industrial Revolution and Scientific
Management era in the United States (Sims, 2002), the epoch in which classical thinkers such as
Max Weber (a German sociologist), Henri Fayol (a French industrialist), and Fredrick Taylor (an
American industrial engineer) began to examine the various attributes of organizational performance and efficiency (E. M. Hanson, 2003). By the 1930s, organizations were examined through a social system theory lens, and by the 1960s, organizations, specifically educational organizations, were viewed through the open system theory (Owens & Valesky, 2011). The first review of organizational behavior was done in 1979 by Terence R. Mitchell which covered four topics: personality and individual differences, job attitudes, motivation, and leadership
(Cummings, 1982). Preceding Mitchell’s work on organizational behavior came Cummings in
1982, Staw in 1984, and Schneider in 1985 (Schneider, 1985). By the 1980s, organizational behavior was codified into two separate and identifiable fields: micro organizational behavior
[individual action] and macro organizational behavior [organization action] (Cummings, 1982;
Nystrom & Starbuck, 1981; Schneider, 1985; Staw, 1991).
4 Micro organizational behavior includes individual behaviors that influence organizational action (Cummings, 1978), while macro organizational behavior is the social structure and the effects of the structure on the organization and the people within the organization (Pfeffer, 1991).
Decades later, organizational behavior has been divided into three distinct subfields: micro organizational behavior, meso organizational behavior, and macro organizational behavior
(Miner, 2006b; Wagner & Hollenbeck, 2005). Micro organizational behavior focuses primarily on the behaviors of an individual, meso organizational behavior hones in on the behaviors of people working together in teams and groups, and macro organizational behavior zeroes in on the behaviors of the entire organization (Tosi & Abolafia, 1992). According to Sims (2002), all three levels (individuals, groups, and organizations) must be used to fully comprehend the dynamics of behavior in organizations. The origin of organizational behavior has come a long way since the era of Weber, Fayol, and Taylor. As a result of research, organizations’ leaders have found ways to improve their efficiency, performance, and results. For the purpose of this study, micro and macro organizational behaviors will be the foci.
Statement of Problem
Since the era of the Industrial Revolution, theorists, scientists, practitioners, and researchers alike have studied ways to improve organizational performance. Literature portrays organizational behavior as a primary catalyst for improving organizational performance
(Greenberg, 2011; Ivancevich, Konopaske, & Matteson, 2008; Miner, 2007; Robbins & Judge,
2007). Since the first review of organizational behavior in 1979, a comprehensive body of research has been conducted to empower leaders with the knowledge and skills needed to improve organizational performance through organizational behavior (Mitchell, 1979). As a result of years of organizational behavior research, a myriad of micro and macro organizational
5 behaviors have been noted as the seminal attributes that lead to high-performing organizations
(Wagner & Hollenbeck, 2005).
Despite the extensive volume of research on organizational behavior, no research has yet been done to examine what subordinates and supervisors perceive as the most important micro organizational behaviors and the most important macro organizational behaviors. With this study, the researcher will specifically examine the perceptions of micro and macro organizational behaviors through the lens of classroom teachers and school administrators.
Statement of Purpose
The intent of this study is to examine classroom teachers’ and school administrators’ perceptions of micro organizational behaviors and macro organizational behaviors in an organizational setting through aspects of the policy capturing approach.
Research Questions
1. How are eight selected organizational behaviors perceived by a teacher?
2. How are eight selected organizational behaviors perceived by an administrator?
Significance of Study
Findings from this study may provide potential insights for both practitioners and researchers. Although much research has been dedicated to organizational behavior in the educational setting (E. M. Hanson, 1996, 2003; Owens, 1970, 1981, 1991; Owens & Valesky,
2011), the significance of this study will be the first of its kind to examine the relationship between the perceptions of classroom teachers and school administrators in regard to micro and macro organizational behaviors.
The implications of this study will inform leaders and aspiring leaders with research regarding the impact that micro and macro organizational behaviors can have on improved
6 individual and organizational performance. By shedding light on this relationship between what school leadership and classroom teachers perceive as important micro and macro organizational behaviors, the study may identify the need for a paradigm shift in organizational thinking.
Delimitations
With this research study, the investigator does not look at all the posited and identifiable micro, macro, or meso organizational behaviors, only selected behaviors were examined. Only
Texas school districts that met the Texas Education Agency guidelines for being a secondary school were considered and included in this study. The sample of the study draws from Texas teachers and school administrators who work at the secondary level (9th-12th grades). The data from the research was geographically restricted to the state of Texas, thus generalization of the study should be cautioned when extrapolating findings to other educational settings or regional locations.
Employing the policy capturing approach Cooksey (1996a) purports four empirical delimitations: (a) judgmental policies are not always described accurately and completely by people, (b) judgmental policies may be inconsistently applied by people, (c) often a small number of cues are used, and (d) it can be quite difficult to ascertain or learn another’s policy by simply listening or observing judgments. According to Connolly, Arkes, and Hammond (2000), a robust policy capturing study and its findings shoulder all four essential aspects: a) cue identification; b) the assignment of cue values to be used in the study; c) the selection of judges representative of those who normally make such decisions; and lastly, (d) the presentation and demands of the task. All things considered, the four aspects are designed with a high degree of representativeness, subsequently resulting in an equivalent degree of precision in the statistical
7 descriptions of the policy capturing study. With that in mind, for the purpose of this study, it is deduced that all four essential aspects were designed with a high degree of representativeness.
Assumptions
As Leedy and Ormrod (2010) posited, “Assumptions are so basic that, without them, the research problem itself could not exist” (p. 62). The assumptions section is divided into two sections: (a) general educational research assumptions and (b) specific assumptions to the research study at hand.
Based upon the work of Johnson and Christensen (2004, 2008, 2012), there are three general educational research assumptions made regarding this study: (a) certain agreed-on norms and practices in the research were followed (i.e., collection of empirical data, integrity, honesty, respect towards research participants and neutrality); (b) understanding the predictable part of the world allowed generalizability to be inferred in this research; and (c) recognition that science alone cannot provide answers to all questions or the meaning of life. Furthermore, assumptions about this study correspond with the work of Cohen, Swerdlik, and Sturman (2013) that various sources of error may manifest as part of the assessment process, the selected measurement technique [in this case policy capturing approach] in a research study has strengths and weaknesses, and lastly, assessment of data will be conducted in a fair and unbiased manner.
Coinciding with Bryant (2004), the assumption in this research study that the research extrapolates about the tools used to glean and analyze data and the chosen research method is predicated on epistemological suppositions about what constitutes authentic knowledge and what constitutes legitimate methods of procuring that knowledge. Epistemological is described as the study of a theory of the nature and grounds of knowledge especially with reference to its limits and validity (Agnes, 2001).
8 The assumptions are even more specific to this research study. A keystone assumption made was the identified micro and macro organizational behaviors of this research study were accurately captured through the policy capturing approach. Additionally, an assumption would be the policy capturing approach was the most operative methodology to answer the research questions. It was assumed the statistical weighting and regression analysis were correctly calculated to reflect the perceptions of classroom teachers and school administrators. Also, it was assumed the participants in this study answered all the survey questions with complete candidness and honesty. Likewise, it was assumed the validity of the individual questions that were asked was understood by the participants in the study. Since a survey was the means of collecting data, it was assumed the sample is representative of the population in which inferences are being made. Lastly, the relationship that existed between the perceptions of classroom teachers and school administrators is assumed to be representative of a larger sample based upon the stability of findings gathered at this specific point in time.
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
Researchers have discovered when studying human behavior in organizations there are no simple answers; organizations are not static, but rather quite dynamic, intricate, and ever- changing (Greenberg, 2011), thus one of the most effective ways to organize and manage is contingent upon the circumstances of complexity and change within the organization (Hatch,
1997). The theoretical framework for this study is grounded in the precepts of contingency theory.
In 1967, emergence of the contingency theory came about through the work of Paul
Lawrence and Jay Lorsch (Miner, 2007). The first formal statement of contingency theory defined an organization as, “A system of interrelated behaviors of people who are performing a
9 task that has been differentiated into several distinct subsystems, each subsystem performing a portion of task, and the efforts of each being integrated to achieve effective performance of the system” (P. R. Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967a, p. 3). Based on P. R. Lawrence and Lorsch’s (1967a) empirical study of 10 organizations, they acknowledged different types of organizations faced different types of environments; therefore, the divergent characteristics of the environment result in different types of structures and processes evident in the corresponding organizations. As a result of P. R. Lawrence and Lorsch’s work, the proliferation of contingency thinking emerged.
The contingency approach is a theoretical perspective that serves as the theory-practice gap (Moberg & Koch, 1975). Contingency theory is a major theoretical framework used to view organizations (Donaldson, 2001). This paradigm of thought suggests organizational effectiveness results from aligning organizational characteristics (i.e., structure, environment, organizational size, and organizational strategy) to contingencies that augment the situation of the organization (Donaldson, 2001; P. R. Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967a; Pennings, 1992;
Woodward, 1965). A contingency is “any variable that moderates the effect of an organizational characteristic on organizational performance” (Donaldson, 2001, p. 7). A primary contribution that contingency thinking offers is providing leaders a way to thoroughly analyze the interrelationship between internal needs and external conditions within an organization
(Hellriegel & Slocum, 1973).
The contingency theory perspective is grounded in the ideology that recognizes behavior in an organization as the complex result of many micro and macro behaviors and the way someone behaves in the organization is contingent on the many different variables present
(Greenberg, 2011). According to Vibert (2004), a researcher using contingency theory attempts to answer the seminal question of which organizational structure achieves the highest
10 performance. There is no universal principle of management that can be used in all situations, but rather the management approaches vary because they are dependent on the unique conditions and internal factors that are inherent to the organization (Bowditch & Buono, 2001; Kast &
Rosenzweig, 1972). As Owens and Valesky (2011) attest, by critically understanding and analyzing organizational behavior leaders can identify certain designs of organizational structure and certain management models that can lead to increased efficiency.
The contingency theory underscores the relationship between the internal and external environments in an organization, therefore an organization’s effectiveness and efficiency is dependent on an organization’s capacity to change internal variables to address the changing external environments (E. M. Hanson, 1996, 2003). For an organization to be both efficient and effective, the structures of the organization should be designed to react to the various contingencies that shape the organization, and the decision(s) regarding the organization should be dependent on the particular situations that the organization faces (Vibert, 2004). The contingency theory has paved the way for leaders to bridge the gap between organizational behavior and organizational performance. The underpinnings of this study will rely heavily on the contingency theory approach to ascertain whether classroom teachers or school administrators perceive micro organizational behaviors or macro organizational behaviors more important. Additionally, contingency theory will be used to support whether or not a relationship exists between the perceptions of classroom teachers and school administrators.
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study the following terms are defined as:
Organizational Behavior – “A multidisciplinary field that seeks knowledge of
behavior in organizational settings by systematically studying individual, group, and
11 organizational processes” (Greenberg, 2011, p. 3), while at the same time
understanding individual, interpersonal, and organizational factors that influence
behavior and value of an organization’s people (Hitt et al., 2006).
Micro Organizational Behavior – (a) The individual actions and behaviors that
influence organizational action (Cummings, 1978, 1982; Nystrom & Starbuck, 1981;
Schneider, 1985; Staw, 1991). (b) Micro organizational behavior focuses primarily on
the behaviors of an individual within an organization (Tosi & Abolafia, 1992).
Macro Organizational Behavior – (a) The organizational action and behaviors that
influence the organization as a whole (Cummings, 1982; Nystrom & Starbuck, 1981;
Schneider, 1985; Staw, 1991), (b) The social structure and the effects of the structure
on the organization and the people within the organization (Pfeffer, 1991), (c) The
behaviors of the entire organization (Tosi & Abolafia, 1992).
Meso Organizational Behavior – Meso organizational behavior will be defined as the
behaviors of people working together in teams and groups within the organization
(Tosi & Abolafia, 1992). For the purpose of this study, meso organizational
behaviors will not be studied.
Organizational Effectiveness – Organizational effectiveness can have a very broad
meaning that has been the subject of considerable interest and has yet to have a
universally accepted definition (Hitt & Middlemist, 1979). For the purpose of this
study, organizational effectiveness is: “The organizational ability to attain the goals
set by itself, the organization’s ability to function well as a system and the
organizations ability to satisfy its stakeholders” (Donaldson, 2001, p. 6).
12 High-Performing Organizations - High-performing organizations are denoted as
organizations with five distinguishable attributes: (a) compelling vision that creates
an intentional laser-like focused culture which drives the organization’s results; (b)
ongoing learning system that is constantly building knowledge capital and permeating
the learning throughout the organization; (c) relentless focus on customer results and
a keen aptitude to measure the organization’s results; (d) well-defined invigorating
systems, structures, and processes that are clearly aligned to support the
organization’s vision, strategic direction, and goals; and (e) shared power and
distributed decision making throughout the organization that catalyzes high
involvement (Blanchard & Ken Blanchard Companies., 2010). Furthermore, high-
performing organizations are organizations that demonstrate exceptional effectiveness
and efficiency (Bidwell & Kasarda, 1985).
Policy Capturing –
1. The process of applying multiple regression methods to obtain a representation of
a judge’s policy [a judge is one who completes the survey]. The degree of
success in capturing the policy is indexed by the multiple correlation Rs
(Cooksey, 1996a, p. 371).
2. Quantitatively describing a relationship between a decision-maker’s judgment and
the information or cues used to make the judgment (Brehmer, 1988).
3. The goal is to “capture” the way a decision maker weighs and combines
various pieces of information when arriving at a particular decision—that
is, to uncover the decision-rules individuals apply in evaluating and
13 integrating information in coming to an overall judgment (Boon & Sulsky,
1997, p. 20).
For further explanation, refer to the Policy Capturing Approach section in Chapter 3.
Social Judgment Theory (SJT) – SJT would be the explanation of how decision
makers weigh and combine informational cues in forming judgments; the policy-
capturing approach is a technique derived from the social judgment theory in forming
judgments (Brehmer, 1988; Connolly et al., 2000).
Judgment – Judgments are defined as, “The opinion about what is (or will be) the
status of some aspect of the world” (Yates, 1990 p. 6). “It is the mental or intellectual
process of forming an opinion or evaluation by discerning and comparing” (Arkes &
Hammond, 1986 p. 1). Judgment is the, “Explicit indication of a judge’s appraisal of
a cue profile’s position with respect to some dimension of interest (Cooksey, 1996a,
p. 369).
Organization of Study
This mixed-method qualitative study is divided into five chapters. In Chapter 1, the researcher introduced the problem statement, purpose of the study, guiding research questions, theoretical framework, definition of terms, delimitations and limitations of the study, significance of the study, organization of the study, and an organization of the study. Chapter 2 consists of a comprehensive review of organizational behavior literature, delving deeper into the differentiation between micro and macro organizational behaviors. In Chapter 3, the researcher explains the methods and procedures used for this study. Chapter 4 contains an analysis of the data through the method of policy capturing aspects as well as descriptive statistics. In Chapter 5, the researcher analyzes the results of the study and provides discussions and recommendations
14 for future research in the field of organizational behavior. The study concludes with references and appendixes.
15 CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
An empowered organization is one in which individuals have the knowledge, skill, desire, and opportunity to personally succeed in a way that leads to collective organizational success.
- Stephen R. Covey
Researchers of organizational behavior have acknowledged a multitude of micro and macro organizational behaviors. With the review of literature, the researcher presents how micro and macro organizational behaviors are a decisive impetus behind high-performing organizations and human behavior. In this chapter, the researcher presents literature that examines and emphasizes the micro and macro organizational behaviors for the current study. The review of literature is organized into four main sections. Section 1 provides information on micro organizational behaviors: stress, job satisfaction, creativity, and leadership. Section 2 canvasses the macro organizational behaviors: organizational structure, organizational design, organizational change, and organizational development. In Section 3, the researcher discusses the interplay between the contingency theory and social judgment theory as it pertains to the research design in the current study. Lastly, Section 4 concludes with a summary of the review of literature.
Organizational Behavior
Organizational behavior is the field of study that concentrates on the study of human behavior in organizations (Greenberg, 2011). Inability to recognize how behaviors affect organizational performance may lead to the intensification of behaviors that only exacerbate organizational ineffectiveness (Staw & Salancik, 1977). A body of research indicates how organizational behavior impacts organizational performance (Greenberg, 2011; Harris &
Hartman, 2002; Nahavandi & Malekzadeh, 1999; Nelson & Quick, 2011; Staw & Salancik,
16 1977). To improve organizational performance, understanding human behavior is essential. As
Nelson and Quick (2011) posit, organizational behavior helps to explain the ways in which the individual and the organization interact. Greenberg (2011) affirms organizational behavior to be the antecedent for enhancing organizational effectiveness and individual well-being. So why take an organizational behavior perspective for this research study? Pfeffer (2007) infers that taking an organizational behavior perspective enables researchers to better explain the why in organizational performance. However, before moving forward in the literature review it is essential that organizational behavior is defined. Refer to Table 1 to see how over the years leading researchers and organizational behavioral scientists have categorized organizational behavior.
Table 1
Definitions of Organizational Behavior
Reference Definition of Organizational Behavior
Greenberg, 2011, p. 3 Multidisciplinary field that seeks knowledge of behavior in organizational settings by systematically studying individual, group, and organizational processes.
Nelson & Quick, 2009, p. 3 Study of individual behavior and group dynamics in an organization, primarily focusing on the psychosocial, interpersonal, and behavioral dynamics in organizations.
Colquitt et al., 2009, p. 7 A field of study devoted to understanding, explaining, and ultimately improving the attitudes and behaviors of individuals and groups in organizations.
Bowditch & Buono, 2001 Study of people, groups, and their interactions in an organization.
Robbins & Judge, 2007, p. 9 A field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within organizations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organization’s effectiveness.
17 Using organizational behavior, a researcher attempts to understand how interpersonal, individual, and organizational dynamics influence the human behavior of people in an organization (Hitt, Miller, & Colella, 2011). Understanding organizational behavior is a critical component to improved organizational performance (Colquitt et al., 2009). Moreover, Miles
(1980) suggests managers need to understand the patterns of behavior that are observed, predict in what direction behavior will move or change, and use this knowledge to control behavior within the organization. Furthermore, at the epicenter of personal and organizational effectiveness is the notion organizational behavior can contribute and make a difference that empowers organizations to achieve their potential when the organization makes a positive impact in the lives of their stakeholders and constituents (Nahavandi & Malekzadeh, 1999). Over time, organizational behavior research has enhanced management practices, refined organizational dynamics, and transformed human behavior within the organization and its people. As Hersey and Blanchard (1977) assert, understanding past behavior and predicting future behavior are necessary for running effective organizations; additionally, leaders must also develop skills in directing, changing, and influencing the behavior of people. Yet in order to do so, leaders should recognize the major dichotomy between micro and macro organizational behavior.
Micro and Macro Dichotomy
The cornerstone of this literature review includes micro and macro organizational behavior research. As noted in Table 2, there are three distinct subfields of organizational behavior: micro, macro and meso organizational behavior.
18 Table 2
Differentiating Organizational Behavior Subfields
Micro Organizational Macro Organizational Meso Organizational Behavior Behavior Behavior
Organizational behavior that Organizational behavior that Organizational behavior that is focused on individuals is focused on action of the is focused on behavior within working alone or working in group or an organization as a groups and teams groups whole
Individual differences Organizational power Interdependence
Personality characteristics Organizational politics Organizational roles
Diversity Organizational conflict Communication
Perception Structural interdependence Efficiency
Decision making Organizational structure Motivation
Creativity Hierarchy & Centralization Work Design
Work motivation Organizational design Group dynamics
Job Performance Technology Team effectiveness
Leadership Leadership Leadership
Job satisfaction External environment
Stress Organizational culture
Attitudes Organizational change
Turnover & Absenteeism Organizational development Note: Leadership is repeatedly notated in micro organizational behavior and meso organizational behavior. Some research has even placed leadership under macro organizational behavior. Source: Greenberg (2011); Miner (2006a, 2006b); Pfeffer (1991); Sims (2002); Staw (1991); Wagner & Hollenbeck (2005). (see Appendix A for a complete list)
For the purpose of this study, only specific micro and macro organizational behaviors were studied. Miles (1980) explained there are different levels of abstraction at which organizational behavior can be examined, thus making it imperative to understand, design, and
19 manage organizational behavior. Table 3 shows the dichotomy between micro and macro organizational behaviors.
Table 3
Micro vs. Macro Organizational Behavior: Issues, Research, and Applications
Micro Organizational versus Macro Organizational Behavior Behavior
Issue Emphasis
Structures and processes with Structures and processes individuals, small groups and within major subsystems, their leaders, and the linkages organizations, and their between them. environments, and the linkage between them.
Research Focus
Study of behaviors of Study of the behaviors of individuals, small groups, and members of major their leaders in the laboratory subsystems, subsystems or in relatively isolated or themselves, organizations, immediate social settings. and their environments within their larger contexts.
Primary Application
Individual self-improvement Design and management of and job design, intervention the structures and processes into interpersonal and group linking major subsystems, processes, training of leaders organizations, and their of small groups. Individual environments. and group change. Organizational and environmental change. Note: The table was constructed from the work of Miles, 1980, p. 3
Notated earlier was the assertion that micro and macro organizational behaviors have an impact on organizational performance. When strategizing how to develop high performing organizations, leaders may want to consider the dichotomy amidst organizational behavior. So much so, that Nahavandi and Malekzadeh (1999) avow it is essential that leaders understand the
20 levels of analysis (micro and macro) within their organization in order to meet the challenging demands of leading an organization. Having defined organizational behavior (see Appendix B) and explaining the differentiation within organizational behavior, the review of literature now turns to the eight organizational behaviors examined in the research study.
Micro Organizational Behavior
Extensive research in the field of micro organizational behavior has been conducted. As
Cummings (1978) suggests, micro organizational behavior embraces the behaviors that are more individual in nature, yet influence the organization as a whole in a striking way. Miner (2006a) asserts micro organizational behavior not only ranges from working alone but also working in groups. To improve organizational and individual performance, researchers acknowledge the effect of micro organizational behavior. Stress, job satisfaction, creativity, and leadership will be thoroughly examined to shed light on the influential effect that micro organizational behavior can have on individual and organizational performance. The purpose of this portion of the literature review is to underscore the selected micro organizational behaviors in this research study.
Stress
Stress is the pattern of emotional and physiological reactions occurring in response to demands from within or outside an organization (Greenberg, 2013, p. 156). Stress is also regarded as any action or situation that places physical or psychological strain on people
(Brimm, 1983). According to Eckles (1987), stress emerges internally rather than externally; specifically, people experience external stressful events or situations but are then unable to cope with their external stressors which in turn cause stress to be internally generated. Consequently, yet understandably so, stress has become the mental and physical wear and tear that people
21 experience as they live their lives (Hawk & Martin, 2011). From an organizational perspective, job stress comes about when people experience discomfort in their work situation typically from an imbalance between job demands and resources (S. J. Roberts, Scherer, & Bowyer, 2011).
Whatever the internal or external causality may be, stress has unmistakably inundated the fabric of organizations and its people.
The work of Kenexa High Performance Institute indicates stress levels in the workforce are holding at a higher level compared to the last five years, and stress is on the rise across geographies, industries, and job types (Pace, 2012). Worldwide, as well as nationally, employees are claiming their stress levels have increased in the past year; with work being cited as the top source of stress ("U.S. workers," 2012; "Worker stress," 2012). Work-related stress has been estimated to cost American companies $300 billion annually (Greenberg, 2011). The
United Nations International Labour Organizations has even gone so far as to define stress as a
“global epidemic” (Kofoworola & Alayode, 2012, p. 162). Subsequently, stress at work has emerged as an important area of investigation because of its potential effect on the health and performance of employees in an organization. As Nahavandi and Malekzadeh (1999) claim, managers must be cognizant of the organizational stress factors that impact the workforce.
Moreover, when awareness of stress is marginalized, organizations and their people experience detrimental repercussions.
Stress has shown to be the catalyst for job burnout (Mearns & Cain, 2003; Russell,
Altmaier, & Van Velzen, 1987; Yi-Hua & Mei-Ling, 2012). Negative health effects, poor job performance, and low job satisfaction manifest when stress is not appropriately dealt with (Hitt et al., 2006; Kofoworola & Alayode, 2012; Salami, Ojokuku, & Ilesanmi, 2010). Ali et al.
(2011) found job performance was impacted by job stress which consequently affects job
22 commitment. When job commitment diminishes, job satisfaction plummets and turnover intentions increase (Samad & Yusuf, 2012); subsequently these variables impact employee and organizational performance (Hitt et al., 2011; Nelson & Quick, 2009; Robbins & Judge, 2013).
Stress also emerges from job demands. Job demands can lead to constant psychological overtaxing and long term exhaustion which result in burnout (Bakker, Van Emmerik, & Van
Riet, 2008). As Hering (2012) attests when burnout occurs, employees exhibit difficulty focusing, decreased creativity, low energy, lack of enthusiasm, and a plethora of health-related issues. If not dealt with, stress will thwart one’s individual effectiveness, resulting in fruitless work-related performance (Nahavandi & Malekzadeh, 1999). Considering the sobering findings, it is undoubtedly important to understand the nature and implications of organizational stress.
Repercussions of stress are disturbing and the impact of stress alone is of grave concern.
By the same token, the way in which stress impacts an individual is alarming. Stress has become a seminal factor for organizational performance as it impacts the health and wellness of an employee. Employees who are more happy, are people who are typically more successful and flourishing, additionally experiencing more successful outcomes (Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener,
2005). Once on the job, employees who have high psychological well-being, and not experiencing negative emotional states, perform more successfully (Cropanzano & Wright,
1999). Whereas Cropanzano, Rupp, and Byrne (2003) found emotional exhaustion to have a direct impact on job performance, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions. Job stressors increase one’s psychological strain, which in turn directly impacts the job performance of an employee (Beehr, Jex, Stacy, & Murray, 2000; M. R. Smith, Rasmussen, Mills, Wefald, &
Downey, 2012). Stress related factors can have a direct and indirect cost to overall organizational effectiveness and productivity in an organization. Experiencing high levels of
23 organizational stress will lead to negative effects on task performance of employees (Greenberg,
2011). Organizational practices tend to play a significant role in an employee’s feeling of stress, burnout, and health (Jamal, 2005). As one’s well-being increases so does their job satisfaction, engagement at work, organizational commitment, and a lower level of turnover intentions
(Brunetto, Teo, Shacklock, & Farr-Wharton, 2012).
Stress affects both the individual and organization in a profound way. Organizational practices have shown to mitigate or exacerbate one’s stress levels. An individual’s stress adversely impacts their performance, health, and wellbeing, subsequently bleeding into the efficiency and effectiveness of the organization. Identifying the major stressor (i.e., occupational demand, role conflict, role juggling, sexual harassment, social support, and overload to name a few) as well as identifying various ways of reducing stress in the workplace (i.e., employee assistance programs, wellness programs, stress management programs and absence control programs) can reduce or prevent stress (Greenberg, 2011). Stress is a conduit for how well people perform (Hon & Chan, 2013), the number of errors people make on the job (Hoffer,
1988), and even whether or not they come to work and remain on the job all day (Meško et al.,
2013). If stress plays a significant role in the behavior of people in organizations, it behooves the organization to take an active role in the efforts of managing and mitigating stress in the workplace. Hargrove, Nelson, and Cooper (2013) assert top managers recognize both the wellness and wellbeing of their employees to be of utmost importance in the organization. Bal,
Campbell, and McDowell-Larsen (2009) claim in order to attain optimal performance levels in an organization, a balanced and healthy level of eustress is needed. Eustress is the positive psychological response to stressors (Hargrove et al., 2013). The result of eustress yields increased enthusiasm and motivation in the workplace (Bal et al., 2009; Hargrove et al., 2013).
24 Identifying the major causes of organizational stressors, recognizing the impact of stress (both employee and organization), and managing stress in the workplace will result in enhanced employee performance and organizational effectiveness; successively helping the organization to achieve peak performance.
Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction is a persuasive organizational behavior because job satisfaction embodies the positive or negative attitudes held by employees towards their job (Greenberg, 2011).
Luthans (2008) suggests there are three dimensions to job satisfaction: (a) emotional reaction to the job; (b) ability for the job to meet expectations or the expected expectations; and (c) influential factors that impact job satisfaction (i.e., pay, promotion, colleagues, supervisor). To understand the resultant impact of job satisfaction fully, a delineation of job satisfaction would be advantageous. According to Titus (2000), job satisfaction is, “An individual’s positive emotional reactions to a particular job. It is the affective reaction to a job that results from the person’s comparison of actual outcomes with those that are desired, anticipated, or deserved” (p.
331). While Swaminathan and Jawahar (2013) codify job satisfaction to be, “The sense of inner fulfillment and joy achieved when performing a particular job” (p. 71). Tanriverdi (2008) posits job satisfaction to be, “The pleasure the worker takes from the job or job experience and the positive emotional state that occurs as a consequence” (p. 152). Everything considered job satisfaction embodies attitudes, emotions, perceived or intended outcomes, and reactions about one’s job. Robbins and Judge (2013) suggest the positive and negative feelings about a job are derived from job satisfaction, so when people speak about employee attitudes they are typically referring to job satisfaction. Job satisfaction is a decisive micro organizational behavior.
Understanding the implications of job satisfaction is essential for managers and leaders.
25 Does job satisfaction really have an eliciting presence on organizations and individuals?
Job satisfaction influences work performance in an organization (Swaminathan & Jawahar,
2013). Brunetto et al. (2012) expressed that job satisfaction predicts an individual’s engagement at work and their affective commitment. Subsequently, when one’s job satisfaction increases, so does one’s organizational commitment in the workforce (Tanriverdi, 2008), and when organizational commitment is present, performance and productivity increases (Jamal, 2011).
Yücel (2012) asserts job satisfaction is one of the most influential antecedents of organizational commitment and turnover intentions. Yücel (2012) avers higher levels of job satisfaction yield higher job commitment, which in turn positively influence affective commitment. Soo-Young and Whitford (2008) found people with a greater sense of commitment to their organization are less likely to leave. Ahmed and Ahmad (2011) underscore that job satisfaction is important to organizations as it yields returns on increased employee commitment, motivation, organizational citizenship behavior, performance, and productivity. Job satisfaction has a significant and positive relationship with organizational commitment (Bagozzi, 1980; Reichers, 1985).
Correspondingly, employee burnout is a manifestation of the consequences of low levels of job satisfaction in an organization (Nagar, 2012). Job satisfaction has a colossal impact on employee performance and organizational productivity.
When job satisfaction is present results are captivating. What do we know about satisfied workers? Satisfied employees have been found to be more time-effective at work, use less sick leave, and have lower turnover intentions (Spector, 1994). A significant relationship has been found between job satisfaction and affective commitment with employees (Meyer, Stanley,
Herscovitch, & Topolnytsky, 2002). Affective commitment is the emotional attachment and
26 identification with an organization that makes employees loyal and attached to the organization
(N. J. Allen & John, 1990).
Over time research has found that employee job satisfaction manifests from a multitude of variables within the organization; thereupon, job satisfaction can be influenced by gender congruence (Grissom, Nicholson-Crotty, & Keiser, 2012); perceived organizational values
(Kumar, 2012); salary, efficiency in work, fringe benefits, supervision, promotion, and co- workers (Parvin & Nurul Kabir, 2011; Yang, Brown, & Moon, 2011); situational constraints
(Ferguson & Cheek, 2011); human resource management (Kaya, Koc, & Topcu, 2010); organizational climate (Mahajan, Churchill, Ford, & Walker, 1984); and organizational commitment (Lum, Kervin, Clark, Reid, & Sirola, 1998). Recognizing and reacting to the breadth of contingencies that influence job satisfaction is essential.
Amongst the job satisfaction research there exist some insightful notions. Gender does not affect job satisfaction (Titus, 2000). According to Tanriverdi (2008), job satisfaction can only be obtained when the characteristics of the job coincide with the worker’s expectations.
Without job satisfaction, work may latently slow down, productivity will decrease, turnover will increase, and complaints about the job will increase (Tanriverdi, 2008). As Spector (1997) postulates, low levels of job satisfaction are problematic for organizations because it increases the probability that an individual will engage in counterproductive behavior and decreases the likelihood that the individual will contribute to the overall goals of the organization. Job satisfaction and affective organizational commitment should be considered when attempting to understand and manage employee behavior (Meyer et al., 2002). Enhancement of job satisfaction increases when variety, control over work, task relevance, feedback on results, and personal growth are provided (Cushway & Lodge, 1993). Replacement costs including
27 recruiting, selecting, training costs, lost productivity, loss of high performers, and high potential talent can be very costly for organizations (D. G. Allen, Bryant, & Vardaman, 2010; Campion,
1991; Maertz & Boyar, 2012; Steel, Griffeth, & Hom, 2002; Trevor, Gerhart, & Boudreau,
1997). The work of Amah (2009) found job satisfaction to have a direct relationship with turnover intention.
Concluding, job satisfaction is another decisive micro organizational behavior that either improves or diminishes individual and organizational performance. With job satisfaction being a driving conduit for performance, leaders in organizations should be cognizant of the implications of enhancing job satisfaction. Organizational leaders can gain a competitive advantage by acknowledging job satisfaction as a crucial factor in human resource management (Noe, 2010).
Work plays a significant role in a person’s life simply for the reason they devote more time to work than most any other single activity. When job satisfaction is managed successfully, work performance is enriched and organizational productivity, efficiency, and effectiveness improves.
Creativity
Creativity is considered a key to organizational success and survival (Hennessey &
Amabile, 2010; Shalley, Zhou, & Oldham, 2004). Highly creative people are found to be an asset to an organization (Greenberg, 2011). A creative personality leads to creative performance
(Dul, Ceylan, & Jaspers, 2011). According to Hallowell (2011), creativity at work is an essential step to igniting peak performance in the workplace. Creativity is recognized as a vital underpinning for organizational innovation and competitive advantage (Amabile, 1988; Axtell,
Holman, & Wall, 2006; Oldham & Cummings, 1996; Shalley, Gilson, & Blum, 2009; Zhou,
2003). Amabile (2003) claims leaders impact creativity within their employees. Despite the fact creativity elicits innovation and performance; creativity is often seemingly controlled, chastised,
28 or abdicated in organizations regardless of the profound effect on individual and organizational performance.
According to Amabile (1997, 1998), within every individual, creativity is composed of three components, all of which managers can have a degree of influence on:
1. Expertise – knowledge (technical, procedural, and intellectual);
2. Creative-thinking skills – how flexible and imaginative people approach problems;
and
3. Motivation – the inner passion to solve the problem at hand.
Creativity is a positive predictor that yields idea implementation in the workforce (Axtell et al.,
2006). As Baer (2012) maintains, unless employees are motivated to push for their innovative ideas and are given support with strong buy-in relationships, creativity will vanish. Employee moods, both positive and negative, impact creativity in the workplace, ergo becoming important and valuable factors when bringing about creativity in organizations (George & Jing, 2007).
Researchers acknowledge various factors that spur creativity both within the individual and the organization. A positive affect in the workplace relates positively to creativity in the organization (Amabile, Barsade, Mueller, & Staw, 2005). Organizational teams have a powerful moderating influence on individual creativity (Hirst, Van Knippenberg, & Zhou, 2009).
Creativity increases under externally imposed structures (how structured the task is and the instructions provided about the task) and conditions (Sagiv, Arieli, Goldenberg, & Goldschmidt,
2010). Work environment influences creativity by stimulating the individuals’ components of creativity (Amabile, 1997). Research indicates that individual creative behavior increases as a person perceives their work environment to support creativity (Amabile, 1988; Diliello,
Houghton, & Dawley, 2011; Hunter, Bedell, & Mumford, 2007; Yuan & Woodman, 2010).
29 Thereupon, the use of feedback-seeking behavior is central to the creativity in organizations and serves as a strategy to enhance creative performance (De Stobbeleir, Ashford, & Buyens, 2011).
Feedback-seeking behavior is when individuals proactively seek evaluative information about their performance (Porath & Bateman, 2006). Creativity incites innovation and yields improved performance. Smart organizations and prudent leaders capitalize on creativity and design their organizational infrastructures to support creativity in the workplace.
Expounding on creativity research, findings point out that organizations and leaders will face a range of creativity thwarts and catalysts. Literature has underscored a number of identifiable factors that impact creativity at both the individual level and the organizational level
(see Table 4):
Busco, Frigo, Giovannoni, and Maraghini (2012) couch creativity and innovation as the cornerstone of what organizations are and what they want to be. Fostering creativity occurs when leaders: provide organizational support that promotes creativity, carefully design work teams, frequently offer praise and encouragement, allocate appropriate resources for the task at hand, provide ample work time to get the task done, and match people with jobs that align to their expertise and their skills in creative thinking that will ignite intrinsic motivation (Amabile,
1998). Creativity has a cascading effect that seeps into the fabric of the organization, all the while influencing individual performance.
30 Table 4
Creativity
Individual Organization
When people are under increased pressure A creative work environment has a strong and and have little time to come up with ideas, positive effect on creativity and innovation in people are less likely to think creatively the workplace (Politis & Politis, 2010). (Amabile, Hadley, & Kramer, 2002).
Time pressure affects creativity in different A decline in creativity has been found as ways, specifically less and less creative organizations experience downsizing (Amabile thinking as pressure increases (see Amabile & Conti, 1999). et al., 2002 regarding the time- pressure/creativity matrix).
Leaders not only manage creativity and Organizational creativity is contingent on the identify employees with creative potential; type of innovation (Çokpekin & Knudsen, leaders must also understand how the team 2012). context influences the creativity of individuals with different dispositions (Hirst et al., 2009).
Promoting creativity in the workplace is Creative work environment is composed of positively related to an individual’s freedom, challenging work, organizational problem-solving demand (Zhou, 2003). encouragement, and sufficient resources (Politis & Politis, 2010).
Employee creativity increases when work Contextual characteristics in an organization environments enhance intrinsic motivation (i.e., organizational encouragement, (Egan, 2005). supervisory encouragement, sufficient resources, challenging work, and organizational impediments) impact employee creativity (Hsiu-Ju, 2013).
Employee turnover intentions are a result of An organization’s job design and the interplay how creative the work environment is for the between the leader-member relationship worker (Jacqueline & Milton, 2008) increases employee creative work involvement (Volmer, Spurk, & Niessen, 2012).
Creativity is positively related to job Creative work environment affects creative performance and creative self-efficacy capital, which in turn affects tangible (Gong, Huang, & Farh, 2009) organizational outcomes such as: performance, loyalty, retention, job satisfaction, and absenteeism (Robbins & Judge, 2013)
31 In summation, research has shown that when creativity is emphasized both individual and organizational facets are impacted. Creativity has been noted as the driving force behind innovation. Thereupon when creativity is accentuated in the workplace, substantial evidence indicates there is amelioration at both the macro and micro level. Both the organization and leadership are found to be pivotal impetuses behind spreading or disbanding creativity (Zhang &
Bartol, 2010). Additionally, research continues to stress the influential effect that creativity imparts on the individual and organization. As Florida and Goodnight (2005) assert, creative people are the most valuable asset to an organization. Whereas Amabile and Sansabaugh (1992) add, the organizational environment in which people work serves as the difference between creative and uncreative outcomes. Creativity matters and extends into a multitude of individual and organizational capacities.
Leadership
Leadership is compelling and is an elusive topic that has been extensively researched over decades. As a result, leadership has morphed into a plethora of definitions by theorists, researchers, and practitioners alike (Gorton, Alston, & Snowden, 2007). Leadership has been defined as:
The process whereby one individual influences others toward the attainment of
defined group or organizational goals (Greenberg, 2011 p. 447).
Influencing and facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared
objectives (Yukl, 2012, p. 66).
Influencing the behavior of other people (Owens & Valesky, 2011).
Capturing attention and motivating people to follow your way by influencing others
to accomplish organizational goals (Perkins & Arvinen-Muondo, 2013).
32 The ability to persuade others willingly to behave differently. It is the process of
influencing people – getting them to do their best to achieve a desired result. It
involves developing and communicating a vision for the future, motivating people,
and securing their engagement (Armstrong, 2012).
A process that involves influence, occurs in a group context, and involves goal
attainment (Western, 2008).
Leadership has evolved into a bedrock concept for organizations, leaders, and researchers. Despite the organizational, social, or cultural context, leadership is found to be a fundamental influence when it comes to politics, sports, and many other activities (Yukl, 2006,
2013). According to Gilley, Dixon, and Gilley (2008), leadership is the driving force for organizational change as well as innovation. A renowned research study on 43 of America’s best-run companies found excellent and successful companies also had a strong leader (Peters &
Waterman, 1984). Correspondingly years later, the recognized work of Collins (2001) found good-to-great companies had Level 5 Leadership transparent in the organization. Level 5 leadership is the highest level of hierarchy executive capabilities that Collins (2001) found in his comprehensive research study. “This level of leadership builds enduring greatness through a paradoxical blend of personal humility and professional will” (Collins, 2001, p. 20). Essentially, this coined Level 5 Leadership embodies all five levels: highly capable individual, contributing team member, competent manager, effective leader, and executive. The companies in this seminal research study were found to have Level 5 Leadership. Level 5 Leadership is also noted as (humility + will = Level 5). Even more simply put, it is a specific style of a leader/leadership defined by Collin (2001). This type of leadership style was shown to significantly impact organizations. Level 5 Leadership was found to be an impactful factor in the innumerable
33 organizations that were being studied. In 2010, The Work Foundation published The Principles of Outstanding Leadership, the report stated outstanding leaders do have significantly different underpinning beliefs about how things should be approached, thus impacting the organization
(Lawson & Cox, 2010). Leadership matters as it permeates into a multitude of organizational and individual dimensions. Research literature on leadership has found a litany of factors; both at the micro and macro level, which are affected by this organizational behavior (see Table 5).
Table 5
Leadership Effects
Factor Source
Organizational success Bennis (2003) Job satisfaction Xiao-Dong, Jian An, & Xiao-Yan (2013); Yafang (2011) Team performance Yukl (2012) Organizational performance Choudhary, Akhtar, & Zaheer (2013); Yukl (2012) Organizational commitment Leroy, Palanski, & Simons (2012) Job performance Xiao-Dong et al. (2013) Organizational climate Mathisen, Einarsen, & Mykletun (2012) Employee absenteeism Mayfield & Mayfield (2009) Work role performance Leroy et al. (2012) Employee stress Lopez, Green, Carmody-Bubb, & Kodatt (2011) Creativity Zhang & Bartol (2010) Organizational change Boga & Ensari (2009); Fullan (2007); Seo et al. (2012) Organizational effectiveness Savage-Austin & Honeycutt (2011) Organizational culture Mumford, Scott, Gaddis, & Strange (2002) Organizational development Noruzy, Dalfard, Azhdari, Nazari-Shirkouhi, & Rezazadeh (2013) Organizational structure Ghiselli & Siegel (1972) Organizational design Lorsch (1977)
While leadership spans across the organizational behavior spectrum, it also affects the way people are led. No matter the type of organization, leadership itself plays a significant role in creating the success of the organization (Collins, 2001; Collins & Hansen, 2011). The
34 leadership style is a determinant for the way in which individuals behave, communicate, adjust, and respond within the organization (Darling & Heller, 2012). Val and Kemp (2012) emphasize a leader has the ability to choose from the various leadership styles and then apply them appropriately to the group in which they lead. Over decades of time, leadership research has ascertained a gamut of leadership styles (see Table 6).
Table 6
Leadership Styles
Various Leadership Styles
Action-centered Contingency Human-oriented Relational Adaptive Cross-cultural Innovative Servant Affiliative Democratic Laissez-Faire Situational Authentic Delegative Matriarchal Spiritual Authoritarian Deserter Missionary Moral Strategic Autocratic Dictatorial Motivational Task-oriented Charismatic Distributive Pace Setter Team Civic Emergent Paternalistic Technical Coaching Empowering Participative Thought Coercive Exchange Post-modern Transactional Collective Expert Post-heroic Transformational Clinical Feminized Primal emotional Valued-based Command and Control Focused Principle-based Visionary Connected Free Reign Principle-centered
Determining the type of leadership style that meshes with the organization is crucial.
McConnell (1982) contentiously surmises there is no style of leadership that can be considered wrong; however, effectiveness is derived when the leader utilizes the leadership style that is values-centered and works with the employees (Niewenhous, 2003). Leadership is a people
35 business. The ability to understand the various leadership styles and how the styles impact organizational behavior is pivotal.
Leadership itself has been found to have a significant effect on various facets of an organization. The style of leadership also has been found to have a considerable impact on the fabric of the organization. At the epicenter of organizational success, performance, efficiency, and effectiveness is the leader. So what traits, characteristics, behaviors, and qualities are found in a great leader? To improve organizational behavior great leaders invoke an alchemy of great vision (Peters & Waterman, 1984); demonstrate a triad of core behaviors: fanatic discipline, productive paranoia, empirical creativity, and a driving force of Level 5 Leadership ambition
(Collins & Hansen, 2011); exhibit supportiveness, assuredness, and preciseness when communicating (De Vries, Bakker-Pieper, & Oostenveld, 2010); use failure as a wake-up call
(Snyder, 2013); embody Level 5 Leadership (Collins, 2001); and think and act systematically
(Lawson & Cox, 2010). Equally important, great leaders are found to be strategic thinkers, exceptional communicators, and masters in the leadership skill area of emotional intelligence
(Voisin, 2011). Kouzes and Posner (2013) found great leaders model the way, inspire a shared vision, challenge the process, enable others to act, and encourage the heart. Gilley et al. (2008) assert great leaders are able to appropriately communicate and motivate others. A foundational research analysis by John Adair in 1973 revealed three essential roles of a leader: define the task, achieve the task, and maintain effective relationships. Armstrong (2012) purported great leaders are capable of flexing their leadership style to meet the demands of the situation. Leaders are particularly skillful at fostering group collaboration and promoting efficacy in goal attainment
(Ruggieri & Abbate, 2013).
36 The effect of a leader on an organization and its people abound. Leadership improves the performance of individuals, teams, and the organization as a whole (Greenberg, 2011). A vast wealth of research also indicates defined traits, characteristics, behaviors, and qualities that are found in great leaders. Higgs and Rowland (2005) confirm leadership behavior alone is responsible for almost 50% of the difference between change success and failure in an organization. Leadership is impactful in a multidimensional way. In spite of all the adulation towards leadership, the work of Pfeffer and Sutton (2006) make a thought-provoking assertion,
“Evidence indicates that leaders can and do make an important difference in organizational and group performance, although the effects are not as large as usually assumed nor as important as many other factors” (p. 194). Leadership is a critical dynamic; however, it is not the sole variable for organizational success performance, efficiency, and effectiveness. Conversely, attention to leadership is valuable however it is not the sole panacea. As Snyder (2013) expounds:
Leadership can be learned. It’s an observable pattern of practices and behaviors and a definable set of skills and abilities. And any skill can be learned, strengthened, honed, and enhanced. What’s required, however is the willingness to become better. No matter how much skill or talent you have, if you’re not willing to improve or interested in being better than you are today, then no amount of coaching or no amount of practice is going to make a difference. (p. 7)
Leadership changes people’s behavior (Kotter & Cohen, 2002). Markman (2012) purports if you change habits, you change thinking. When thinking is changed, behavior is changed (Greenberger & Padesky, 1995), and when behavior is changed, human performance improves (Heath & Heath, 2010). As Buckingham and Vosburgh (2001) assert, a leader aims to elevate the people they lead by recognizing talent and capitalizing on the talent through strength- building, all the while being cognizant of the individual’s natural talents. For as research confirms, the behavior of an administrator is a determinant of organizational performance (Child,
37 1974). Taking everything into account, the ultimate act of leadership is the institutionalizing of a leadership-centered culture in the organization (Kotter, 1990b).
Concluding, micro organizational behavior research on stress, job satisfaction, creativity, and leadership revealed countless findings that impact individual and organizational performance. Findings point out various effects that emerge from each micro organizational behavior. Literature reveals how micro organizational behavior influences human behavior at multiple levels. Empirical research substantiates when micro organizational behaviors are impacted, so too are the overall organizational dynamics. Looking at things at a more finite level within an organization is micro organizational behavior; however, the effect on the organization is far-reaching. While stress, job satisfaction, creativity, and leadership play a salient role in organizational and individual performance; correspondingly, an immense volume of macro organizational behavior research indicates organizational structure, organizational design, organizational change, and organizational development are catalysts behind the augmentation of both individual and organizational performance levels (Greenberg, 2011; Hitt et al., 2011;
Nelson & Quick, 2009; Robbins & Judge, 2012; Wagner & Hollenbeck, 2005).
Macro Organizational Behavior
Macro organizational behavior has also been extensively researched. As pivotal as micro organizational behavior has been reviewed, macro organizational behavior takes an analogous role. Researchers acknowledge macro organizational behavior to be a compelling dynamic that improves both organizational and individual performance (Greenberg, 2011; Miles, 1980;
Robbins & Judge, 2014). Pfeffer (1991) describes macro organizational behavior to be the social structures of the organization. Macro organizational behaviors are found to affect the performance of the entire organization (Colquitt et al., 2009; Robbins & Judge, 2012). Tosi and
38 Abolafia (1992) add that macro organizational behaviors include the behaviors of the entire organization that focus on the group or organization as a whole. With that in mind, based upon this empirical research study, there were four macro organizational behaviors considered— organizational structure, organizational design, organizational change, and organizational development. The purpose of this section in the literature review is to accentuate the seminal impact that macro organizational behavior has on individual and organizational performance. It should be noted when looking through the lens of macro organizational behavior, quintessentially, it is taking a step back and looking at the organization as a whole.
Organizational Structure
Research devoted to the intricacy of organizations reveals organizations as complex (P.
Allen, Maguire, & McKelvey, 2011; Etzioni, 1975; Hall, 1995; Lissack & Gunz, 1999;
McMillan, 2004; Salas, Goodwin, & Burke, 2009). Research indicates organizational structure to be the formal system for increasing effectiveness, bolstering the management of organizational behavior, and motivating people to achieve the organizational goals (G. R. Jones,
2004). As Duncan (1979) claims, the structure of an organization integrates organizational behavior so that it is synchronized, specifically providing a channel of communication through which information flows. Moreover, organizational structure must be understood in the context of how the organization will compete, because organizational structure can be leveraged to serve as a competitive advantage (Noe, 2010). When done correctly, organizational structure can reduce the level of organizational complexity.
Precisely, what is organizational structure? Hitt et al. (2011) defines organizational structure “to be the work roles and authority relationships that influence behavior in an organization” (p. 443). Organizational structure is the way in which individuals and groups are
39 arranged with respect to the task they perform (Greenberg, 2011, p. 517). According to
Nahavandi and Malekzadeh (1999), organizational structure is delineated as the way in which people are organized in an attempt to achieve the organization’s mission. Similarly, organizational structure is the pattern of interaction and coordination that links technology, tasks, and people together (Duncan, 1979). Organizational structure has also been branded as the policies, procedures, systems, relationships, and activities within an organization (American
Institute of Certified Public Accountants., 1991). The American Institute of Certified Public
Accountants go on to delineate organizational structure as the formal and informal structures that recognize reporting relationships, responsibilities, and authorities in the organization, while the information structure is that which reflects actual day-to-day operations (organization’s management, personnel, and communication patterns). Conversely, albeit clearly transparent at times, organizational structure is also purported to be an abstract concept that is considered a dimension in an organization that people cannot see (Greenberg, 2011).
Delving deeper, Robbins (1983, 1987) recognizes organizational structure to be composed of three components: complexity, formalization, and centralization; however, it should also be noted that Blackburn and Cummings (1982) maintain these three components are not universal but are generally agreed upon. The three underpinnings, to some extent, will be transparent within any given organization (see Table 7). The amount of complexity, formalization, and centralization permeating the given organization will be indicative of the type of organizational structure.
40 Table 7
Organizational Structure – 3 Key Components
Component Definition
1. Complexity Degree of differentiation that is present within an organization
2. Formalization Degree to which jobs within an organization are standardized
3. Centralization degree to which decision making is concentrated at a focal point in the organization Note. Robbins (1983, 1987)
Complexity, formalization, and centralization are cornerstones of organizational structure. Each aspect affects the organization in different capacities. Bearing that in mind,
Figure 1 illustrates how over time research has educed an array of organizational structure types; whereas Table 8 shows the different structural variations that embody differing scopes of complexity, formalization, and centralization. Each structure type has its uniqueness. Each structure offers a different element to the organization and its stakeholders. In the same vein, each organizational structure will offer a different degree of complexity, formalization, and centralization based on the structure type.
Different organizational structures produce significant differences in performance (Carzo
& Yanouzas, 1969). Correspondingly, the type of organizational structure influences the hierarchy of the organization. The two most common organizational hierarchies are flat structure and tall structure (see Figure 2). Depending on the particular hierarchy, organizations and its people will experience disparate dimensions. Table 9 depicts the dimension contrasts of a flat structure verse a tall structure.
41
Organizational Structure Types
Pre- Post- Bureaucratic Divisional Functional Line Matrix Network Team Virtual bureaucratic bureacratic Figure 1. Organizational structure types
Table 8
Organizational Structure Types
Type Definition
Bureaucratic - Typically a large organizational size, highly specialized, hierarchically structured, heavily formalized, centralized authority (Astley, 1985) Divisional - Arranges people by divisions, markets, geographical areas (G. R. Jones, 2013) Functional - Organizes people by function such as production department, marketing department, human resources department, accounting and etc. (G. R. Jones, 2013) Line - People are arranged through informal environments where decision-makers interact directly with their subordinates and decisions are implemented expeditiously (Greenberg, 2011) Matrix - Employees are grouped by both function and product; required to report to both a functional manager as well as a product manager (Greenberg, 2011) Network - Managers are organized, coordinated, and controlled by electronic means; primary concerned with outsourcing jobs (G. R. Jones, 2013) Pre- Lack standardization of tasks, totally centralized, leader typically makes all bureaucratic - key decisions (Torbert, 1974) Post- Consensus model, network rather than hierarchy, decisions are based on bureaucratic - dialogue and consensus rather than authority and command (Heckscher & Donnellon, 1994) Team - Individuals are organized in a team by interdependent individuals bound by a collective aim; such as problem-solving groups, quality circles, process improvement groups, task-forces, committees, and project groups (Glassop, 2002) Virtual - A collection of geographically distributed, functionally and/or culturally diverse entities that are collaboratively linked by electronic types of communication that operate as an organization without walls (Desanctis & Monge, 1999)
42
Flat Organization
President
Manager Manager Manager Manager
Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker
Tall Organization
President
Vice Vice President President
Director Director Director Director
Specialist Specialist Specialist Specialist Specialist Specialist Specialist Specialist
Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker
Figure 2. Flat organization and tall organization
43 Table 9
Organization Structure – Tall vs. Flat Organizations
Tall Flat
Narrow span of control Wide span of control Tall hierarchy Flat hierarchy Centralization Decentralization Chain of command is large Chain of command is small Limited autonomy Board autonomy Supervise less people directly Supervise more people directly Limited decision-making Decision-making capabilities Many levels of management Few levels of management Job specialization Individual initiative and responsibility Close supervisory control Loose supervisory control Difficulty with change React quicker to change Note. Ghiselli & Siegel (1972); Greenberg (2011); Noe (2014); Porter & Siegel (1965)
The chosen organizational structure type dictates the organizational hierarchy, which in turn impacts various dimensions within the organization (Noe, 2014). As earlier noted, the assertion by Greenberg (2011) acknowledges that organizational structure is made up of the seen and unseen dimensions that occur as a result of this macro organizational behavior. Given that,
Table 10 shows the various dimensions within an organization that can be impacted as a result of organizational structure.
44 Table 10
Organizational Structure – Dimensions Impacted
Dimensions which are impacted by organizational structure
Centralization Duties Span of control Communication flow Formalization Staff positions Coordination Hierarchy of authority Reporting relationships Decentralization Information flow Responsibilities Departmentalization Line positions Rights Division of labor Power Roles Note. Greenberg (2011); Hitt et al. (2011); Kortmann (2012); Nahavandi & Malekzadeh (1999); Nelson & Quick (2011); Scott (1975)
Putting it together, organizational structure affects the organization in two significant ways: (a) provides the foundation on which the operating procedures and routines of the organization rest; and (b) ascertains which individuals get to participate in the decision-making process (Jacobides, 2007). With that in mind, each organization is structured in different ways based upon the organization’s objective; by the same token, the selected structure is indicative of the means in which the organization operates and performs. Thus far, much attention has been made to the delineation of organizational structure; however, there is also compelling literature that supports the importance and impact of this particular macro organizational behavior.
Organizational structure has a cascading effect that benefits organizations in a myriad of ways. Over time research has found organizational structure to facilitate the flow of information in an organization to reduce the uncertainty in decision making (Cushway & Lodge, 1993;
Duncan, 1979), impact the perceptions of fairness and organizational justice in the workplace
(Marjani & Ardahaey, 2012; Schminke, Cropanzano, & Rupp, 2002), influence organizational innovation and organizational learning (Shin-Tien & Bao-Guang, 2012), affect organizational
45 behavior (Rahmati, Darouian, & Ahmadinia, 2012); impact job satisfaction and organizational commitment in the workplace (Katsikea, Theodosiou, Perdikis, & Kehagias, 2011; Willem,
Buelens, & De Jonghe, 2007); explain how resources are allocated and managed (Cushway &
Lodge, 1993); and enhance knowledge sharing in organizations (Willem & Buelens, 2009). All in all, organizational structure impacts both the individual and organization in a plethora of unforeseen or intended ways. Thus, recognizing how organizational structure can be strategically leveraged to improve organizational and individual performance can be quite advantageous.
To gain a competitive edge, research underscores factors that need to be taken into account when selecting an organizational structure. How an organization is structured is indicative of the size, history, people, processes, geography, technology, market, and even customers of the organization (Child, 1973; Cushway & Lodge, 1993). For that reason, consideration should be given to the internal and external variables. As Cushway and Lodge
(1993) purport, despite good organizational structure being in place, even the best of structures will not work well if people are not properly trained or appropriately motivated. In fact, different organizational structures cause people to behave in different ways; ergo, successful organizations are able to strike the appropriate balance between organic and mechanistic structures (Jones,
2004) [refer to Organizational Design section for a deeper understanding regarding organic and mechanistic]. Conversely, feckless organizational structures are found to yield poor motivation and morale, ineffective decision making, lack of control, poor communication, and inefficiency
(Cushway & Lodge, 1993). Organizational structure has been found to have a substantial impact on the dynamics of the organization as well as its stakeholders. Leadership effectiveness is found to be impacted by organizational structure (Walter & Bruch, 2010). All things considered,
46 a factor certainly important to leaders is the notion that organizational structure needs to fit one of or more contingences (i.e., environmental uncertainty, strategy, and size) to achieve high performance (Qiu, Donaldson, & Luo, 2012).
In summary, empirical research confirms organization structure to be a much more decisive organizational behavior than generally credited. In spite of the complexity of organizations, evidence has shown that organizational structure provides the desired formal configuration. The type of organizational structure and hierarchy is found to embody the fabric of an organization significantly. So much so that organizational structure impacts organizational behavior which in turn impacts organizational effectiveness (DeGroot & Brownlee, 2006).
While in the same vein, the structural dimensions of organizational structure have been found to have a conceptual relationship with attitudes and behavior in an organization (James & Jones,
1976); thus, bleeding into the organizational climate which is found to be directly impacted by organizational structure (Lawler, Hall, & Oldham, 1974). Despite all the cited effects derived from organizational structure, the foremost purpose of organization structure is to ensure the organization is designed in a manner to best achieve its goals and objectives (Cushway & Lodge,
1993). As Nordin, Halib, and Ghazali (2011) describe, organizational structure is the framework of an organization that significantly impacts the flow of communication and ideas. Thereupon, the ideal organizational structure is the one that sustains effective responses to the contingencies or problems the organization encounters (G. R. Jones, 2004; P. R. Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967b;
Noe, 2010). Placing organizational structure in the forefront is vital. Inattention to the impact of organizational structure can be catastrophic. The structure of an organization serves as a foundational mechanism that will either promote change or make it difficult to prosper
(McShane & Von Glinow, 2008).
47 Organizational Design
Organizational behavior is a result of organizational design (G. R. Jones, 2004).
Organizational design is considered to have a forceful and a direct impact on an organization’s performance (Lin, 2000). According to McCaskey (1974), designing a human social organization is extremely complicated; the design of a human social organization can never be perfect or final; and the design is intended to devise a complex set of trade-offs in a field of changing people, environments, and values. The goal of any leader should be to develop and implement an organizational design that aligns with different elements of strategy, task, and individuals within the organization (Nadler & Tushman, 1988). Robbins (1987) purports organizational design ought to be concentrated on the constructing or changing of the organization’s structure to achieve the organization’s goals. Organizational design has important implications as it allows for an organization to deal with various contingencies, manage diversity, generate new ideas, control its environment, and motivate employees (G. R. Jones,
2004).
To improve both organizational and individual performance an understanding of organizational design is necessary. Organizational design is the process of orchestrating the structural elements (organizational structure) in the most effective and efficient manner (Daft,
2007). Similarly, Greenberg (2011) defines organizational design as “the process of coordinating the structural elements of organizations in the most appropriate manner” (p. 529).
According to G. R. Jones (2004), organizational design is the process by which leaders of an organization select and manage the aspects of the organizational structure and culture to control activities in the organization necessary to achieve its goals. Indispensably important is the notion that organizations operate in an ever-changing environment, thus their own organizational
48 design must be flexible because organizations that are either poorly designed or unyielding cannot survive (Greenberg, 2011).
Organizational design is considered the creative process used for designing and aligning features of an organization to reach optimal efficiency and effectiveness (Hinrichs, 2009).
Nadler and Tushman (1988) avow decisions about formal organizational arrangements, formal structures, and formal processes are the cornerstones for organizational design. Hinrichs (2009) suggests when planning organizational design, there are common elements that should be considered in the design process: people, processes, systems, structures, and culture.
Organizational design has multiple designs; however, there are two commonly identified— mechanistic design and organic design. Both Table 11 and Figure 3 depict the two organizational designs. Each representation underscores how the design can alter individual and organizational dynamics. As Greenberg (2013) points out, while each design takes on a different connotation, each design lends itself to the improvement of organizational performance, productivity, and efficiency. Figure 3 expresses a deeper contrast of these two designs.
Table 11
Mechanistic vs. Organic
Dimension Mechanistic Organic
Stability Change is improbable Change is expected
Specialization Many specialists Many generalists
Formal rules Unyielding rules Substantial flexibility
Authority Centralized, vested in a few top Decentralized, diffused throughout people the organization Note. Greenberg, 2011, p. 532
49
Mechanistic Organic
Rigid Structure Flexible Structure
Vertical Lines of Communication Vertical & Horizontal Lines of Communication
Closed Structure Open Structure
Low Task Uncertainty High Task Uncertainty
Structured Unstructured
High Job Specialization Low Job Specialization
Decision-making Centralized Decision-making Decentralized
Roles Clearly Defined Roles Continually Redefined
System is most effective for System is more effective for organizations that organizations that operate in stable operate in rapidly changing and unpredictable
and highly predictable environments environments Figure 3. Mechanistic and organic characteristics. Source: T. Burns & Stalker (1961); P. S.
Lewis & Fandt (1989); McCaskey (1974) Both the mechanistic and organic designs provide leaders with advantages and disadvantages based upon the type of organization. As P. S. Lewis and Fandt (1989) mentioned, most managers or leaders cannot control the design of the organization, however they often have some control over their departments/teams; thus it is advantageous to create the departments/teams that shoulder characteristics of the organic design. However, the most effective design (mechanistic or organic) is the one in which the group, unit, department, or individual is best structured to match the appropriate type of task required within the organization (Morse & Lorsch, 1970). It is crucial that leaders have an informed
50 conceptualization of the implications of organizational design. Specifically, because management fiascoes are often the results of the failure to appropriately utilize the systemic nature of organizational design (Rivkin & Siggelkow, 2003).
Although mechanistic and organic are considered two primary approaches, literature has also identified other types of designs. Table 12 shows Henry Mintzberg’s five acclaimed distinct organizational design configurations which embody their own unique set of strengths and weaknesses.
Table 12
Montzberg’s Five Organizational Design Configurations
Characteristics Simple Machine Professional Divisional Adhocracy Structure Bureaucracy Bureaucracy Structure
Specialization Low High High social High functional High social functional
Formalization Low High Low High within Low divisions
Centralization High High Low Limited Low decentralization
Environment Simple and Simple and Complex and Simple and Complex Dynamic stable stable stable and dynamic
General Organic Mechanistic Mechanistic Mechanistic Organic structural classification
Configurations Defined as: Simple Structure Simple, informal, authority centralized to a single person Machine bureaucracy Highly complex, formal environment with clear lines of authority Professional bureaucracy Complex, decision making is entrusted in the hands of professionals Divisional structure Large, formal organizations with clear division of labor Adhocracy Simple, informal, with decentralized authority Note. Greenberg (2011); Mintzberg (1983, 2009); Robbins (1987)
51 Organizational design is categorized into two theoretical organizational design approaches: classical organizational theory and neoclassical organizational theory. As shown in
Table 13, there are distinct contrasts between the two schemas, yet each design yields improved individual and organizational performance.
Table 13
Classical and Neoclassical Organization Design
Classical Neoclassical
Shoulders the notion that there is a single best Posits that economical effectiveness is not the way to design organizations only objective of organizational structure but also employee satisfaction
Characteristics: Characteristics: Rigid Autonomy Tall hierarchy Flat hierarchy Narrow span of control Wide span of control Close control over subordinates Loose control over subordinates Centralization Decentralization Note. Daft (2010); Thompson, & Vroom (1971)
Organizational design is more than just an organizational framework; the type of organizational arrangement has significant impact on both the individual and organization.
Leaders should be concerned about organizational design because it is an essential task for leadership (Galbraith, 2002). Research findings suggest organizational design enmeshes itself into the fabric of the organization by the following: enhancing innovation (Mosurović & Kutlača,
2011; Tushman, Smith, Wood, Westerman, & O’Reilly, 2010); improving an organization’s competitive advantage (Galbraith, 2002); supporting organizational development (Bate, Khan, &
Pye, 2000); impacting absenteeism and increasing job satisfaction (Kass, Vodanovich, &
Callender, 2001); developing human capital (Mobrman, 2007); boosting job commitment
(Jaskyte, 2003); bolstering organizational change (Labianca, Gray, & Brass, 2000); influencing
52 creativity (Dong, Hui, & Loi, 2012); affecting leadership behaviors (Bass, Waldman, Avolio, &
Bebb, 1987); exacerbating or mitigating stress (Diamond & Allcorn, 1985); and assisting with existing organizational structure or redesigning a new one (Hax & Majluf, 1981). By ascertaining what the structure and processes of an organization will be, organizational design impacts a multitude of dynamics within an organization.
In closing, the contingency approach to organizational design acknowledges there is no one specific or best approach to organizational design but rather the ideal design is the design that best fits with the existing environmental conditions which the organization experiences
(Greenberg, 2011). Organizational design serves as the conduit for the flow of information, resources, and support within the organization; therefore strongly determining the power-holders in the organization (Myers, 1996). The design of the organization should respond to the internal capabilities, environment, and change while at the same time maintaining a sense of stability, clarity, and balance (Hinrichs, 2009). Conversely, Duncan (1979) describes the external environment as the sum of all the contingent forces (i.e., sociopolitical, technological, economical, geographical, general work conditions, and competition) that encroach upon an organization and which must be dealt with effectively if the organization is to thrive.
Furthermore, Greenberg (2013) asserts the ideal design of an organization is the organizational design that is most appropriate to the numerous circumstances and contexts in which the organization operates. The management style and approach used by leadership to implement and support the organizational structure via organizational design has an impactful effect on both the individual and organization. As Nadler and Tushman (1988) attest, organizational effectiveness is derived from the optimal amalgamation of organizational design and organizational structure.
53 Organizational Change
Organizational change is a complex phenomenon, ubiquitous, fuzzy and unexpectedly instigated (Ahearne, Lam, Mathieu, & Bolander, 2010; Collins, 2001; Mariana & Violeta, 2011).
This macro organizational behavior affects the organization and people in a number of ways such as stress and productivity (Halkos & Dimitrios, 2012); job performance (Ussahawanitchakit &
Sumritsakun, 2008); job satisfaction (Bryson, Barth, & Dale-Olsen, 2013); organizational effectiveness (S. Hanson, 2013); creativity (Amabile & Conti, 1999); leadership (Fullan, 2002); organizational commitment (Fedor, Caldwell, & Herold, 2006); organizational culture
(Kavanagh & Ashkanasy, 2006); organizational climate (Drzensky, Egold, & van Dick, 2012), and organizational design (Gresov, Haveman, & Oliva, 1993). Considering this, organizational change is inherent thus almost all organizations will change in one way or another in order to survive (Greenberg, 2011). Change is so crucial that failure to understand the need for change or to initiate change threatens the performance or even the survival of the organization (Hill &
Rothaermel, 2003). Organizational change spans a broad spectrum, impacting the organization and its people in a plethora of ways. While much attention to this macro organizational behavior has been directed, subsequently it has also resulted in a number of ways in which organizational change has been defined (see Table 14).
Defining organizational change is one thing; and recognizing the effects of organizational change is another. Change literature reveals a 50-90% failure rate in organizational change efforts (Andrew & Sirkin, 2003; Burnes, 2009; Greenberg, 2011; Kotter, 1995). Equally compelling is the fact that only 2% of organizational change ventures even last as long as 50 years, while 62% of new ventures fail to even make it five years (Nystorm & Starbuck, 1984).
Although literature discourse and research findings point to the importance of change efforts,
54 change in itself is undoubtedly arduous and compulsory for survival. Undeniably so, Dixon and
Day (2010) found the failure to change as the source of overall organizational failure. Whereas the work of M. E. Smith (2002) disclosed 75% of change initiatives fail to even make an impact.
Despite the call or need for change, the success rate for change remains explicitly dismal leaving leaders at the helm wondering the conceivability of doing organizational change effectively.
Table 14
Organizational Change
Definition Reference
Adaption of new ideas or behavior by an Halkos & Dimitrios (2012) organization.
Transformations in an organization’s structure, Greenberg (2011) technology, and/or people that is either planned or unplanned.
Alterations of existing work routines and strategies Herold, Fedor, Caldwell, & Liu (2008) that affect a whole organization.
Change that is planned and directed toward the Owens & Valesky (2011) achievement of specific new higher organizational outcomes that involve the entire organization.
Any alteration or modification to an organization’s Zorn, Christensen, & Cheney (1999) structures or processes.
Total organizational shifts in objectives, policies Shirley (1975) and general modes of operation.
Deliberate planned change in an organization’s Lines, Sáenz, & Aramburu (2011) formal structure, system, processes or product- market domain that is intended to improve the organization.
Organizations are branded by fixed rules, stringent policies, and unmalleable procedures that often make organizational change all but impossible. As Conner (1998) attests, human
55 resistance to change is a perfectly natural response. As indicated in the Table 15, change receptiveness comes in a range of responses.
Table 15
Receptivity to Change
Negative Neutral Positive
Change contempt Passive acceptance Pro-innovation Frustration Change readiness Change Change fatigue Ambivalence Commitment Fear Go-slow Excitement Resistance Participation Note. “A critical analysis,” (2012)
Not only are there various responses to change, there are also many different types of change. Each type of change comes in different sizes, different scopes, and different levels of complexity (L. K. Lewis, 2011). Table 16 shows some of the various types of organizational change.
At the epicenter of organizational change initiatives are the people in the organization
(Tetenbaum, 1998). As Dent and Goldberg (1999) point out, people do not resist change itself, but rather the anticipated consequences or expected effects of the change (i.e. loss of pay, loss of status, loss of comfort, or even loss of control). Moreover Armstrong-Stassen (2005) and S. A.
Lawrence and Callan (2011) attest that organizational change impacts employees because it involves changes to role structures, increased workloads, altered work patterns, and often a sense of job insecurity. The fear of the unknown alone is a powerful reason why individuals do not change, or at least do not change expeditiously (Weeks, Roberts, Chonko, & Jones, 2004).
Resistance to change can have a catastrophic impact and influence on the attainment of an organizational change effort (Van Dijk & Van Dick, 2009); therefore, helping employees
56 through the change process is essential to the success of the organization (Bennett & Durkin,
2000).
Table 16
Organizational Change Types
Type of Change Source
Planned – deliberate, purposeful, and explicit; brought Levy (1986); L. K. Lewis about by purposeful efforts (2011)
Unplanned – brought about by uncontrollable forces; Greenberg (2011); L. K. unexpected shifts in organization due to external Lewis (2011) forces
First-order – occurs within individuals, dyads, teams, groups, Fox-Wolfgramm, Boal, and entire system; incremental; reversible; & Hunt (1998); temporary and limited departure from structural Takamine (2008); Weick coherence; discontinuous, driven by external & Quinn (1999) factors; insular and somewhat isolated from overall organizational structure
Second-order – radical change; major shifts involving many Levy (1986); Takamine different levels within organization; system itself (2008) changes; continuous and perpetual; self- initiating and far-reaching within the organization; reorientation of leaving one archetype to another; planned, deliberate and strategically implemented
Third-order – preparation for continuous change; affects the Bartunek & Moch entire system; process in which members of the (1994); L. K. Lewis organization are given the opportunity to (2011); Takamine (2008) transcend the schemata; transconceptual mode of understanding
Discursive – relabeling a current practice without really doing Zorn et al. (1999) things differently
Emergent – ongoing accommodations, adaptations, and Beer & Nohria (2000) alterations that produce fundamental change without direct intentions to do so; change that often goes unnoticed (continued)
57 Type of Change Source
Contingency – a one best way for each approach that is based Dunphy & Stace (1993) upon the situational variable that it faces
Choice – ability to influence or manipulate contingencies Burnes (1996) to align them with their preferred way of working and their managerial style; high degree of decision-making
Continuous – sustainable, durable, and long-term assimilation Brännmark & Benn into the organization (2012)
Discontinuous – single, abrupt, onetime event that takes place Luecke (2003) through large, widely separated initiatives
Incremental – successive, limited, and negotiated shifts that Burnes (2009) occur increasingly and separately
Smooth incremental – slow, systematic, and predictable at a constant By (2005) rate
Bumpy incremental – periods of lull time punctuated by speeding up By (2005) the pace of change
Crisis – Reactive approach driven by external factors and Price & Chahal (2006) fear of failure
According to O’Toole and Lawler (2006), organizations, more than ever, need research- based knowledge about organizational change. When knowledge is generated it helps to stimulate change (Mohrman & Lawler, 2012). Understanding organizational change can especially aid decision-makers, leaders, or the like in the change process as well as prepare all stakeholders for the change initiative. With that in mind, change does not happen overnight, but rather the change process typically takes a considerable length of time, therefore to transform an organization successfully, change should be an underpinning of the organization’s culture
(Kotter, 1995). A central driver to the success of a change effort is open communication from the start of the change initiative (Burnes, 2009; McKay, Kuntz, & Näswall, 2013). Even more so, employees invited to participate in the planning and implementation of the change are more
58 likely to conceptualize the proposed change effort and accept the reasons for changes (Holt,
Armenakis, Feild, & Harris, 2007). Change readiness is an important element for successful and effective organizational change (Pellettiere, 2006). For that reason, a strong focus towards crafting a readiness for change message with employees can minimize resistance while at the same time transforming employees into change agents during the change process (Neves, 2009); bear in mind, an individual’s change readiness is one’s actual acceptance or adoption of the change efforts at hand (Cunningham et al., 2002). Furthermore, although not surprisingly, a well-planned change helps to ensure the change initiative is successfully implemented (Price &
Chahal, 2006). Successful implementation to organizational change is substantially contingent on the level of organizational commitment to change (Ning & Jing, 2012). Change literature finds that successful organizational change requires leadership (Nadler & Tushman, 1990). J. M.
Burns (1978) insists leaders are the impetus that causes change and movement in an organization. Correspondingly, Clement (1994) avows leadership management, particularly top management, is perhaps the most central element in a major organizational change effort.
According to Herold et al. (2008), the leader was found to be strongly related to the level of change commitment held by the employees. The work of Seo et al. (2012) found leadership to be directly related to an employee’s positive or negative reaction to organizational change.
Understanding the complexity of organizational change can help in the planning and implementation process along with effective leadership at the helm.
There is much research positing the causes of successful and effective organizational change; there is also literature on the various barriers to change efforts. As Montana and
Charnov (2000) attest, implementing change within an organization can lead to conflict, so much so it can even hinder the change process. By and large research has generally cited three
59 principle barriers to organizational change: lack of management visibility and support, inadequate skills of management, and employee resistance (Jick & Peiperl, 2011). Failure of organizational change is also found to be derived from the organization’s failure to match the new strategic change effort to the organization-environment fit (Sastry, 1997). Hoag, Ritschard, and Cooper (2002) found the failure of leaders to lead and manage the organization through the change process creates a culture that is resistant to change, thus the obstacles encountered are the effects of their own making. An increasing number of researchers are suggesting change efforts are failing because change leaders are underestimating the central role that people play in the change process (Armenakis, Harris, & Mossholder, 1993; Chung-Ming & Woodman, 1995;
George & Jones, 2001; Greenhalgh, Robert, MacFarlane, Bate, & Kyriakidou, 2004). Failure to communicate change and the politics of change are catalysts of ineffective change efforts
(McClellan, 2011). Lines et al. (2011) state many organizations and their leaders fail to provide an explanation for change, and if so, the explanation is so weak there is a lack of information regarding the change efforts. Bryson et al. (2013) claim resistance, hostility, job anxiety, and fear of those involved in the change process can thwart the change efforts. Whereas Gover and
Duxbury (2012) found social identities and intergroup dynamics to influence the perceptions that individual and groups form about change, thus resulting as a barrier to change. Whatever the obstruction for change may be, it is crucial that decision-makers, leaders, and change agents recognize the potential impediments.
Lamentably, there are more factors that stifle change efforts from occurring. Change fatigue, the perception that too much change is happening, affects organizational commitment, exhaustion, stress, and turnover resulting in harmful change outcomes (Bernerth, Walker, &
Harris, 2011). Staren and Eckes (2013) believe the increasing restrictive regulations, policies,
60 and bureaucracy that entrench organizations are the major barricades to change. The work of
Michel, Stegmaier, and Sonntag (2010) found procedural justice impacts change as it affects employees’ organizational identification which directly influences one’s supportive attitudes, values, and behaviors for change. Procedural justice is “people’s perceptions of the fairness of procedures used to determine the outcomes they receive” (Greenberg, 2011 p. 39). The cultural background of people, leadership style of the change leader, and the employee involvement in the decision-making process are things to be considered which affect the change process (Pihlak
& Alas, 2012). Sadly, organizational change has been found to sometimes increase the propensity for corruption, as change can be disruptive to existing formal and informal organizational structures (K. D. Martin, Johnson, & Cullen, 2009). Change halts when there is a failure to understand the fundamental nature of organizational cultural change (G. Martin &
Dowling, 1995). G. Martin and Dowling (1995) go on to openly state, “Mistakes in not understanding the other person’s culture can be expensive and even life threatening” (p. 93).
Organizations comprise many different subcultures, and for that precise reason, change efforts are unlikely to succeed when leaders only know one of the organization’s subcultures and plan only changes according to that subculture (Kekale, Fecikova, & Kitaigorodskaia, 2004).
Whatever the cause for failed change, the fact remains that an organization’s ability to change, or respond to its environment and/or environmental stimuli, is an important factor in the organization’s ability to succeed. In response, Buono and Kerber (2010) claim there needs to be a stronger emphasis on building organizational change capacity to enhance an organization’s ability to navigate the array of changes successfully by responding to the changing environmental conditions, and anticipating the shifting internal and external demands, pressures, and societal conditions. Buono and Kerber (2010) explain building organizational change
61 capacity entails a systematic approach to developing the organization in a way that reaches into the heart of the people’s natural capacity to change by supporting and making it a basic part of organizational life.
As noted earlier, there are many types of change, and the reaction to change may vary based upon the individual. Factors that impact change were also noted. Distinctly, leadership was found to be a pivotal influence in significantly helping or harming change efforts. While much attention has been given to organizational change in itself, a variable to successful effective change is the actual change management model often referred to as the strategic planning process. The remainder of this section provides various processes for formulating, implementing, and evaluating decisions in an effort to achieve successful and effective organizational change. Over time a myriad of strategic planning processes/change management models have been developed. Researchers have acknowledged these models to mitigate resistance to change, provide a framework for change, and better ensure the change process is successful (Price & Chahal, 2006; Shirley, 1975; Staren & Eckes, 2013). Table 17 illustrates various strategic planning steps and change management models designed to bolster effective change (more extensive models are provided in the appendices).
In summary, organizations have a competitive advantage when able to adapt to dynamic environments (Greenwood & Hinings, 1996). Organizational change is hard to do, especially when organizations are in constant flux (Kotter, 1990a). Nevertheless, the leaders of successful organizations have been found to support change 94% of the time, whereas others supported change 76% of the time (D. Smith, 1998). The success rate and sustainability of change is bleak.
62 Table 17
Strategic Planning Process/Change Management Models
McKinsey7-S Framework Kotter’s Change Management Lewin’s Change Management
Steps
1. Shared values 1. Establish a sense of urgency 1. Unfreezing – recognize a 2. Strategy 2. Form a powerful guiding need for change 3. Structure coalition 2. Changing – implement 4. Systems 3. Create a vision the planned change 5. Style 4. Communicate vision 3. Freezing – accept newly 6. Staff 5. Empower others to act on changed state
7. Skills the vision
6. Plan for and create short- term wins 7. Consolidate improvements and produce still more change 8. Institutionalize new approaches
Peters & Waterman (1984) Kotter (1995, 1996, 2012) Lewin (1947) Note. See Appendix C for a complete list.
Yet when organizational change is done correctly, the effect and impact can be astonishing in a multiplicity of ways. People respond to change differently. There is not one type of change, but rather a miscellany of change approaches that have different change intentions. Planning change, reacting to change, initiating change, and institutionalizing change are inevitable if an organization is to survive. While organizational change helps better understand the inherent challenges that surround the implementation of change, it does not solely answer how a change initiative affects its adaptation into an organization (Battilana & Casciaro, 2012). Nevertheless, in order for change to take hold and be effective, organizations need to have a pronounced and visible need for change, along with a clear widespread acceptance for change throughout the organization (Armenakis et al., 1993). Despite poor performance serving as a goading causality
63 for organizational change (Boeker, 1997), effective change leaders are those who actively participate as learners by helping the organization improve, recognizing that effectiveness motivates people to do more, and building a culture of collaboration (Fullan, 2011). For as
Collins and Hansen (2011) sagely proclaim, “For more difficult than implementing change is figuring out what works, understanding why it works, grasping when to change, and knowing when not to” (p. 134). Organizational change is not easy but the fruits of the labor are invaluable to all stakeholders; seemingly to be the bedrock for improving individual and organizational performance.
Organizational Development
In the 1970s organizational development (OD) was on an accelerating rise, showing up in business firms, school systems, government agencies, religious institutions, and both domestically as well as internationally (Raia, 1972). Decades later, OD has been found to be an organizational behavior that enhances the effectiveness of an organization (Taute & Taute,
2012). Today, organizational development has morphed into many different strategies for implementing planned organizational change, yet the keystone remains the same—an attempt to produce some type of change in individual employees, work groups, and/or the entire organization (Greenberg, 2011). Stevenson (2012) attests this macro organizational behavior is the deliberate actions which are intended to promote the growth of an organization. Likewise,
Bennis (1969) surmises OD to be a complex educational strategy intended to change the beliefs, attitudes, values, and structure of the organization to better adapt to new technologies, challenges, markets, and the incessant rate of change itself. In the same vein, organizational development does not just center exclusively on the individual or organization but rather the symbiotic and synergistic relationship between the two (Kegan, 1971). All in all, organization
64 development has been regarded as one of the most popular and widely used approaches for implementing organizational change to improve efficiency and effectiveness (Waclawski &
Church, 2002). In the same way, Anderson (2010) asserts, “By learning about the field of organizational development and the process by which it is conducted, you will be a more effective change agent inside the organization to which you belong” (p. 2).
Similar to the previously discussed organizational behaviors, there are several definitions in which organizational development has been delineated. Beckhard (1969) describes organizational development as the application of knowledge, concepts, and research findings about human behavior in the organization as it relates to planned change with the intent to increase the organization’s effectiveness. OD has also been simply termed as the response to change (Bennis, 1969). According to Marguiles (1973), organizational development is a learning process that helps to determine the need for organizational changes, how to implement changes, and ways to evaluate the outcomes. Whereas Ivancevich et al. (2008) succinctly defined OD as” the process for preparing for and managing change in organizational settings” (p.
529). However more recently, Stevenson (2012) describes organizational development as,
“Helping people within organizations work together in ways that achieve the outcomes they mutually seek” (p. 87). While Anderson (2010) defines organizational development as, “The process of increasing organizational effectiveness and facilitating personal and organizational change through the use of interventions driven by social and behavioral science knowledge” (p.
3). Despite the plethora of various OD definitions, the work of Egan (2002) affirmed a common variable remains amidst organizational development—the process of increasing organizational effectiveness (Egan, 2002). All things considered, it has been Beckhard’s (1969) delineation of organizational development that has survived the test of time, “Organizational development is an
65 effort (1) planned, (2) organization-wide, and (3) managed from the top to (4) increase organization effectiveness and health through (5) planned interventions in the organization’s
‘process,’ using behavioral-science knowledge” (p. 9). However, for this research study, OD will specifically be examined and defined as the planned organizational activities (particularly professional development) provided for the growth of employees and the organization with the aim to improve skills, actions, thinking, and/or processes to help the organization be more efficient and effective.
While various definitions of organizational development were in the literature, there are also countless ways in which organizational development affects the individual and organization.
Organizational development is, but not limited to, equipping individuals with the skills, activities, tools, and methods needed to: help the organization be more efficient (Abu-Hamour,
2012), serve as the conduit for successful change in organizations (Marguiles, 1973), impact organizational culture (Conceição & Altman, 2011), create more effective teams while also using teams to intervene in organizational issues (Waclawski & Church, 2002), and promote and build a learning capability within the organization (DiBella, 2000). Furthermore, Patten (1981) avouches OD efforts augment teambuilding in organizations. Whereas Golembiewski (1990) points out how OD has a crucial impact on stress, burnout, and strain. Whatever the effect may be, the central theme of organizational development is the creating and managing of change in order to yield higher performing organizations in which employees can grow and develop
(Anderson, 2010). Additionally important is the assertion that organizational development and leadership development go hand-in-hand (Michael Quinn, 1999).
OD is aimed at helping facilitate change by more fully understanding how organizational systems operate and interconnect. Correspondingly, OD empowers leaders and managers to
66 employ systemic organization-wide efforts planned deliberately to increase the organization’s effectiveness and/or efficiency. To bolster organizational development the work of Huffington,
Cole, and Brunning (1997) purport the objective of OD is to integrate more fully the needs of individuals with the purpose or mission of their organization. In order to do so, Anderson (2010) discloses core values that should be deep-rooted in organizational development: participation, involvement, and empowerment; group and team dynamics emphasized; growth, development, and learning put at the forefront; deliberate attention towards valuing the complete person; laser- like focus on engaging in discourse and collaboration; and lastly, creating an authentic, open, and trustworthy environment. Not only are leaders to keep organizational development values at the forefront, in conjunction, the research of Kegan (1971) insists there are specific process goals that OD programs ought to include. Table 18 outlines the specific process goals that OD programs should encompass.
Table 18
Organizational Development Goals
Development Goals
Create an open climate Ensure shared problem-solving Increase self-control for organizational responsibilities members Reduce unneeded competition Develop a problem-solving climate Generate collaborative decision-making Supplement authority of status with Foster collaboration competence in the organization Develop reward systems for both Increase self-direction for organizational organizational and individual goals members Increase a sense of ownership of the Build trust within the organization organization and its objective Recognize organizational goal achievement Recognize individual goal attainment Note. Kegan (1971) In addition, the work of Waclawski and Church (2002) purport three principles in organizational development: (a) OD should be fundamentally a data-driven process, (b) OD
67 should represent a total systems approach to organizational change, and (c) OD should be a normative and humanistic values-based approach to organizational improvement. Bennis (1969) and Kegan (1971) insisted OD ought to be an educational strategy using experienced-based behavior in a way to accomplish a self-renewing organization. As Greenberg (2011) underscores, effectiveness of OD techniques is contingent on the extent to which the values of the OD align with the underlying values of the culture in which it is being used. Lastly, acknowledging that OD is about changing people and organizations for continuous positive growth and improvement; a ruminating caveat is the objectives of OD are not to dictate one particular behavior but to support and provide more options to the members in the organization concerning their behavior (Kegan, 1971).
Furthermore, Taute and Taute (2012) acknowledge seven major goals that emanate from organizational development: (a) improved performance, (b) refined employees’ skills, (c) prevention of managerial obsolescence, (d) increased organizational problem-solving, (e) orientation for new employees, (f) preparation programs for promotion and managerial succession, and lastly, (g) training given to improve organizational effectiveness and increase personal growth for all employees. An important OD notion is the assertion by Nystrom and
Starbuck (1981) which suggests the survival of an organization hinges on the reciprocity between individuals and the organization in its environment. Through effective organizational development efforts, organizational learning and personal development processes and structures can be successfully established.
Huffington et al. (1997) determined there are various ways of categorizing organizational development interventions. As illustrated in Figure 4, the diagnosed problems show the way in
68 which the organization reacts to OD. The mode of intervention specifies the methods that can be used towards correction, and the focus of attention can span from a micro, meso, or macro effort.
Goals, plans Communication Culture, climate Leadership, authority Problem-solving Diagnosed Decision-making Problems Conflict or cooperation Role definition Other
Total organization Intergroup (two or more) Organizational Focus of Attention Team or group Development Dyad or triad Role Person
Mode of Training Intervention Process consultation, coaching Confrontation Data feedback Problem-solving Plan making OD task force establishment Technostructural activity
Figure 4. Determining organization development interventions. Huffington et al., 1997; Schmuck & Miles, 1971 Decades of research in the field of organizational development have resulted in a myriad of OD interventions that immerse themselves in the fabric of organizations and its people. Table
19 catalogs, albeit not all, the various organizational development efforts that are used.
In closing, organizational development guides long-range efforts that enhance an organization’s problem-solving capabilities and its ability to cope with external environmental factors (French, 1969). Organizational development emerges when there is a change in the
69 organization’s condition (Nystrom & Starbuck, 1981). As Taute and Taute (2012) suggest, effective leadership and management can be the difference between OD success and OD failure.
Over time a plethora of organizational development interventions have been established to help the organization become more efficient, effective, and deal with change. However, in order for organizational development to be effective, it must be selective and leaders must realize it is not the panacea for all organizational issues (Patten, 1981). Moreover, in the face of organizational challenges and complexity OD has developed into an organization improvement strategy that focuses on how the organization and people function, and how they can function better. In order for organizational improvement to take place, organizational development becomes a necessity when working through the process of planned change (Waclawski & Church, 2002).
Correspondingly, effective OD sustainability requires trust, learning, empowerment, buy-in, and relational capacity as part of the core organizational strategy (B. B. Jones, Brazzel, & NTL
Institute for Applied Behavioral Science., 2006). Promoting change is about promoting and building learning capability in organizations (DiBella, 2000), for the reason that organizational learning is a fundamental objective of OD (B. B. Jones et al., 2006). Organizational development is more than just an intervention for organizational enhancement; OD is an organizational behavior that puts a laser-like emphasis on the improvement of its most valued asset—people.
70 Table 19
Organizational Development Types
Development Type Source
Employee Assistance Programs – EAPs target employees whose performance Oher (1999), p. 61 shows a pattern of decline which is not readily explained by supervisory observations of their job circumstances as well as those whose employees who are aware of personal difficulties that may be affecting or may start to affect their work lives.
Professional Development – a professional community of practice is formed of Schwartz & Bryan (1998) individuals who come together to discuss common issues, share ideas, and learn from each other through face to face interaction or virtually. The learners support each other’s learning by collaboration, share practices, and perceptions in the quest of their common interests and activities.
Focus Group – a carefully planned discussion designed to obtain perceptions on a Waclawski & Church defined area of interest in a permissive nonthreatening environment. (2002), p. 115
Process Consultation – a face-to-face interaction between the client and Schein (1999) consultant in which a set of activities are used to help the client to perceive, understand, and act upon the organization’s environment.
Coaching – a one-on-one intervention which an individual works to improve a Anderson (2010), p. 200 specific personal, interpersonal, or skill area, or to take actions to reach a desired future goal, working with a facilitator on the process of personal change.
Team building – a method of improving the work relationships among employees Patten (1981), p. 83 that have a positive contributing effect on accomplishment of tasks.
Management by Objective (MBO) – the practice in which the employee and Drucker (1954) manager engage in a process of collaboratively crafting goals that will direct the employee’s efforts and serve as the basis for evaluation by which the manager provides performance feedback.
Survey Feedback – questionnaires and interviews used to glean data and Greenberg (2011) information about issues concerning the organization with the intent of using the feedback to plan organizational change.
360-Degree Feedback – an ongoing process of assessment, performance Tornow & London (1998) evaluation, and discussion of performance with supervisors, subordinates, peers, and others that include goal setting, creating development experiences, and improving performance.
Quality of Work Life (QWL) Programs – technique designed to improve Greenberg (2011) organizational functioning by humanizing the workplace, making it more democratic by involving employees in the decision making process that affect them on their job (i.e. work restructuring, quality circles).
In summary, research acknowledges findings that the four selected macro organizational behaviors affect, influence, or enhance individual and organizational performance. Researchers
71 of organizational design, organizational structure, organizational change, and organizational development identified several causations that result from each macro organizational behavior.
Literature shows how macro organizational behavior influences organizational dynamics, which in turn influences human behavior, resulting in the waning or improving of performance. Macro organizational behavior has an effect on the organization, subsequently affecting the micro organizational level. Furthermore, the four selected macro organizational behaviors for this study are found to have an effect on organizational and individual performance.
As noted so far, research confirms both micro and macro organizational behavior as significant conduits to organizational and individual performance. Each identified organizational behavior in the study impacts performance in a singular way. Substantiated is the Bobbitt and
Behling (1981) assertion that organizational behavior literature does not provide any simple or all-encompassing principles or laws on administration, thus there is no one ideal way because not all methods are equally effective. However, contingency theory helps to explain how the selected micro and macro organizational behaviors are affected by unpredictable variables
(Donaldson, 2001; Kast & Rosenzweig, 1973). Earlier noted was the averment that improved performance comes from the ability to acclimatize to the ever-changing internal and external factors (Colquitt et al., 2009; Hitt et al., 2006; Nahavandi & Malekzadeh, 1999; Nelson & Quick,
2011). To conceptualize and understand organizational behavior more fully as it relates to both the organization and individual, the contingency theory is brought into discussion.
Contingency Theory
E. M. Hanson (2003) asserts that variability in needs and demands requires a variability in organizational responses. The contingency approach recognizes that there is no best way to manage an organization, motivate people, or even orchestrate change, thus becoming widely accepted by behavioral scientists (More, 2006). Subsequently, the contingency theory has been
72 used to guide leaders as they attempt to improve organizational performance in the workplace.
Using the contingency management model there are four key elements to be considered: environmental driving forces, the individual, the organization, and the group or team within the organization (More, 2006).
Although the contingency theory has served to augment organizational behavior research, it has also been noted to have major problems with the measurement of its variables, specifically the ambiguity of the environmental variable (Miner, 2007). The contingency theory has been scrutinized for being more of a classification scheme rather than a true theoretical formulation
(Bowditch & Buono, 2001). As Moberg and Koch (1975) contend, there is a noticeable indistinctness between contingency and non-contingency views. Donaldson (2001) purports three problems arise from the contingency theory:
1. The theory is seemingly too static and does not do a sufficient job of explaining why
organizations move from a misfit (low performance) into a fit (high performance).
2. The theory is unclear as to how leaders would exactly ascertain which organizational
structures best fit with their contingencies.
3. The theory is questioned as to why organizations move from one contingency to
another if there are no performance gains from doing so.
Despite some caveats to the contingency theory, behavior scientists and researchers continue to rely on the theory for ways to improve organizational performance (Donaldson,
2001; Ivancevich et al., 2008; Robbins & Judge, 2007). Wilson (2001) suggests the contingency variables most often used are leader’s personal characteristics, employee’s personal characteristics, the group’s characteristics, and the structure of the organization. Owens and
73 Valesky (2011) suggest three basic propositions that bolster the contingency approach to organizational behavior in the educational setting:
(1) There is no best universal way to organize and administer school districts or schools;
(2) Not all ways of organizing and administering are equally effective in a given
situation: Effectiveness is contingent upon appropriateness of the design or style to
the situation;
(3) The selection of organizational design and administrative style should be based on
careful analysis of significant contingencies in the situation. (p. 105)
The contingency theory is the middle ground that there are universal principles of organization and management and that each organization is uniquely different, therefore calling for each situation to be analyzed individually (Kast & Rosenzweig, 1973).
The contingency theory offers a scaffold to the internal and external contingencies that organizations encounter on a daily basis. Acknowledging the contingency theory precepts allows for a more competent understanding as to why organizational behaviors and perceptions may vary within the research study. Now we turn to the social judgment theory to explain how judgments come to fruition through the policy capturing approach.
Policy Capturing Approach
Research offers numerous reasons as to why policy capturing benefits the researcher as he or she attempts to examine how individuals reach decisions. Regarded as a form of judgment analysis, policy capturing has been applied to a variety of settings and contexts (Cooksey,
1996a). According to Boon and Sulsky (1997) policy capturing, “uses the observed relations between people’s overall judgments and the cues varied by the experimenter to infer an individual’s implicit judgment policy” (p. 22). Rogelberg, Balzer, Ployhart, and Yonker (1999)
74 claim the advantage in policy capturing is the ability to measure each individual’s approach to decision making in an objective method, therefore being used to effectively model decisions that are mood laden, conscious, and deliberate. In their work, Arnold and Feldman (1981) avow policy capturing to be advantageous because the objective weight method mitigates the ability for individual biases to overestimate the relative importance of minor factors that are evident when using subjective weight methodologies. Subsequently, the use of inferred objective weighting (i.e., policy capturing approach) provides a valid measurement of importance in self- report studies of choice situations (Arnold & Feldman, 1981). Policy capturing is a research design that examines decision making and provides a mathematical description of the decision maker’s policy that has yielded outcomes to predict and understand future decisions (Taylor &
Wilsted, 1974). A strength in the policy capturing approach is the capability to assess each individual’s approach to decision making in an objective manner (Rogelberg et al., 1999). In addition, Rogelberg et al. (1999) maintain policy capturing demonstrates an external validity when being used.
In summary, policy capturing approach is a research method to assist researchers who are interested in objectively capturing human judgment policies as an attempt to bridge and juxtapose the macro and micro organizational behavior domains. Through this statistical weighting approach, researchers can thoroughly examine how individuals reach decisions and how they ascertain how much weight should be applied to each criterion or variable based on the number of actual decisions being made, all the while maintaining external validity. The researcher will then attempt to ascertain the actual perceptions of macro organizational behaviors and micro-organizational behaviors by classroom teachers and school administrators. In the end, the data results will be used to determine if a relationship exists between the two groups’
75 perceptions. For more in-depth explanation of the policy capturing approach, reference Chapter
3.
Social Judgment Theory
Judgments that emerge when utilizing the policy capturing approach are developed from the precepts of the social judgment theory (SJT). Judgments are considered the bedrock of most decisions (Yates, 1990). So a question remains, how are human judgments emerging from the policy capturing approach? To better conceptualize the policy capturing approach, the tenets of the social judgment theory are brought into the study. The social judgment theory is a theoretical underpinning that bolsters the policy capturing approach by explaining how human judgments are formed and how a metatheory (SJT) provides direction for research on judgment (Cooksey,
1996a).
What is the social judgment theory? SJT has evolved from probabilistic functionalism over the last five decades (Doherty & Kurz, 1996). The theory originated on principles constructed by psychologist Egon Brunswik in 1955 and thereafter evolved into a theoretical framework for conceptualizing human judgment and decision making (Arkes & Hammond,
1986; Brehmer, 1976). Using the social judgment theory, researchers attempt to explain how people make judgments (Mallard, 2010) and show that policy quarrels can be captured in terms of cognitive parameters (Adelman, Stewart, & Hammond, 1975); thereupon, the manifesting perceptions (policies) burgeoning from the policy capturing approach come to fruition.
When juxtaposing the policy capturing approach and the social judgment theory, the SJT defines group patterns that manifest from the perceptions of individuals (S. W. Smith, Atkin,
Martell, Allen, & Hembroff, 2006). As Adelman et al. (1975) posits, policies can be delineated when (a) weighting the proximal cues or factors; (b) employing different function forms (linear
76 or nonlinear) for the relationship between the cue and the policymaker’s judgment; (c) using different organizational principles for amalgamating the cue information once the weighting has been applied; and (d) executing policies with varying degrees of consistency (ensuring identical circumstances evoke identical judgments). Since the SJT is a statistical research approach, it takes on a representative design that provides a uniquely informative means of analyzing many of our interactions with the environment and with each other (Cooksey, 1996b). So to conceptualize how judgments are formed, one should recognize the interplay between environment and human judgment.
The SJT is used as a methodology and a perspective for understanding human judgment as it is exercised within a particular ecological context (Cooksey, 1996b). Policymakers develop different judgment policies as a result of the nature of the ecology (environment) in which the policy is made (Adelman et al., 1975). Since SJT is grounded in the notion of causal ambiguity in the environment, the environment is generally codified as the judgment ecology (Arkes &
Hammond, 1986). Ecology is postulated as the decision task environment in which he or she is embedded, simply put one’s environment (Cooksey, 1996b). SJT underscores the notion that one can arrive at an understanding of the environment or make a judgment two ways: a) based on the variety of sources of the environment or b) make a judgment based on a variety of sources of information or cues (Doherty & Kurz, 1996). The policymaker is involved in the policy formation task (decision making) that can include a plethora of cues and interrelationships; therefore, in order to understand the task ecology (environment), one must also understand the context in which the policymaker is working (Cooksey & Freebody, 1986).
77 Lens Model
A fundamental underpinning to SJT is the embodied Brunswik’s lens model (Arkes &
Hammond, 1986; Brehmer, 1988; Connolly et al., 2000; Cooksey, 1996a). Judgment analysis
(policy capturing approach) is commonly referred to as the lens model because it illustrates the complexities of a relationship between two interrelated sub-systems: the environment and cognitive processes of the judge (Arkes & Hammond, 1986; Cooksey, 1996b). Furthermore, the utilization of the single system design is the classical policy capturing model when employing personnel-related judgment research (Cooksey, 1996b). Multiple regression and analysis of variance have proven to be useful linear models in the analysis of judgment task (Brehmer,
1976). The lens model as it pertains to the SJT provides a method to compare two interacting systems by using parallel indices to analyze both the task ecology [environment] and the judge’s judgments [decisions] (Cooksey, 1996b).
There are four broad system concepts (single system, double system, triple system, and n- system) that can be used when studying human judgment. Each of the four broad system concepts is derived from the scope of a theoretical approach for studying human judgment.
Cooksey (1996a) delineates scope as “the type of relationship and phenomena considered appropriate for a particular perspective to be examined” (p. 55). For the purpose of the current research study, the judgment analysis paradigm will be the single system design.
Single System Design
When working in the single system design framework, a researcher needs to only have available a sample of cue profiles representing cases or situations (real or simulated) for the human judge to process (Cooksey, 1996a). Cooksey (1996a) goes on to acknowledge the single system design primarily focuses only on the judgment process itself, with minimal or no
78 reference being made to: (a) the information about the variables or criteria under the study, (b) the nature of the task environment, (c) the social dimension of the task environment, or (d) the nature of the interrelationship between judgment processes and the task environment.
The lens model depicts a judgment-environment system as a symmetrical structure, in which the environment (ecology) is indicated on the left side and the human judgment is represented on the right side. A main advantage to the lens model is the ability to account for both the decision maker and the decision-making task, thus providing both descriptive information to understand judgment accuracy and prescriptive information about how judgment accuracy can be improved (Hartwig & Bond, 2011). See Appendix D for the visual representation of the lens model and the fundamental components that make this model a useful tool when utilizing the policy capturing approach. In addition, when delving deeper into analysis of the lens model, there is a mathematical formulation of Brunswik’s lens model within the linear framework that denotes both the judgments and the criterion being judged as functions of cues in the environment (see Appendix E).
Conclusion
In summary, researchers have spent decades studying organizations, and their people to ascertain the reasons why some organizations perform at unprecedented levels of success and others descend toward dismal performance. Organizational behavior has been identified as the decisive variable for improving organizational performance and human behavior in organizations
(Locke, 2009). In Chapter 2, the researcher selected four micro and four macro organization behaviors to explore. In the first section of the review of literature, the investigator examined the four micro organization behaviors (stress, job satisfaction, creativity, and leadership). In the second section, the researcher reviewed the four macro organizational behaviors (organizational
79 structure, organizational design, organizational change, and organizational development). The literature review posited that each organizational behavior affects the organization in its own way. The literature also showed that each organizational behavior influences human behavior in varied ways. For this reason, individuals within an organization may correspondingly hold divergent perceptions on micro and macro organizational behaviors.
In Chapter 2, the researcher conveyed theoretical reasons why organizations struggle to be limited to one modus operandi. Since organizations operate in an ever-changing arena, the contingency theory was discussed to provide an ideology that recognizes behavior in an organization as the complex result of many micro and macro behaviors taking place.
Understanding the contingency approach helps to explain why there is no single preeminent way to manage an organization, motivate people, or even make change; thus becoming a widely acknowledged theory by behavioral scientists (More, 2006). The precepts of the contingency theory lend a theoretic explanation as to why the perceptions of the selected organizational behaviors may vary within this empirical research study; additionally, the theory helps to explain why organizations are all but static.
Chapter 2 concluded with an introductory theoretical look into the research design of the current study. The policy capturing approach provides a modern day research paradigm that serves as a statistical method of analysis of variance for juxtaposing micro and macro organizational behavior in an organizational context (Priem, Walters, & Li, 2011). Whereas the social judgment theory provides a uniquely informative means for analyzing how judgments are formed through a representative design. By way of using the single system design, a researcher can take a sample of cue profiles representing cases or situations in which human judgments are
80 processed; thus, the lens model gives a conceptual depiction for understanding judgment within the paradigm of the social judgment theory.
The literature review provided an overarching understanding into the field of organizational behavior while at the same time attempting to explain the complexities in which organizations operate. Although there are several known organizational behaviors, the review of literature in this study only covers the selected micro and macro organizational behaviors.
Despite conjecturing how the two levels of analysis (micro and macro) impact organizational performance and human behavior, preceding researchers have not conducted studies between the perceptions of the two levels. To underpin the research study, theories and research approaches are introduced to help better answer the why as well as the how that emerge through this research. Since the study aims to narrow a gap in organizational behavior research, a new paradigm for bridging the abyss between theory and practice is articulated in Chapter 3.
81 CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Inquiry is fatal to certainty.
- Will Durant
Introduction
With his empirical research, the investigator examined classroom teachers’ and school administrators’ perceptions of micro organizational behaviors and macro organizational behaviors related to the organizational setting. The researcher explored the relationship between a supervisor (administrator) and a subordinate (classroom teacher), and what organizational behaviors are more important to each. The policy capturing approach was used in this research study to capture the perceptions of the following micro and macro organizational behaviors: leadership, creativity, job satisfaction, stress, organizational structure, organizational design, organizational change, and organizational development. The researcher considered the impact micro and macro organizational behaviors can have on improved organizational performance, while at the same time shedding light on the perceptions of micro and macro organizational behavior in an organizational setting.
Briefly, the policy capturing approach can assist researchers who are using micro and macro organizational behavior in an organizational context. It is a statistical weighting method to capture human judgment policies on organizational behavior objectively. In the data analysis, the researcher weighed and combined information about the perceptions of micro and macro organizational behavior in an organizational setting based on the eight selected organizational behaviors. The individuals’ responses were analyzed so inferences can be made about how the cues influenced their judgment. Noted earlier, the social judgment theory is a theoretical
82 underpinning that bolsters the policy capturing approach to explain how human judgments are formed. In conjunction, aspects of the lens model were used to analyze the statistical weighting of the cues. The lens model provides a method to compare two interacting systems directly by using parallel indices to analyze both the task ecology (environment) and the evaluator’s judgments (decisions).
Research Questions
The research questions which served to guide the study were:
1. How are eight selected organizational behaviors perceived by a teacher?
2. How are eight selected organizational behaviors perceived by an administrator?
Research Design
The research design used in this study consisted of both qualitative and quantitative research. The method used to gain qualitative information came from the Micro and Macro
Organizational Behavior Perceptions Questionnaire (see Appendix F). Inferential statistics were used to conjecture the study from the sample in relation to the population. A t-test was run to determine if a difference exists between the means of the two groups (administrators and teachers). A factor analysis was used as a way to break down the larger data set into different subgroups or factors; subsequently, looking at each question with the group of questions (Likert, scenario, and closed filtered) to determine how these questions accumulate together. The bedrock of the study hinged on the utilization of the policy capturing approach.
Policy Capturing Approach
The method used in this study was the policy capturing approach. According to Arkes and Hammond (1986), a person’s judgment policy can be captured after judgments are made regarding hypothetical cases; subsequently the policy may then be applied to everyday life.
83 Priem et al. (2011) infer the policy capturing approach bridges the chasm and integrates the macro and micro domains in a research study. The research design for this study comes from the work of Hitt, Dacin, Levitas, Arregle, and Borza (2000) and Hitt, Ahlstrom, Dacin, Levitas, and
Svobodina (2004). Policy capturing is a statistical weighting methodology derived from the work of Slovic and Lichtenstein in 1971 and is based on the social perception lens developed by
Bruskwik in 1952 (Priem & Harrison, 1994) [see Chapter 2 for more detail on the lens model].
Over time, the policy capturing approach has been used in research studies to determine job performance (Spence & Keeping, 2010), performance appraisals (Ogunfowora, Bourdage, &
Lee, 2010; Taylor & Wilsted, 1974), organizational subunit effectiveness (Hitt & Middlemist,
1979), organizational decision-making (Sherer, Schwab, & Heneman, 1987; Tyler & Steensma,
1998), teaching effectiveness (Carkenord, 1994), management decisions (Stumpf & London,
1981), blame and forgiveness (Boon & Sulsky, 1997), supervisor trustworthiness (Lapierre,
2007), acquisition decisions (Hitt & Tyler, 1991), and entrepreneur evaluations of opportunities
(Grégoire, Shepherd, & Lambert, 2010; Haynie, Shepherd, & McMullen, 2009). Policy capturing allows for a more holistic, integrated view of the way people weight and combine the information they are processing (Boon & Sulsky, 1997). The policy capturing method has been noted as a within-subjects method that enables a measuring of relative importance when it comes to decision-making variables or factors (Martocchio & Judge, 1994).
To better conceptualize the methodology used in this study, Hitt and Middlemist (1979) disclose fundamental precepts of the policy capturing approach:
Policy capturing provides a method of objectively identifying actual judgment policies. The results of the policy capturing procedure are based on analysis of actual decisions and provide a quantitative description of a decision maker’s policy that can be used to predict future decisions. Policy capturing is a process in which decisions and their cues (criteria) are analyzed to provide a model
84 depicting the decision-influencing cues (criteria) and their weights. (Hitt & Middlemist, 1979, p. 360)
A chasm exists between the micro and macro divide in management research (Priem et al., 2011). While Staw (1991) builds a robust platform for the micro side, Pfeffer (1991) builds a solid foundation for the macro side [see Pfeffer (1991) and Staw (1991) articles for further explanation]. Through the work of researchers, the gap between micro and macro organizational behaviors has narrowed, yet the divide still remains intermittent and perplexing in the research milieu (Priem et al., 2011). Using the policy capturing approach as the research design can assist researchers who are juxtaposing micro and macro organizational behavior in an organizational context.
Through the method of statistical weighting, policy capturing ascertains how much weight should be applied to each criterion or variable based on the number of actual decisions being made (Hitt & Barr, 1989). As Stumpf and London (1981) purport the “policy capturing approach requires each decision maker to rate a larger number of individuals who vary along several criteria” (p. 752). Policy capturing is an empirical analysis of actual decisions that provide a mathematical description of a decision maker’s policy (Taylor & Wilsted, 1974), and as a regression paradigm this method uses correlational statistics to provide judgmental models in realistic settings (Slovic, Fischhoff, & Lichtenstein, 1977). Policy capturing is used for analyzing the judgment policies that emphasize individuals’ decisions, and thus their actions in an organization (Priem et al., 2011). According to Taylor and Wilsted (1974), the policy capturing approach employs multiple regression or analysis of variance techniques, which subsequently weight the cues (criteria) according to their actual influence in the decision.
Regression analyses can be performed to establish relationships between criteria and judgment when various effectiveness criteria are identified (Hitt & Middlemist, 1979). The research
85 design uses the regression techniques to model the cognitive processes underlying individuals’ judgments (Boon & Sulsky, 1997).
The methodology of policy capturing has assisted in the identification of a number of sets of weights used by a decision maker in combining criteria (Stumpf & London, 1981). Through an analysis of decision making, policy capturing develops a quantitative decision model that incorporates a decision criterion which has respective weighting assigned by the individual (Hitt
& Barr, 1989). Thus policy capturing provides an accurate representation of decision-making behavior that supports the need for external validity within this method (Hitt & Middlemist,
1979). Employing the policy capturing approach offers a versatile option for researchers wishing to undertake management studies focused on bridging the macro and micro domains in management research (Priem et al., 2011). Through utilization of the policy capturing approach, the method circumvents the problems of retrospective bias, faulty memory, or attempts to cast past behaviors in a positive light, which is common amid certain survey techniques (Golden,
1992; Hitt et al., 2000). Additionally, the approach allows for the examination of multiple variables synchronously (Rogelberg et al., 1999). As Gorman, Clover, and Doherty (1978) avow, policy capturing provides two key features: (a) a high degree of control and (2) manipulation of factors that are difficult to otherwise regulate. The policy capturing approach lends itself as a conduit between micro and macro organizational behavior studies.
Defining Judgment Policy
A notable element in the policy capturing approach is judgment policy. To better conceptualize the policy capturing approach, an understanding of judgment policy helps to recognize how decisions are made. According to Priem et al. (2011), to bridge the micro-macro divide the judgment policies method attempts to underscore individuals’ decisions and, thus their
86 actions. Judgment policies are important for two main reasons: (a) allow individuals to identify problems and understand the relationship among contributing factors and outcomes, thus guiding one’s choices and (b) since choices have to be made at all levels of an organization, these choices greatly influence individual, group, and organizational success (Priem et al., 2011). Priem et al.
(2011) go on to define judgment policy as, “individual mental representations” (p. 554).
Individual mental representations are considered understandings of contributing relationships to noticeable variables such as mental models, cognitions, cognitive frames, causal maps, schemas, belief systems, decision rules, and judgment policies (Priem et al., 2011). Priem et al. go on to assert that mental representations, as delineated above, are the foundations individuals base their decisions on; therefore, one’s judgment policy for a situation can influence the actions that he or she will take when confronted with a situation.
Population
Purposeful sampling was used in the research study. Purposeful sampling is based on the assumption that the investigator wants to discover, comprehend, and glean insight through the research; therefore, the investigator needs to select a sample from which the most can be learned
(Merriam, 2009). From the various types of purposeful sampling (typical, unique, maximum variation, convenience, snowball, or chain sampling), unique sampling was selected (Patton,
2002). Additionally, sample size in purposeful sampling is ascertained by informational considerations to avoid redundancy (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). As Merriam (2009) asserts, the size of the sample is determined by information considerations when employing purposeful sampling. Purposeful sampling was used as a way to obtain a more information-rich outcome for this study. Patton (2002) insists purposeful sampling should be judged according to the purpose and the rationale of the study at hand, not so much the size of the sample.
87 In conjunction with purposeful sampling, convenience sampling and theoretical sampling were used. Convenience sampling is used to obtain more precise information about the theoretical construct in a more opportune method (Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003). Convenience sampling is a sample which the researcher finds to be readily accessible and willing to participate
(Fink, 2003). Theoretical sampling was also used in the research. A cornerstone to theoretical sampling would be, “the process of choosing a research sample in order to extend and refine a theory” (Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003, p. 92). As discussed in Chapter 1, the conceptual framework of this study relies heavily on contingency theory and social judgment theory.
Contingency theory is a grounded ideology that allows investigators to recognize behavior in an organization as the complex result of many micro and macro behaviors. Correspondingly, social judgment theory serves to bolster the policy capturing approach for data gathering by allowing the researcher to explain how human judgments are formed. After the parameters for purposeful and theoretical sampling were established, the convenience sample technique was then used to determine the sample population for the pilot study and research study.
The sampling frame for this research study was the state of Texas, however the frame was only Tarrant County, Texas. The classification of secondary schools was identified through the 2012-2013 Texas Academic Performance Report (TAPR) set forth by the Texas Education
Agency (TEA). The sample population for this research study consisted of secondary teachers and secondary administrators. In order to be codified as a secondary campus, the campuses needed to work with students from the range of 9th-12th grade. The sample of teachers and administrators was drawn within the sampling frame, coming from the sample population. Each campus was given a pseudonym within the convenience sample during the research study as well as the pilot research.
88 Pilot Study
Prior to the collection of data for the study, a pilot study was run in the sample frame.
The particular county used for the pilot study was Collin County. The purpose of the pilot study was to examine the design of the Micro and Macro Organizational Behavior Perceptions
Questionnaire. The pilot study conducted was prior to the actual research study. The purpose of the pilot study was to identify grave errors in the design of the survey instrument. The design of the questionnaire was created based upon research analysis. In line with Czaja and Blair (2005) there are two aspects that served as initial vanguards on the instrument construction: (a) particular questions were written prior to the overall structure of the instrument; and (b) intentionality towards keeping in mind the context and circumstances of the questionnaire. To better ensure understandability, the questionnaire took into consideration the essentials of questioning in an instrument: biases, length, clarity, abbreviations, and jargon (Fink & Kosecoff,
1998). Based on the work of Presser and Blair (1994), an expert panel was utilized to examine the questionnaire instrument, identify problems with the questionnaire, and uncover plausible analysis difficulties. Pilot testing was used for three essential purposes: (a) see whether participants understood the directions that were provided, (b) examine if participants could answer the questions provided, and (c) see if the instrument was able to glean the information needed (Fink, 2006). As Creswell (2013) notes, pilot testing also allows the researcher to refine interview questions and the research procedures. Furthermore, Czaja and Blair (2005) maintain the purpose of the pilot data is to ensure that respondents clearly understand the questions being asked by the researcher, have the necessary information, and respondents are able and willing to provide an answer in the form the questions require.
89 Data Collection Procedures
Employing the policy capturing approach, data was collected through the author designed
Micro and Macro Organizational Behavior Perceptions Questionnaire. Organizational behavior scientists purported there is no existing survey instrument of its kind that can be used in this particular perceptions analysis (J. Quick, J. Wagner, C. Miller, M. Hitt, E. M. Hanson, R. Priem, personal communications, November 2011-February 2012). Subsequently, a survey instrument was constructed for the research. The design of the Micro and Macro Organizational Behavior
Perceptions Questionnaire (survey instrument) was constructed based upon three fundamental sources: (a) previous policy capturing approach instruments; (b) existing policy capturing research; and (c) leading organizational behavior scientists’ research as well as insight from the doctoral committee. The survey instrument was designed specifically to focus on capturing the perceptions of the eight identified organizational behaviors.
Instrument Design
The Micro and Macro Organizational Behavior Perceptions Questionnaire was the instrument used to collect the data. Participants were provided with a set of scenarios or profiles and asked to provide a judgment on each question. The instrument was self-administered and allowed the researcher to gather some useful descriptive statistics. The structure of the instrument took into account key research tenets regarding instrument design, instrument questions, instrument considerations, and instrument validity and reliability.
Instrument Questions
The actual questions of the instrument took into account a multitude of aspects needed to support quality instrument design. First and foremost, as well as in accordance with Czaja and
Blair’s (2005) work, the instrument was designed to measure the attitudes, behaviors, or
90 attributes required by the research questions (in this case the behaviors measured are the eight selected organizational behaviors). Questions asked in the questionnaire were, and are to be, dependent upon the focus of the study (Merriam, 2009). Pretesting, or in this case pilot testing, was done to ensure the questionnaire worked in a manner intended by the researcher, while at the same time providing valid and reliable measures of the attitudes, behaviors, or attributes that were being studied. Ordinal response choices were also used to capture the respondents’ perceptions of micro and macro organizational behavior; in some cases, ordinal response choices are used to expedite the computing of survey results (Fink, 2003). Ordinal response is defined as, “Response choices that respondents use to rate or order items” (Fink, 2003 p. 163). In this instance, the rating was by the participant indicating which organizational behavior they perceived to be more important. In addition, question utility was closely examined and aligned
[see Czaja & Blair, 2005, p. 71 regarding Key Decision Guide: Question Utility].
The design of the questionnaire took into account the problems with double barreled questions; double barrel meaning “piling multiple topics into one question” (Czaja & Blair,
2005, p. 83). The instrument also intentionally avoided asking why questions as those questions tend to lead to speculation about causal relationships (Merriam, 2009). The concept of acquiescence response set or the tendency to use agree or true categories in questions was circumvented to mitigate biased inferences that occur from this questioning schema (Zuckerman,
Knee, Hodgins, & Miyake, 1995). In the same vein, leading questions and yes-or-no questions were similarly avoided to better ensure bias or assumptions were not emerging, being that often those responses can give you no information at all (Merriam, 2009).
91 Instrument Considerations
Czaja and Blair (2005) stress that in order to accomplish an understandable instrument design, researchers must not cling so tightly to the language of hypotheses, constructs, or research concepts that very few people, other than experts, can comprehend. Hence, as Fink
(2006) asserts, some instruments are not all concerned with internal consistency since they are not going to be measuring one attitude or characteristic per se but rather the instrument is interested in the responses to each items. With that in mind, the Micro and Macro
Organizational Behavior Perceptions Questionnaire concentrated heavily on responses to each item in the questionnaire rather than purely internal consistency since the instrument was not only measuring one attitude or characteristic. The questionnaire design was to measure the following constructs: leadership, creativity, job satisfaction, stress, organizational structure, organizational design, organizational change, and organizational development. According to
Fink (2006), the identified constructs need to be defined and coincide to the selected theory.
Each of the eight selected organizational behaviors were defined to better ensure a common definition was adopted that would conform to an accepted theory of the research.
Instrument Validity and Reliability
Overall, reliably is problematic in the social sciences simply because human behavior is never static (Merriam, 2009). Merriam (2009) mentions there are bound to be differences in criteria for validity and reliability. As Kirk and Miller (1986) avow, “No experiment can be perfectly controlled, no measuring instrument can be perfectly calibrated. All measurement, therefore, is to some degree suspect” (p. 21). By the same token, Auerbach and Silverstein
(2003) describe the problem with reliability and validity as “pursuing the unreachable ideal” (p.
80). Thus there should be a sense of some skepticism about the concept of validity in any social
92 science research. Auerbach and Silverstein (2003) underscore this notion when there is no scale for measuring reliability and validity in regards to groundbreaking research. Substantial regards to the assertion of Wolcott (2005) who accentuates the incorrectness of considering reliability in studying human behavior:
In order to achieve reliability in that technical sense, a researcher has to manipulate conditions so that replicability can be assessed. Ordinarily, fieldworkers do not try to make things happen at all, but whatever the circumstances, we most certainly cannot make them happen twice. And if something does happen more than once, we never for a minute insist that the repetition be exact. (p. 159) With that in mind, as human perceptions are being captured in this research study, similarly data variances might emerge throughout the sample population. Moreover, Lincoln and
Guba (1985) suggest that opposed to demanding the same results, a researcher who wishes outsiders to concur with the data gleaned from the research should arrange the results in a way that makes sense—consistent and dependable. Reliability, validity, or other types of data quality are contingent on the attributes of the subpopulation in the research (teachers and administrators in this instance), thus impacting the survey design in the research study (Alwin, 2007).
The Micro and Macro Organizational Behavior Perceptions Questionnaire is premised on grounded reliability and validity research notions. Rarely is one measuring of a signal factor with an instrument or test likely, therefore to this extent almost all instruments or tests measure more than one characteristic (Dick & Hagerty, 1971); subsequently, a decrease in internal- consistency reliability estimates will emerge in research. In the same notion, it is essential to recognize criterion validity procedures cannot be applied to all measurement situations in the social sciences, thus the more abstract the concept, the less likely it is to discover an appropriate criterion for assessing a measure of it (Carmines & Zeller, 1979). With that in mind, both criterion validity and content validity have limited usefulness for assessing the validity of
93 empirical measures of theoretical concepts employed in the social sciences (Carmines & Zeller,
1979).
Lincoln and Guba (1985) note that credibility, consistency/dependability, and transferability are appropriate strategies for dealing with internal validity, reliability, and external validity with respect to qualitative research. When questionability of reliability and validity emerge in instrument design, a criteria employed to distinguish between justifiable and unjustifiable research is called transparency, communicability, and coherence (Rubin & Rubin,
1995). Transferability is also considered an alternative to generalizability (Auerbach &
Silverstein, 2003). Given that, transparency, communicability, coherence, and transferability are defined as in Table 20:
Table 20
Transparency, Communicability, Coherence, and Transferability Defined
Criteria Definition
Transparency Other researchers understand the steps by which the researcher arrived at the interpretation of results.
Communicability The themes and constructs can be understood and make sense to other researchers and the participants themselves.
Coherence Theoretical constructs fit together and allow the researcher to tell a coherent story about the data analysis.
Transferability Theoretical constructs and abstract patterns that were developed in grounded theory are transferable in the fact they will be found in different subcultures. Note. Auerbach & Silverstein (2003); Rubin & Rubin (1995, 2005)
Delgado-Rico, Carretero-Dios, and Ruch (2012) purport content validity is essentially the degree to which a sample of items (in this case the eight organizational behaviors) represents an adequate operational definition of the construct of interest (construct of interest being the
94 perceptions of the organizational behaviors). Wynd, Schmidt, and Schaefer (2003) contend content validity is the degree to which an instrument adequately samples the research domain of interest; however, as Carmines and Zeller (1979) notably assert, there is “no agreed upon criterion for determining the extent to which a measure has attained content validity” (p. 22).
Moreover, Carmines and Zeller suggest there are two ways to adequately measure content validity: (a) identifying the entire domain of content related to the phenomena of interest beginning with a thorough review of literature; and (b) developing instrument items associated with the identified domain of content. Braun, Jackson, Wiley, and Messick (2002) assert validity is seemingly only concerned with measurement and is not concerned with decisions, values, and impacts.
As Auerbach and Silverstein (2003) acknowledge, all research design or instrumentation evokes skepticism to some degree. However, when hesitant to accept the reliability, validity, or generalizability of this study or the research design, one should consider transparency, communicability, coherence, and transferability. Moreover, instead of holding so strongly to validity, and since validity theorists cannot reach a consensus over its proper use despite decades of debates, the evaluation of assessment procedures might be strongly considered (Newton,
2012b). Newton goes on to state the evaluation of assessment procedures entails three cornerstones to offset validity questionability:
1. Evaluating the potential for good measurement (using the procedure),
2. Evaluating the potential for good decision making (using the procedure), and
3. Evaluating the potential for good impacts (using the procedure).
Taking an all-or-none conception of validity may have a negative impact on practice
(Markus & Borsboom, 2013), and a problem with validity cannot be solved by psychometric
95 techniques or models alone (Borsboom, 2005) but rather sufficiently clarifying validity has seemingly more benefits (Newton, 2012a). Newton (2012a) would go on to add, “Declaring validity on the basis of the instrument alone would be like declaring the legitimacy of an election purely on the basis of the ballot form” (p. 119). Seconding this perspective, Kane (2001) reiterates, “Validity is considered an integrated evaluative judgment of the degree to which empirical evidence and theoretical rationales support the adequacy and appropriateness of inferences and actions based on test scores or other modes of assessment” (p. 13). Additionally, as McGrath (2005) attests, many, if not most, of the scales commonly employed are at best a rough reflection of the constructs they are intended to capture. Concluding with the words of
Auerbach and Silverstein (2003) as noted in Table 20,
What we do ask of you is to recognize that reliability, validity, and generalizability are not completely solid guarantees of trustworthy research in social sciences. Rather, they require you to accept assumptions that are not immediately self-evident and are, in fact, somewhat problematic. (p. 82)
Limitations All research studies have some limitations (C. M. Roberts, 2010). Research findings come with limited generalizability; thus, while research may discover what is, it always does so within parameters of certain worldviews and set of values (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007). First, the instrument used to collect teachers’ and administrators’ perceptions of organizational behavior may be limited in its design. Second, in this study the researcher only looked at the perceptions of public education teachers and administrators, subsequently not expanding into other industries in the workforce. The policy capturing approach used in this study does not address all micro and macro organizational behaviors. Based on the sample size of the research, there is limited generalizability to other geographical and comparable districts or schools. Although multiple regressions can be exceedingly valuable, conclusions drawn from correlations do not reveal
96 anything about causation (Greenberg, 2011). In other words, correlations point out how variables are related to each other, but they do not provide any indication of the cause-and-effect relationships in this study. Humans’ abilities to make judgments, to understand, and to communicate about their judgment is a limitation of consideration (Johnson & Doherty, 1983).
Policy Capturing Approach Limitations
There are real-world constraints that can limit the number of cues that can be studied and examined in any one policy capturing approach (Boon & Sulsky, 1997). Seldom, albeit plausible, the selection of cue values in policy capturing studies may proceed in a way that is designed to satisfy the experimental or statistical requirements (i.e., minimizing the cue intercorrelation), rather than reporting the naturally occurring cue values (Connolly et al., 2000).
The policy capturing method is noted to have limited external validity (Cooksey, 1996a; Gorman et al., 1978). Cooksey (1996a) purports, “In order to convincingly show internal validity in policy capturing research, a perfect insight on the part of the judge with respect to one’s own policy must be assumed” (p. 311). Cook and Stewart (1975) also assert a general lack of insight into one’s own judgment when attempting to ascertain cue importance, and statistical weighting or the researcher’s understanding of the exact meaning of cue importance is a limitation to be considered. Perhaps, using a larger set of policies can shift the researcher away from using their own subjective weighting schema to more accurately recognizing and distinguishing policy from a larger group of policies (Reilly & Doherty, 1992). Another potential limitation to the study is any method subjective or objective that is assessing cue weighting as employed in this research needs to recognize both the procedural validity when choosing an appropriate weighting scheme and substantive validity in terms of the empirical grounds for the use of the weighting scheme in this research study (Cooksey, 1996a).
97 According to Carkenord and Stephens (1994) the policy-capturing approach lacks a degree of representativeness, despite providing a great deal of control in the research environment. As Priem and Harrison (1994) point out, policy capturing along with other judgment-focused methods has inherent dilemmas:
One involves the choice between presenting profiles as either a set of correlated or orthogonal strategy variables. Correlated variables have better generalizability to actual states of the world, but do not allow a researcher an unambiguous way to estimate the independent effect of each variable, or to construct the independent interaction terms essential for comparing executive judgments to the prescriptions of contingency theories. (p. 318)
As are most studies, the findings are limited by both the method and sample employed.
Additionally, the generalizability of results has been extended to teachers and school administrators. It is possible that other cues not examined in this study may be germane to the research study.
Data Analysis
The data gleaned from the research study was collected from secondary teachers and administrators in the state of Texas. Data analysis was used to weigh and combine information about the perceptions of micro and macro organizational behaviors in an organizational setting
(based on the eight selected organizational behaviors). Participants in this study were provided with a set of scenarios or profiles and asked to provide a judgment on each question. The independent variables also referred to as cues, was systematically varied across the scenario questions. In policy capturing, the cues serve as the independent variables and the judgments made by the participants serve as the dependent variables. The individuals’ comprehensive responses are then examined using the policy capturing approach, and determined so inferences can be postulated about how the cues influenced their judgment. At this juncture, the lens model was used to analyze the statistical weighting of the cues. As previously mentioned, the research
98 design consisted of both qualitative research and quantitative research. The method used to gain qualitative information came from the Micro and Macro Organizational Behavior Perceptions
Questionnaire. Inferential statistics, a t-test, and factor analysis used were ways to break down the larger data set into different subgroups or factors; however duly noted should be the underpinning of the study hinged on the utilization of the policy capturing approach.
Summary
In closing, Chapter 3 included the methodology for the research study that employed a mixed-methods approach. The chapter began with discussing the research design. The research design for this study was the policy capturing approach that assists researchers who are juxtaposing micro and macro organizational behavior in an organizational context. The policy capturing approach is a statistical weighting method that objectively captures human judgment policies on organizational behavior. The researcher explored the relationship between a supervisor (administrator) and a subordinate (classroom teacher), and what organizational behaviors are more important to each. The researcher also considered the impact that micro and macro organizational behaviors can have on improved organizational performance, while at the same time shedding light on the perceptions of micro and macro organizational behavior in the organizational setting.
Chapter 3 then moved into the sampling procedures. The sampling frame for this research study was the state of Texas; however, the frame only extends into four Texas counties
(Collin, Dallas, Denton, and Tarrant). Through purposeful sampling, the sample population was established. The sample population for this study came from 9th-12th grade classroom teachers and school administrators within the sampling frame. After the sample population was identified, research participants were selected through convenience sampling. The chapter also
99 included a discussion regarding reliability concerns with social science research when studying human behavior.
Next the researcher addressed instrument development. The research instrument was constructed based upon literature instrumentation precepts. With that in mind, consideration about the instrument design and the context in which it was being used recognizes that research data was collected through a researcher designed Micro and Macro Organizational Behavior
Perceptions Questionnaire. Data analysis consisted of weighing and combining information about the perceptions of micro and macro organizational behavior in an organizational setting
(based on the eight selected organizational behaviors). Participants were provided with a set of scenarios or profiles and asked to provide a judgment on each question. The participants’ responses were then examined and ascertained so inferences could be posited about how the cues influenced their judgment. A regression analysis was then done to capture the perceptions of the participants in the study. Ultimately, the data gleaned was then subjected to multiple regression methods to obtain a representation of a participant’s policy judgment with the intent to capture the policy. Concepts of the Brunswik’s lens model, specifically the single system design, were employed in the policy capturing approach for this research study.
In summation, organizational behavior has a dynamic effect on both the organization and its people (Greenberg, 2011; Nelson & Quick, 2011). The contributions from this research study aim to inform leaders about how micro and macro organizational behavior is perceived within the organization. The researcher builds upon organizational behavior research, and considers a new paradigm for looking at organizational effectiveness through the perceptions of a supervisor
(administrator) and a subordinate (classroom teacher). While the research appraises what is known about organizational behavior, the researcher examined an untouched area in the
100 literature. By means of juxtaposing micro and macro organizational behavior in an organizational context, the findings of the research study may provide research-based application to practitioners and researchers. In Chapter 4, the researcher will provide the results of the perception analysis study.
101 CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
In a questionnaire survey, meaning and interpretations come to light progressively, each analysis providing an additional touch to a forthcoming global picture.
- Bruno Falissard
Detailed results of the research study are reported in this chapter. Chapter 4 is divided into four main sections: overview of data collection, descriptive statistics, statistical analysis, and data results. Interpretation of the results is the final discussion and reserved for Chapter 5. The intent of the study was to examine classroom teachers’ and school administrators’ perceptions of micro organizational behaviors and macro organizational behaviors in an organizational setting through a policy capturing approach. There were two research questions for this study:
1. How are eight selected organizational behaviors perceived by a teacher?
2. How are eight selected organizational behaviors perceived by an administrator?
Data findings from this study provide insight on the perceptions of organizational behavior through the lens of a supervisor and subordinate. The results from this study indicate a perception variance does exist between the micro-macro levels. By answering the two research questions, the data results point towards a possible need for a paradigm shift in organizational thinking. Chapter 4 now moves into the overview of data collection.
Overview of Data Collection
Materials
In the field studies, participants received two packets. One packet was the informed consent detailing the approval for research, confidentiality, contact information, and an overview of the research study. The second packet was the Micro and Macro Organizational Behavior
Perceptions Questionnaire. Both the consent form and verbal communication from the
102 researcher assured confidentiality of individual responses. All participation was voluntary. The principal investigator did not provide compensation for participating in the field study. The current study was approved by the University of North Texas Institutional Review Board before data collection began. When the participants were done, they were asked to return their packet.
Questionnaire Instrument
The paper-based questionnaire instrument consisted of 34 questions (three sets of 34 profiles). The questionnaire was divided into four primary sections: Likert scale questions, scenario questions, closed-ended filter questions, and a weighting question (refer to Chapter 3 for a more in-depth look at the design of the questionnaire instrument). The participants were asked to rate each profile (Likert scale questions) in response to the following: strongly disagree, disagree, somewhat disagree, somewhat agree, agree, or strongly agree. After completing that set of profiles, participants made judgments regarding the similar set of profiles in response to scenario questions that had the participants respond with: strongly disagree, disagree, somewhat disagree, somewhat agree, agree, or strongly agree. The third set of profiles, the closed-ended filter questions, were asked of the participants to best describe their response as strongly disagree, disagree, somewhat disagree, somewhat agree, agree, or strongly agree. In the final set of profiles, weighting question, participants were asked to weigh their perception of micro and macro organizational behavior using a 100 scale.
The set of profile questions were designed so each participant had the opportunity to respond to each organizational behavior. The research questions are nomothetic questions in nature, thus the nomothetic approach investigates large groups of people in order to find general laws of behavior, through applying standardized criteria for categorization and comparison
(Robinson, 2011; Te’eni, 1998). The pilot study was used as a means to backward engineer,
103 meaning it took into account fatigue, boredom, and other factors to better ascertain upfront the number of scenarios that would be reasonable for a participant (Aiman-Smith, Scullen, & Barr,
2002). Additionally, acceptable questionnaire length varies across individuals, which emerges as the researcher determines the maximum number of scenarios respondents can reasonably be expected to process (Aiman-Smith et al., 2002). The average data collection from start to finish took 31-33 minutes. When working with attributes, construct, or behaviors, it is common in research situations that ordinal categories will coincide with meaningful directional differences
(O’Connell, 2006); this notion was considered throughout the analyses of the questionnaire data.
Subsequently, Likert scale (ordinal) was used in the questionnaire. Whereas categorical data was used for the relationship analyses between the teacher and administrator (1 – teacher and 2 – administrator); the data site responses were also analyzed using the same analysis process.
Descriptive Statistics
Questionnaire Response Rate
The questionnaire was distributed to three high schools that were located in the state of
Texas, specifically Tarrant County. Questionnaires were vetted in the data as useable versus unusable due to partial completion, multiple answers per item, incomprehensible markings, and non-completion. Questionnaires were also removed in which the data entry was noted as straight ballot responses, such as marking all items 1 or 4. A total of 191 questionnaires were initially received, 10 of which could not be used. The study had an overall 94.8% response rate. The principal investigator distributed and collected the questionnaires.
Demographical Data The demographical data from the questionnaire included gender, race/ethnicity, employment years, and administrative experience. Table 21 provides an overview of the sample.
104 Table 21
Demographical Characteristics of the Research Sample
Characteristic N %
Gender Male 76 42 Female 105 58 Ethnicity Caucasian or White 130 72 Hispanic, Latino/a, or Spanish Origin 15 8.4 African American or Black 19 10.6 Asian American 4 2.2 Other 11 6.1 Age 30 or younger 41 23.8 31-40 53 30.8 41-50 31 18.0 51-60 28 16.3 61 or older 19 11.0 Employment 1-5 56 34.1 Teaching 6-10 28 17.1 Experience 11-20 46 28.0 21-30 19 11.6 31-40 14 8.5 41 or older 1 .6 Employment 1-5 6 42.9 Administrative 6-10 5 35.7 Experience 11-20 2 14.3 21-30 1 7.1
In summary, the demographical characteristics of the research sample consists of the majority of participants being of female gender (58%), with the primary ethnicity being
Caucasian (72%), the mean of age ranging between the ages of 22 to 72, with an average age of
41.4, and a standard deviation of 12.7. The sample consisted of 167 teachers (92.3%) and 14
105 administrators (7.7%). Interestingly, the largest employment groups were at the 1-5 years of experience range for both the teacher (34.1%) and administrative experience (42.9%).
Statistical Analysis
Characteristics of Data
From the policy capturing approach, a nomothetic approach was used for this study as this procedure is useful for predicting behavior or choices in the aggregate (Aiman-Smith et al.,
2002). A nomothetic approach simply attempts to examine generalizations rather than particulars (Machotka, 2012). A regression model was employed for the analysis of data, specifically a binary logistic regression. Regression analysis examines a relationship between a quantitative response variable (Fox, 2008), thus a regression analysis was done. The outcome used in the analysis (perception of micro or macro organizational behavior) is dichotomous and therefore a binary logistic regression was considered.
Least–Squared
The method least-squares (LS) is regularly used when employing linear regressions, multiple linear estimation, and for estimators used in ANOVA (Stauffer, 2008). The least- squares method is used to estimate weights and parameters (Padgett, 2011). In this study, the beta weights are represented in a logit form and interpreted in an odds ratio. Stauffer (2008) points out that least-square estimators are the most efficient unbiased estimators for linear and multiple regression, and that LS estimation can be generalized to the generalized least-squares estimation (GLS). GLS regression provided unbiased estimates of standard error (Neter, 1996).
Using generalized linear models (GLMs), the model generalizes linear regression by allowing the linear model to be related to the response variable through a link function and by allowing the magnitude of the variance of each measurement to be a function of its predicted value
106 (Dobson & Barnett, 2008). GLMs are a generalization of linear models (Adler, 2012). To be noted is that situations arise where the variances are not all the same and the observations may be correlated. Subsequently, different variances with independent errors occur and the weighted regression is considered (Padgett, 2011). However, with this particular policy capturing approach, the research questions and the variables in the study do not require least-squared (LS) or generalized least squared (GLS) to answer the research questions.
Cue Usage
To determine which cues the participants used in Micro and Macro Organizational
Behavior Perceptions Questionnaire, a usefulness index (UI) and a normalized usefulness index
(NUI) for each cue for each subject were computed. The UI cues that are effective in predicting preference are considered usefulness indices in this study. UIs were based upon the variables that are most likely in predicting participant’s preference of organizational behavior. Table 21 represents the NUI. High UIs indicate a greater preference of a cue than low UIs. NUIs were computed to compare cue preference across participants. The NUIs were computed by dividing the individual subjects UIs score by the total score of each UI and multiplying by 100. The means and standard deviations of the NUIs across all participants are given in the table. Table
22 contains the median values for the NUIs. Also appearing in the table are the minimum and maximum NUIs for each cue across all participants. As seen in Table 22, creativity, job satisfaction and stress were identified as the most important cues. Table 22 data indicates the statistical data of the NUIs across all participants for Questions 1-29.
107 Table 22
Normalized Usefulness Index Across All Participants
Cue Name M SD Median Min. Value Max. Value
Leadership 55.73 24.05 50.00 0 100.00
Creativity 64.97 26.29 75.00 0 100.00
Job Satisfaction 63.73 29.48 66.67 0 100.00
Stress 61.58 27.46 57.14 0 100.00
Organizational Structure 39.96 22.70 37.50 0 100.00
Organizational Change 36.76 17.00 33.33 0 83.33
Organizational Design 40.53 21.39 42.86 0 85.71
Organizational 41.97 25.64 37.50 0 100.00 Development Note. This study used the index of position (teacher or administrator).
Table 22 is the scaling score that each OB could get based upon the perceptions of the participants. Importantly noted is that each OB was statistically rescaled to a scale of 0-8 to get the normalized usefulness index, as shown in Table 22. High UIs indicate a greater use of a cue than low UIs (i.e., preference). The cues accepted as the usefulness index, and found to be effective in predicting preference were micro organizational behaviors—leadership, creativity, job satisfaction, and stress. To be accepted as the useful index it simply means whether the measure can be used to answer the stated research questions as well as how frequently the cue is preferred. When referencing Table 22, the way to ascertain the cues accepted as usefulness index can be found by examining the mean scores. When standardized weights are measured in standard deviation (SD) units, the standard deviation can be used as the standardized regression coefficients to explain the expected change (Aiman-Smith et al., 2002). If the cues are uncorrelated, then the variance in the dependent variable that is associated or explained by each
108 cue is unique to that particular cue (Aiman-Smith et al., 2002). A reason why such a span occurs within the SD is that the SD is derived from the difference in perceptions between the teacher and administrator (1 – teacher and 2 – administrator), as well as the considerable sample size variance between the two groups (e.g., 1 – teacher and 2 – administrator).
Data Results
Encapsulating the data analyses, there are some noteworthy results that can be drawn from this study. The logistical regression data indicates that if exponential beta weights [Exp(B)] are greater than one, there is a likelihood that the person selects macro organizational behavior.
On the other hand, if the value is less than 1, as the predictor increases the likelihood of the outcome decreases. The results suggest that as people get older they will select macro organizational behavior. The analyses of Table 23 indicate the following about the Exp(B) weighted variables. For interpretation purposes, by looking at the odds ratio [Exp(B)] column, if the value is greater than 1, then it indicates that as the predictor (i.e., age) increases the likelihood of the outcome (preferring macro organizational behavior) also increases.
Additionally, when conducting a logistic analysis, sex became statistically significant at (.05).
Males (Exp(B) = 2.126, p < .05) were twice as likely to select macro than micro organizational behaviors when holding all other variables constant (i.e., holding constant variables such as age, experience, school, race, and position). Analyses indicate there is a difference on how the hierarchal positions perceived organizational behaviors on Questions 1-29. Specifically, when all variables are held constant, teachers (Exp(B) = 1.134) preferred macro organizational behavior over micro in comparison to administrators. Note, this relationship was not statistically significant (p = .857). However when all variables are not held constant, which is more often
109 than not, teachers preferred micro organizational behavior over macro whereas administrators preferred macro organizational behavior over micro.
Table 23 Logistical Regression Coefficients for Demographics Assessing Micro or Macro Organizational Behavior Preference
Predictors B S.E. Wald df Sig. Exp(B)
Age .029 .022 1.693 1 .193 1.029
Experience -.016 .030 .296 1 .586 .984
Male .754 .382 3.898 1 .048 2.126
Other 6.332 4 .176
African American .051 .943 .003 1 .957 1.052
Hispanic, Latino/a, or Spanish .019 .942 .000 1 .984 1.019 Origin
Asian American 1.514 1.383 1.199 1 .274 4.545
Caucasian or White -.758 .781 .941 1 .332 .469
Teacher .126 .701 .032 1 .857 1.134
School .982 2 .612
School(1) -.305 .464 .434 1 .510 .737
School(2) .120 .535 .050 1 .822 1.128
Constant -1.692 1.310 1.669 1 .196 .184 Note. Cox & Snell (1989) R2 = .078; Nagelkerke (1992) R2 = .110; X2(10) = 12.707, p > .05
Table 24 analysis of the sample provides information of the eight OB cues preference data. The way to interpret the table is the same way it was interpreted in Table 23. However leadership (Wald (1) = 6.058, p < .05), organizational change (Wald (1) = 6.128, p < .05), and organizational structure (Wald (1) = 6.226, p < .05) were found to be statistically significant in
110 predicting preference. Inferring the more important these cues are to the participants, the more likely they will prefer macro (e.g., conjectured by the Exp(B) column results are greater than one in logistic regression results).
Table 24
Logistical Regression Coefficients for Weighted Cues Assessing Micro or Macro Organizational Behavior Preference
Cue B S.E. Wald df Sig. Exp(B)
Organizational Development .074 .038 3.803 1 .051 1.077
Leadership .091 .037 6.058* 1 .014 1.096
Job Satisfaction .028 .022 1.512 1 .219 1.028
Organizational Change .063 .025 6.128* 1 .013 1.065
Organizational Structure .097 .039 6.266* 1 .012 1.102
Creativity .059 .038 2.400 1 .121 1.061
Organizational Design .056 .032 3.082 1 .079 1.057
Stress .037 .028 1.747 1 .186 1.037
Constant -25.452 12.221 4.338* 1 .037 .000 Note. Cox & Snell (1989) R2 = .304; Nagelkerke (1992) R2 = .423; X2(8) = 55.39, p < .001; *p < .05
The analyses from Table 25 finds that teachers’ means are higher on all four micro organizational behaviors and conversely the administrators are higher on the macro organizational behaviors. Interestingly, data revealed that job satisfaction had a statistical significance (t (168) = 2.78, p < .01) in regards to the perceptions of job satisfaction is more important than the macro organizational behaviors. Stress had a statistical significance (t (172) =
2.13, p < .05) in regards to perceptions of stress is more important than the macro organizational behaviors. Organizational change had a statistical significance (t (168) = -3.30, p < .01) in
111 regards to how the perceptions of organizational change were viewed, there was a noteworthy difference between administrators and teachers. The means and standard deviations are also shown in the Table 25.
Table 25
Cue Means and Standard Deviation for T-Test Analysis
Std. Error Cue Position N M SD Mean
Leadership Teacher 156 4.3974 1.87919 .15046
Administrator 13 4.1538 2.47811 .68730
Job Satisfaction** Teacher 157 3.9299 1.73617 .13856
Administrator 13 2.5385 1.71345 .47522
Creativity Teacher 154 5.2143 2.06738 .16659
Administrator 13 5.0000 2.58199 .71611
Organizational Teacher 159 2.7987 1.47888 .11728 Design Administrator 13 3.3077 1.70219 .47210
Organizational Teacher 152 3.3487 2.04667 .16601 Development Administrator 13 3.4615 2.18386 .60569
Stress* Teacher 161 4.3975 1.86842 .14725
Administrator 13 3.2308 2.31495 .64205
Organizational Teacher 157 2.1338 .99419 .07934 Change** Administrator 13 3.0769 .95407 .26461
Organizational Teacher 155 3.1290 1.78635 .14348 Structure Administrator 13 4.0000 2.04124 .56614 Note. *p < .05; **p < .01
112 Table 26 shows the ANOVA and weighting cues for Question 34. The results point out that leadership had a statistical significance F(1,169) = 7.46, p < .01) for administrators.
Table 26
Mean Differences in the Weighted Cues for Teachers and Administrators
Cue N M SD Std. Error
Creativity Teacher 158 24.854 14.9167 1.1867 Administrator 13 24.231 10.3775 2.8782 Total 171 24.807 14.5987 1.1164 Job Satisfaction Teacher 159 31.396 15.4715 1.2270 Administrator 13 23.462 11.7942 3.2711 Total 172 30.797 15.3413 1.1698 Leadership** Teacher 158 25.019 14.7586 1.1741 Administrator 13 36.538 12.6466 3.5075 Total 171 25.895 14.8938 1.1390 Stress Teacher 158 19.449 13.5499 1.0780 Administrator 13 15.769 9.5407 2.6461 Total 171 19.170 13.3019 1.0172 Organizational Teacher 157 16.618 8.8358 .7052 Change Administrator 13 15.769 7.0256 1.9485 Total 170 16.553 8.6961 .6670 Organizational Teacher 157 26.471 15.7779 1.2592 Development Administrator 13 27.308 10.5308 2.9207 Total 170 26.535 15.4181 1.1825 Organizational Teacher 158 29.222 16.2275 1.2910 Design Administrator 13 36.154 10.2376 2.8394 Total 171 29.749 15.9370 1.2187 Organizational Teacher 157 26.720 15.3142 1.2222 Structure Administrator 13 20.769 10.1748 2.8220 Total 170 26.265 15.0449 1.1539 Note. **p < .01
113 Conversely, although not statistically significant, teachers weighted creativity higher than administrators F(1,169) = .022, p > .05). The analyses data outlines the overall weighting perceptions and how organizational behaviors were weighted within the micro and macro lens.
Lastly, descriptive analyses from the closed-ended filter questions lend insightful data as to how micro and macro organizational behaviors are being perceived in an organizational setting. The corresponding tables show the data in a descriptive numerical format. Table 27 indicates participants tended to feel that micro (67.8%) was more important than macro (32.2%).
That data showed that 68.4% of teachers compared to 61.5% of administrators stated that micro organizational behavior is more important than macro organizational behavior.
Table 27
Perception Importance: Micro or Macro Organizational Behavior
Position Freq. %
Teacher Micro Organizational Behavior 108 68.4
Macro Organizational Behavior 50 31.6
Total 158 100
Administrator Micro Organizational Behavior 8 61.5
Macro Organizational Behavior 5 38.5
Total 13 100
All Micro Organizational Behavior 116 67.8
Macro Organizational Behavior 55 32.2
Among the four micro organizational behaviors, job satisfaction (40.9%) was identified as the most important followed by creativity at (23.3%), leadership (20.5%) and stress at
(15.3%). Table 28 shows administrators selected leadership as the most important micro organizational behavior, while teachers selected job satisfaction as the most important.
114 Organizational design (41.5%) was identified as the most important macro organizational behavior, with organizational change the least important at 3.4%.
Table 28
Perception Importance within the Organizational Behavior
Micro Organizational Behavior Macro Organizational Behavior
Cue Freq. % Cue Freq. %
Creativity 41 23.3 Organizational Change 6 3.4
Leadership 36 20.5 Organizational Design 73 41.5
Stress 27 15.3 Organizational Development 51 29.0
Job Satisfaction 72 40.9 Organizational Structure 46 26.1
Total 176 100.0 Total 176 100.0
Table 29 shows a consensus between teachers (39.5%) and administrators (64.3%) that organizational design is the most important macro organizational behavior.
Table 29
Perception Importance within the Organizational Behavior - Macro
Position Freq. Valid %
Teacher Organizational Change 6 3.7 Organizational Design 64 39.5 Organizational Development 47 29.0 Organizational Structure 45 27.8 Total 162 100.0 Administrator Organizational Design 9 64.3 Organizational Development 4 28.6 Organizational Structure 1 7.1 Total 14 100.0 Note. This particular administrative sample did not select organizational change
115 The organizational behavior that was considered to be perceived as the most important of the eight organizational behaviors, when analyzed amid the other seven organizational behaviors, was job satisfaction (31.6%). Conversely, organizational change (1.1%) was perceived as the organizational behavior with the least importance (see Table 30).
Table 30
Perception Importance of the Eight Organizational Behaviors
Organizational Behavior Freq. %
Job Satisfaction 55 31.6
Organizational Development 21 12.1
Creativity 18 10.3
Organizational Design 17 9.8
Organizational Change 2 1.1
Stress 15 8.6
Organizational Structure 12 6.9
Leadership 34 19.5
Total 174 100
Conclusion
In closing, the analysis of the data indicates participants in an organizational setting perceived micro organizational behaviors to be more important than macro organizational behaviors at the teacher level. Conversely, data indicates that administrators perceived macro organizational behaviors to be more important than micro organizational behaviors.
Interestingly, job satisfaction was the most important micro organizational behavior for teachers and leadership for administrators; whereas the organizational design was noted as the most important macro organizational behavior for both administrators and teachers. When all eight
116 organizational behaviors were analyzed in comparison to one another, job satisfaction was perceived as the most important organizational behavior. Also noted was that as age increases so does the likelihood of one’s own perceptions to perceive macro organizational behavior as more important than micro organizational behavior.
While the analyses provide discussion points, there are some notions to consider. As
Falissard (2012) reminds researchers, a particularity of questionnaire data (in this case, the micro and macro organizational behavior perceptions questionnaire) is they are fundamentally open to interpretation. Nonetheless, the design must be tailored to each particular study (such as this research study), thus inevitably resulting in no consensual, clear-cut rules concerning the design of an ideal model. Despite a deliberate effort to ensure that data was pure for the research study,
Murtagh (2005) substantiates that real data analysis is never purely clean data, but instead data that is imprecise, predominantly existent, and mixed in terms of various traditional data categorizations (e.g., qualitative and quantitative, text and numeric, macro and micro, and so on).
Policy capturing grasps individual decision making policies including how multiple variables rank in importance, how information presented is completed and how results are selected
(Chhinzer, 2007). In this particular study, a key aspect of the data analysis procedure was participants were not requested in the policy capturing approach to explicitly state subjective insights on the questionnaire, but rather the importance of each organizational behavior which was inferred from the analytical results. Additionally when employing the research method, the policy capturing approach cannot include all the variables that influence decision making outcomes (Aiman-Smith et al., 2002), and it is also virtually impossible to determine a priori as to the exact factors by which individuals make judgments (Karren & Barringer, 2002).
117 While this specific area of research is still in its infancy, these results, taken with future work, have real world implication. Understanding how organizational behavior is perceived within the organization provides meaningful data as to what might be assumed as important versus what is actual perceptions in an organizational context. While there seems to be a micro-macro divide within organizational research, results such as this offer an effective approach to view this chasm through a more quantitative lens. The findings can help to better understand the complexity within organizations, depict the differences of how organizational behavior is perceived, and most importantly provide a tool to bridge the individual-organizational interface. A discussion about the study, implications from the research findings, and future recommendations drawn from this research study are in Chapter 5.
118 CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS
Behavior in the workplace is not only the result of the needs and drives of the people present; it is also a product of the perceptions of everyone involved.
- Jeff O. Harris & Sandra J. Hartman
Introduction
In the previous chapters, an overarching synopsis of organizational behavior was provided, the overview of the study was delineated, a comprehensive literature review was given, the methods discussed, and the statistical results were presented. This culminating chapter contains four main sections. First, the introduction section begins with a review of organizational behavior (OB), followed by a basic overview of the study and concluded by a summary of the results. Secondly, the discussion section then provides my closing thoughts about the eight organizational behaviors, along with insight about the data findings in the study.
Thirdly, in the implications section the findings of the study are interpreted and extrapolated.
Finally, the chapter concludes with recommendations for leveraging organizational behavior and some recommendations for future exploration in the field of organizational behavior.
Review of Organizational Behavior
Organizations are overwhelmingly complex. There is an on-going interplay between the organization and its people, a bond so forceful that it can either stifle performance or enhance creativity. The work of an organization occurs through the behavior of people, individually or collectively, on their own or in collaboration with technology (Hampton, Summer, & Webber,
1987). A key to understanding organizational behavior is to study and understand human nature
(Covey, 2006). As Natemeyer and Hersey (2011) point out, there are many determinants of organizational behavior that can impact human behavior and performance within the
119 organization. So much so that one of the most challenging tasks for both a leader and organization is to understand why people behave and act the way they do (Osland & Turner,
2011).
Organizational behavior provides crucial inferences regarding factors impacting success.
Organizations inevitably influence the behavior of people as well as the feelings and emotions of the individual, groups, and the organization as a whole (Härtel, Zerbe, & Ashkanasy, 2005;
Natemeyer & Hersey, 2011). Correspondingly, Griffin and O’Leary-Kelly (2004) affirm if we learn more about the cause-and-effect linkages among organizational behaviors, today’s managers and organizations would therefore be in a position to better enhance outcomes and performance. The ability to learn and to transfer knowledge is a key to organizational survival, adapting rapidly at both the individual and organizational levels is fundamental to managing effective organizations (Osland & Turner, 2011). Despite countless presumptions about human behavior or actions, empirical research comes full circle back to the acknowledged assertion that management practices must be tailored to fit the contingency of the situation and variables when dealing with organizational behavior (Nelson & Quick, 2011; Schermerhorn, 2010).
Organizational behavior is the foundational bedrock for understanding the interweaving individual-organizational relationship. Organizational behavior is dynamic, it helps to understand the behavior of others, predict behaviors, explain observed behaviors in an organization, and enable others to influence the behavior of their counterparts.
Overview of the Study
Although an extensive amount of research on organizational behavior has been conducted, no research had yet examined whether micro organizational behaviors or macro organizational behaviors are perceived more important in an organizational context. With this
120 study, the researcher specifically explored the perceptions of micro and macro organizational behaviors through the lens of classroom teachers and school administrators using aspects of the policy capturing approach. Policy capturing approach is a research design that researchers employ who are interested in objectively capturing human judgment policies. The policy capturing approach allows the researcher to attempt to bridge and juxtapose the macro and micro organizational behavior domains. The theoretical framework of the study relied heavily on the contingency theory. Contingency theory is used to view behavior in an organization as the complex result of many micro and macro behaviors, thus acknowledging the way in which humans behave in an organization is contingent on many different variables. Subsequently, the research study hinges on the contingency theory as to whether or not a relationship exists between the perceptions of classroom teachers and school administrators. The researcher focused on answering two guiding research questions:
1. How are eight selected organizational behaviors perceived by a teacher?
2. How are eight selected organizational behaviors perceived by an administrator?
The study consisted of 181 participants. The majority of participants were female (58%), the primary ethnicity of the participants was Caucasian (72%), and the average age of the participants was 41.4. Of the 181 participants, 167 were teachers (92.3%) and 14 were characterized as administrators (7.7%). Both the teacher (34.1%) and administrative experience
(42.9%) was found to be in the 1-5 years of experience range.
Summary of the Results
The significance of this research study reveals how eight organizational behaviors are perceived in an organizational context. Even more specifically, the result of the study shed light on how four micro and four macro organizational behaviors are perceived differently at
121 hierarchal levels. This research data indicates organizational behavior is indeed perceived differently. As found, males were twice as likely to select macro organizational behaviors when holding all other variables constant (i.e., holding constant variables such as age, experience, school, race, and position). Similar in nature, as participants got older they were more likely to select macro organizational behavior. The findings pointed out those differences even existed within the same organizational line and even in the same hierarchal position [teacher and administrator]. The noted cue found to be effective in predicting preference and accepted as the useful index is micro organizational behavior, specifically creativity, job satisfaction, and stress.
Dissimilar in their perceptions of micro-macro organizational behavior, teachers perceived micro organizational behavior more important whereas administrators perceived macro organizational behavior more important. Interestingly, leadership (Wald (1) = 6.058, p <
.05), organizational change (Wald (1) = 6.128, p < .05), and organizational structure (Wald (1) =
6.226, p < .05) were found to be statistically significant in predicting preference therefore inferring the more important these cues are to the participants the more likely they will prefer macro organizational behavior. Both job satisfaction (t (168) = 2.78, p < .01) and stress (t (172)
= 2.13, p < .05) had a statistical significance in regards to the perceptions of being more important than the macro organizational behaviors. Organizational change was found to have a statistical significance (t (168) = -3.30, p < .01) in regards to how the perceptions of organizational change was viewed between administrators and teachers. Although not statistically significant, creativity was found to be weighted by teachers higher than administrators F(1,169) = .022, p > .05). Correspondingly, leadership had a statistical significance F(1,169) = 7.46, p < .01) for administrators when weighted.
122 Summarizing the findings, participants overall tend to perceive micro organizational behavior more important than macro organizational behavior. Within the micro organizational behavior scope, data analyses identified job satisfaction for teachers as the most important, and leadership the most important for administrators. In the analysis within the macro organizational behavior scope, data indicated agreement for organizational design as the most important for both hierarchal levels. Job satisfaction was perceived to be the most important of the eight organizational behaviors, whereas organizational change was perceived as the least important of the eight organizational behaviors. All in all, the data results point out the differences in how both micro and macro organizational behaviors are perceived in an organizational context as well as perception differences occurring within the subfield of the organizational behavior.
Perceptions Theorization
This particular section, perception theorization, has been interwoven into Chapter 5 for the sole purpose of expanding the discussion of perceptions. Perception is not discussed in
Chapter 3, but rather embedded at this juncture to provide a foundational understanding into the realm of perceptions so the results of the study (Chapter 4) are even more understood with clarity. An extensive amount of research is found in the area of perceptions; however this succinct overview merely serves as an attempt to explain why the perceptions of organizational behavior may vary and why OB perception data collected may perhaps provide insightful data for the leader as well as the organization.
The data gleaned from the research study came from the participants’ perceptions of the eight organizational behaviors. According to Borkowski (2005), perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impression in order to give meaning to their environment. Similarly, Schermerhorn (2010) defined perception as, “The process through
123 which people receive, organize, and interpret information from their environment” (p. 84).
Conversely, it should also be explicitly noted that what an individual interprets and perceives may be considerably different from reality (Borkowski, 2005). Nonetheless, our perceptions of our environment are influenced by past experiences, beliefs, and expectations (Schermerhorn,
2010). Accurate perceptions can be the impetus for accurate judgments and spot-on decisions, however if perceptions are misguiding, such actions and behavior can negatively manifest.
Perceptions have a direct and pervasive impact on behavior (Dijksterhuis & van Knippenberg,
1998). Perception is closely related to behavior (Borkowski, 2005). While there is a variance of responses within the data, understanding perceptions and how perceptions can impact human behavior in an organization may be quite informative.
When interpreting the results of the data, it is useful to also recognize the precepts of perception research and the possible contingencies as to why data results may vary from organization to organization. As Hampton et al. (1987) and Robbins and Judge (2014) point out, perceptions are affected by a person’s needs, motivations, attitudes, interests, expectations, experiences, and work situations; contrariwise, perception distortion can also manifest itself from expectations, needs, fears, and organizing schema. Perceptions are affected in the context in which people are placed, perceptions are affected by the characteristics of the perceiver and perceived (Pettinger, 2010). Understandably, data may reveal various organizations perceiving organizational behaviors differently. Similarly, individuals within the same organization may respectively perceive organizational behaviors differently. As Reitz (1987) notes, perceptions are derived from the objects or events being perceived (organizational behavior in this study), the environment in which the perceptions occur (school setting in this study), and the individual doing the perceiving (teacher or administrator in this study). Each participant in the research
124 sees things in their own way with their own meaning. The perceptions of the participants are data that describes how they view organizational reality. Perception affects both decisions and behaviors, which in turn influence organizational practices and processes. Perceptions are very important for understanding human behavior, for people behave based on their perceptions.
Thus identifying the present perception of the environment helps leaders predict and understand behavior in the organization (Mustafa, 2013). As Witt (2011) avows, perceptions capture a mutual relationship between the environment and the perceiver’s abilities. Acknowledging how organizational behavior is being perceived in an organizational setting is essential for understanding what factors may be influencing behavior in the organization. Perceptions can impact the outlook and the actions of each employee (Harris & Hartman, 2002). Thus, it would be worthwhile for both the leader and the organization to understand what factors affect employee perceptions regarding the organization.
People’s behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself
(Robbins & Judge, 2014); therefore one’s perception is not an objective representation of the environment but rather reflects the connection amongst the environment and the perceiver’s capability to act within it (Witt, 2011). Perceptions of organizational behavior are important because the perception of the individual regarding organizational behavior influences the manner in which the individual reacts or performs in the organization. The research study indicates there is a difference of how the eight organizational behaviors are perceived through the lens of each participant. Equally important, the data findings reiterate prior research discoveries that underscore the importance of acknowledging how changing an individual’s perception in an organization can be an effective way for improving organizational behavior. Acknowledging the
125 perceptions of organizational behavior in the workplace can provide very informative data that may help enhance organizational performance at both a micro level and macro level.
Discussion
Concluding the Eight Studied Organizational Behaviors
Organizations influence people and people influence organizations. Organizational behavior plays a fundamental role in organizations’ success, survival, and development. The literature review, as well as previous research, underscores how the eight organizational behaviors serve as a conduit for improving both organizational and individual performance.
Substantially acknowledged, all eight organizational behaviors have a direct impact on human behavior, actions, attitudes, thinking, performance, efficiency, effectiveness, and productivity.
The study findings divulge some intriguing information about how eight different organizational behaviors are perceived in an organizational context. Correspondingly, the data provides information about how various organizational behaviors were perceived at different hierarchical levels.
Concluding assertions reiterate the causal effect these eight selected organizational behaviors could have on the organization and its people. Leadership can greatly affect an organization (Buckingham, 2005; Collins, 2001; Drucker, 2007; Peters & Waterman, 1984).
Self-assessment ought to be the first action requirement of leadership (Drucker & Collins, 2008).
According to Drucker (1967), a leader must know the most common cause for leadership failure is the unwillingness or inability to change with the demands of a new position. Leadership influences and organizes meaning for all constituents in the organization. Leaders are people who do the right thing, and have a vision that is articulated clearly and forcefully on every occasion (Peters, 1987). Importantly, a great leader is found to build a strengths-based
126 organization (Buckingham & Clifton, 2001); and thus, high-performing organizations are led by high-performing leaders (Larson, Latham, Appleby, & Harshman, 2012).
While leadership is vital, so is job satisfaction. Not only does job satisfaction impact an array of individual and organizational outcomes (Nelson & Quick, 2011), job satisfaction is a contributor to one’s life satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job performance (Dabke,
2014; Fu & Deshpande, 2014). Job satisfaction is irrefutably important to both the organization and the individual. Similarly, creativity is another impactful organizational behavior. Creativity is central for innovation (Amabile, Conti, Coon, Lazenby, & Herron, 1996), and innovation is a cornerstone for both sustainable lasting success and survival of an organization (Henard &
Szymanski, 2001). So much so, that Mumford (2012) affirms that creativity and innovation are the critical variables in shaping the long-term success of an organization. Stress has found a way into the lives of innumerable people while simultaneously infiltrating the fabric of countless organizations. According to Greenberg (2011), the work environment is the number one source of stress in people’s lives. Stress is found to abound at various levels within the organization
(Sinha & Subramanian, 2012); consequently, if stress is not dealt with appropriately, low job satisfaction, poor work performance, negative health effects, and diminished perceptions of personal accomplishment and life satisfaction may emerge (Hayes & Weathington, 2007; Jui-
Chen & Silverthorne, 2008). Bourgeoning stress in the workplace cannot be ignored. Stress management and prevention are essential if the organization is to thrive. Findings suggest employees who are healthy and engaged are powerful assets to the organization and make impactful contributions to the advancement and growth of the organization (Quick, 2013).
While each of the four micro organizational behaviors embody a different notion, each behavior impacts the output performance of the individual as well as the organization.
127 Moving from the micro level to the macro level, organizational behavior maintains a strong hold on the organization and its people. Organizational structure is crucial. The approach towards organizing individuals and groups with respect to the job function they execute is fundamental for performance. As Collins (2009) points out, leaders need to recognize that all organizational structures have trade-offs and inefficiencies, hence there is no ideal organizational structure in all situations. Organizational structure impacts the commitment and performance of an organization. It is a phenomenon that continually changes, and a dynamic element of an organization that integrates all of its parts and resources (Berkowitz & Wren, 2013; Delić &
Ahmetović, 2013). Organizations are not static, and organizational change is inevitable; it is not the exception, but the rule (Greenberg, 2011). The work of Pfeffer and Sutton (2000) attest when dealing with organizational change, leaders ought to be mindful of human tendency, which at first, when reacting to new and untried ideas will attempt to revert back to the old and ingrained practices even when it is not in their best interest. Over time a multiplicity of organizational change efforts, models, and types have been established for application.
However, the cornerstone of effective change begins with the leader in conjunction with an informed understanding of how effective organizational change comes about (Drucker &
Wartzman, 2010; Fullan, 2008; Peters, 1987).
Organizational development is a conduit for performance improvement; it enables the organization to be more effective and efficient during the change process (Greenberg, 2013; Hitt et al., 2011; Nelson & Quick, 2011). Organizational development plays a vital role in the organization and its people (Robbins & Judge, 2014). The work of Drucker (1993) underscores one of the most important contributions to organizational development is an effective leader
(Drucker, 1967). The final organizational behavior, organizational design, empowers an
128 organization to explore and exploit innovation (Tushman et al., 2010); it is one of the most complex and difficult tasks, yet is one of the most important tasks for organizational leaders
(Beckman, 2009). Organizational design takes into account three core performance factors: strategy, organization, and motivation; leveraging the appropriate organizational design empowers an organization to execute better, learn faster, and change more easily (Myers, 1996).
According to Collins and Porras (1994), organizations might be advised to spend more time thinking about organizational design. Whether it be at a micro or macro level, organizational behavior influences a plethora of individual and organizational dynamics, subsequently penetrating into the fabric of the organization and the behavior of its people. To change human behavior to improve performance, there has to be an understanding of what drives behavior at the individual and organizational level—organizational behavior.
Human behavior within the organization is impacted by organizational behavior. The organization is affected in a two-fold manner: (a) by the individual behavior within the organization; and (b) by the organization impacting the behavior of the individuals in the organization. Organizational behavior factions study and apply knowledge of how people act and behave within an organization; organizational behavior becomes a leadership mindset that yields organizational benefit, even resulting in a competitive advantage. Organizational behavior can be applied extensively to the behaviors of people in all types of organizational settings (i.e., business, government, schools, non-profits, service organizations, etc.). Taking everything into account, when you change or improve individual, group, and organizational behavior, you purposefully attain individual, group, and organizational outcomes. Organizational behavior is a reciprocal people-organization relationship that can either improve performance or destroy performance. Recognizing the perceptions of organizational behavior may help to manage
129 organizational behavior successfully in today’s ever-changing workforce. By rethinking through the lens of organizational behavior, one can informatively interpret meaning for their organization, which in turn can result in well-informed decisions, effective organizational schemas, and more knowledgeable organizational action. The initial bedrock for organizational performance, both at the individual and organizational level, is derived from organizational behavior thinking, leading, and doing; all of which comes from understanding the complexity and impact of micro and macro organizational behavior.
Insight on Findings of the Study
The findings of the current study substantiate how perceptions of organizational behavior may vary within an organizational setting. People perceive organizational behavior differently.
Similarly, levels of organizational hierarchy perceive organizational behavior in a different way.
Even more so, each organizational behavior, whether it be micro or macro, were found to be perceived differently by people. While the data shows that differences do exist in the perceptions of organizational behavior, acknowledging such findings underscore the importance of realizing what someone may individually perceive, may starkly contradict the organizational reality. These data findings are exceptionally insightful to leaders, as the results point out leaders’ perceptions may clash with the perceptions of the people they lead. Subsequently, this perception variance may be a contributing factor to organizational ineffectiveness, organizational conflict, and/or organizational inefficiency.
Organizational behaviors that were found to be weighted higher, as well as perceived more important to individuals, were micro organizational behaviors. This discovery may suggest organizational behaviors that are held closest to the individual are seemingly perceived with greater importance. However as the individual moves up the hierarchal ladder, these data
130 findings indicate that macro organizational behaviors become more important to the individual in regards to weighting as well as perceived importance. This particular finding could be useful as it points out why a hierarchical division may exist as well as tension within organization dynamics. Simply put, the leader and the subordinate do not perceive organizational behaviors congruently; subsequently, a strain may emerge amidst the organization. Moreover, the data perception variance may suggest as an individual moves up the hierarchical chain, there is a possibility their lens of the organization becomes wider and more focused on organizational aspects [macro] rather than personal aspects [micro].
Another point of interest would be that job satisfaction and stress were both found to be statistically significant and perceived statistically significant. Such findings may infer a need to purposefully discover what are considered stressors in that particular organization as well as what elements of job satisfaction allow employees to be satisfied in their job and what variables are causing employee job dissatisfaction. Each organization may have different trigger points for stress and job satisfaction. Ascertaining the impetus may improve performance at both the individual level and organizational level for that organization.
The perceptions of organizational change revealed a noteworthy perception gap between supervisors and subordinates. The importance of change in an organization is perceived differently. Such a finding may indicate, or at least imply, organizational change may actually be a catalyst for high or low job satisfaction as well as increased or decreased levels of stress in an organization. While leaders may perceive a need for organizational change, the people whom they are leading are indicating their perception of change in an organization is not an organizational behavior of such weighted or perceived importance. So it may be possible that organizational change becomes counterproductive for the organization if the leader of the change
131 is not aware of the need for establishing an effective balance, understanding the various responses people have to change, comprehending the different types of change, and realizing each type of change comes in different sizes, different scopes, and different levels of complexity.
Considering all things, before enacting organizational change, a leader must step back to ensure the organizational change does not result in detrimental consequences. Those who are leading and those who are being led perceive organizational change differently.
Interestingly, leadership was perceived by the leader as more important, whereas the people being led perceive this micro organizational behavior of less importance in comparison to their own creativity, stress, and job satisfaction. Application from this finding would align to the previous notion: organizational behaviors held closer to the individual are weighted, and preferred, with more importance. With that in mind, it may be possible that within the subfield of the specific organizational behavior (e.g., micro, macro, and meso), there are organizational behaviors that are perceived to have a stronger influence on the individual’s wellbeing, thus resulting in the OB being perceived as more important within that specific subfield. The more impactful the organizational behavior is to one’s own wellbeing may suggest the more likely the
OB will be preferred and perceived with greater importance to that individual.
Overall, data analyses conclude individuals perceive, and prefer, micro organizational behavior over macro organizational behavior. Such findings may conjecture organizational behaviors that have a more personal implication to an employee are perceived more important.
With that in mind, to improve overall organizational performance, leadership may want to consider initially exploring the micro organizational behaviors strongly first before looking at the macro level organizational behaviors of the organization. At the outset, addressing organizational performance from the individual level [micro] may yield more effective
132 turnaround results as well as organizational goals being accomplished at a quicker rate. The findings from the data may be posited that OBs perceived more important to the individual will be more likely to be received by the individual with a higher level of receptiveness. When people are more receptive, they are more likely to act rather than demonstrate a state of inertia.
Organizational design, regardless of hierarchical position, was found to be the most important macro organizational behavior in the descriptive analyses. In response to this finding, the data suggests the management style or approach used by leadership is perceived to be of greater importance despite hierarchical position. It is essential that leaders clearly understand what organizational design is about, and how different organizational designs impact the individual, the organization, and the overall performance results. According to the data findings, the management style and approach used by leaders is perceived important as it has an impactful effect on both the individual and organization. Thus, for a leader to have no conceptualization of organizational design may unintentionally cause adverse organizational behaviors. Henceforth, there should be deliberate attention towards selecting the ideal design based upon the numerous contingencies, circumstances, and contexts in which the organization operates. With both the leader and the subordinate perceiving organizational design to be of importance, this finding should be noted and applied.
Lastly, while the results suggest that as people get older they are more likely to select macro organizational behavior, consideration for this finding may be occurring due to the fact older people are generally more prone to be serving in supervisory roles. Furthermore the data could also surmise, as people work longer in an organization they are less likely to perceive or weight micro organizational behaviors more important because they themselves are more self- invested in the organization. Perhaps this data finding could infer that as individuals spend a
133 longer time in an organization they begin to perceive the organization through a wider organizational lens as opposed to a narrower individual lens.
Implications
Findings from this study have theoretical and applicable implications with regard to organizational behavior. While this study supports previous theoretical research in the area of organizational behavior, the study bolsters the notion of how critical it is to understand the complexities of organizational behavior fully as well as the impact OB can have on both individual and organizational performance. The underpinning of the study is centered around the contingency theory; subsequently, bringing to light how OBs can be perceived differently based upon contingencies. The findings point towards what organizational behaviors are perceived to be of greater importance. Furthermore, the results may also be extrapolated as an indicator of what OBs are being valued in an organizational setting and what OBs are of less importance.
Correspondingly, when perception gaps manifest within the hierarchy of an organization, as data results indicated, the likelihood of performance being impacted may increase. Just knowing the organizational behaviors perception gap exists may in itself be a powerful piece of organizational information to help improve organizational performance. Leaders have a significant impact on the organization and its people. What is concerning is that many leaders who lead organizations may have minimal awareness of what organizational behavior is all about and how impactful organizational behavior can be for the people they lead.
Perhaps the most significant contribution of this study would be this specific area of research examined the perceptions of organizational behavior in an organizational setting, and the findings from the study may provide essential application for both practitioners and researchers. Additionally significant about this research are data findings that reveal
134 organizational behaviors are perceived differently through the leader-subordinate lens.
Similarly, the implications of this study call attention towards the different perceptions held within the subfield of the specific organizational behavior [e.g., micro and macro]. The applicable results show that organizational behavior is perceived differently, thus empowering organizations and its leaders to think through a more direct OB lens. In doing so, leaders are taking a direct OB approach towards organizational performance which may result in a calculated higher-yielding methodology for improving organizational performance.
In conclusion, the findings indicate certain organizational behaviors are perceived with greater importance based upon various predictors, cues, and hierarchical position. The literature review corroborates earlier research by confirming organizational behavior indeed impacts a plethora of organizational dynamics. Moreover the research study results offer a glimpse as to how organizational behaviors are being perceived within an organizational context. One of the most significant implications of this study is the applicable awareness that people perceive OBs differently, OBs within the subfield are preferred and weighted differently, and perceptions of organizational behavior provide germane findings that could empower leaders and organizations to improve both individual and organizational performance.
Recommendations
Leveraging, Understanding, and Managing Organizational Behavior
The current study results provide some meaningful insight into the realm of organizational behavior. The implications of organizational behavior are compelling. In Chapter
3, the researcher echoes the importance of understanding organizational behavior to improve performance and human behavior (both at macro and micro levels). There is no such thing as a silver bullet for improving organizational performance, changing human behavior, or even
135 managing organizational behavior. What research does purport is the importance of understanding and managing organizational behavior in changing times (Hitt et al., 2011; Nelson
& Quick, 2011; Noe, 2013). To manage organizational behavior effectively means to understand the patterns of behavior at the individual, group, and organizational levels; to predict what behavior responses will be elicited by different managerial actions; and to use understanding and prediction to achieve control (Hampton et al., 1987). Organizational behavior is of utmost concern to anyone who organizes, creates, orders, directs, manages, or supervises the actions of individuals (Pettinger, 2010). Leveraging organizational behavior through understanding can empower a leader to leave a lasting imprint on an organization. Correspondingly, leveraging organizational behavior can directly impact the performance of the individual within the organization. A strong conceptualization of organizational behavior and how it affects the performance of the organization is the initial cornerstone towards leveraging organizational behavior to improve both individual and organizational results.
Improvements in people’s behavior emerge when people are reminded they are valued and worthwhile (Blanchard & Johnson, 1982). To leverage organizational behavior, a leader also leverages the self-worth of people. Through understanding individual and collective behaviors, leaders can shape, manage, and develop behavior so the interest of the individual is served as well as the organization (Pettinger, 2010). When done properly, organizational behavior improves organizational effectiveness (Greenberg, 2013). High-involvement management practices result in increased performance (Pfeffer, 1998). Understanding, managing, and leveraging organizational behavior yields a high-involvement management practice. An organizational behavior mindset is a high-yield management approach. Leveraging organizational behavior optimizes human behavior for organizational results. Understanding and
136 managing organizational behavior is a crucial paradigm shift in leadership thinking. That shift in leadership thinking comes through the direct leveraging of organizational behavior.
Interlocking Organizational Behavior Thinking with High-Performing Attributes
Acknowledged in organizational behavior research is that leveraging organizational behavior correctly can lead to high-performing organizations. High-performing organizations effectively apply the tenets of organizational behavior (Kaliprasad, 2006; Sawa & Swift, 2013).
In Chapter 1 a high-performing organization was defined. Organizational behavior is an unwavering dimension to organizational success; to achieve greatness, research affirmed the following conclusions about high-performing organizations, its people, and its leader (see
Appendix G). In culmination of this research study, the attributes notated in Table 31 improve organizational performance. Interlocking both organizational behavior thinking with high performance research may equip leaders with a competitive advantage while enhancing one’s organizational knowledge, attitude, and skills for leading an organization. Table 31 identifies attributes that characterize high-performing organizations, people, and leaders. Interlacing OB thinking with high-performing notions of thought, may serve as a formula for both individual and organizational performance.
137 Table 31
Attributes of High-Performing Organizations, People, and Leaders
High-Performing Organizations Source
Excel in four primary management practices: clear and focused strategy, impeccable Nohria, Joyce, & operational execution, performance-oriented culture, and build a fast, flexible, flat Roberson (2003) organizational structure. Consistently are able to turn knowledge into action, and do so even as they are growing Pfeffer & Sutton (2000) and taking on new people and even other organizations. Hold utmost authenticity to the organization’s ideology; attain consistent alignment to Collins & Porras (1994) the ideology; preserve the core and stimulate progress; and articulate both the organization’s core values and organization’s purpose in their core ideology. High-Performing People
Find one’s own voice, and inspire others to find their voice. Visionary, exceedingly Covey (2006) disciplined, unrelenting passion, unwavering conscience. Demonstrates a high level of internal motivation, assertiveness, personal enthusiasm Tener (1993) and the individual’s willingness to take a challenging responsibility confidently and perform it well. Exhibit personality traits of self-awareness, resilience, bravery, embrace change, value Elliot (2012) of oneself, and pursue new knowledge. Possesses superior people skills. Goldsmith (2004) Self-motivated, enjoy what they do, empower themselves, constantly learning how to Tschohl (1999) do their job better and takes responsibility for their actions. High-Performing Leaders
Manages time, understands what to contribute to the organization, knows where and Drucker (1993) how to mobilize strength for the best effect, sets the right priorities, and links them all together with effective decision-making. Relentlessly asks questions—why, why, why? Collins (2009) Possesses a high degree of emotional intelligence. Goleman (1998, 2004) Exhibit a high focus on systems, high focus on learning from past, high focus on Larson et al. (2012) information, low tolerance for actions that are inconsistent with the values of the organization and constant motivation to improve organizational performance. Additional High-Performing Research
Effectiveness is learned. Drucker (1993) An excellent organization have a strong leader, shared values, are fiscally sound, value Peters & Waterman innovation, are effective at communication, intuitive, creative, comprise a strong (1984) culture, demonstrate exceptional organizational fluidity, understands that every individual seeks meaning and exhibits a learning organization. Disciplined creativity and a culture of discipline leads to greatness. Collins (2009) Note. See Appendix G for a complete listing.
138 High performing organizations possess an unrelenting drive to uphold the hallmark concept of continuous improvement—the belief that anything and everything done in the organization should be continually improved and evaluated (Schermerhorn, 2010). Improving performance comes from a multiplicity of facets, yet none more important than the ones derived from the actions of human behavior that are guided by the organizational systems and structures in which the leader and the organization create. High-performing organizations do not emerge by accident but rather through the intentional focus and direction given towards organizational behavior. Interlocking organizational behavior thinking with high-performing attributes enhances the organization as well the members of the organization.
Future Exploration into the Field of Organizational Behavior
Organizational behavior provides the essential answers to questions regarding how individuals, groups, and organizations interconnect so optimal performance and results are reached. Organizational behavior and organizations affect all aspects of life—economic, social, political, cultural, religious, communal, and family (Pettinger, 2010). Human behavior is a function of both the person and the environment (Reitz, 1987). The findings of this research examined how people perceive the environment in which they exist. The study has only scratched another surface into the realm of organizational behavior. Further exploration into the field of organizational behavior could come through specifically studying what contingencies influence the perceptions of the eight studied organizational behaviors. Findings from the study revealed how eight OBs were perceived, but it did not explain as to why some organizational behaviors were perceived with greater importance and why other organizational behaviors are perceived with less importance. Impending research as to what variables or contingencies allow
139 for a perception to be weighted with greater preference or preferred over other OBs could be quite enlightening to both leaders and organizations.
The study results allowed the researcher to theorize the larger the variance gap in the perceptions of organizational behavior, the more likely organizational ineffectiveness, organizational inefficiency, and a larger perception gap between supervisors and subordinates exist. However, if the perception variance gap is narrower, one could hypothesize that individual and organizational performance is more effective, more efficient, and less apt to yield high levels of organizational tension. While this notion is hypothesizing at most, conducting further research could move the notion from surmising to fact finding.
While this researcher examined the perceptions of organizational behavior, he did not study if perceptions are held differently based upon high-performing organizations compared to low-performing organizations (e.g., high-performing schools in comparison to low-performing schools). Does the type of organization affect the perceptions of organizational behavior? And if so, to what extent are differences between the two types of organizations found?
Along similar lines, this researcher did not study if a perception gap difference between economically thriving organizations and fiscally struggling organizations exists (i.e., affluent schools compared to economically disadvantaged schools or Forbes top 20 Global High-
Performing Companies compared to Forbes list of struggling companies). Essentially, further research could attempt to answer if perceptions of organizational behavior are perceived, weighted, and/or preferred differently based upon the economic status of the organization.
Similar research could be replicated by studying the perceptions of organizational behavior through multi-levels of a hierarchy. For example, rather than just examining the perceptions of organizational behavior at the campus level, additional research could be
140 conducted by examining teachers’ perceptions in comparison to cabinet-level perceptions.
Conducting research in this area may provide meaningful data on how perceptions vary beyond just one or two hierarchical levels. Could the perception gap become even wider as the hierarchy becomes taller?
Additionally, should future research ascertain why some organizational behaviors are perceived with greater importance than others, these data findings at minimal may give practitioners and researchers invaluable information about what is impacting performance at the micro and macro level. For example, the participants used in this study come from a field of work where high attrition is rampant; results indicated job satisfaction and stress were perceived with greater importance. One could surmise the attrition rate in this profession is elevated because of higher job dissatisfaction and increased levels of stress, therefore making these two particular OBs of research interest. Along those lines, this researcher recommends delving deeper into the results of this study to see what variables perhaps are causing stress and job satisfaction to be perceived with considerable importance. Correspondingly, this researcher suggests expanding this research in the realm of discovering what variables are actually impacting one’s perceptions towards specific organizational behaviors.
The data findings indicate job satisfaction and stress were perceived and weighted with greater importance. As a result, it may be possible these two particular OBs are more significantly impactful to an organization’s performance levels than initially thought. So much so, one could hypothesize low performing organizations will be found to yield perception data that indicates job satisfaction and stress to be perceived with substantially greater importance than higher performing organizations. Subsequently, future research should be conducted simultaneously in two areas: the first area, analyzing if job satisfaction and stress are perceived
141 differently based upon an organization’s performance level; and the second area being, exploring whether poor organizational performance is characteristic of organizations where their perception data shows job satisfaction and stress to be of greater importance. Future research should attempt to answer if low performing organizations perceive job satisfaction and stress with greater importance in their OB perception data. It may be conceivable that employees in low performing organizations are more likely to be dissatisfied in their job and more likely to be overly stressed, consequently impacting the overall organization’s performance results.
Additionally recommended for extended research would be the following two inquiries: first, how might two different industries (i.e. education compared to banking or manufacturing) perceive organizational behavior in an organizational context?; and secondly, does a difference in OB perceptions exist in different lines of work? While this area of research has limited exploration, the findings may contribute substantially in the field of organizational behavior.
This area of research builds upon prior research as to how perceptions of organizational behavior are being perceived within an organizational setting. As result, there are many recommendations for future research, however none more important than acknowledging when perception data are gathered, such as it was in this study, it is not the end point for individual or organizational improvement answers but rather the starting point for asking the why question and discovering the how answer. A great deal can be learned about the perceptions of organizational behavior, and much of OB perception data has yet to be discovered. While future research probes into the perceptions of organizational behavior in an organizational setting, the results must never dismiss the fact that each organization may have different contingencies that yield different OB perception data.
142 Concluding Thoughts
Organizational behavior changes human behavior. When behavior is changed; habits and thinking are changed. And when behavior, habits, and thinking change, human performance can change the results of the organization. Correspondingly, the organization can and will impact the behavior of humans. While it may seem as a tug-and-pull relationship, it does not necessarily have to be that way. Behavior in an organization is understood when we understand the context of that behavior (Pfeffer & Salancik, 1978). While the review of literature helps to expand one’s knowledge and understanding into the world of organizational behavior, it must not supersede the fact that a leader is the critical factor in building a strong workplace (Buckingham &
Coffman, 1999). And a cornerstone to building a strong workplace is a leader who can effectively manage organizational behavior in the ever-changing workplace (Greenberg, 2013).
While the research findings only scratch the surface as to how organizational behavior is perceived, the findings point out OB perceptions are perceived with importance differently. For that reason, leaders must realize their leadership actions, decisions, and behaviors can impact both the organization and its people at the micro as well as a macro level. This empirical study reveals those being led and those who are leading may not always perceive organizational behavior harmoniously. However despite the perception variances, it is the unrelentingly pursuit of leveraging organizational behavior leadership and OB thinking that will yield the greatest results.
Pfeffer and Sutton (2000) avow that so often organizations prefer to talk, conceptualize, and rationalize about issues and problems rather than confront them directly. In response to this assertion, and the probable likelihood that OB perception differences are found in most organizations, OB leaders are charged with, “The greatest leaders do seek growth—growth in
143 performance, growth in distinctive impact, growth in creativity, growth in people—but they do not succumb to growth that undermines long-term value. And they certainly do not confuse growth with excellence” (Collins, 2009, p. 54). The underpinnings of this study are deeply- rooted on: the growth of leaders to better understand, manage, and leverage organizational behavior. For it is talented employees who need great leaders, and great leaders exemplify discipline, focus, trust, and perhaps most importantly a willingness to individualize (Buckingham
& Coffman, 1999). Moreover, this research study concludes, as well as conjectures, great leaders are the organizational behavior leaders who will use these findings to improve the human behavior in the organization they lead.
In closing, Covey (2006) shares there is a stark difference between leadership that works, and leadership that endures. Failure to recognize the effect of organizational behavior may cause short-lived leadership. There are three key performance areas that are needed in every great organization: direct results, building value and affirmation, and growing and developing people for tomorrow (Drucker, 1985). All three performance areas are directly connected to aspects of organizational behavior, along with the leader’s ability to leverage and manage OB. While organizational behavior is crucial, the work of Blanchard and Johnson (1983) point out how vital it is to care about people and their results. Organizational behavior is all people-centered. For without question, the inability to recognize, care, value, or conceptualize organizational behavior, can be and most likely will be in due time, the demise of organizational performance and leadership effectiveness. To improve individual and organizational performance, the organizational behavior leader becomes one with the organization and the environment. For when leaders realize perceptions vary they can improve realities; and when leaders improve realities, they can then improve results. As Gladwell (2002) asserts, “What must underlie
144 successful epidemics, in the end, is the bedrock belief that change is possible, and that people can radically transform their behavior or beliefs in the face of the right kind of impetus” (p. 258).
The right impetus being just that—organizational behavior leadership, a leadership thinking that leverages and manages organizational behavior to drive unprecedented results.
145
APPENDIX A
DIFFERENTIATING ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR SUBFIELDS
146 Table A.1
Differentiating Organizational Behavior Subfields
Micro Organizational Macro Organizational Meso Organizational Behavior Behavior Behavior Focused on individuals working Focused on action of the group Focused on behavior within alone or working in groups or an organization as a whole groups and teams
Individual differences Organizational power Interdependence Adaptability Reward Pooled Demographic experience Coercive Sequential Cultural experience Legitimate Reciprocal Muscular strength Referent (Charismatic) Comprehensive Endurance Expert Movement quality Structural Verbal ability Uncertainty reduction Substantiality Quantitative ability Centrality Reasoning ability Spatial ability Conscientiousness Agreeableness Openness Extroversion Emotional stability Personality characteristics Organizational politics Organizational roles Extroversion Functional Emotional stability Hierarchical Agreeableness Inclusionary Conscientiousness Openness to experience (continued)
147 Micro Organizational Macro Organizational Meso Organizational Behavior Behavior Behavior Focused on individuals working Focused on action of the group Focused on behavior within alone or working in groups or an organization as a whole groups and teams
Diversity Organizational conflict Communication Ethnicity Encoding Cultural Transmission Race Decoding Perception Structural interdependence Efficiency Decision making Organizational structure Motivation Prebureaucratic Motivation factors Bureaucratic Hygiene factors Postbureacratic Simple undifferentiated Simple differentiated Functional Divisional Matrix Mulitunit Modular Virtual Creativity Hierarchy & Centralization Work Design Tall hierarchy Flat hierarchy Integration Differentiation Work motivation Organizational design Group dynamics Mechanistic Functional grouping Organic Work flow grouping Group development Initiation Differentiation Integration Maturity Process loss Group synergy (continued)
148 Micro Organizational Macro Organizational Meso Organizational Behavior Behavior Behavior Focused on individuals working Focused on action of the group Focused on behavior within alone or working in groups or an organization as a whole groups and teams
Job Performance Technology Team effectiveness Task structure Communication structure Group size Group composition Group motivation Group cohesiveness Group conflict Job satisfaction External environment Leadership Leader traits Energy level Cognitive ability Technical skills Knowledge Leader decision-making styles Authoritarian Democratic Laissez-faire Leader behaviors Employee-oriented Job-oriented Leadership styles Leadership characteristics Extroverted Conscientious Emotionally stable Open to experience Leadership Leadership Leadership Stress Organizational culture Attitudes Organizational change Turnover & Absenteeism Organizational development Note. Leadership is repeatedly notated in micro organizational behavior and meso organizational behavior. Some research has even placed leadership under macro organizational behavior. Sources: Greenberg (2011); Miner (2006); Pfeffer (1991); Sims (2002); Staw (1991); Wagner and Hollenbeck (2005)
149
APPENDIX B
DEFINING ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
150 Table B.1
Organizational Behavior – Definitions and References
Reference Definition of organizational behavior
Greenberg, 2011, p. 3 Multidisciplinary field that seeks knowledge of behavior in organizational settings by systematically studying individual, group, and organizational processes.
Miner, 2005; Miner, 2006 Focuses on the behavior and nurture of people within an organization. An applied social science discipline that is concerned with the interplay of practice and application. Organizational behavior is not strategic management, economics, or philosophy.
Owens, 1998, p. 21 A discipline that seeks to describe, understand, and predict human behavior in the environment of formal organizations.
Nelson & Quick, 2009, p.3 Study of individual behavior and group dynamics in an organization, primarily focusing on the psychosocial, interpersonal, and behavioral dynamics in organizations.
Wagner & Hollenbeck, 2005 Focuses on observable behaviors that involve an analysis of how people behave both as individuals and as members of groups and organizations. A field of study that attempts to understand, explain, predict, and change human behavior as it occurs with the organizational milieu.
Sims, 2002 Actions and attitudes of people in an organization.
Wilson, 2001 Examines the interface between the individual, other individuals and groups within the organization.
Colquitt et al., 2009, p. 7 A field of study devoted to understanding, explaining, and ultimately improving the attitudes and behaviors of individuals and groups in organizations.
Bowditch & Buono, 2001 Study of people, groups, and their interactions in an organization.
Robbins & Judge, 2007, p. 9 A field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within organizations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organization’s effectiveness.
151
APPENDIX C
STRATEGIC PLANNING PROCESS/CHANGE MANAGEMENT MODELS
152 Table C.1
Strategic Planning Process/Change Management Models
Change Management Models
McKinsey7-S Framework Kotter’s Change Management Lewin’s Change Management STEPS STEPS STEPS 1. Shared values 1. Establish a sense of urgency 1. Unfreezing – recognize a need 2. Strategy 2. Form a powerful guiding for change 3. Structure coalition 2. Changing – implement the 4. Systems 3. Create a vision planned change 5. Style 4. Communicate vision 3. Freezing – accept newly 6. Staff 5. Empower others to act on the changed state 7. Skills vision Lewin (1947) 6. Plan for and create short-term Peters and Waterman (1984) wins 7. Consolidate improvements and produce still more change 8. Institutionalize new approaches Kotter (1995, 1996, 2012)
Seven Steps to Change Coghlan and MacAuliffe Model of Model of Change Large System Change STEPS STEPS STEPS 1. Mobilize energy and 1. Analyze the organization and commitment through joint 1. Develop a plan its need for change identification of problems and 2. Provide a vision for the future 2. Create vision and common solutions 3. Articulate vision and deliver direction 2. Develop shared vision of how implementation plan 3. Separate the past to organize and manage 4. Communicate vision and 4. Create sense of urgency competitiveness details of the plan to 5. Support a strong leader role 3. Identify leadership stakeholders 6. Line up political sponsorship 4. Focus on results, not on 5. Gain support of plan 7. Craft an implementation plan activities 6. Position the appropriate 8. Develop enabling structures 5. Start change at the periphery, arrangements in place to 9. Communicate, be honest and let it spread to other units facilitate implementation involve people without pushing it from the top 7. Implement changes 10. Reinforce and institutionalize 6. Institutionalize success from 8. Embed the change in the change formal policies, systems, and organization Kanter, Stein, & Jick (1992) structures O’Shea, McAuliffe, & Wyness 7. Monitor and adjust strategies in (2007) response to problems in the change process Luecke (2003) (continued)
153 Change Management Models
Seven Stages of Six Sigma 6 Step Change Management Change Management Strategic Implementation Process Framework: A Six-Step Process STEPS STEPS STEPS 1. Envisioning 1. Identify a best practice 1. Prepare the organization 2. Strategizing operating model 2. Develop a vision and 3. Developing 2. Implement a comprehensive implementation plan 4. Implementing governance structure 3. Checking 5. Improving 3. Aggressively transition to the 4. Communicate plan and engage 6. Sustaining new organization structure workforce 7. Abandoning 4. Proactively manage 5. Implementation stakeholders, communication 6. Evaluation Moosa & Sajid (2010) and employee engagement Price & Chahal (2006) 5. Define and implement new business processes 6. Develop employee capabilities and reinvent the culture Halm (2014)
154
APPENDIX D
LENS MODEL SINGLE SYSTEM DESIGN
155 Figure D.1 provides a visual representation of the Lens Model and the fundamental components that make this model a useful tool when utilizing the policy capturing approach.
Lens Model Single System Design
CUES
ECOLOGY SUBJECT (CRITERION UNKNOWN JUDGMENTS OR UNMEASURED)
Cue Utilization Validities
Source: (Cooksey, 1996a)
Figure D.1. Lens model – single system design. Source: (Cooksey, 1996a)
156
APPENDIX E
MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION OF BRUNSWIK’S LENS MODEL
157 When delving deeper into analysis of the Lens model, there is a mathematical formulation of the Brunswik’s lens model, within the linear framework that denotes both the judgments and the criterion being judged as functions of cues in the environment.
Figure E.1. Mathematical formulation of Brunswik’s lens model. Diagram from Hogarth & Karelaia (2007). Copyright 2007 by the American Psychological Association. See “The Mathematical Formulation of Brunswik’s Lens Model” section of the introductory text for a description of terms.
158
APPENDIX F
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR DETERMINING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
ADMINISTRATOR AND TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF MICRO AND MACRO
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR IN AN ORGANIZATIONAL SETTING
159 MICRO AND MACRO ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR PERCEPTIONS QUESTIONNAIRE
Demographical Data
INSTRUCTIONS: Information on this questionnaire will remain confidential and anonymous. Please check one space for each item that best applies.
Gender: Male _____ Female _____ Year of Birth: ______
Race/Ethnicity: African American or Black _____ Hispanic, Latino/a, or Spanish Origin_____ Asian American _____ Caucasian or White _____ Pacific Islander _____ American Indian or Alaska Native _____ Other (please specify): ______
Employment: Teaching Experience (include this year) _____
Administrative Experience (include this year) _____
Principal (check box) _____
Assistant Principal (check box) _____
QUESTIONNAIRE INSTRUCTIONS: You will be provided 34 questions. The 34 questions will consist of Likert scale questions, scenario questions, closed-ended filter questions, and a weighting question. This is not a test. There are no correct answers. In spite of the fact there may be other influencing factors, please use the information provided to indicate how you perceive the micro and macro organizational behaviors. Circle responses you perceive to be accurate.
160 LIKERT SCALE QUESTIONS: For this questionnaire exercise, read the Likert scale question, evaluate the statement, and then circle your response on the organizational behavior. There is no right answer. It is not a test. Below is the criteria coding scale:
1 = strongly disagree
6 = strongly agree
1. An employee’s professional development and/or training(s) are more important on the performance of the organization than the leadership of that organization.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
2. An employee’s positive and/or negative feelings, attitudes, and emotions about their job are more important than if the organization improves efficiency, effectiveness, and performance as a result of planned or unplanned changes within the organization.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
3. The ability for employees to generate or recognize new ideas, alternatives, or possibilities on the job is less important than the way an organization arranges people within the organization (i.e. teams, departments, units, branches, networks) to improve its performance.
1 2 3 4 5 6
strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
4. The leadership of an organization is more important than the way in which people work together (i.e. teams, departments, units, branches, networks) within the organization.
1 2 3 4 5 6
strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
161 5. Organizational systems and processes that improve the effectiveness and efficiency of the organization are more important than an employee’s ability to generate or recognize new ideas, alternatives, or possibilities on the job.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
6. Employee training/professional development aimed to improve the skills, activities, thinking and/or processes of its employees that make the organization more efficient and effective is more important than the employee’s emotional and physiological reactions that occur in response to the training/professional development.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
7. To improve the performance of an organization the leadership is more important than the employee’s professional development.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
8. It is less important if employees lose their ability to generate new ideas, alternatives, or possibilities on the job than if the organization improves its performance by the way in which people are arranged within the organization (i.e. teams, departments, units, branches, and networks).
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
162 9. The processes and systems that achieve the vision, mission, and goals of the organization are more important than the employee’s emotional and physiological reactions that occur as a result of the processes and systems that improve the efficiency and effectiveness in the organization.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
10. Planned or unplanned changes (i.e. changes in technology, organization’s vision and mission, personnel) in the organization are more important than the leadership of the organization during the change process.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
11. The emotional and physiological reaction to change in an organization (i.e. new technology, reorganization, changes in leadership) is more important than the planned or unplanned changes that lead to improved performance within the organization.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
12. The way an organization arranges employees (i.e. teams, departments, units, branches, networks) to improve organizational performance is more important than if employees experience positive or negative feelings, attitudes, and/or emotions about their job as a result of the arrangement of employees in the organization.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
163 13. Professional development/training that enhances the skill level of its employees and helps the organization become more efficient and effective is more important than the ability for employees to generate or recognize new ideas, alternatives, or different ways to solve problems in their job.
1 2 3 4 5 6
strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
SCENARIO QUESTIONS: For this questionnaire exercise, read the scenario and then respond to the scenario statement based on the scenario you read. Circle the answer that you feel best indicates your perception on the organizational behavior. There is no right answer. It is not a test. Below is the criteria coding scale:
1 = strongly disagree 6 = strongly agree
14. The leaders in an organization make significant organizational changes that improve the efficiency, effectiveness, and performance of the organization. However as a result of these changes there is a significant decrease in the positive feelings, attitudes, and emotions that employees now experience as a result of the organizational changes.
Intended or unintended changes in an organization that improve the efficiency, effectiveness, and performance of the organization are more important than the feelings, attitudes, and emotions that employees experience as a result of the changes in the organization.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
164 15. The Board of Trustees is strongly considering the hiring of a new leader or redesigning the organization to make it more efficient and effective. Both aspects are important for improved performance results. After much discussion the Board agrees that integrating the people, information, and systems is the most effective and efficient way to achieve organizational goals.
The integration of people, information, structures, culture and systems in an organization is more important than the leadership of the organization.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
16. An organization has experienced significant performance results because of new professional development and training for its employees. However, many employees in that organization have now experienced a decrease in their emotional and physiological wellbeing as a result of the new professional development and training. Due to the improved performance results, the organization decides to keep moving forward with new professional development and training.
When the organization is experiencing significant performance results, professional development and training is more important than an employee’s emotional and physiological wellbeing.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
165 17. Many of the employees in an organization are feeling overwhelmed, burned out, and experiencing health related issues. According to the employees they state their emotional and physiological reactions are coming from the way the in which the organization arranges employees (i.e. teams, departments, units, branches, networks). The rearrangement of employees in the organization has improved productivity, efficiency, and effectiveness in the organization.
When the organization experiences improved performance as a result of the formal configuration of people (i.e. teams, departments, units, branches, networks) it is more important than the emotional and physiological reactions that comes from the way in which people are arranged in the organization.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
18. An organization has found a way to integrate people, information, and systems in an even more effective and efficient manner to achieve the organizational goals. Consequently, the new management approach will take away the employees ability to generate or recognize new ideas, alternatives, or possibilities on the job.
A management style or approach that makes an organization more efficient and effective is more important than if the employees lose their ability to be artistic, imaginative, and inventive on the job.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
19. Employees in an organization feel it is more important they receive high quality training that will improve their personal skills, thinking, and decision making on the job; rather than who the organization hires as their next leader.
The leadership in an organization is less important than the professional development or training of its employees.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
166 20. Data reports indicate an organization has improved their efficiency and effectiveness by integrating people, information systems, and organizational systems in a better process; however the new process has caused employees in the organization to have more negative feelings, attitudes, and emotions towards their job.
A person’s feelings, attitudes, and emotions about their job are more important than the organizational processes and systems that improve overall efficiency and effectiveness.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
21. An organization has restructured, now putting employees in teams, departments, units, branches, and networks. As a result of this organizational restructuring, employees have lost their ability to generate or recognize new ideas, alternatives, or possibilities that lead to problem solving on the job. However, the restructuring has improved the performance of the organization.
The ability for employees to be artistic, imaginative, inventive, and innovative on the job is less important than if the organization is efficient, effective, and more productive as a result of the formal configurations in the organization.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
22. Employees begin to experience heightened levels of emotional and physiological anxiety as a result of operational changes, strategy changes, and management changes in the organization. In spite of this, the new changes in the organization have resulted in exceptional organizational performance and results.
The new changes in the organization are more important than the employee’s emotional and physiological anxiety because of the improved organizational performance and results.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
167 23. In the last ten years an organization has experienced great success as a result of utilizing people, information and systems in the most effective and efficient manner to achieve the organizational goals. The organization has also had the same excellent leader for ten years. The excellent leader is going to retire. All employees are concerned about the new leader coming in and all employees are concerned about the inability of the organization to continue utilizing people, information and systems in the most efficient and effective manner to achieve the organizational goals.
Leadership is more important than the way in which people, information, and systems are integrated in the organization.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
24. Employees have been told there will be organizational restructuring that is going to improve the performance, efficiency, and effectiveness of the organization as well as how employees do their job. Consequently, the restructuring in the organization will take away the employee’s ability to generate or recognize new ideas, alternatives, or possibilities that lead to problem solving.
The ability for employees to be artistic, imaginative, inventive, and innovative on the job is more important than organizational restructuring that improves the performance, efficiency, and effectiveness of the organization.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
168 25. Employees in an organization have extremely positive feelings, attitudes, and emotions towards their job. The organization wants to offer its employees a proven professional development that will improve their knowledge, skills, decision-making, and ability to do their job more effectively and efficiently. The professional development will improve the performance of the organization significantly. However, the likelihood of employees experiencing negative feelings, attitudes, and emotions towards their job is definite.
The positive feelings, attitudes, and emotions towards one’s job are more important than the professional development and training that improves efficiency, effectiveness, productivity and performance of an organization.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
26. An organization underwent restructuring to improve the processes in which people, information, and systems were interacting. As result the organization has quickly experienced improved efficiency, effectiveness, and organizational performance. Consequently, one significant drawback is the physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion employees have experienced since the restructuring.
One’s emotional and physiological well-being is more important than the improved efficiency, effectiveness, and organizational performance that come from the way in which people, information, and systems interact.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
169 27. An organization is performing very poorly. Systems and processes in the organization are ineffective. The leadership in the organization is also quite ineffective. To improve their performance, the organization must decide to experience some immediate planned and unplanned changes to the systems and processes within the organization or to experience a change in leadership.
To improve organizational performance, the leadership in an organization is more important than the planned and/or unplanned changes to systems/processes in an organization.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
28. Employees are able to receive training that will improve their knowledge, skills, thinking, and decision making on the job. The training will improve organizational efficiency, effectiveness, and productivity. However, this training will take away the employees ability to be artistic, imaginative, inventive, and innovative on the job.
Employee training and professional development that improves organizational performance is more important than if an employee loses his/her ability to be artistic, imaginative, inventive, and innovative on the job as a result of the training/professional development.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
29. An organization has arranged employees in teams, departments, units, branches, and networks. As a result, there has been improved performance, efficiency, effectiveness and productivity in the organization. Regrettably, the way employees have been grouped has now resulted in negative feelings, attitudes, and emotions towards their job.
Arranging employees and groups of employees to improve organizational performance is more important than employees who experience negative feelings, attitudes, and emotions towards their job as a result of being arranged in teams, departments, units, branches, and/or networks.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree somewhat somewhat agree strongly disagree disagree agree agree
170 CLOSED-ENDED FILTER QUESTIONS: For this questionnaire exercise, read the closed-ended filter question and provide your perception on the organizational behavior. There is no right answer. It is not a test.
30. What do you perceive to be more important? (Circle the statement you agree with most)
Organizational behaviors that focus on the individual or working in groups. or Organizational behaviors that focus on the organization as a whole.
OB’s that focus on the individual OB’s that focus on the organization
Creativity Organizational Change Job Satisfaction Organizational Development Leadership Organizational Design Stress Organizational Structure
31. Of the four organizational behaviors listed below, which ONE do you feel is the most important for improving your performance on the job: leadership, creativity, job satisfaction, or stress? Please only circle one.
Creativity Leadership Stress Job Satisfaction
Of the four organizational behaviors listed below, which ONE do you perceive to be the most important for improving organizational performance: organizational structure, organizational design, organizational change, or organizational development? Please only circle one.
Organizational Change Organizational Design
Organizational Development Organizational Structure
171 Organizational change – planned or unplanned changes in the organization
Organizational design – management style or approach used by leadership to implement or support the organizational structure; including organizational systems and processes that improve the effectiveness and efficiency of the organization
Organizational development – professional development intended to enhance the personal development of individuals and improve the effectiveness and efficiency of the organization
Organizational structure – formal configuration in which individuals and groups are arranged in an organization (i.e. teams, departments, units, branches, and networks)
32. Look at the box below. Circle the ONE organizational behavior that you perceive to be the most important for improving organizational performance. Please only circle one.
Job Satisfaction Organizational Change
Organizational Development Stress
Creativity Organizational Structure
Organizational Design Leadership
172 WEIGHTING QUESTION: For this questionnaire exercise, please distribute 100 points for each of the two types of organizational behaviors (micro and macro), based on the weight you perceive the organizational behavior should get. There is no right or wrong weighting.
33. Weight the following based on what you perceive would be the estimate of the relative weight you would give each organizational behavior; the sum needs to be 100.
Micro Macro Organizational Behavior Organizational Behavior
Creativity ______Organizational ______Change
Job Satisfaction ______Organizational ______Development
Leadership ______Organizational ______Design
Stress ______Organizational ______Structure 100 100
173
APPENDIX G
HIGH-PERFORMING ORGANIZATIONS, HIGH-PERFORMING PEOPLE,
AND HIGH-PERFORMING LEADERS
174 Table G.1
High-performing Organizations, High-performing People, and High-performing Leaders
High-Performing Source
Organizations
Excel in four primary management practices: clear and focused Nohria, Joyce, & Roberson strategy, impeccable operational execution, performance-oriented (2003) culture, and build a fast, flexible, flat organizational structure.
The organization is focused on the cornerstone of intellectual Schermerhorn (2010) capital, the knowledge, expertise, and energy available from their members in the organization.
Put people first in the organization. Pfeffer (1998)
Not only recognize that each employee is different, but also Buckingham & Clifton capitalizes on employee’ differences. (2001)
Consistently are able to turn knowledge into action, and do so Pfeffer & Sutton (2000) even as they are growing and taking on new people and even other organizations.
Recognize that people are the decisive bedrock to sustainable Schermerhorn (2010) high performance results.
Hold utmost authenticity to the organization’s ideology; attain Collins & Porras (1994) consistent alignment to the ideology; preserve the core and stimulate progress; and articulate both the organization’s core values and organization’s purpose in their core ideology.
People
Tend to be task-related rather than relationship driven. Pettinger (2010)
Proactive, take responsibility for their choices, change agent, Covey (2004) begin with the end in mind, put first things first, prioritize urgencies, think win/win, think opportunity rather than scarcity, seek first to understand, then to be understood, and synergize.
Exceedingly hardworking, often lucky to be in the right place at Gladwell (2008) that right time, and spend more than 10,000 hours of working on a skill. (continued)
175 High-Performing Source
People, Cont.
Find one’s own voice, and inspire others to find their voice. Covey (2006) Visionary, exceedingly disciplined, unrelenting passion, unwavering conscience.
Demonstrates a high level of internal motivation, assertiveness, Tener (1993) personal enthusiasm and the individual’s willingness to take a challenging responsibility confidently and perform it well.
Exhibit personality traits of self-awareness, resilience, bravery, Elliot (2012) embrace change, value of oneself, and pursue new knowledge.
Possesses superior people skills. Goldsmith (2004)
Self-motivated, enjoy what they do, empower themselves, Tschohl (1999) constantly learning how to do their job better and takes responsibility for their actions.
Demonstrates a growth mindset rather than a fixed mindset. Dweck (2008)
Consistently renew themselves in four basic areas: physical, Covey (2004) social/emotional, mental and spiritual, problem-solve and embrace individual differences.
One’s culture, one’s family, one’s generation, and the personal Gladwell (2008) experiences of one’s upbringing impact one’s performance success.
Leaders
Manages time, understands what to contribute to the Drucker (1993) organization, knows where and how to mobilize strength for the best effect, sets the right priorities, and links them all together with effective decision-making.
Relentlessly asks questions—why, why, why? Collins (2009)
Possesses a high degree of emotional intelligence. Goleman (1998, 2004)
Recognizes that leadership is a shared responsibility by all Drucker & Collins (2008) members of the organization. (continued)
176 High-Performing Source
Leaders, Cont.
Never believes they have reached ultimate success because they Collins (2009) realize they have never understood all the factors that have brought them success in the first place.
Exhibit a high focus on systems, high focus on learning from Larson et al. (2012) past, high focus on information, low tolerance for actions that are inconsistent with the values of the organization and constant motivation to improve organizational performance.
Additional Research
Improved performance is derived by the leader and the Griffin & O’Leary-Kelly organization understanding the individual’s growth and (2004) development needs, and then providing performance-contingent opportunities for the individual to fulfill those needs.
There are more ways to fall then be great, and sustained Collins (2009) performance is found by understanding how greatness can be lost.
Effectiveness is learned. Drucker (1993)
An excellent organization have a strong leader, shared values, are Peters & Waterman (1984) fiscally sound, value innovation, are effective at communication, intuitive, creative, comprise a strong culture, demonstrate exceptional organizational fluidity, understands that every individual seeks meaning and exhibits a learning organization.
Disciplined creativity and a culture of discipline leads to Collins (2009) greatness.
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