“His Hand Is Stretched Out—Who Will Turn it Back?” Intercession within the Twelve Prophets THESIS Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Joshua M. Sears Graduate Program in Near Eastern Languages and Cultures The Ohio State University 2012 Master’s Examination Committee: Dr. Samuel Meier, Adviser Dr. Daniel Frank Copyright by Joshua M. Sears 2012 Abstract This paper explores the phenomenon of prophetic intercession as it appears within the Twelve Prophets of the Hebrew Bible, Hosea through Malachi. I begin by defining the term intercession as I will use it in this paper, essentially a prayer someone offers on behalf of another in an attempt to have God act positively toward the latter. I include in my discussion intercessory prayers offered by both prophetic and non-prophetic figures, but my discussion will concentrate on the prophets simply because they as a group intercede most frequently. Within each book of the Twelve I determine 1) if intercession occurs in some form, and 2) if intercession occurs, what are the forms, functions, and results of the intercession as portrayed in that book, and how do these relate to examples elsewhere in the Bible. I have limited my study to the Twelve because, with the exception of Amos, intercessory activity within the Twelve is often glossed over or ignored in studies on intercession; most of the attention goes to more famous examples such as Moses, Samuel, and Jeremiah. My hope is to fill this void by shining the spotlight directly on these smaller texts. Over the course of this study we find that Amos contains the clearest examples of intercessory prayer; Habakkuk contains some petitions that, while vague, demonstrate an intercessory character; Joel contains examples of intercession by both prophet and priests; Zechariah contains an unusual intercessory plea by an angel; Hosea and Micah contain passages that are not clearly intercession although some have called them such; ii and the remaining books contain no discernible examples of intercession. In these latter cases I discuss why the absence is either expected or surprising. Intercession can be a complicated topic because it incorporates—and sometimes challenges our assumptions about—topics ranging from prayer to prophets, deity to human agency. This paper seeks to understand what the Twelve have to offer to this ancient and fascinating discussion. iii Dedication For Alice, my wonderful wife and best friend bĕkol-ʿēt ʾōhēb hārēaʿ iv Acknowledgments I first must acknowledge the tremendous debt that I owe to my adviser, Sam Meier. Before I even met him a fellow student remarked that, “Whatever Dr. Meier’s selling, I’m buying.” Two years and countless hours of Hebrew, Psalms, history, Semitics, prophets, Ugaritic, and Isaiah later, I have bought a great deal and enjoyed every minute of it. Rarely do erudition and friendliness come together so well. I also thank Daniel Frank for his extensive support. It has been a privilege to associate with him both as student and as his teaching assistant. His patience and kindness have modeled how I want to relate to my own future students. I also thank the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Cultures for the wonderful graduate experience I have enjoyed these past two years. The opportunity to work as a graduate teaching associate has been a particular blessing, allowing me to both fund my studies and experience now what I hope to do in the future. A department of course is made up of individual people, and I especially thank Stafford Noble, Jane Harper, and Eileen Kidner for always keeping me on track. Lastly, I express gratitude to my patient wife and two bouncy boys, who often sacrificed some together-time so that daddy could lock himself away and play scholar. They remind me every day that the knowledge of civilizations long gone is meaningless without the company of loved ones ever present. v Vita November 1, 1984 ..........................................Born in Ventura, California 2009................................................................Research Assistant, Brigham Young University 2010................................................................B.A. Ancient Near Eastern Studies, Brigham Young University 2010–2012......................................................Graduate Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University 2011 ...............................................................Teaching Assistant, The Ohio State University 2012 ...............................................................Winner (2nd place), The Charlotte Susan Roth Memorial Fund Essay Contest, The Melton Center for Jewish Studies at The Ohio State University Publications “The Church of the First Century.” Pages 35–62 in The Life and Teachings of the New Testament Apostles: From the Day of Pentecost through the Apocalypse. Edited by Richard Neitzel Holzapfel and Thomas A. Wayment. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2010. Co-authored with Gaye Strathearn. “‘With Far Greater Accuracy’: How Understanding Language Improves Our Study of the Scriptures.” Pages 47–68 in BYU Religious Education 2009 Student Symposium. Provo, Utah: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University, 2009. “False Prophets in Ancient Israelite Religion.” Studia Antiqua 7 (2009): 97–106. vi “‘We Came Out From Jerusalem.’” Pages 130–46 in BYU Religious Education 2007 Student Symposium. Provo, Utah: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University, 2007. “They ‘Shall Grow Together.’” Pages 175–90 in BYU Religious Education 2004 Student Symposium. Provo, Utah: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University, 2004. Fields of Study Major Field: Near Eastern Languages and Cultures vii Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... v Vita ..................................................................................................................................... vi List of Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... ix Chapter 1: Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2: Amos ................................................................................................................. 9 Chapter 3: Habakkuk ........................................................................................................ 31 Chapter 4: Joel .................................................................................................................. 45 Chapter 5: Zechariah ......................................................................................................... 54 Chapter 6: Books with No or Questionable Intercession .................................................. 58 Chapter 7: Synthesis and Conclusion ............................................................................... 71 Works Cited ...................................................................................................................... 80 Index of Biblical References ............................................................................................. 87 viii List of Abbreviations 1QpHab Pesher Habakkuk AB Anchor Bible ABD The Anchor Bible Dictionary. Edited by David Noel Freedman. 6 vols. New York, 1992. ATD Das Alte Testament Deutsch BDB Brown, F., S. R. Driver, and C. A. Briggs. A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament. BHS Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. Edited by K. Elliger and W. Rudolph. Stuttgart, 1997. CBET Contributions to Biblical Exegesis and Theology DDD Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. Edited by K. van der Toorn, et al. 2d ed. Leiden, 1999. EncJud Encyclopaedia Judaica, 2d ed. ESV English Standard Version FAT Forschungen zum Alten Testament FOTL Forms of the Old Testament Literature HAT Handbuch zum Alten Testament HSM Harvard Semitic Monographs ITC International Theological Commentary JBL Journal of Biblical Literature JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old Testament: Supplement Series KJV King James Version LXX Septuagint MT Masoretic Text NASB New American Standard Bible NET New English Translation NICOT New International Commentary on the Old Testament NIV New International Version NJPS Jewish Publication Society Tanakh Translation NRSV New Revised Standard Version OBO Orbis biblicus et orientalis OTL Old Testament Library ix RSV Revised Standard Version SBLSCS Society of Biblical Literature Septuagint and Cognate Studies SBLSymS Society of Biblical Literature Symposium Series Syr. Syriac TDOT Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Edited by G. J. Botterweck et al. Translated by J. T. Willis and D. E. Green. 15 vols. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1974–2006. TLOT Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament. Edited by Ernst Jenni and Claus Westermann. Translated by Mark E. Biddle. 3 vols. Peabody, Mass., 1997. VT Vetus Testamentum VTSup Supplements to Vetus Testamentum Vulg. Vulgate x Chapter 1: Introduction For YHWH of Armies has planned—who can annul? His hand is stretched out—who can turn it back? - Isaiah 14:27 Isaiah’s rhetorical questions lead his