: THE INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE

A.I.D. PROJECT IMPACT EVALUATION REPORT NO. 70

Gary Theisen, Team Leader, Development Specialist (A.I.D., Washington, D.C.) George Armstrong, Economic and Forestry Specialist (A.I.D., Washington, D.C.) Patricia Vondal, Anthropologist (A.I.D., Washington, D.C.) Donald Barton, Plant Scientist (Cornell ) Shakir Hussein, Extension Education Specialist (Applied Education Technology, Inc.) Roger Packham, Animal Scientist (Hawkesbury Agricultural )

U.S. Agency for International Development March 1989

The views and interpretations expressed in this report are those of the authors and should not be attributed to the Agency for International Development. TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE ...... i SUMMARY...... ii PROJECT DATA SHEET ...... iv GLOSSARY ...... v 1. BACKGROUND ...... 1 1.1 Country Setting ...... 1 1.2 in Indonesia ...... 1 1.3 Institutional Characteristics of Bogor Institute of Agriculture ...... 2 1.3.1 Staff ...... 2 1.3.2. Students ...... 2 1.3.3 Resources ...... 3 2. THE ROLE OF A.I.D...... 3 3. THE IMPACTS OF BOGOR INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT ...... 4 3.1 Academic Leadership and Innovation ...... 4 3.2 Faculty Training and Outreach Activities ..... 5 3.2.1 Training ...... 5 3.2.2 Development of Graduate Schools ..... 6 3.3 Research ...... 6 3.3.1 Development of Research Programs .... 6 3.3.2 Inter-University Research Centers .... 7 3.3.3 Examples of Research Activities ..... 8 3.3.4 Planning for Advanced Biotechnology Research ...... 9 3.4 Institutional Networking ...... 10 3.5 Academic Program and Development .... 10 3.6 Extension and Public Service ...... 11 3.6.1 Regional Development ...... 11 3.6.2 Technology Transfer ...... 12 3.6.3 Student Service ...... 12 3.6.4 Extension ...... 12 3.7 Conservation ...... 13 4. FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE PAST IMPACT OF THE BOGOR INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE ...... 14 5. FACTORS AFFECTING THE FUTURE IMPACT OF THE BOGOR INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE ...... 15 6. LESSONS LEARNED ...... 17

PREFACE

This study of the Bogor Institute of Agriculture (Institute Pertanian Bogor, or IPB) was undertaken during August and September 1987. The study team spent one month in Indonesia, primarily in Bogor, with short visits to nearby areas, such as , but also a visit to in Yogyakarta. The study methodology included interviews with IPB faculty, central and local government officials, and representatives of other constituencies and agencies associated with IPB. This report is a distillation of IPB’s historical background and its substantive impact. It represents a synthesis of the evaluation team’s thinking and collective analysis; each member of the team contributed substantially and substantively to the report. The appendixes (A.I.D. Working Paper No. 118 available from the A.I.D. Library) contain more descriptive material and elaborations of the comments contained in the main report. Without the generous help, cooperation, and candor of the faculty, administration, and students of IPB, this study would not have been possible. All those associated with IPB and with other Indonesian institutions who contributed to this study gave generously of their time and insights. This study is dedicated to them. We hope that it will further enhance the role that IPB plays in Indonesian and international development. The evaluation team would also like to thank USAID/Jakarta for its cooperation and logistical support. A special thanks is extended to Gary Hansen of A.I.D./Washington who went beyond his bounds of responsibility in preparing the team for its assignment and in waiting patiently for the final draft.

i SUMMARY

The Bogor Institute of Agriculture (Institute Pertanian Bogor, or IPB) is one of Indonesia’s finest institutions of higher education. For over 30 years IPB has been at the forefront of agricultural development in Indonesia. During this time, U.S. Agency for International Development (A.I.D.) support for IPB was instrumental in the development of a well-trained, dynamic faculty that has charted a bold and innovative course of development for IPB. A.I.D. support over these three decades represents one of the longest periods of continuous support undertaken by the Agency. IPB has influenced both the agricultural sector and higher . In the agricultural sector, IPB staff have been responsible for scientific advances in the development and dissemination of mildew-resistant corn hybrids, control of the brown plant hopper in rice, improvement of soil fertility, the development of farming and land-use techniques to promote transmigration, and major Government initiatives in natural resource management and conservation policies. The new directions in academic planning pioneered by faculty and administrative staff at IPB have had significant repercussions throughout Indonesia’s system of higher education. These innovations have had a positive impact on the quality of students and the curricula and have accelerated the rate at which students complete their studies. IPB graduates are in great demand. IPB is the leading supplier of professional personnel to the Ministry of Agriculture and the private agricultural sector. In addition, the faculty has instituted diploma programs and in-service training courses for students who would not otherwise have an opportunity for upgrading their skills. IPB faculty are frequently called on by Government agencies to carry out research and provide policy advice. Faculty are also in great demand at other in Indonesia as lecturers, administrators, and institutional development resource personnel. Although the accomplishments of IPB are impressive and important, the future of the institute is clouded by a number of problems. Pressures to expand enrollment have stretched infra- structure and human resources very thin. With the Government emphasis on the development of provincial universities, IPB is being pressed to play a leadership role in these activities at a time when its energies and resources are needed at IPB itself to bring greater efficiency and quality to its own programs. Oppor- tunities for faculty development are much more limited than in past decades, when donor assistance provided funding for overseas study. ii Over 90 percent of the current faculty are IPB graduates, and few of the new staff have had the staff development opportunities that were available to their seniors. IPB has had almost no discretionary research funds since the cutbacks in Government funding precipitated by declining oil revenues. Research activities are increasingly being determined by funding sources and are focused almost entirely on applied problems. Thus, IPB’s leadership in basic research is in jeopardy. More important, IPB’s leadership in defining research agendas is being replaced by its acceptance of priorities established by external agencies. If IPB is to remain a sectoral leader in Indonesia, it must develop a comprehensive, strategic long-term vision and plan. The demands placed on staff and institutional resources limit the uniform development of IPB’s faculties. In the next decade, IPB will need to identify a smaller number of technical specialties on which to concentrate its resources. The institute also faces the challenge of developing management and institutional development skills appropriate to its role as a center for excellence and its responsibilities for developing the faculties and programs of provincial universities. In this context, external support will be critical for enabling IPB to maintain faculty skills, stimulate innovative approaches, respond to changing development needs, and establish long-term linkages with cooperating academic and research institutions in the industrialized and developing world.

iii PROJECT DATA SHEET

Project Project Funds Number Project Title Dates ($ thousands) A.I.D./W-699 Higher Agricultural 1957-67 5,542 Education Higher Agricultural 497-11-660-190 Education 1969-81 6,400 497-0290 Graduate Education 1980-85 3,492

Funding in this project was used to support the development of both IPB and Gadjah Mada University in Yogyakarta.

iv GLOSSARY

AAETE Agency for , Training, and Extension AARD Agency for Agricultural Research and Development AES Agro-Economics Survey A.I.D. U.S. Agency for International Development BAKIPDA Coordination, Integration, and Development Board BAPEMKA Development Planning Board BAPPEDA Provincial Planning Board BAPPENAS National Planning Board BIMAS Mass Guidance (Bimbingam Massal), an extension program first carried out by IPB students in Krawang Province CAER Center for Agro-Economic Research CIMMYT International Center for the Improvement of Maize and Wheat DEMAS Mass Demonstration (Demonstrasi Massal), the original name for the extension program now known as BIMAS IPB Bogor Institute of Agriculture (Institute Pertanian Bogor) IRRI International Rice Research Institute KKN National Student Service Program MUCIA Midwest Universities Consortium for International Assistance

v 1. BACKGROUND 1.1 Country Setting Indonesia is a complex country comprising over 13,000 islands, stretching across some 5,000 kilometers along the equator. Its more than 170 million people--Indonesia ranks fifth among the world’s most populous nations--speak more than 100 dialects. Indonesia has the largest number of Muslims of any nation in the world, in addition to some 20 million Christians and Buddhists. Indonesia has abundant and varied natural resources. Annual rainfall is heavier in the west than in the east, so there are great variations in soil types and farming systems. Although the country’s water-based resources are plentiful and varied, distances and poor transportation and processing infrastructure severely limit their export and cross-island exchange. Indonesia has made significant agricultural strides in the last 10 years. Its production of rice and corn has increased significantly (54 percent and 70 percent respectively) without substantial increases in land planted to these crops. Nevertheless, further technological development and agricultural research breakthroughs are necessary if Indonesia is to realize the full bounty of its potential harvest. Scientists estimate that with proper guidance, an additional 25 million hectares of land can be used for agricultural production. 1.2 Higher Education in Indonesia Indonesia has expanded its system of higher education substantially over the past 40 years. At the time of independence on August 17, 1945, Indonesia had only two universities, the and Gadjah Mada University. Today there are 703 institutions of higher education, including 49 state universities and teacher training institutes. Each of the 27 provinces has at least one public institution of higher education. Total enrollment has grown from 10,000 in 1950 to 1.2 million in 1987, with over 40 percent of students enrolled in public institutions. These institutions of higher education employ 30,000 faculty, 20 percent of whom have master’s or doctoral degrees. Between 1975 and 1986, received 550 doctorates and 1,700 master’s degrees through a combination of overseas and domestic training. Despite this growth, problems of access and quality characterize Indonesian higher education. Only 20 percent of high school graduates can be accommodated in public and private tertiary-level institutions, and enrollments total only about 7 percent of the total age cohort. Indonesia will fall short of its enrollment target of 8.23 percent of the university-age population that was set for the current Five-Year Plan ending in 1989. The shortfall is especially acute in scientific and technical fields. The tertiary-education system produces about 6,800 agriculturists (including agricultural engineers) per year, but manpower projections estimate that an additional 2,800 graduates are needed annually. Social rates of return are estimated to be about 15 percent for higher education and about 21 percent for graduate education. Consequently, competition for admission to the four "elite" universities is extremely vigorous. 1.3 Institutional Characteristics of Bogor Institute of Agriculture In the post-World War II era, the Bogor Institute of Agriculture (Institute Pertanian Bogor, or IPB) rapidly emerged as Indonesia’s preeminent university for agricultural education and research. The institute had its origins in the founding in 1940 of a Faculty of Agriculture in Bogor. In 1950 this faculty and the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine (created in 1946) were united with the University of Indonesia. In 1963, both faculties were merged into one independent agrocomplex named the Bogor Institute of Agriculture. In 1964, a Faculty of Agricultural Mechanization and Product Technology was added to the institute. Since 1980, IPB has implemented a program of systematic development and improvement and has expanded to nine faculties. International linkages and cooperation with donors have expanded to include Australia, Japan, the Netherlands, and France. Campus facilities have increased dramatically, especially with the addition of the new Darmaga campus--a 250-hectare campus designed to accommodate 20,000 students. 1.3.1 Staff About 25 percent of IPB’s teaching staff of approximately 800 hold Ph.D. or equivalent degrees. An equal number are trained to the M.S. degree level, and the rest hold undergraduate degrees. Institutional inbreeding is characteristic of Indonesian higher education but is especially egregious at IPB, where more than 90 percent of the staff are IPB graduates. Approximately 20 percent of the faculty are away from the campus at any one time, either on temporary assignment to other institutions, including the Government, or in training. Staff turnover is only 3-4 percent annually. In 1986, 150 new staff members were added to accommodate the growth in enrollment. IPB faculty and administration attribute much of the institute’s prestige to the quality of its senior, largely foreigntrained faculty. However, given diminished donor resources for foreign training and the Institute’s propensity to recruit nearly all its staff from among its own ranks, the new ideas and the enthusiasm for nonconventional approaches that were generated during the earlier institution-building days may be difficult to sustain. To be eligible for promotion, faculty members must demonstrate prowess in four areas: teaching, administration, research, and public service. Yet by the administration’s own admission, insufficient time and resources are available for vigorous and wide-scale faculty engagement in research and public service. 1.3.2. Students The more than 9,000 students currently enrolled at IPB constitute 19 percent of the nation’s agriculture students, including nearly half of those 2 enrolled in agricultural engineering and technology and 80 percent of all graduate students. Seventy percent of IPB’s students come from the island of , and twothirds of its students come from major cities. IPB has had the second largest growth rate among major Indonesian universities over the past 15 years. With the development of regional universities, IPB’s percentage contribution to the national stock of agriculturalists is declining. Nevertheless, it remains the primary supplier of candidates for civil service positions in agriculture-related fields: as many as 50 percent of Ministry of Agriculture positions in certain subsectors are held by IPB graduates. An average of 20 percent of IPB graduates enter private business (70 percent in the case of veterinary medicine), and roughly 20 percent find positions at IPB or other universities. 1.3.3 Resources As one of Indonesia’s four "elite" institutions of higher education, IPB has enjoyed strong support from the Government, the private sector, and donor agencies. Over the past 30 years, 255 of IPB’s present staff completed advanced degrees overseas; of these, 150 completed their M.S. or Ph.D. degree in the United States. Another 300 staff members received short-term training abroad. Since 1950, library holdings have increased from 2,000 volumes to over 30,000 volumes. Library users have quadrupled in the last 5 years, indicating that demand for library services has grown faster than enrollment. IPB’s recurrent budget increased from 22 million rupiah (Rp) in 1970 to Rp 4 billion in 1985. In the same period, the national development budget increased from Rp 115 million to Rp 3.75 billion. In 1986, however, in response to a national budget crisis, the Ministry of Education imposed drastic cuts on higher education. The short- and long-term effects of these cuts on research productivity and institutional quality in general could be profound. 2. THE ROLE OF A.I.D. Although IPB has received technical and resource assistance from a variety of sources, A.I.D. has been the principal external contributor to IPB’s development. Between 1957 and 1986 A.I.D. provided $20 million in continuous support (except for a 4-year period during the political upheaval that began in 1965). In 1957, IPB received its first U.S. support through an A.I.D. contract with the University of Kentucky. This relationship, which lasted until 1967, was pivotal in the reform of the IPB curriculum, the establishment of laboratories, and the provision of books and equipment. Forty-seven University of Kentucky faculty and staff served as long-term advisers at IPB during the period. In addition, under the contract, 219 Indonesian faculty received long-term degree training at the University of Kentucky or other U.S. universities. 3 A second major phase of U.S. assistance began in 1969 with the advent of the cooperative program between the Indonesian Ministry of Education and Culture and the Midwest Universities Consortium for International Assistance (MUCIA). This project, which ended in 1981, assisted IPB in strengthening its faculties through curriculum reform and the addition of graduate programs. During this period, another 197 faculty were sent to the United States, primarily for advanced degree training. A third A.I.D.-supported project was initiated in 1981 through the University of Wisconsin, one of the member institutions of MUCIA, which had established strong relations with IPB during the 1970s. This project focused on strengthening IPB planning and managerial capacities and enhancing graduate programs in teaching and research. Fifty-five faculty from the University of Wisconsin served as short- and long-term advisers at IPB. In addition, 18 Indonesian faculty completed advanced graduate training in the United States under the project. 3. THE IMPACTS OF BOGOR INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IPB has played a major role in promoting innovation and improving the quality of Indonesian higher education in general and agro-related fields of study in particular. IPB has also played a major role in developing Indonesia’s agricultural sector. In this context, IPB’s contributions, particularly during the 1970s, to the dissemination of research findings and the transfer of new agricultural technologies to the user community are especially noteworthy. The following sections provide specific examples of IPB’s influence. 3.1 Academic Leadership and Innovation During the 1970s, the faculty and administrative staff at IPB pioneered new directions in academic planning that have had significant repercussions throughout Indonesia’s system of higher education. These innovations have had a positive impact on the quality of students and the curricula and have accelerated the rate at which students complete their course of studies. The 1971-1979 Academic Plan was IPB’s first comprehensive effort (perhaps the first effort of any university in Indonesia) to systematically assess the need for improvements and to develop a long-term strategy for accomplishing them. The plan identified three major problem areas: high dropout rates in the first and second years of study, excessive length of time to complete undergraduate studies, and low graduation rates. In 1972, IPB replaced the traditional admission system based on a national entrance exam with criteria based on performance and recommendations. Student standing in the top 10 percent of selected high schools, including schools in rural areas, became the cornerstone of admission. This new admission policy, which was the first of its kind among universities in Indonesia, has been successful in reducing dropout rates (from nearly 60 percent to less than 25 percent) and improving student performance. The percentage of undergraduate students completing their 4 studies on time has increased from 10 percent in the 1960s to 85 percent--a remarkable rate in the Indonesian higher education setting. Also in 1972, IPB initiated the first 4-year bachelor’s degree (Sarjana, S1) program as a pilot program for the Directorate General of Higher Education. This degree program and its attendant requirements were subsequently adopted for all universities in the country. In 1975, IPB initiated the first Indonesian master’s degree (S2) program, followed 3 years later by the first doctoral (S3) program. In 1979, in response to a shortage of skilled technicians, IPB introduced the first diploma-level (S0) program, which takes 1 to 3 years to complete, depending on the subject of study. IPB’s productivity has improved since the adoption of these policies and degree programs. By graduating more students in a shorter time, IPB is contributing to the efficient use of scarce resources for higher education. 3.2 Faculty Training and Outreach Activities IPB faculty play an important role in training the staff of the newer universities in Indonesia and assisting them in developing curricula and graduate-level programs. 3.2.1 Training IPB began its formal outreach programs in 1972 with a program at IPB for training teaching staff from Jambi and Lampung Universities. Students recruited for the experimental 4-year undergraduate program were supported by funds from their provinces. By 1975 this program had spread to include seven other universities and was institutionalized through interuniversity agreements. Also in 1975, 14 of the staff from provincial universities were included in the new master’s degree program. In addition to direct staff training, the agreements provided for interuniversity cooperation in development planning; the conduct of seminars, workshops, short courses, and research; and the exchange of faculty experts. By 1985, the IPB program included training for staff from 24 universities, including 60 staff members in master’s degree programs and 11 in doctorate programs. IPB is a participant in the A.I.D.-funded Western Universities Agricultural Education project managed by the University of Kentucky. This project has created a consortium of universities in western Indonesia to provide short-term training and educational courses (2-4 weeks long) on agricultural topics of importance to the western region and to Indonesia as a whole. similar program has been created for eastern Indonesia.) Attendees from the staffs of member universities are expected to increase their knowledge and learn specific skills they can then use to enrich the curricula of their respective faculty. As the leading agricultural university in western Indonesia, IPB frequently contributes a majority of the teaching staff for these courses and plays a major role in planning future programs 5 and course content. 3.2.2 Development of Graduate Schools IPB has assisted several newer universities to establish their own graduate-degree programs through staff exchange, workshops, seminars, formal graduate instruction, and similar program-development efforts. On the basis of this experience, the Government now requires to develop a cooperative program with a university before they can obtain certification to confer post-baccalaureate degrees. Recently, under IPB guidance, (in ) received approval to grant master’s degrees; it is now cooperating with IPB in preparation for obtaining certification to grant doctoral degrees. In addition, IPB is involved in introducing graduate programs at three teacher training institutes at Medan, , and Manado. According to IPB faculty and their peers, the success of IPB and its contribution to the improvement of institutions of higher education in Indonesia are attributable to the early opportunities available at IPB for overseas staff training, as well as to staff awareness of the importance of high-quality education and their knowledge of university organization and institutional development. 3.3 Research 3.3.1 Development of Research Programs IPB has recognized the importance of research as a major objective of a university. The development of IPB’s research program is predicated on three tenets: 1. Research helps the teaching staff keep abreast of the latest findings in their field, thus helping maintain the professional competence of the staff. 2. Research creates opportunities for students to learn through practical experience. 3. Research is a source of new knowledge, which enriches teaching and improves national development programs. An important part of IPB’s research program is the Research Institute, which was established in 1980 to serve the entire university. Until the cutback in Government funding for research grants in 1985, the Research Institute processed research proposals and administered projects for the 22 departments and four research centers of IPB. Its goals are consistent with the objectives of the Fourth National Five-Year Plan (Repelita IV) of increasing food production, opening new agricultural lands, using agricultural land more efficiently, and improving the conservation of natural resources.

6 Until 1985, when Government austerity measures eliminated grant funds from university budgets, the Research Institute received Government research funds through the Directorate General of Higher Education. About Rp 70 to Rp 100 million were allocated annually. These funds were used to support individual or multidisciplinary grants on a competitive basis. Between 30 and 40 grants were awarded annually in the following categories: -- Development of the research capability of IPB junior staff. Higher priority for these competitive grants was given to staff in IPB graduate training or those who needed research publications for promotion. Grants were usually in amounts of Rp 0.5 to 1 million. -- Science and technology research activities of senior staff. These competitive grants were usually in amounts of Rp 3 to Rp 5 million. -- Research directly related to sectoral or regional development goals. This grant category had specific terms of reference (objectives), and staff were carefully selected. These grants were usually in the range of Rp 5 to Rp 7 million. IPB also received about Rp 80 million per year in funds through the Directorate General of Higher Education for hightechnology development, with special emphasis on agricultural engineering topics. The research program was of great value in encouraging academic research and centralizing and focusing research management. Unfortunately, the Government austerity measures introduced in 1985 eliminated from the IPB budget (and from the budgets of all state universities) the funds for all of the grants described above. Almost all research is now contracted for by the Government or the private sector. Discretionary research funds are a luxury of the recent past. Although the implications for basic, faculty-defined research are still unclear, IPB’s role as a catalyst in the research and development arena may in the future be dictated more by funding sources than by intellectual exploration and risk-taking. 3.3.2 Inter-University Research Centers In addition to the research programs described above, IPB is providing opportunities in research and higher education in Indonesia through its participation in the World Bank-Government of Indonesia Inter-University Center Program. Established in 1985, this 10-year, $130 million joint effort is establishing and developing 16 research centers in specific areas of study at the top five universities in Indonesia. The goal of these centers is to increase staff development and graduate programs in Indonesia, to develop curricula and instructional materials, and to manage research programs. Through these centers, fellowships, visiting scholar, and inservice training programs will be established to attract indi- viduals from other colleges and universities in Indonesia. By providing improved research facilities, equipment, and materials, the centers will 7 increase the research capability of scholars in scientific fields of major importance to Indonesia. Just as important, the centers will provide points of contact and stimulus for researchers from different universities with similar interests. This will enable them to interact with one another, thereby promoting ties between participating universities. The university chosen to house a given research center in a particular field must have a demonstrated level of expertise as exemplified by the level of its teaching staff, research programs, and support facilities. IPB has been chosen as the locus of three of these research centers in the fields of life sciences, biotechnology, and food science. Key elements of IPB’s role in this 10-year development effort will be research and dissemination of scientific information and research findings. Through the funding security provided by the World Bank project, IPB’s role may become the critical link to preserving IPB’s independence in research. Research topics will be determined in the Master Plan drawn up by the Inter-University Consortium of staff from project institutions. IPB will be a recognized leader in setting this agenda. 3.3.3 Examples of Research Activities Examples of important research activities are described below.

Pest Management. IPB faculty have played an important role in influencing attitudes toward integrated pest management and reducing the use of pesticides. An example is IPB’s response to a 1986 Presidential Decree requesting a reduction in the use of pesticides in the control of the brown plant hopper, which attacks rice plants. The National Plant Protection Committee, whose chairman is an IPB professor, developed recommendations for the control of the brown plant hopper based on a formulation containing only 3 pesticides rather than the 200 formulations containing 10 chemicals that were commonly used. In 1985, this same committee investigated a disease outbreak among cacao plants and discovered that the outbreak had been caused by infected cacao clones imported into the country. The outbreak was controlled by destroying infected trees and establishing a quarantine on cacao clone imports. In 1986, a severe outbreak of psyllids (from South America) threatened the lamtoro, a shade and forage tree. With support from the national Agency for Agricultural Research and Development (AARD), IPB is doing research on biological control of psyllids, using a predator imported from Hawaii. AARD is also providing research support for a multidisciplinary project on the population dynamics of the brown plant hopper. In addition, the Directorate of Food Crops of the Ministry of Agriculture is supporting a diploma-level training course on plant protection at IPB.

The Development of Downy Mildew-Resistant Corn. Indonesia has traditionally grown open-pollinated field corn varieties that are susceptible 8 to downy mildew, a destructive disease that occurs under environmental conditions of stagnant air and high moisture, humidity, and temperature. In 1975, IPB initiated research on open-pollinated corn germplasm from the International Center for the Improvement of Maize and Wheat (CIMMYT), some of which was resistant to downy mildew. From 1978 to 1985, 40 students participated in a research program involving the selection of downy mildew-resistant inbreeds, testing hybrid combinations, and evaluating hy- brids that were both high yielding and downy mildew-resistant. The result was a new hybrid, IPB4, which, on the basis of yield and uniformity in trials in Java and , was accepted in 1985 by the Ministry of Agriculture as a new hybrid for its foundation seed program. In 1987, 40 tons of IPB4 seed were produced. That IPB4 does not require treatment with the systemic fungicide Rotomil serves to reduce the use of pesticides and lowers seed cost. Liming of Unproductive Soils. Indonesia has several million acres of soil with varying degrees of toxicity. From 1970 through 1972, IPB’s Department of Soils, whose fee-based soiltesting laboratory is the best in the country, conducted extensive research on how to improve the productivity of high aluminum podzolic soils. From this research, guidelines were developed on recommended levels of lime applications to improve soil produc- tivity. Research on Outer Island Transmigration Areas. IPB’s research resources have been used in support of Indonesia’s national program of transmigration. Initiated in 1970, the transmigration program has moved more than 300,000 families from Java to selected, sparsely populated areas of Indonesia. IPB contributed to the knowledge of these areas through its research on soils, land use, space planning, crop adaptations, fertilizer requirements, pest control needs, and the economic potential of the transmigration areas. The second stage of research under Ministry of Transmigration support is now addressing problems that have surfaced since resettlement, particularly those relating to Prior to the 1985 budget cuts, IPB’s Department of Soils sent new faculty to the transmigration areas for 2 to 3 years of soil research experience before they joined the teaching staff. 3.3.4 Planning for Advanced Biotechnology Research In 1980 a planning group in IPB’s Faculty of Agriculture, recognizing the growing international interest in biotechnology and its potential uses in medical and biochemical applications, technology, and crop improvement, recommended that IPB prepare for training students in this field. Two staff members were selected to develop teaching and research programs in this area. Faculty research grants were used to support the development of tissue culture techniques, an initial step in developing this new program. In 1986, A.I.D. provided $150,000 to IPB for the development of a tissue culture laboratory and for laboratory support for a 3-year period. The laboratory’s initial project is the application of the tissue 9 culture technique to the production of disease-free foundation stocks of potatoes. This project has the potential for reducing the need for Indonesian farmers to import thousands of tons of seed potatoes. While this research is underway, the laboratory will be a valuable resource for student training. 3.4 Institutional Networking Many IPB faculty are in regular contact with research colleagues from other universities and research centers and with employees of Government agencies and private industries. Their goals and incentives include the desire to draw greater recognition to their departments, staff, and graduates; to obtain research funding; to influence policy; and to promote awareness of the need for research in previously neglected areas. These ac- tivities, which are indicative of a highly developed and engaged university, are primarily initiated at the departmental level within faculties and by individual staff members. As an illustration of such networking, in 1983 the staff of IPB’s Agroindustrial Technology Department organized a National Symposium on Agroindustry, which they hope to hold every 3 to 4 years. Representatives from the Ministries of Industry, Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, and Fisheries, as well as representatives from private industry and staff from other agricultural technology departments in Indonesia were invited. The goal of the staff is to create an Association for Agroindustry that will bridge communication gaps between researchers and private industry. Through dialogue with association members, the staff would like to develop methods for improving agricultural products and their processing and marketing as a means of increasing the number of high-quality products exported from Indonesia. IPB staff also influence research agendas through their participation in regional, national, and international seminars and conferences. A professor from the graduate-level Rural Sociology Program recently presented a seminar before members of the Upland Agricultural and Conservation project (a project funded by A.I.D. and the Indonesian Government in central and east Java) on alternative means of integrating women’s concerns into farming systems research. Project members plan to incorporate the professor’s suggestions into their farming system research activities. This professor has been invited by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) to present a similar seminar as part of a farming system research conference to be held in China. A goal of the professor and her colleagues in Indonesia is to broaden the orientation of Government technology transfer packages to include rural women by increasing the awareness of women’s roles in agriculture. 3.5 Academic Program and Curriculum Development IPB has been a leader in developing curriculum for new programs of study. Ideas for new courses arise from staff discussions with alumni in the private sector and the Government whose positions give them a valuable perspective on educational and training needs. These discussions increase faculty understanding of national agricultural needs, enabling IPB to develop programs that respond to these needs. For example, IPB is the only Indonesian institute of higher education with a Department of Agroindustrial Technology 10 and with a master’s degree program in planning for regional and rural development. Because these programs are meeting real needs, they are gaining national attention, and other universities have become interested in emulating them. IPB, along with the University of Indonesia, the University of Gadjah Mada, and other leading accredited universities, has a mandate from the Directorate General of Higher Education to develop other universities and to assist in program and curriculum development. Because of this mandate, and the strong interest expressed by other universities, IPB staff are actively consulted for the development of new curricula and the identification of staff skills needed for new and existing programs. 3.6 Extension and Public Service From its inception, IPB has actively promoted extension and public service activities to assist in the development of the rural areas. The Institute of Public Service was created in 1979 to coordinate and lead such efforts. Since then all public service activities have been coordinated by one of the Institute’s four centers: the Center for Regional Development, the Center for Extension and Service, the Center for Student Service, and the Center for Community Education. 3.6.1 Regional Development IPB’s approach to public service is to experiment with new strategies in order to develop and perfect new and more effective methods for the development of the rural areas. IPB has worked very closely with the district government of Sukabumi and has assumed considerable responsibility for the district’s development. Sukabumi became a social laboratory for much of IPB’s pioneering work in regional coordination, integration, and planning. Consistent with its pioneering thrust during the 1960s, IPB sought to increase the effectiveness of its regional development efforts through an emphasis on coordination and integration of development activities. IPB introduced guidelines promoting these concepts and trained local officials in implementing them. IPB also promoted the organization of the Coordination, Integration, and Development Board (BAKIPDA). As IPB came to realize that planning was more important than coordination and integration at the district level, BAKIPDA was replaced by a planning organization called the Development Planning Board (BAPEMKA). Development planning was emphasized at the district level, while coordination and integration were introduced at the village level, where the participation of local people in development activities and coordination of development efforts were emphasized. IPB continued to provide training for the efficient implementation of these concepts in six districts. The success of the planning process promoted by IPB prompted the Government to institutionalize regional development planning at the provincial and district levels throughout Indonesia. During this process, IPB continued to provide training for the successful implementation of regional development planning.

11 3.6.2 Technology Transfer Whereas IPB’s Center for Regional Development operates at the district level, the Center for Extension and Service works at the village level. This center promotes agricultural technology through "action research," which attempts to determine the strategy most useful for small farmers. In its experiments, the Extension and Service Center provides farmers with all inputs free of cost. The costs of inputs are, however, used later in deter- mining the economic feasibility of the technology being promoted. During these experiments, farmers’ perceptions and reactions to the technology are also solicited. Although not used by the Ministry of Agriculture, this approach is an innovative way of determining the ecological adaptability and economic feasibility of the new technology, as well as farmers’ receptivity to it. The Center for Extension and Service also conducts training in management and administration for village leaders.

3.6.3 Student Service The student service program originated at IPB during the 1960s, when students were sent to villages to work with rice farmers. The program is a practical exercise in village development activities. Students live in villages for a 2- to 3-month period during which they employ their knowledge and skill to assist or accelerate village development. Since the majority of students at IPB are from urban areas, their encounter with the realities of rural poverty, illiteracy, lack of resources, and inadequate facilities provides them with important insights into rural life. The impact of student service on village development is difficult to quantify, but it is highly probable that student service has produced considerable impact given the magnitude of human effort expended through the years. Since 1975, a total of 9,372 students have participated in this program. They have operated in hundreds of villages in 64 districts and 14 provinces. In 1984/1985 alone, 1,300 students assisted 261 villages. Assistance normally includes all aspects of development--from village administration to compilation and analysis of statistical information, promotion of improved agricultural technology, formation of new organizations, promotion of local participation in development activities, stimulation of cultural expressions, and initiation of small economic enterprises. Although village impact has not been evaluated, numerous favorable anecdotal reports exist. 3.6.4 Extension As a result of the innovativeness and remarkable vision of early IPB staff, IPB has made the most significant contribution of any institution in Indonesia to extension methodology. The historical ineffectiveness of agricultural extension in increasing production motivated IPB to experiment with an innovative approach to 12 agricultural extension. In 1963, 12 fourth- and fifth-year IPB students were sent to live in three villages in the Krawang district, a major rice-producing area on the northern coast of Java, and to work closely with groups of 50 farmers each. Although these students were not experienced in extension work or in rice technology, their enthusiasm compensated for their deficiencies. The students carried out demonstrations and quasi-experiments on farmers’ plots and, in the process, instructed farmers in the more advanced techniques of rice cultivation. Moreover, because students and farmers worked together in small groups, they developed close relationships based on feelings of mutual trust, thereby reducing the psychological distance between "innovator" and "recipient" and mitigating the farmers’ distrust of externally introduced innovations. The Krawang experiment was a great success. Farmers in the experiment obtained yields 50 percent higher than those of other farmers. Impressed by this achievement, the Government funded an expansion of the project during the 1964/1965 wet season. The expanded project included nine universities and 400 students working in 200 villages on 11,000 hectares. The program, which was initially known as DEMAS (Mass Demonstration or Demonstrasi Massal), was renamed BIMAS (Mass Guidance or Bimbingan Massal) after 1965 and was extended throughout Indonesia. IPB also continued to influence the Ministry of Agriculture’s agricultural strategy through the participation of IPB staff on the BIMAS advisory team. The strategy that IPB helped to develop has contributed to Indonesia’s increased agricultural production and eventual self-sufficiency in rice production. Another significant way in which IPB has influenced extension has been through extension training courses provided to IPB students in the Faculties of Agriculture, Animal Sciences, Fisheries, and Forestry. Until recently, all students were required to take from one to three courses in extension and extensionrelated areas. 3.7 Conservation The Center for Natural Resource Management and Environmental Studies at IPB was established in 1976 as a follow-on to a Government of Indonesia/Ford Foundation project that had begun in 1974. Except for the director, the deputy director, and three full-time program managers, the center had no faculty of its own. Instead, it drew heavily for its interdisciplinary research and training needs on IPB’s strong and extensive staff concerned with natural resource management (e.g., the Faculties of Fisheries, Forestry, Socioeconomics, and Water Resources). From the beginning, the center offered master’s and doctoral degree program. Nondegree training and public information and extension activities also were a part of its program. The Center for Natural Resource Management and Environmental Studies has been the basic model for the dozens of state-supported centers that were created at other universities in Indonesia. Through consultation and demonstration, the center at IPB provided direction and guidelines to other centers. 13 IPB has also influenced national environmental policy. The first Assistant Minister of the new Ministry of Environment was an IPB graduate. IPB staff served on the working group responsible for the environmental section of the third Five-Year Plan. During one year (1979), IPB faculty were serving on five other working groups appointed by the Ministry. IPB was represented in the group drafting the new Environmental Management Act. Through its environmental center and separate faculties, IPB provided environmental instruction and research assistance to several ministries, including the Ministries of Agriculture, Manpower and Transmigration, Education and Culture, Research and Technology, and Development Supervision and the Environment. In the area of training, IPB initiated the first course in environmental affairs for undergraduates in 1980 and the first training course in environmental impact assessment in 1981. Training was also provided to nongovernmental organizations engaged in conservation work. In addition, as provincial governments’ responsibilities as custodians of local resources were expanded, IPB trained many of their staff in environmental concepts, impact assessment, monitoring procedures, and the like. During this same period, individual faculties began to offer students an increasingly wide range of conservation-oriented courses. For example, by 1984, the Faculty of Forestry was offering 32 credits of such course work in its undergraduate curriculum. Departmental research also echoed the rising national interest in conservation topics. By the early 1980s, IPB was actively serving the Government in all conservation-related areas: institutional development (through IPB’s Center for Research Management and Environmental Studies), legislation and policy development, manpower training, research, interagency communication, and public education (primarily through nongovernmental organizations). 4. FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE PAST IMPACT OF THE BOGOR INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE At least six factors have contributed to IPB’s current success and high standing. 1. IPB is near Jakarta, the national capital and the seat of political power. IPB’s staff and students have ready access to Government offices, major research institutes, and private business. 2. Indonesian universities are largely a postindependence phenomenon. In the early years following independence, the need for trained and educated people was immense. The colleges and universities established during those early years found a ready market for their graduates, many of whom attained significant positions in the Government and the private sector. It was to IPB’s great advantage that it was an available resource during the early period of Indonesia’s independence. 3. Over a period of years, hundreds of advanced students and faculty 14 were sent overseas to receive training and education. Although the main educational goals of overseas training were essentially the same as those in Indonesia, the languages, the methods of study, techniques for exchange of ideas, and philosophy and strategies for dealing with life were different abroad. As a result, the students brought back with them above all else a realization of the new heights they could achieve by traveling a different road, and a realization that their experience in overcoming great obstacles had prepared them to confidently overcome other obstacles on their home ground. So students returned with a level of self-confidence and respect for innovation that they would not have had without the overseas experience. The students, who assumed positions of leadership, influenced the direction of the college and it prospered accordingly. 4. IPB’s large size alone has given the university an advantage. Current Government policies tend to draw faculty into off-campus service and otherwise constrain faculty contributions to the university. Nevertheless, with a faculty now approaching 800 members, IPB has the trained staff necessary to establish upper level graduate programs, interdisciplinary activities, and specialized research and outreach programs that most other Indo- nesian universities cannot undertake. Because so many of the older faculty had studied overseas, a critical mass of kindred peers, trained at the same institutions and sharing a similar sense of professional efficacy, formed a solid nucleus for change and reform. 5. IPB attracts good students. This is in part because of its large size, physical plant, and good reputation. But it also stems from innovative student selection policies, a broad array of specialized areas for study, and its continuing (though now declining) ability to place its graduates. 6. Over the past 35 years, the nation’s universities have been faced by wrenching political change, a vast deficit of trained people fit for national leadership in their special fields, and the pent-up demand for a resolution of the many problems retarding economic growth. IPB staff who had studied overseas were uniquely qualified to help maintain the strength of the university and to provide social, economic, and technical responses appropriate to the needs of the nation. In a real sense, they acted as saviors and builders who could train needed experts by teaching the teachers and who could give decision-makers new tools to work with. 5. FACTORS AFFECTING THE FUTURE IMPACT OF THE BOGOR INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE Although the conditions described above favored the emergence of IPB as the leading institution of agricultural higher education in Indonesia, they will be of less importance in shaping the future role of the university. 15 Thus, the advantage offered by an early start is being substantially eroded by the growth of other universities in Indonesia, which have become competitive sources of trained personnel. IPB continues to profit from its size and diversity, attracting good students and requests for research and public service. But even as such demands increase, countervailing forces limit the ability of the university to meet them. On campus, the increasing size of entering classes strains existing classroom and laboratory facilities, inhibits fieldwork, and increases the demands on faculty time. State-of-the-art course materials, lab equipment, library books, and periodicals are in short supply despite the relative advantage IPB enjoys over other Indonesian institutions. IPB continues to attract excellent students, but some faculty are beginning to wonder whether the process by which students with quick and fertile minds are converted into disciplined and effective practitioners is well suited to current needs. Toplevel administrators suggest that what IPB may be producing is desk-bound theorists, when what Indonesia really needs is practical people who can get things done. Numerous forces tend to pull faculty away from the campus. Modest salaries coupled with inflationary trends force the staff into nonteaching, income-earning activities. Government appointments lure senior faculty away, sometimes for long periods. IPB involvement in strengthening colleges and Government offices outside of Java requires long-distance travel and makes heavy demands on faculty time. Taken together, these factors reduce faculty time for basic research and public service and force a preoccupation with contract research as a means of generating funds for continuing operation. Faculty tend to teach only enough to fulfill their basic teaching responsibilities. IPB is at risk of losing its competitive edge in maintaining a highly trained faculty. Funding for overseas training has dropped off in recent years, leading to a reduction in the number of new staff exposed to the latest technological developments, new ideas, and alternative ways of problem solving. Furthermore, senior faculty trained overseas need to update their skills and increase their contact with foreign scholars from both industri- alized and developing countries. Recruitment of alumni to the faculty is leading to an inbred system that may diminish innovation in the near future. With the decline in research budgets, bold and innovative research is on the decline. Instead of leading the way in defining research agendas, IPB must compete for scarce resources as they are extended for precisely defined purposes by the Ministry of Agriculture and the private sector. Research endowments, portions of university overhead budgets, and foreign grants are only some of the sources that need to be pursued to ensure a continuous flow of discretionary research funds for IPB’s faculty. Without these resources, basic research will be virtually eliminated at IPB.

For over two decades, IPB has been a leader in charting new courses in the agricultural sector. The question for the future is not whether IPB will 16 continue to be a major force in Indonesian agriculture, but rather how it will fulfill its role and meet its potential in light of the trends described above. As provincial agricultural colleges and universities continue to develop, IPB’s role will need to change. In the future, IPB will be called upon to explore emerging technologies--technologies that are expensive and that require unusually high levels of technical expertise. To continue to exercise its national leadership role, IPB must develop interpersonal and institutional linkages not only within Indonesia but also with foreign universities and research institutions. Thus, IPB will need a comprehensive strategy for using scarce resources to promote faculty exchanges and collaborative research. Resources will need to be selectively applied to specific areas in order to maintain institutional excellence. Thus, IPB administration and faculty will need to work with major Government agencies to identify new areas of opportunity and to develop systematic, forward-looking plans to accomplish their objectives. 6. LESSONS LEARNED 1. Rapid and major institutional transformations in university orientation and capacity can be attained by sending large numbers of faculty for training outside the country. A total of 434 IPB faculty and administrators were sent to the United States for training under the nearly three decades of A.I.D. assistance, most of them during the 1960s and 1970s. In addition, both the Ford Foundation and the former Agricultural Development Council played important roles in supporting the training of IPB faculty. As this large number of faculty returned from their overseas training, they quickly constituted a leadership force capable of introducing major innovations and institutional reorientations in IPB’s education and research programs. 2. Institutional development efforts to raise universities to positions of national leadership require two to three decades of assistance and partnership between the host university and government and the cooperating donor agency. The A.I.D. assistance program started in 1957 and, except for a brief hiatus during the 1960s, lasted until 1985. This extended period of support allowed the Universities of Kentucky and Wisconsin and the Midwest Universities Consortium for International Assistance to make a long-term commitment of leadership and faculty in support of the project. Individual chiefs-of-party remained at IPB for long periods of service, and IPB leadership remained open and responsive to new ideas. Consequently, the relationships between IPB leadership and A.I.D. contractors were characterized by confidence, informality, and easy accessibility. These long-term relationships allowed IPB, the Government of Indonesia, A.I.D., and the contracting U.S. universities to develop a common understanding of strategic priorities and opportunities that needed to be addressed in the development of IPB. 17 3. Temporary assignment of faculty to government agencies can help to build strong, informal relationships and mutual understanding between a university and the national government and can enable faculty to exercise considerable influence over the formulation of public policy for rural and agricultural development. Large numbers of IPB faculty have served, on temporary assignments, in a wide range of high-level Government positions, particularly within the Ministries of Agriculture and Education, where they have provided important inputs in policymaking forums. These opportunities have served to enhance Government awareness of the value of IPB as a national resource and to strengthen the outward-looking perspective of IPB as a service-oriented institution. 4. A university concept of public service can be translated into a wide range of education and outreach programs that serve vital roles in the development of institutional capacities at the local and national levels. IPB has made faculty resources available to a diverse range of constituencies that are frequently ignored by institutions of higher learning. In particular, the establishment of the Faculty of Agricultural Polytechnics for diploma students and the provision of various in-service training programs for Government officials constitute major efforts by IPB to reach constituencies that are usually ignored in the push to create upscale programs for more advanced educational degrees.

5. Universities operating under major financial constraints face the continuing challenge of mobilizing their faculty behind a coherent sense of institutional mission and educational and research priorities. The elimination of Government research funds for IPB, coupled with low faculty salaries, poses a formidable challenge to IPB leadership in its effort to garner faculty support for larger institutional goals. Without adequate financial support, IPB faculty will need to seek outside consulting arrangements that may or may not be consistent with IPB educational and research objectives. IPB and Government leaders need to identify imaginative and creative measures that will allow IPB to mobilize funds to support its own, self-defined research programs. 6. The Mass Guidance (BIMAS) extension program and the development planning (BAPEMKA) program originated at IPB represent significant advances in the use of social learning methodologies, which, if applied on a wider scale, hold much promise for enhancing the relevance of university research and extension. The IPB-sponsored student service and extension field projects in 18 Krawang and Sukabumi had a major impact on national Government policymaking. Both projects were not only to study but also to change existing conditions. IPB applied an action research mode of learning that fostered close interaction between IPB participants and their client groups in Krawang and Sukabum The initial intervention strategies were adapted as new experience was acquired during the learning process. The outcome of these experiments was of such value that replication of this methodology in other aspects of university research and extension programs would seem to be warranted.

19 The following reports on related topics are available from CDE:

HIGHER AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION Impact Evaluations Malawi: Bunda Agricultural College, July 1987, No. 64 (PN-AAL-094). The Hassan 11 Institute of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine in Morocco: Institutional Development and International Partnership, July 1987, No. 65 (PN-AAL-096). Three Nigerian Universities and Their Role in Agricultural Development, March 1988, No. 66 (PNAAX-200). Dominican Republic: The Superior Institute of Agriculture--Development of a Private Institution of Higher Agricultural Education, March 1988, No. 67 (PN-AAX-201). Universities for Development: Report of the Joint Indo-U.S. Impact Evaluation of the Indian Agricultural Universities, September 1988, No. 68 (PN-AAX-206). Kasetsart University in Thailand: An Analysis of Institutional Evolution and Development Impact, September 1988,No.69(PN-AAX-207).

20