The New Village—IV Factors Behind Technological Change V Nath This paper has been concerned primarily with describing technological change in agriculture. Certain other as pects of change, eg in levels of living, education, health and attitudes of people, have also been described briefly, mainly with a view to seeing the relation between them and changes in agriculture. Perhaps the most significant conclusion is that change in agricultural techniques is part of a larger change pro cess which affects many aspects of the life of the villager. Change in agriculture is but one aspect of the process of economic growth in Central Punjab. Further, what has been described here is the beginning of a process of technological change. It should gather momentum in the future and produce larger and more important changes — intensive use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides, use of small tractors, increasing emphasis on specialised farming, change in attitudes towards the role of agriculture. These changes can be seen already among the more progressive farmers. This descriptive paper throws up many questions relating to analysis of change, e g, the role of innovators, chan nels of communication within the village, reasons for the acceptance or rejection of specific practices, the contribu tion of Sikh religion, better nutrition or health to enterprise and vigour. These and other questions are being investigated currently by a number of investigators working in different parts of lndia, It is hoped that similar studies will be made of villages in other regions so that we can have a better understanding of the process described in this paper.
THE MAN time of Independence. The people of but most important, intensive irriga THE Jat generally, and the Sikh Jitpur mentioned in particular the tion. From these practices they soon Jat particularly, is known to be work of a Deputy Director of Agri went on to new practices which were a good cultivator, combining hard culture who had in the 1930's, taught necessary for obtaining higher per acre work with intelligent use of resources. them the improved method of making yields from their smaller holdings. This fact has been repeatedly stressed khandsari sugar which they are follow Thus, they were in the fore-front of by administrators, agricultural officers ing to this day. the movement for irrigation by pump and others who have had occasion to But, rapid advance in techniques and ing sets, because they realised that work with Jat cultivators. In the agricultural productivity, with which irrigation was the key to intensive canal colonies of West Punjab, Sikh we are concerned in this study, has farming and that the only way to in ]ats proved to be particularly adept occurred only after Independence, and crease water supplies in this area was at intelligent use of irrigation waters, the explanation for it must be sought through the use of mechanical power and some of the highest standards of in the factors operating in this period. for lifting water from wells. farm husbandry, yields per acre an.i A number of factors have been operat Besides generally stimulating the agricultural incomes to be found any ing simultaneously, and we shall con movement towards more progressive. where in the country were reached on tent ourselves with listing the most intensive agriculture the refugee culti their farms. The refugee cultivators important among them. vators were responsible for popularis from the canal colonies are among the ing several specific improvements. The most progressive cultivators in this rapid spread of American cotton in area, and their presence has made a THE INFLUENCE OF THE REFUGEE East Punjab in the early 1950s was major contribution to Jitpur's agricul CULTIVATORS due mainly to their influence. They started growing American cotton which tural progress, as explained below. After the partition of the Punjab, they used to grow in the canal colo Already the standard of farm hus large numbers of cultivators from the nies, and the local cultivators followed bandry in this area was fairly good canal colonies came to East Punjab to their example. The large price differ in pre-Independence years. Cultivation their ancestral villages from which ence between American and desi was intensive and crop yields were they had emigrated 30 or 40 years cotton in the early 1950s aided this moderately high. The average yield of earlier, or to other villages in which movement and growing of American sugarcane in 1951-52, just before the they had been allotted lands. The cotton became universal in several opening of the C D block, was 40 to canal colonists, as stated earlier, had districts of the Punjab within a few 45 kg (of gur) per acre, as compared attained high standards of farm hus years.* The rapid increase in popula- with 55 kg per acre today. The bandry and agricultural incomes in standard of livestock husbandry was West Punjab and were used to im * The Programme Evaluation Orga also high, as evidenced by the fairly proved methods of farming advocated nisation of the Planning Commis high yields of milch animals. by the Department of Agriculture. sion made a study of the spread Agricultural extension work was When they came to East Punjab and of American cotton in certain com well organised in pre-Partition Punjab, were given holdings which were much munity development blocks of its Department of Agriculture being smaller than those they had left behind, PEPSU in 1954 It was found in among the best in the country. Seve their first endeavour was to re attain this study that 70 to 90 per cent ral important improved practices such the standard of agricultural income of the cultivators were growing as use of C-591 wheat, and CO-312 which they had enjoyed earlier. They American cotton and that the sugarcane, growing of berseem as started building up their new holdings example of the refugee cultivators green fodder and use of improved im through methods which had given who had brought American cotton plements like iron ploughs, iron Persian good results in the canal colonies — with them was a major factor in wheels, chaff cutters and improved use of improved seed, use of iron its spread -- "Cotton Extension sugarcane presses, had become univer ploughs and other implements, tho in PEPSU," 1955, PEO, Plan sally accepted in this area by the rough preparation of land, and last, ning Commission.
777 May 8, 1965 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY rity of the fodder crop, berseem, was EX.SERVICEMEN AND EDUCATED after non-agricultural employment, and also because they preferred berseem CULTIVATORS leave cultivation as soon as they get suitable jobs. ' But to the extent that to other fodder crops. Some of the Two other groups whose presence they do stay in agriculture, they are prosperous refugee cultivators, who ha had a significant influence on an influence for progress. Some of had owned citrus orchards in the technological and economic progress them, like the garden colonists and canal colonies, started planting or in the area are ex-servicemen and the chairman of the milk producers' chards. The Punjab government en educated cultivators. The major con society, are good cultivators. More couraged the practice by establishing tribution of the ex-servicemen has over, like the ex-servicemen, they are planned garden colonies, in which be been in spreading the idea of better anxious to adopt new techniques, es sides specialised advice, liberal tac- living — better and cleaner homes, pecially new implements and other cavi loans and other facilities were cleaner villages, use of modern medi also given to the planters. labour-saving devices; and for the cine, modern-type consumer goods, same reasons. They have also shown etc. The block staff and the village a noteworthy aptitude for taking up Of course, the refugee cultivators leaders said that ex-servicemen were were not successful in everything they new, remunerative types of farm pro particularly enthusiastic about build duction. The new commercial poultry introduced. Citrus orchards were not ing pucca or semi-pucca houses and successful, because the climate and production is entirely in the hands of installing electricity and handpumps educated men. They do not have the soils of the Central Punjab districts in houses. They also took active are different from those of the West prejudice against keeping poultry which interest in village sanitation program the average cultivator still has. They Punjab canal colonies. We saw an mes. The spread of the tea-drinking instance of failure of citrus plantation also have the added advantage of habit after World War II was also understanding and following the rigor in the garden colony, located in this attributed to them. Several ex-service block, at a distance of about ten miles ous routine which commercial poultry men were also active in popular insti from Jitpur. The colonists had all production requires. tutions like the co-operatives and the planted citrus orchards in the early panchayats and rose to positions of 1950s; but they had to give up later leadership in them. The extension when they found that the trees did staff thought that they were good al not survive after two or three years, working the co-operatives because THE ENVIRONMENT OF PROGRESS partly because of the presence of a they understood the 'co-operative But the most significant influence of "hard pan" in the sub-soil. The Ameri principle' and were more honest; but the post-Independence years has been can cotton was also not without its they were not particularly successful the environment of progress. A num defects. It was more susceptible to in the panchayats. Several ex-service- ber of factors, ranging from steady diseases like jessids and boll-worm. men, when elected to panchayats, prov and high prices of agricultural produce As a result, after the first wave of and interest shown by government, in spread of American cotton, the desi ed unpopular and lost in the subse quent elections. The explanation given improvement of agriculture, to the variety staged a come-back. Many growing inter-action between the town agricultural officers now feel that the for this was that 'they were too strict in the observance of principles'. and the village, have gone into the area is more suitable for desi man making of this environment. Since American cotton. prices of agricultural produce have But the role of ex-servicemen in the remained high, and the government has But the idea of intensive agriculture, improvement of agriculture was some been making propaganda and giving use of improved methods and follow what limited. They undoubtedly influ various incentives and facilities for ing the advice of extension workers enced technological change, because increasing production, the cultivators feel that increasing agricultural pro received a definite stimulus from the they were familiar with modern techno logy and were anxious to adopt duction is profitable and is likely to example of the refugee cultivators. labour saving devices. They were remain so for a long time. The vari We have described earlier about the among the first to install electric ous steps taken by the government to leadership provided by a refugee culti motors on wells, and to adopt innova increase production have also had their vator in the village with the co-opera tions like power or bullock-driven direct effects. It has been explained tive milk producers' society. The chaff-cutters, sugarcane crushers, in that in this village, consolidation, dig ging of new wells and electrification garden colony people, though unsuc this and the neighbouring villages. But their influence in adoption of laid the basis of a more progressive cessful at planting orchards, have other improvements has not been agriculture. The work of the extension nevertheless attained a high standard much, because the average cultivator organisation has also been a constant of cultivation. They are acknowledged feels that they are not willing to do influence for progress. Currently, the to be the best cultivators in the block hard labour and arc not particularly propaganda for use of chemical ferti lisers, backed by readily available and are frequently held up by the good cultivators. This impression is based on the fact that many ex-service taccavi loans, is a major factor in extension workers as models for other men were not really interested in agri rapid increase in the use of chemical cultivators. In all our discussions, culture. They drifted to non-agricul fertilisers. with the extension staff at the block tural jobs after a period of stay on and the district level, and even with the farms, and those who did stay Increasingly, these influences have specialists at the Ludhiana Agricultu back were not happy at doing hard operated on a peasantry which was ral s University, the role of refugee manual labour. rising above the subsistence level, was becoming less subject to tradition, and cultivators in providing a stimulus to As for educated people, few persons was, therefore, more responsive and the movement towards improved agri with education above the middle better able to benefit from them. The culture "was emphasised. standard stay in agriculture. They are size of holdings in the area is such
778 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY May 8, 1965
that with the improved methods of values and aspirations. This constant equals: he does not think that by resource use — possible after consoli inter-action between town and village joining government service he has be dation and electrification of wells — and the establishment of a cultural come superior to them. Moreover, the average cultivator could raise him continuum extending from the large most extension workers realise that self substantially above the subsistence city to the village is a most important they will have to settle down and work level. As this happened, he acquired influence for economic progress. The on farms after retiring from service. pot only a desire for a higher standard distinction between the town and the And since cultivation is profitable, of living, but also a confidence in his village—in food, dress, housing they look forward to it. It may be ability to attain it. Eradication of conditions, modes of economic acti of interest to mention that many malaria removed a major impediment vity, patterns of social relation and highly paid government officers, espe- to economic efficiency — a cause of values — which is still pronounced in cially of the Department of Agricul chronic lassitude and lack of ambi many parts of India has almost dis ture, have settled down after retirement, tion. Spread of education meant pene appeared in the Punjab. on 15-20 acre farms, and are quite tration of new ideas, decline in influ happy with the income and living ence of tradition and growth of new Simultaneous development of small- conditions which these farms provide. aspirations, especially among the young scale industry in the towns and techno This aspiration to return to agriculture, who form a steadily more influential logical change in agriculture in the even more than the farm background, section of the population. Even though villages is only another aspect of this is responsible for ready and sympathe large numbers of educated young men cultural continuity. The two develop tic appreciation of the problems of have gone out after receiving education, ments are related in many ways, the cultivators. When both the culti the ones who have stayed behind have starting from a common dependence vator and the extension worker feel been on the look-out for improvements on cheap electricity and mechanical that they have not merely a common which lighten the burden of work or aptitude and skills of the Punjab arti past but also a common future, mental increase incomes. And as they suc sans. Within the village, the relation reservations disappear and a community ceed in their efforts, their influence ship between them is expressed in of interest is established, which is increases. two ways : facility in adoption of new rarely established otherwise. agricultural implements by cultivators because of existence of facilities for repair and manufacture of these in Town and Village Brought Nearer the neighbouring towns; and opportu THE ROLE OF EMIGRATION Finally, rapid growth of transport nities for young men of the village for It has been explained earlier that and communications has effectively employment in small-scale industry in the area has a tradition of emigration. linked the villages with the towns, the towns. An investigation of the The effect of the recent economic and and made the village people an inte relations between the two developments social changes, has been to accelerate gral part of contemporary culture and is a fascinating subject for further the rate at which aspirations for non- aspirations. Reference was made in research. agricultural employment and emigration the beginning to the ease and rapidity grow. It is true that two reasons for with which the people of Jitpur can emigration of educated young men travel to the neighbouring town and from the village in the past — low other places. The material advantages Emotional Identification productivity in agriculture and unat- of this which have a direct influence One result of establishment of this tractiveness of village life — no longer on agricultural improvement are, faci cultural continuum is seen in the operate, A 10-acre holding now offers lity and low expense of taking produce mental make-up of the extension a similar or higher income than cleri to the market, buying implements, workers. The extension agency has cal or skilled jobs in town. Secondly, equipment and consumer goods at here, as in other States, its problems life in the village after coming of lower prices and getting repairs and of administrative co-ordination, sup electricity, hand pumps, roads and bus replacement of parts done quickly and plies, credit, etc. But what impresses transport is not unattractive. But cheaply. But the non-material advant one here is the lack of distance — these changes cannot check growth of ages are of equal, if not greater, im social, economic and psychological — off-farm employment and emigration, portance. The average resident of between the agricultural extension because continued advances in agricul jitpur today is a full participant in workers and the cultivators. The ture and levels of living are them the news, ideas and social currents of Village Level Workers and even the selves dependent upon a continuing contemporary society. Any news or block and district level Extension exodus of workers from the village. new idea can reach him just as quickly Officers speak the language of the as it reaches a person in the neigh cultivators. They have an understand Let us analyse this separately for bouring town. To an extent he is ing of their problems and an emotional each of the principal castes. Among better informed than the latter, because identification with their interests, which the Jat cultivating owners, continued the channels of informal communica is not found among extension workers agricultural progress and prosperity tion and discussion are much better in many parts of the country. One are dependent upon the size of hold preserved in the village. Moreover, reason for this is that most of them ing not falling much below the present with his present income and the net come from cultivators' families. But level. This means that a certain pro work of social services available to an even more important reason is the portion of young men must continu him, he has a standard of living which fact that levels of living, awareness ously go out. The Mahajans already is comparable, it not superior in many and income of the average cultivator have a limited economic role in the respects, to that of the resident of are comparable to those of the aver village. They depend mainly upon in the town. All this means that the age extension worker. As a result, the come originating from outside and their villager and the town-dweller are part extension worker considers the culti position cannot change significantly un of the same culture and share its vators to be his social and economic less ;some. manufacturing industry or 779 May 8, 1965 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY urban-oriented commercial activity, fn portionate increase in earnings of towards the role of agriculture. These which a large number can get employ agricultural labourers. The result is changes can be seen already among ment, is established in the village. As that the difference between owners of the more progressive farmers like the for the Mistries, technological change land and their labourers has increased. dairy farmer and the garden colonists. has undoubtedly opened opportunities This descriptive paper throws up for work within and near the village. But the Harijans cannot obtain a many questions relating to the analysis But as explained above, even they have significantly higher income within the of change, e g the role of innovators, found employment outside the village economic framework of the village. channels of communication within the more attractive. Increasing numbers (Revitalisation of their traditional village, reasons for acceptance or re of Mistri young men are either going crafts offers no solution to their eco jection of specific practices, and the out of the village or are working out nomic problem, because the economic contribution of Sikh Teligion, better side while living in the village. Emi changes of recent years have accele nutrition or health to the enterprise gration and work outside the village rated the decline of these crafts.) They and vigour. These and other questions have been the least among the Hari- can achieve it only through greater are being investigated currently by a jans and 'other artisans', who are the participation in the economy of the number of investigators working in poorest and most backward people in area, the State and the country. In different parts of India. We hope that the village. other words they must do what the before long similar studies will be Mahajans and the Mistris (and to a made in villages of these areas so The much repeated argument that lesser extent the fats) have done be that we can have a better understand emigration of its educated and most fore them. They must take up white ing of the process described in this intelligent people robs the village of collar and skilled labour jobs in in paper. creasing numbers. The process has its best talent and slows down econo (Concluded) mic and social progress has no relev begun already — recent increase in ance in this situation. As stated the number of Harijan young men go earlier the major role of emigration ing into the armed forces is an indi has been to provide opportunities for cator — and will gather momentum as gainful employment to people who had education spreads among the Harijans. Fertiliser Corporation only a limited role in the economic Already, the more advanced and pros system of the village and to bring perous families among Harijans are WITH the completion of four ferti into the village money, new ideas, new those in which skilled work or white lizer projects, which are at present techniques and higher aspirations. This collar service, or other non-agricultural under implementation, the Fertilizer contribution of emigration has been pursuits, is an important source of Corporation of India is likely to de far more significant than any loss contribution. As the number of such velop in another three years an over caused to the village by migration of families increases, the economic and all production capacity of 637,000 its educated young men. social levels of the group will rise. tonnes of nitrogen and 153,500 tonnes of phosphate. The Corporation has now under it two operating units, namely, the Sindri fertilizer factorv in Bihar and the Nangal fertilizer factory CONCLUSION in the Punjab. The four fertilizer pro GAINS OF PROGRESS AND THE WEAKER This paper has been concerned pri jects under implementation are at SECTIONS marily with describing technological Trombay in Maharashtra, Namrup in It has been explained above that change in agriculture. Certain other Assam, Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh the gains of recent economic progress aspects of change, e g in levels of and Durgapur in West Bengal. have not been shared eqally by all living, education, health and attitudes sections of the village community and of people, have also been described The production of the Sindri fertiliz that the Harijans and other artisans briefly, primarily with a view to seeing er factory is to be stepped up by in in particular have not benefited ad the relation between them and change stallation of additional lean gas gener equately from such progress. These in agriculture. Perhaps the most ators for which orders have been plac groups have made some economic significant conclusion emerging from ed and by procurement of better grade gains undoubtedly, but they are much the paper is that change in agricultural gypsum. The total production of am smaller than those made by the J at techniques is part of a larger change monium sulphate of this factory dur cultivators and the Mistris. The process, which affects many aspects of ing April-December, 1964 was 223,960 different levels of living of the differ the life of the villager, and also the tonnes. The expansion plants produc ent castes and groups in the village is entire region. Change in agriculture is ed during April-December, 1964, much larger today than it was a gene but one aspect of the process of eco 33,593 tonnes of double salt and 12,682 ration ago, simply because conveniences nomic growth in Central Punjab. tonnes of urea. like electricity and hand-pumps in the Further; it is necessary to mention homes or durable consumer goods like that what we have described here is During the period April to Decem bicycles and sewing machines which the beginning of a process of techno ber, 1964, the Nangal factory produced the Jats and the Mistris have in con logical change. It should gather 282,319 tonnes of calcium ammonium siderable numbers and which the momentum in future and produce nitrate against 280,435 tonnes during Harijans do not have, were not avail larger and more important changes — the corresponding period in the pie- able earlier. Moreover, from the intensive use of chemical fertilisers vious year. The production of heavy (limited) data on earnings of Harijans and pesticides, use of small tractors, water in the factory was 8,421 kg dur given earlier, it would appear that increasing emphasis on specialised ing the period. For the fourth year in increase in agricultural productivity farming (poultry keeping, dairying, succession, this factory is expected to has not been accompanied by a pro horticulture), and change in attitudes exceed its production target. 780