Preliminary Exam Reading List Updated Spring 2021

Criminological Theory Readings Overview Cullen, Francis T., John Paul Wright, and Kristie R. Belvins. 2017. Taking Stock: The State of Criminological Theory. Routledge. (ORDERED)

Crime Data & Trends Cantor, David and James P. Lynch. 2000. “Self-Report Surveys as Measures of and Criminal Victimization.” Criminal 4: 85-138. Thornberry, T.P., & Krohn, M.D. 2000. “The self-report method for measuring crime and delinquency.” Measurement & Analysis of Crime and Justice 4:33-83. Blumstein, Alfred and Richard Rosenfeld. 2008. “Factors Contributing to U.S. Crime Trends.” Pp.13-44 in Understanding Crime Trends: Workshop Report. National Academy Press. James, Nathan. 2008. How Crime in the United States is Measured. Congressional Research Service. Baumer, E.P., & Wolff, K.T. 2014. “Evaluating contemporary crime drop(s) in America, New York City, and many other places.” Justice Quarterly 31(1):5-38.

Classical/ Piliavin, Irving, Rosemary Gartner, Craig Thornton, and Ross L. Matsueda. 1986.“Crime, Deterrence, and Rational Choice.” American Sociological Review 51:101-119 Wright, Richard & Scott Decker. 1997. Armed Robbers in Action. Northeastern University Press. (HV6658 .W75 1997) Sitern, A.H., & Applegate, B.K. 2012. “Testing deterrence theory with offenders: The empirical validity of Stafford and Warr’s model.” Deviant Behavior 33:492-506. Duriez, S.A., Cullen, F.T., & Manchak, S.M. 2014. “Is project HOPE creating a false sense of hope? A case study in correctional popularity.” Federal Probation 78(2):57-75. Pogarsky, G., Roche, S.P., & Pickett, J.T. 2017. “Heuristics and biases, rational choice, and sanction perceptions.” Criminology 55(1):85-111.

Social Disorganization Theory Toby, Jackson. 1957. “Social Disorganization and Stake in Conformity: Complementary Factors in the Predatory Behavior of Hoodlums.” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 48: 12-17. C Shaw, Clifford and Henry McKay. 1969. and Urban Areas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (HV9069 .S52 1969) Kasarda, John D. and Morris Janowitz. 1974. “Community Attachment in Mass Society” American Sociological Review 39(3): 328-339. Krohn, Marvin D. 1986. “The Web of Conformity: A Network Approach to the Explanation of Delinquent Behavior.” Social Problems 33:581-593. Stark, Rodney. 1987. “Deviant Places: A Theory of the Ecology of Crime.” Criminology 25: 893-909.

McNulty, T. 2001. “Assessing the race-violence relationship at the macro level: The assumption of racial invariance and the problem of restricted distributions.” Criminology 39(2):467- 490. Morenoff, Jeffrey D., Robert J. Sampson, and Stephen W. Raudenbush. 2001. “Neighborhood Inequality, , and the Spatial Dynamics of Urban Violence.” Criminology 39(3): 517-558. Warner, Barbara D. 2003. “The Role of Attenuated Culture in Social Disorganization Theory” Criminology 41(1):73-98. Kubrin, Charis E. and Ronald Weitzer. 2003. “New Directions in Social Disorganization Theory” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 40(4):374-402. Sampson, R.J. 2012. Great American City: Chicago and the Enduring Neighborhood Effect. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (F548.3 .S26 2012)

Differential Association & Social Learning

Sykes, Gresham M. and David Matza. 1957. “Techniques of Neutralization: A Theory of Delinquency” American Sociological Review 22(6):667-670. Burgess, Robert L. and Ronald L. Akers, Ronald. 1966. “A - reinforcement theory of criminal behavior.” Social Problems 14: 128-147. Scully, Diana and Joseph Marolla. 1984. “Convicted Rapist Vocabulary of Motive: Excuses and Justifications.” Social Problems 31(5):530-544. Piquero, N.L., Tibbetts, S.G., & Blakenship, M.B. 2005. “Examining the role of differential association and techniques of neutralization in explaining .” Deviant Behavior 26:159-188. Kraeger, D.A. 2007. “Unnecessary roughness? School sports, peer networks, and male adolescent violence.” American Sociological Review 72(5):705-724. Akers, R.L. 2008. Social learning and social structure. A general theory of crime and , 2nd edition. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. (HM291 .A4214 1998)

Pratt, T.C., Cullen, F.T., Sellers, C.S., Winfree, Jr., T., Madensen, T.D., Daigle, L.E., Fearn, N.E., & Gau, J.M. 2010. “The empirical status of social learning theory: A meta- analysis.” Justice Quarterly 27(6):765-802.

Social & Self Control Theories Hirschi, Travis. 1969. Causes of Delinquency. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. (HV9096.U5 H56) Black, Donald. 1983. “Crime as Social Control” American Sociological Review 48(1):34-45. Hirschi, Travis. 1986. “On the Compatibility of Rational Choice and Social Control Theories of Crime.” Pp.105-118 in The Reasoning Criminal, edited by Cornish and Clarke. Gottfredson, Michael R. and Travis Hirschi. 1990. A General Theory of Crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. (HV6018 .G68 1990) LaGrange, T.C., & Silverman, R.A. 1999. “Low self-control and opportunity: Testing the general theory of crime as an explanation for gender differences in delinquency.” Criminology 37(1):41-72. Piquero, Nicole and Alex Piquero. 2006. “Control Balance and Exploitative Corporate Crime” Criminology 44(2):397-430.

Anomie/Strain Theories Merton, R.K. 1938. “Social structure and .” American Sociological Review 3:672-682. Cloward, Richard A. 1959. “Illegitimate Means, Anomie, and Deviant Behavior.” American Sociological Review 24(2):164-176. Cullen, Francis. 1988. “Were Cloward and Ohlin Strain Theorists? Delinquency and Opportunity Revisited.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 25(3):214-241. Hagedorn, John M. 1994. “Homeboys, Dope Fiends, Legits, and New Jacks.” Criminology 32(2):197-219. Chamblin, M.B., & Cochran, J.K. 1995. “Assessing Messner & Rosenfeld’s Institutional Anomie Theory: A Partial Test.” Criminology 33(3):411-429. Messner, Steven F. and Richard Rosenfeld. 2007. Crime and the American Dream. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. (ORDERED) Unnever, J.D. 2014. “A theory of African American offending: A test of core propositions.” Race & Justice 4(14):1-27.

General Strain Broidy, L. & Agnew, R. 1997. “Gender & Crime: A general strain theory perspective.” Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency 34(3):275-306. Agnew, Robert. 2006. Pressured into Crime: An Overview of General Strain Theory. California: Roxbury Press. (HV6018 .A35 2006) Kaufman, J. M. (2009). “Gendered responses to serious strain: The argument for a general strain theory of deviance.” Justice Quarterly 36(3):410-444.

Subcultural Theories Cohen, A.K. 1955. Delinquent boys: The Culture of the gang. Free Press. (HV9069 .C53) Miller, W.B. 1958. “Lower class culture as a generating milieu of gang delinquency.’ Journal of Social Issues 14(3):5-19. C Anderson, Elijah. 1999. Code of the Streets. University of Chicago Press. Chicago. (F158.9 .N4 A52 1999) Brezina, T., Agnew, R., Cullen, F.T., & Wright, J.P. 2004. “Subculture of violence thesis and its contribution to youth violence research.” Youth Violence & Juvenile Justice 2(4):303- 328. Jones, N. 2010. Between Good and Ghetto: African American Girls and Inner City Violence. Rutgers. (ORDERED)

Labeling Theory/Reintegrative Shaming Becker, Howard S. 1963. Outsiders. New York: Free Press. (HV5825 .B4 1997) Chambliss, W.J. 1973. “The saints and the roughnecks.” Society 11(1):24-31. Braithewaite, J. 1989. Crime, Shame, & Reintegration. Cambridge University Press. (HV9275 .B73 1989) Miethe, Terance D. and Richard C. McCorkle. 1997. “Gang Membership and Criminal Processing: A Test of the ‘Master Status’ Concept.” Justice Quarterly 14(3):407-427. Bernburg, J.G., Krohn, M.D., & Rivera, C.J. 2006. “Official labeling, criminal embeddedness, and subsequent delinquency.” Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency 43(1):67-88. Rios, V.M. 2011. Punished: Policing the Lives of Black & Latino Boys. NYE Press; New York. (ORDERED) Feminist Theories Chesney-Lind, M. 1989. “Girls’ crime and woman’s place: Toward a feminist model of female delinquency.” Crime & Delinquency 35(1):5–29. C Steffensmeier, D., & Allan, E. 1996. “Gender and crime: Toward a gendered theory of female offending.” Annual Review of Sociology 22:58-487 Britton, D.M. 1997. “Gendered organizational logic: Policy and practice in men’s and women’s .” Gender & Society 11(6):796-818. McCarthy, Bill, John Hagan, and Todd S. Woodward. 1999. “In the Company of Women: Structure and Agency in a Revised Power-Control Theory of Gender and Delinquency.” Criminology 37(4):761-789. C Burgess-Proctor, A. 2006. “Intersections of race, class, gender, and crime: Future directions for feminist criminology.” Feminist Criminology 1(1):27-47. Rader, Nicole E. and Stacy H. Haynes. 2011. “Gendered Fear of Crime Socialization: An Extension of Akers’s Social Learning Theory.” Feminist Criminology 6(4):291-307. Jones, Natalie J., Shelley Brown, Kayla Wanamaker, and Leigh Greiner. “A Quantitative Exploration of Gendered Pathways to Crime in a Sample of Male and Female Juvenile Offenders.” Feminist Criminology 9(2):113-136. Wattanaporn, K. A., & Holtfreter, K. 2014. “The impact of feminist pathways research on gender-responsive policy and practice.” Feminist Criminology 9(3):191–207.

Victimization and Routine Activity Theory Cohen, L.E. & Felson, M. 1979. “Social change and crime rate trends: A Routine activity approach.” American Sociological Review 44:588-608. Lauritsen, J. L., Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. 1991. “The link between offending and victimization among adolescents.” Criminology 29(2):265-292. Schwartz, M. D., & Pitts, V. I. 1995. “Exploring a feminist routine activities approach to explaining sexual assault.” Justice Quarterly 12:9-31. Finkelhor, D., & Asdigian, N. L. 1996. “Risk factors for youth victimization: Beyond a lifestyles/routine activities theory approach.” Violence and Victims 11:3-19. Osgood, Wayne D. Janet K. Wilson, Jerald G. Bachman, Patrick M. O’Malley, and Lloyd D. Johnston. 1996. “Routine activities and individual deviant behavior.” American Sociological Review 61:635-655. Wittebrood, K., & Nieuwbeerta, P. 2000. “Criminal victimization during one’s lifecourse: The effects of previous victimization and patterns of routine activities.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 37(1):91-122 Schwartz, Martin D., Walter DeKeseredy, David Tait, and Shahid Alvi. 2001. “Male Peer Support and a Feminist Routine Activities Theory: Understanding Sexual Assault on the College Campus.” Justice Quarterly 18(3):623-649. Outlaw, M., Ruback, R. B., & Britt, C. L. 2002. Repeat and multiple victimizations: The role of individual and contextual factors. Violence and Victims 17:187-204. Like-Haislip, T.Z., & Warren, P.Y. 2011. “Routine inequality: Violent victimization at the intersection of race and ethnicity among females.” Violence & Victims 26(1):88-102.

Developmental/Life Course Theories Moffit, T.E. 1993. “Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy.” Psychological Review 100(4):674-701. Giordano, P.C., Cernkovich, S.A., & Rudolph, J.L. 2002. “Gender, crime, and desistance: Toward a theory of cognitive transformation.” American Journal of Sociology 107(4):990-1064. Laub, J.H., & Sampson, R.J. 2003. Shared Beginnings, Divergent Lives: Delinquent Boys to Age 70. Harvard University Press. (HV9069 .L28 2003) Piquero, Alex R., David P. Farrington, and Alfred Blumstein. 2003. “The Criminal Career Paradigm.” Crime and Justice: A Review of Research 30: 359-506. Sampson, R.J., & Laub, J.H. 2005. “A life course view of the development of crime.” ANNALS AAPSS 602:12-45.

Integrated Theories Elliott, Delbert S., Suzanne Ageton, and Rachelle Canter. 1979. “ An Integrated Theoretical Perspective on Delinquent Behavior.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 16(1):3-27. Agnew, Robert. (2005). Why Do Criminals Offend? A General Theory of Crime & Delinquency. Oxford. (ORDERED) Farrington, D.P. & Welsh, B.C. (2007). Saving Children from a Life of Crime: Early Risk Factors and Effective Interventions. Oxford. (ORDERED)

Criminal Justice Readings

GENERAL Black, D. J. 1976. The behavior of law. New York: Academic Press. (K369 .B5532)

Tyler, T. R., & Huo, Y. J. 2002. Trust in the law: Encouraging public cooperation with the police and courts. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. (HV8138 .T95 2002)

C Reiman, J. H., & Leighton, P. 2012. The rich get richer and the poor get : Ideology, class, and criminal justice. Boston, MA: Pearson. (ORDERED)

Walker, S. 2015. Sense and nonsense about crime, drugs, and communities (8th ed.). Stamford, CT: Cengage. (ORDERED)

POLICING Kelling, G. L., Pate, T., Dieckman, D., & Brown, C. E. 1974. The Kansas City preventive patrol experiment: A summary report. Washington, DC: Police Foundation.

Larson, R. C. 1975. “What happened to patrol operations in Kansas City? A review of the Kansas City preventive patrol experiment.” Journal of Criminal Justice 3:267-297.

Wilson, J. Q., & Kelling, G. L. 1982. “Broken windows: The police and neighborhood safety.” The Atlantic Monthly 249:29-38.

Worden, R. E. 1989. “Situational and attitudinal explanations of police behavior: A theoretical reappraisal and empirical assessment.” Law & Society Review 23(4):667-711.

Klinger, D. A. 1994. “Demeanor or crime? Why “hostile” citizens are more likely to be arrested.” Criminology 32(3):475-493.

Herbert, S. 1998. “Police subculture reconsidered.” Criminology 36(2): 343-369.

Alpert, G. P., & MacDonald, J. M. 2001. “Police use of force: An analysis of organizational characteristics.” Justice Quarterly 18(2):393-409.

Engel, R. S., & Worden, R. E. 2003. “Police officers’ attitudes, behavior, and supervisory influences: An analysis of problem solving.” Criminology 41(1):131-166.

Silver, J. R., & Pickett, J. T. 2015. “Toward a better understanding of politicized policing attitudes: Conflicted conservatism and support for police use of force.” Criminology 53(4):650-676.

C Davis, A. 2017. Policing the black man: Arrest, prosecution, and imprisonment. New York: Vintage Books. (ORDERED)

Lum, C., & Nagin, D. S. 2017. “Reinventing American policing.” Crime and Justice 46:339- 393.

Sherman, L. 2018. “Policing domestic violence 1967-2017.” Criminology & Public Policy 17(2): 453-465.

COURTS Stolzenberg, L., & D’Alessio, S. J. 1994. “Sentencing and unwarranted disparity: An empirical assessment of the long-term impact of sentencing guidelines in Minnesota.” Criminology 32(2):301-310.

Tonry, M. 1996. Sentencing matters. New York: Oxford University Press. (KF9685 .T66 1996)

Britt, C. L. 2000. “Social context and racial disparities in punishment decisions.” Justice Quarterly 17(4):707-732.

Fisher, G. 2003. Plea bargaining's triumph: A history of plea bargaining in America. Stanford: Stanford University Press. (ORDERED)

Haynes, S. H., Ruback, R. B., & Cusick, G. R. 2010. “Courtroom workgroups and sentencing: The effects of similarity, proximity, and stability.” Crime & Delinquency 56(1):126-161.

Harris, A., Evans, H., & Beckett, K. 2011. “Courtesy stigma and monetary sanctions: Toward a socio-cultural theory of punishment.” American Sociological Review 76(2): 234-264.

Tonry, M. 2014. “Remodeling American sentencing: A ten-step blueprint for moving past mass incarceration.” Criminology & Public Policy 13(4): 503-533.

C Claire, M., & Winter, A. S. 2016. “How judges think about racial disparities: Situational decision-making in the criminal justice system.” Criminology 54(2): 332-359.

Wright, R. F. 2017. “Reinventing American prosecution systems.” Crime and Justice 46: 395- 439.

Kohler-Hausmann, Issa. (2019). Misdemeanorland: Criminal courts and social control in an age of broken windows policing. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (ORDERED)

JUVENILE JUSTICE Feld, B. C. 1997. “Abolish the juvenile court: Youthfulness, criminal responsibility, and sentencing policy.” Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology 88(1): 68-136.

Fass, S. M., & Pi, C.-R. 2002. “Getting tough on juvenile crime: An analysis of costs and benefits.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 39(4):363-399.

Bernard, T. J., & Kurlychek, M. C. 2010. The cycle of juvenile justice (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. (ORDERED)

Zane, S. N., Welsh, B. C., & Mears, D. P. 2016. “Juvenile transfer and the specific deterrence hypothesis: Systematic review and meta-analysis.” Criminology & Public Policy 15: 901–925.

CORRECTIONS Goffman, E. 1961. Asylums: Essays on the social situation of mental patients and other inmates. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. (RC439 .G58 1962)

Morris, N., & Tonry, M. H. 1991. Between prison and probation: Intermediate punishments in a rational sentencing system. New York: Oxford University Press. (HV9304 .M67 1991)

Logan, C. H., & Gaes, G. G. 1993. “Meta-analysis and the rehabilitation of punishment.” Justice Quarterly 10(2):245-263.

Gendreau, P., Little, T., & Goggin, C. 1996. “A meta-analysis of the predictors of adult offender : What works!” Criminology 34(4):575-607.

Bailey, W. C. 1998. “Deterrence, brutalization, and the death penalty: Another examination of Oklahoma's return to capital punishment.” Criminology 36(4):711-733.

Visher, C., & Travis, J. 2003. “Transitions from prison to community: Understanding individual pathways.” Annual Review of Sociology 29: 89-113.

Simon, J. 2007. Governing through crime: How the war on crime transformed American democracy and created a culture of fear. New York: Oxford University Press. (ORDERED)

C Alexander, Michelle. 2010. The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. New York: New Press. (HV9950 .A437 2012)

Nagin, D. S. 2013. “Deterrence in the twenty-first century.” Crime and Justice 42(1): 199- 263.

Cullen, F. T., Jonson, C. L., & Mears, D. P. 2017. “Reinventing community corrections.” Crime & Justice 46(1): 27-93.

Rhine, E. E., Petersilia, J., & Reitz, K. R. 2017. “The future of parole release.” Crime and Justice 46: 279-338.

MacKenzie, D. J., & Lattimore, P. K. 2018. “To rehabilitate or not to rehabilitate: That is the question for corrections!” Criminology & Public Policy 17(2): 355-377.

C Western, B. (2018). Homeward: Life in the year after prison. New York: Russell Sage. (ORDERED) Correlates of Crime Readings

Race & Racism

Steffensmeier, D., Ulmer, J., & Kramer, J. 1998. “The interaction of race, gender, and age in criminal sentencing: The punishment cost of being young, black, and male.” Criminology 36(1): 763-798.

T Anderson, Elijah. 1999. Code of the Streets. University of Chicago Press. Chicago. (F158.9 .N4 A52 1999)

Pager, D. 2003. “The mark of a criminal record.” American Journal of Sociology 108(5): 937- 975.

CJ Alexander, Michelle. 2010. The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. New York: New Press. (HV9950 .A437 2012)

Hawkins, Darnell F. 2011. “Things Fall Apart: Revisiting Race and Ethnic Differences in Criminal Violence Amidst a Crime Drop.” Race and Justice 1(1): 3-48.

CJ Claire, M., & Winter, A. S. 2016. “How judges think about racial disparities: Situational decision-making in the criminal justice system.” Criminology 54(2): 332-359.

Legewie, J. 2016. “Racial profiling and use of force in police stops: How local events trigger periods of increased discrimination.” American Journal of Sociology 122(2): 379-424.

Morris, Monique W. 2016. Pushout: The of Black Girls in School. New York: New Press. (LC2731 .M59 2016)

CJ Davis, A. (Ed.) (2017). Policing the black man: Arrest, prosecution, and imprisonment. New York: Vintage Books. (ORDERED)

Gender

Daly and Chesney-Lind. 1988. “Feminism and Criminology.” Justice Quarterly 5: 497-538 538.

T Steffensmeier, Darrell and Emilie Allan. 1996. “Gender and Crime: Toward a Gendered Theory of Female Offending.” Annual Review of Sociology 22:459-487.

Miller, Jody. 2001. One of the Guys: Girls, Gangs, and Gender. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press. (HV9104 .M55 2001)

Heimer, Karen. 2006. Gender and Crime: Patterns in Victimization and Offending. New York: New York University Press. (ORDERED) Lauritsen, Janet L. and Robin J. Schaum. 2004. “The Social Ecology of Violence Against Women.” Criminology 42(2): 323-357.

T Burgess – Proctor, A. 2006. “Intersections of Race, Class, Gender and Crime: Future Directions for Feminist Criminology.” Feminist Criminology 1: 27-47.

Ogle, R. and C. Batton. 2009. “Revisiting Patriarchy: Its Conceptualization and Operationalization in Criminology.” 17(3): 159-182.

Button, Deeanna and Meredith G.F. Worthen. 2014. “General Strain Theory for LGBQ and SSB Youth: The Importance of Intersectionality in the Future of Feminist Criminology.” Feminist Criminology 9(4):270-297.

Class

T Shaw, Clifford and Henry McKay. 1969. Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (HV9069 .S52 1969)

Quinney, Richard. 1977. Class, State, and Crime. New York: Longman Publishing. (HV6171 .Q54 1977)

Braithewaite, John. 1981. “White collar crime.” Annual Review of Sociology 11:1-25.

Hagan, John, John Simpson, and A.R. Gillis. 1987. “Class in the Household: A Power-Control Theory of Gender and Delinquency.” American Journal of Sociology 92:788-816.

CJ Reiman, J. H., & Leighton, P. 2012. The rich get richer and the poor get prison: Ideology, class, and criminal justice. Boston, MA: Pearson. (ORDERED)

Gilmore, Ruth Wilson. 2007. Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California. Berkeley CA: University of California Press. (ORDERED)

Wacquant, Loic. 2009. Punishing the Poor: The Neoliberal Government of Social Insecurity. Durham: Duke University Press. (ORDERED)

Wakefield, Sara and Christopher Uggen. 2010. “Incarceration and Stratification.” Annual Review of Sociology 36(1): 387-406.

Elliott, S., & Reid, M. 2019. “Low-income black mothers parenting adolescents in the mass incarceration era: The long reach of criminalization.” American Sociological Review 84(2): 197–219.

Other

Rosenhan, D. L. “On being sane in insane places.” Science 179: 250-258.

Uggen, Christopher. 2000. “Work as a Turning Point in the Life Course of Criminals: A Duration Model of Age, Employment, and Recidivism.” American Sociological Review 65:529-546.

Uggen, C., & Manza, J.. 2002. “Democratic contraction? The political consequences of felon disenfranchisement in the United States.” American Sociological Review 67: 777-803.

Mauer, M., & Chesney-Lind, M. 2003. Invisible punishment: The collateral consequences of mass imprisonment. New York: The New Press. (ORDERED)

Pettit, Becky and Bruce Western. 2004. “Mass Imprisonment and the Life Course: Race and Class Inequality in U.S. Incarceration.” American Sociological Review 69:151-169.

Huebner, Beth. 2005. “The Effect of Incarceration on Marriage and Work Over the Life Course.” Justice Quarterly 22:281-303.

CJ Western, B. 2018. Homeward: Life in the year after prison. New York: Russell Sage. (ORDERED)

T: this reading is also listed in the Theory section.

CJ: this reading is also listed in the Criminal Justice section.

C: this reading is also listed in the Correlates section.

***108 articles, 39 books***