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PLANKTON DIVERSITY IN TEMPORARY WATER HABITAT IN UPEH GULING, TAMAN NEGARA JOHOR, ENDAU ROMPIN, MALAYSIA
USMAN ALHASSAN GABI
A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of Master of Science
Faculty of Science, Technology and Human Development Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
AUGUST 2015
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To my beloved father and mother
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the name of Allah the Most Gracious the Most Merciful, All praise to Allah, we seek His aid and His assistance, and ask His forgiveness and we seek refuge in Allah from the evil of our souls and from the evil of our actions. Whomever Allah guides, no one will be able to mislead him. Whomever He leads astray, nobody can guide him. I thank Allah for the strengths and His blessing bestowed on me in completing this thesis. May His peace and blesses be upon our noble Prophet, Muhammad (S.A.W), his households, companions and those that followed his footsteps since and up till the last day. I wish to thank my supervisor, Dr. Hazel Monica Matias Peralta, for her unquantifiable patience and for sharing her expertise, for all the useful and critical suggestion required. May Allah continued to increase her in knowledge and bless her family. My thanks and appreciations also go to Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) for giving me scholarship in order to undertake this project effectively. I will not forget to mention, Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida University (IBBU) for giving me the opportunity, support and courage in attending my master’s degree in UTHM. My appreciation goes to my beloved family (Abdullahi Muhammad, Muhammad Al-amin, Hauwa Sulaiman, Amina Lami Alhassan and Zainabs) for their love, patience, encouragement and understanding and to my brothers and sisters, friends and well-wishers for their prayers to see my dreams is actualised. May Allah reward them abundantly, Amin.
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ABSTRACT
The investigation of plankton diversity and their distribution in relation to the environmental conditions of a rare temporary water habitat (rock pool) in Upeh Guling, Endau Rompin, Johor, Malaysia, was undertaken. Samples were collected on a monthly basis for a period of one year. However, due to flash flooding during rainy season, sample collection was only possible for a period of six months (between March and September 2013). Plankton samples were collected from four stations representing two different conditions of the sampling area: (1) river fed rock pools which receive water primarily from the river (2) rain fed rock pools, which receive water primarily from rainfall. Physico-chemical parameters: temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen were measured in situ. A total of 122 species of phytoplankton were recorded with 116 species at rain fed rock pools and 84 species at river fed rock pools. The most diverse phytoplankton genus was Staurastrum with 10 species. On the other hand, a total of 49 species of zooplankton were recorded with 48 species at rain fed rock pools and 40 species at river fed rock pools. The most diverse zooplankton genus was Lecane with 11 species in total. For both the phytoplankton and zooplankton, the rain fed rock pools recorded higher (P<0.05) variation in total species diversity and density, compared with river fed rock pools. High species diversity index in both rain fed and river fed rock pools, ranging from H'=3.14-H'=3.56 as a result of long period of inundation which suggested healthy condition of the ecosystem. Similarly, the environmental parameters (24.50 – 29.20 °C, 4.2 – 6.9 mg/L and 5.3 – 8.2 unit) of both rock pools were within the favourable range and suitable for organisms conservation. The canonical correspondence analysis ordination revealed that the water depth, which was controlled by unexpected rain fall, was the major factor in both rock pools that contributed to plankton diversities. The months of June, July and August recorded highest species similarity in composition and distribution due to the pools stability in these months. These all favours the proliferation of diverse species of phytoplankton and zooplankton.
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ABSTRAK
Kajian mengenai kepelbagaian plankton dan taburannya yang berhubungkait dengan keadaan persekitaran habitat air sementara (kolam batu) di Upeh Guling, Endau Rompin, Malaysia telah dijalankan. Pengambilan sampel telah dilakukan setiap bulan bagi tempoh satu tahun. Walau bagaimanapun, disebabkan oleh banjir kilat semasa musim hujan, pengumpulan sampel hanya boleh dilakukan untuk tempoh enam bulan (antara bulan Mac dan September 2013). Sampel plankton telah dikutip daripada empat stesen yang mewakili dua keadaan kawasan persampelan yang berbeza: (1) kolam batu sumber sungai yang mendapat air terutamanya dari sungai (2) kolam batu sumber hujan, yang mendapat air terutamanya daripada hujan. Bacaan parameter fiziko-kimia: suhu, pH, oksigen terlarut telah diambil secara in situ. Sejumlah 122 spesies fitoplankton telah direkodkan, dengan 116 spesies di kolam batu sumber hujan dan 84 spesies di kolam batu sumber sungai. Fitoplankton yang paling pelbagai adalah dari genus Staurastrum iaitu sebanyak 10 spesies. Sebaliknya, sejumlah 49 spesies zooplankton telah direkodkan dengan 48 spesies di kolam batu sumber hujan dan 40 spesies di kolam batu sumber sungai. Zooplankton yang paling pelbagai adalah dari genus Lecane iaitu sebanyak 11 spesies. Bagi kedua-dua fitoplankton dan zooplankton, kolam batu sumber hujan merekodken (P <0.05) perubahan yang lebih tinggi dalam jumlah kepelbagaian spesies dan ketumpatan, berbanding dengan sungai kolam batu. Indeks kepelbagaian species yang tinggi dalam kedua-dua hujan dan sungai makan kolam batu, bermula dari H' = 3.14-H' = 3.56 akibat tempoh masapanjang banjir yang menyunbang kepada keadaan baik ekosistem. Begitu juga, parameter alam sekitar (24,50-29,20 °C, 4,2-6,9 mg/L dan 5,3-8,2 unit) daripada kedua-dua kolam batu berada dalam julat yang baik dan sesuai untuk pemuliharaan organisma. Analisis kanun penyelarasan bersuraf ternadap kedalaman air, yang dikawal oleh taburan hujan yang tidak dijangka, merupakan faktor utama dalam kedua-dua kolam batu yang menyumbang kepada kepelbagaian plankton. Bulan Jun, Julai dan Ogos mencatatkan persamaan species yang tinggi dalam komposisi dan taburan kerana kestabilan kolam dalam bulan tersebut. Hal ini menggalakkan pertumpuhan pelbagai spesies fitoplankton dan zooplankton. ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE Page DECLARATION ii DEDICATION v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT vi ABSTRACT vii ABSTRAK viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ix LIST OF TABLES xi LIST OF PLATE xiii LIST OF FIGURES xiv LIST OF APPENDIX xv CHAPTER 1 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Statement of the problem 4 1.3 Importance of study 5 1.4 Objectives 6 CHAPTER 2 7 LITERATURE REVIEW 7 2.1 Temporary Water habitats 7 2.2 Characteristic of freshwater rock pools 8 2.3 The Importance of Temporary Water Habitats 9 2.4 Inhabitants of Temporary Water Habitats 9 2.5 Plankton diversity of temporary water habitats 11 2.6 Species diversity in rock pool 13 CHAPTER 3 15 MATERIALS AND METHOD 15 3.1 Study Site 15 3.2 Field sampling 15 3.3 Laboratory analysis 18 x
3.3.1 Sample processing 18 3.3.2 Identification and enumeration 18 3.4 Data analyses 20 CHAPTER 4 21 RESULTS 21 4.1 Phytoplankton Composition and 21 abundance 4.2 Zooplankton composition and 30 abundance 4.3 Diversity indices 37 4.4 Environmental variation 38 4.5 Environmental relationship 39 4.6 Similarity of plankton distribution 46 CHAPTER 5 52 DISCUSSION 52 5.1 Phytoplankton composition and abundance 52 5.2 Zooplankton composition and abundance 58 5.3 Diversity indices 62 5.4 Environmental variation 64 5.5 Environmental relationship 64 5.6 Similarity of plankton distribution 67 CONCLUSION 68 RECOMMENDATION 69 REFERENCES 70 APPENDIX 87
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LIST OF TABLES
Table page
2.1 Number of planktonic species inhabitants of temporary rock 14 pools recorded from previous studies
4.1 Average phytoplankton density in rain fed rock pools and river 22 fed rock pools
4.2 Phytoplankton species distribution in rain fed and river fed rock 23 pools (+ denotes presence; - denotes absence)
4.3 The phytoplankton monthly species abundance significant 30 variation between rain fed rock pools and river fed rock pools. Superscripts with the asterix “*” are significant while those without the asterix are insignificant
4.4 Average zooplankton density in rain fed rock pools and river fed 30 rock pools
4.5 Zooplankton species distribution in rain fed and river fed rock 32 pools (+ denotes presence; - denotes absence)
4.6 The zooplankton monthly species abundance significant variation 37 between rain fed rock pools and river fed rock pools. Superscripts with the asterix “*” are significant while those without the asterix are insignificant
4.7 Diversity indices (Average S.E) of phytoplankton and 38 zooplankton in the rock pools. Data in row with asterix “*” denotes significance at p <0.05
4.8 Pearson Correlation of physico-chemical parameter in rain fed 39 and river fed rock pools
4.9 The monthly summary of physico-chemical parameters 39
4.10 Relationships between phytoplankton abundance and 40 physicochemical parameters in rain fed rock pool
4.11 Relationships between phytoplankton abundance and 41 physicochemical parameters in river fed rock pools
4.12 Relationships between zooplankton abundance and physico- 43 chemical parameters in rain fed
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4.13 Relationships between zooplankton abundance and physico- 44 chemical parameters in river fed rock pools
4.14 The monthly species abundance of highest similarities revealed 51 not significant different from monthly species abundance of less similarities with P<0.05.
5.1 Comparison of the number of phytoplankton species recorded in 53 the present study with other studies
5.2 Comparison of the number of zooplankton species recorded in 56 the present study with other studies
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LIST OF PLATE
Plate Page 3. 1 Sampling stations (1-2 –rain-fed rock pools; 3-4 – river fed rock 17 pools) at Upeh Guling, TNJER
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
3.1 A map showing the location of the study site in TNJER 16
4.1 Variation in composition (%) of phytoplankton groups from the 28 rain fed and river fed rock pools
4.2 Phytoplankton group density (cells/mL, in logarithmic scale) 29 variation according to sampling month between two rock pools (rain fed rock pools and river fed rock pools)
4.3 Variation in percent abundance (%) of zooplankton groups 35 from the rain fed and river fed rock pools
4.4 Zooplankton density (individuals/L, in logarithmic scale) 36 variation according to sampling month between two rock pools (rain fed rock pools and river fed rock pools)
4.5 Canonical correspondence analysis illustrating the relationship 42 between phytoplankton composition and physico-chemical parameters in the river fed and rain fed rock pools, Upeh Guling, Endau Rompin
4.5 Canonical correspondence analysis illustrating the relationship 45 between zooplankton composition and physico-chemical parameters in the river fed and rain fed rock pools of Upeh Guling, Endau Rompin
4.6.1 The Cluster analysis of phytoplankton species abundance from 47 river fed rock pools (RVF)
4.6.2 The Cluster analysis of phytoplankton species abundance from 48 rain fed rock pools (RNF)
4.7.1 The Cluster analysis of zooplankton species abundance from 49 river fed rock pools (RVF)
4.7.2 The Cluster analysis of zooplankton species abundance from 54 rain fed rock pools (RNF)
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LIST OF APPENDIX
Appendix Page 1 Taxonomic classification of phytoplankton from rare 86 temporary water habitats in Upeh Guling, TNJER, Malaysia 2 Taxonomic classification of zooplankton from rare temporary 93 water habitats in Upeh Guling, TNJER, Malaysia 3 Phytoplankton of Upeh Guling Rock pools 97 4 Zooplankton of Upeh Guling Rock pools 110
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Temporary water habitat is a type of freshwater that experience a recurrence of dry phase of different length which may be periodical. Temporary water habitats, which include intermittent streams and ponds, seasonal pools, puddles and water-retaining structures of rock formation (rock pools), drift wood and hollow forest logs, can be found throughout the world (Williams, 2005). Its physical and chemical abiotic factors made the habitat special only for species fit to survive and reproduce. Those abiotic factors are habitats morphology, sediment characteristics, nutrient concentration; dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration, hydrogen ion concentration (pH), light availability and temperature (Williams, 1987). Temporary water species are generally well adapted to dealing with water loss. Many species exhibit opportunistic and pioneering traits, and also a range of drought-survival mechanisms, such as dormancy and seed formation (Williams 2005). Temporary water habitats support specialised assemblages and moderate numbers of rare and endemic species (Bratton, 1990; Baskin, 1994; Kalettka, 1996; King, Simovich & Brusca, 1996) which comprise of bacteria, protoctists, vertebrates, fungi, and an abundance of higher and lower organisms (Williams, 2005). Many aquatic species such as algae, bacteria, fungi and invertebrate organisms transform matter and energy into life. Temporary water species are well represented by micro- and macro forms from major taxonomic groups, namely:
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Branchiopoda, Ostracoda, Copepoda, Rotifera, Cladocera, Decapoda and Pericardia (Williams, 2005). Similarly the insects are well represented in this type of water bodies, such as the group Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Trichoptera, and Diptera, especially the Chironomidae, Culicidae, and Ceratopogonidae, (Williams, 2005). Aquatic mites (Hydracarina) are also common in temporary waters along with several fish species which migrate in and out of temporary streams, rivers and floodplains (Welcomme, 1979). Similarly, temporary waters serve as habitat to some rare species of amphibians and also provide important feeding areas for migratory birds (Poiani & Johnson, 1991). The organisms of this habitat are living biomass that becomes food for other organisms like fish. Insects that migrate from this habitat also provide nutrients and energy to the neighbouring forest and sustain terrestrial animals like birds, spiders and lizards. In addition, temporary water are components of landscapes (Nakano & Murakami, 2001; Sabo & Power, 2002; Baxter & Fausch, 2005) and allow their communities to perform important ecological services, such as, improving water quality for consumption, food for commercial fishing, offering leisure and recreation opportunities (Nedeau 2006; Pamela et al., 2013;). According to Tavernini (2008), water fluctuation in temporary pools affects its hydrological features, hence, influenced pools’ colonization and species richness. Likewise, Mahoney, Mort & Taylor, (1990) and Girdner & Larson (1995) noted that hydroperiod is an important determinant of planktonic communities. In temperate regions, the extent of water permanence and the length of the dry phase in temporary waters are usually regulated by snow and rainfall amount, whereas, in tropical areas it is mainly the amount of rainfall (Hanes, Hecht & Stromberg, 1990; Fischer et al., 2000). Williams (2005) believed that trees density/canopy cover may be a controlling agent that influences pond community structure through a possible filtering effect on colonizing species, mostly flying insects. The contributions of temporary waters become even greater with the presence of some biotas like plankton (phytoplankton and zooplankton). Plankton are minute floras or faunas that float, drift or inactively swim against water current. In oligotrophic ecosystem, phytoplankton are the major contributor of biomass and primary productivity (Campbell, 1997). They produce oxygen during photosynthesis, which was estimated on a global scale to be 50% – 60% of all photosynthesis 3 performed (Campbell, 1997). Moreover, they form the base of the food chain in aquatic environments and their diversity and density are generally determined by the existing water quality (Campbell, 1997). Phytoplankton (algae) are used as bio-filters for removal of nutrient and other pollutants from wastewaters, to examine water quality, as indicators of environmental changes, in space technology, and laboratory research system. They are cultivated for the purpose of pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, cosmetics and aquaculture (Christopher, 2008). The zooplankton in the second level, transform food energy synthesized by the phytoplankton to the higher tropic level (Abujam et al., 2011). Moreover, zooplankton is the most vital biotic components affecting mostly the functional aspects of all aquatic ecosystems, via; food chains, food webs, energy flow/transfer and cycling of matter. Different environmental factors that detect the features of water play an essential role on the growth and abundance of zooplankton (Suresh, Thirumala & Ravind, 2011). As such, water quality influences zooplankton abundance, clustering and biomass. Freshwater rock pools (a group of all types of depressions that occur on rocky substrate and periodically hold water) which are found all over the world in all major biomes depends mainly on precipitation for filling. The hydro periods ranging from several days to a whole year and interaction between the climate and geology determined the morphology and hydrology of this habitat (Jocque, Vanschoenwinkel,
& Brendonck, 2010). It experiences daily changes of water temperature, pH and CO2 (Keeley & Zedler, 1998). They have low conductivity and wide range variation of pH (from 4.0-11.00) and temperature from freezing point to 40°C. The uncertain nature of the flooding regime requires high endurable species with adaptation for surviving the dry phase such as such as dormant eggs, resistance larvae or by active migration and recolonization (Wiggins, Mackay & Smith, (1980); Brendonck & De Meester, 2003). The quality of rock pools environments is controlled mainly by timing and quantity of precipitation, and temperature of water. The temperature is a vital parameter that determines which species might hatch in a pool, provided the pool last longer for the time required for a species to reach maturity and produce eggs to maintain continuity in a population. Slight change in average temperature may not affect a species diversity and abundance directly but could change pool durability and reduce the chances of certain species reproduction. Considering the sensitivity nature of the rock pool flora and fauna to environmental situations, and 4 wide array of adapted species to little different condition, rock pools may be a vital indicator system where a global climatic change effect can be noticed (Graham & Wirth, 1996). Rock pools ecosystem provide early indications of biological unstable climate, and for that research of this ecosystem should be encouraged to improved our knowledge and understanding of these ecosystem and global climatic change (Graham & Wirth, 1996). About 460 animal species are recorded from rock pools worldwide and 170 of these are passive dispersers, that is, those mainly dispersed by wind and the overflow of water between the pools. Freshwater rock pools stand as a source of freshwater in dry countries, but despite that, they remain unexplored in large parts of the world (Jocque et al., 2010). Taman Negara Johor Endau Rompin (TNJER) is a forest containing rock formations (Upeh Guling) with history traced back to 240 million years. It houses many species of macro and micro flora and fauna that are not found elsewhere. TNJER is a proposed site for Geopark with second oldest and largest park in the whole of Malaysia after Langkawi Geopark (Devapriya et al., 2012). The historically preserved site with temporary freshwater rock pools located in Upeh Guling, has rarely been touched, particularly the records of plankton species that existed there.
1.2 Statement of the problem
Despite the fact that freshwater covers only 0.8% of the earth’s surface, yet it sustains more than 100,000 species, which represents 6% of all known species on earth out of approximately 1.8 million species. However, temporary water habitat of this study is a rock pool specifically pothole, which are found worldwide but received very little attention (Dudgeon et al., 2006; Balian et al., 2008). Temporary water is very rich in diversity of flora and fauna in which some cannot be found elsewhere. In Malaysia, increase in human population and development which led to urbanization, industrialization, and growth in agricultural irrigation have affected the existing temporary water and its community diversity (Khoo, et al., 2003). Aquatic fauna and flora, especially plankton extinction by any factors such as predation, competition, urbanization, agriculture practices, etc. may directly or indirectly affect the communities of hydrosphere and atmosphere such as 5 in-balance in aquatic nutrients and gasses (Duffey, 1968; Lassen et al., 1975; Pajunen & Pajunen, 1993; Bengtsson, 1989, 1991, 1993; Schneeweiss & Beckmann, 1999; Altermatt, Hottinger & Ebert, 2007). Plankton is often used as indicators of environmental and aquatic health because of their remarkable sensitivities to environmental change and short life span (Hugo Rodier 2011). The phytoplankton (food producers) and zooplankton (food consumers) contribute to water quality (Martin & Fitzwater, 1988). They are also believed to increase the atmospheric oxygen and reduced excess carbon dioxide (Neospark, 2002). However, temporary water and its planktonic communities that are known with more efficient active compound than marine water communities are left untouched. These vital roles played by plankton made it necessary for further studies in the tropical rainforest of TNJER where rare temporary water habitat is naturally abundant and conserved. Since the last two decades, only few researches have extensively focused on the study of flora and fauna of fresh water rock pools (Withers & Edward, 1997; Porembski & Barthlott, 2000; Withers & Hopper, 2000; Merlijn et al., 2010; Hazel & Ing, 2012) and among these researches, only one researcher in Malaysia concentrated on plankton diversity (Hazel & Ing, 2012). An extensive study by Merlijn et al. (2010) was recently conducted on diversity patterns of rock pools across the world continents. The authors compared records of species diversity on fresh water rock pools and concluded that the lowest species diversity was recorded in Asia continent which may be due to “the paucity of fresh water rock pools studies”. With all of the above-mentioned significance of plankton, the study of temporary water habitat (rock pools) in Malaysia and Asia as a whole is left untouched by researchers. Hence, this study is timely and necessary.
1.4 Importance of study
The temporary water habitat has always been a medium that support a diverse form of animals (both invertebrates and vertebrates) and macro/microscopic organisms including plankton. Indeed, these types of habitats, where important unknown resources are still left unexplored, and worth studying. Thus, there is a great 6 possibility of discovery in terms of new species for biodiversity records, and fundamental knowledge may be expected.
1.3 Objectives
This study was undertaken with the following objectives: 1. To determine the distribution and abundance of plankton thriving in temporary rock pools in a tropical rainforest 2. To assess the differences between the plankton diversity of each rock pool types (river fed and rain fed). 3. To determine the variations in physicochemical parameters of each rock pool types and relate them with plankton diversity
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Temporary Water habitats
Temporary water is any "habitat that intermittently has standing water and that once flooded or over spread holds water long enough for some species to complete the aquatic phase of their life cycle (Williams, 2005). Such temporary water habitat is highly varied and widely distributed almost everywhere in the world (Junk, 1993). They may be intermittent streams and ponds, seasonal pools, puddles and water- retaining structures of rock formation (rock pools), drift wood and hollow forest logs, and phytotelmater or wetlands (Williams, 2005). They are characterized by the alternation of flood and dry phase and whose hydro-regime is mostly independent. Moreover, their water supplies are usually from precipitation, water run-off and the ground water table (The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 2002a). Temporary water habitats are ecosystems that contain water during periods that can vary from a few months to several years (Schwartz & Jenkins, 2000) and can vary from a few square meters to hundreds of hectares (Schwartz & Jenkins, 2000; Williams, 1987). Temporary aquatic environments are regionally different in their types and method of formation but common in their physical, chemical and biological properties (Fontanarrosa et al., 2009; Williams, 1996). The concentrations of dissolved substances in temporary waters vary more than in most permanent waters. This is due largely, to three physical processes to which temporary waters are subjected: drying out, refilling, and freezing (The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 2002a).
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2.2 Characteristic of freshwater rock pools
In most cases, freshwater rock pools are temporary waters. They are characterized by highly unpredictable timing and length of the inundation period (Brendonck et al., 1998; 2000a). The hydro-period in rock pools averagely ranged from several days up to a month (Brendonck et al., 2000a) and several months in the case of semi- permanent rock pool (Jocque et al., 2010). Rock pools occur everywhere in the world, and they all possess very similar structures and abiotic environment. They are geo-morphologically similar because they originated from weathering and erosion (Campbell, 1997; Domínguez-Villar, 2006) although vary in surface and depth. Weathering and erosion may result to joining of neighbouring pools that may lead to more complex shape (Twidale & Corbin, 1963). Rock pools are usually in the form of the pan, or bucket shape with a cylindrical or ellipsoid surface with different dimensions (Twidale & Corbin, 1963). Hydro-period is so important in determining the composition, structure and diversity of the rock pool bio-community (Hulsmans et al., 2008). The climatic change in rock pool significantly changes the hydro-regime with decreasing stability on some biotas. This established the hydrologic sensitivity of rock pool habitats to precipitation patterns and its potential to predict future climatic change. The regularity and duration of inundation depend on basin physical factor (shape, size and structure), area, types of vegetation and local climate. The maximum depth of basin determines the maximum length of inundation period (Vanschoenwinkel et al., 2009). Rock pool mostly filled with rain water, which results in the highly diluted environment at the beginning of the inundation. The conductivities of this water are below 10 µScm-1 and varying depth ranging from 5cm to 30cm. The temperature of the water close to the air temperature and showed wide diurnal fluctuation in pH and DO. The freshwater rock pool is distinct between the pool filled by precipitation and those fed by rivers and ground water. The ground water fed rock pool (e.g. quarry pond) and potholes in the river floodplains inhabit biotas that are mainly brought in with the water. These communities of fauna in these habitats are not often adapted to this temporary pool condition. However, the precipitation dependent rock pools accommodate communities of species fit to survive dynamic and unpredicted flooding cycles. 9
2.3 The Importance of Temporary Water Habitats
Despite the generally small size and seasonal or ephemeral nature, temporary water habitats can be of critical importance for the maintenance of biodiversity and as sources of water, food and other products for local communities and indigenous peoples (Biggs et al., 2008). Temporary ponds contributed most to biodiversity, supporting considerably more species, more unique species and more scarce species than other water body types (King et al., 1996; Forró et al., 2003). More so, temporary water serves great importance to mankind, some of which includes fulfilling biological significance or needs of man; may be used for agricultural activities; may harbour some species of organisms that can transmit diseases and covered a significant portion of the global landscape (Blaustein & Schwartz, 2001; Williams, 2005). They serve as alternating aquatic and terrestrial phases that are linked functionally by accommodating diverse biotic communities, various biogeochemical processes and viable ecosystem society.The rock pools are used in local population as reservoirs for both human and their cattle (Seine, 2000). Similarly, in some places where freshwater is scares e.g. Western Australia, the natural water reservoir on rocky outcrop were used as a source of drinking water (Laing & Hauck, 1997; Bayly, 1999; Twidale, 2000).
2.4 Inhabitants of Temporary Water Habitats
Temporary fresh water support invertebrate communities ranging from the complex, with many species (e.g., vernal ponds), to those that support only one or two species (e.g., ephemeral rock pools and water-filled leaf axils). The biota of temporary aquatic habitats has evolved mechanisms that re-establish the population when the habitat becomes available again. The typical inhabitant of temporary habitats (e.g., crustaceans, molluscs, rotifers, tardigrades, turbellarians, and hydrozoans) produces resistant eggs or are themselves able to enter a resistance, resting stage (Williams, 1987; Wiggins et al., 1980), and a majority of their life span may depend on these diapause stages (Fugate, 1998). The drying nature of the habitat serve as an element of disturbance because it causes mortality that lead to a decrease in population of aquatic organisms (Corti, 10
Kohler, & Sparks, 1996) This factor contributed to significant mortality to biota that are not adapted to survive such conditions (Williams, 2006); as such the organism may also be influenced to develop adaptive strategies (Blaustein & Schwartz, 2001) such as morphological, physiological, and/or behavioural nature for their survival in such a habitat (Williams, 2005). Other environmental features that most likely affect the biota of temporary waters are the period and range of water flow, the degree and rate of desiccation of the groundwater table including permeability of the bed substrate, (Williams, 2006). Due to the desiccative nature of the habitat, interaction by existing organisms in the habitat increases the population density of biotas. Many species developed trait and drought-survival mechanism, such as dormancy and seed formation for their adaption to temporary dry up of the water. Drying events also prevent the colonization of many large predators, such as fish, even if some other predaceous taxa can tolerate desiccation (i.e., turbellarians) or leave the pool when it dries out (i.e., amphibians and insects) (Murdoch, Scott, & Ebsworth, 1984; Bohonak & Whiteman, 1999; Spencer et al., 1999; Hobæk, Manca & Andersen, 2002). Overall, species richness in temporary waters should be greater than in permanent fresh waters, with increasing interest in land waters. Schneider (1999) concluded that the invertebrate communities of short hydro-period and snowmelt ponds were structured primarily by species adaptations to the threat of drying (i.e., to abiotic factors). On the other hand, the communities in ponds with longer hydro- period were structured more by biotic interactions, particularly predatory and competition. Predators are one of the major forces in the community structure in permanent water bodies (Kerfoot & Sih, 1987) although temporary water also houses predation taxa but they support the community structure. Several studies have shown that fishless temporary water habitat support higher diversity of zooplankton, macro- invertebrates and water birds than a lake with fish (Havas & Rosseland, 1995). Unlike other temporary pools that are characterized as an enemy-free habitat (Fryer, 1985; Kerfoot & Lynch, 1987), predation is an essential component of rock pools and considered to be an essential community structuring factor. Examples of such predators are clawed toad, Turbellaria, notonectids, odonates and ceratopogonid midge larvae (Hamer & Martens 1998; De Roeck, Artois & Brendonck, 2005; Vanschoenwinkel et al., 2009). Jocque et al., (2010) mention water mite as common predators in rock pools that colonize pools after the inundation. 11
2.5 Plankton diversity of temporary water habitats
Temporary water habitat (fresh water rock pools) are unique habitats that accommodate a high diversity of specialized and endemic species and this highly contributed to regional diversity (Pinder et al.,2000; Jocque, Graham, & Brendonck, 2007). The freshwater community, such as plankton and micro invertebrate are sensitive to environmental factors; different species vary with the different season due to the change in the physico-chemical nature of water. Phytoplankton community shows high diversity with the seasonal fluctuation, which indicates the diversity in ecological niches. The zooplankton in the second level, transform food energy synthesized by the phytoplankton to the higher tropic level (Abujam, 2011). Phytoplankton co-occur based on their physiological need and the environmental constraints (Ariyadej et al., 2004).The environmental constraints and physiological requirements determine the phytoplankton succession in relation with environmental parameters, particularly temperature, light, nutrient availability and mortality factors such as grazing and parasitism (Ariyadej et al., 2004). The later succession is strongly linked to meteorological and water stratification mixing processes (Wetzel, 2001). The dynamics of plankton are a function of many environmental processes that affect species diversity (Roelke & Buyukates, 2002). Patterns in a temperate ecosystem differ considerably from those of tropical water (Wetzel, 2001). In tropical regions, the water temperature of temporary pools approaches the upper limit for biological processes. The high temperature in these habitats influenced the rapid growth of algae that may serve as food for some of the fauna in the habitat. The consequence is the excessive growth of algae leading to depletion of dissolved oxygen in the water, especially at night. High temperature increase level of photosynthesis, which changes the pH level of water and it affect the transportation of materials across the cell membrane (Williams, 2006). Variations in plankton community structure depend on the availability of nutrients, temperature, light intensity and other limnological factors (Vaulot, 2001). It is found that any slight alteration in environmental status can change diversity until there is no adaptation or gene flow from non-adaptive sources. A high diversity count suggests a healthy ecosystem; the reverse of this indicates a degraded environment. Hence, 12 phytoplankton fluctuation and density are used in the determination of water quality in temporary pools (Palmer, 1977; Shubert, 1984). Like other types of temporary water habitat, rock pools faunas are categorized into two, namely: permanent resides (as resistant life stages) and migrates (when pools are dry) (Wiggins et al., 1980). The high variability in environmental condition connected with relatively unpredicted flooding regime limit for specialized species with high tolerance to stress and specific feature for surviving the dry phase. Most pool biota survives the desiccation through resting stages such as dormant eggs, resistance larvae or by active migration and recolonization (Wiggins et al., 1980; Brendonck & De Meester, 2003). Economically, zooplankton is the major primary consumer or intermedia of energy transfer between phytoplankton and other aquatic animals including fish (Hammer, 1985; Telesh 1993; Davies, Abowei, & Otene., 2009). Moreover, zooplankton is the most vital biotic components affecting mostly the functional aspects of all aquatic ecosystems, via; food chains, food webs, energy flow/transfer and cycling of matter. Different environmental factors that detect the features of water play an essential role on the growth and abundance of zooplankton (Suresh et al., 2011). As such, water quality influences zooplankton abundance, composition and biomass. Physico-chemical, biological and microbiological parameters analysis in water quality assessment reveals abiotic and biotic status of the ecosystem (Rajagopal et al., 2010). The biotic communities of temporary water tolerate a wide range of environmental variation that influences their evolutionary processes. Previous studies revealed that rare species are found on rock pool communities, which have never been recorded from open water (Dethier, 1980; Jonsson, 1994). Such rock pool species possess physiological or behavioral features that can help population persist in the pool (Blackwell & Gilmour, 1991; Jonsson, 1994). The plankton community in rock pool may be used as a model system to study many ecological concepts such as community assemblage, spatial population dynamic and local extinction (Pfiester & Terry, 1978). Copepods, ostracods, dinoflagellates, chlorophytes and various diatoms were the common taxa recorded in the rock pools (Johnson, 2000). 13
2.6 Species diversity in rock pool
The invertebrate and vertebrate species diversity and density in rock pools varies considerably among studies. It is a common agreement that diversity increases stability in communities and ecosystem (McCann, 2000). Dodson (1987) studied in Utah and reported 23 species of macro-vertebrates and amphibians (Table 2.1). The study surveyed of 50 pools. Baron, LaFrancois, & Kondratieff (1998) study was conducted where 59 species of macro-invertebrate and vertebrate were recorded based on weekly sampling from 20 rock pools. A 66 species of invertebrate were recorded from 92 pools on two outcrops (Jocque et al., 2007) and 230 species of aquatic invertebrate were recorded. Sampled were taken from 90 pools equally divided in nine different outcrops (Pinder et al., 2000). Bayly (1997) research recorded 88 species of invertebrate in 36 rock pools on 17 granite outcrops (Table 2.1). Rock pools inhabited remarkable high diversity of passive disperser when compared with other temporary water bodies like phytotelmata (water held in the plant). This may be attributed to temporary stability and physical properties of the habitats together with the low exchange rate of individual species between cluster habitats usually isolated from the different outcrop. The differences in the number of rocks and pools together with sampling intensity of individual pool may probably explain part of the variation in recorded diversity. Indeed, it is an established fact that the rock pools biota is fully dependent on length and abundance of inundation and for that, the active communities will reflect the current climatic conditions (Jocque et al., 2010). The rock pool communities thus may be fit as a proper monitoring system for identifying environmental changes on both short and long time basis and learning the climatic changes effect on bio communities. The rock pools habitat is unique for accommodating specialized and endemic species and, therefore, contribute essentially to regional diversity (Pinder et al. 2000; Jocque et al., 2007). Manson (1990) stated that the establishment of conservation strategies may not be straight forward in fresh water habitat, but the protection of this habitat is essential.
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Table 2.1: Number of planktonic species inhabitants of temporary rock pools recorded from previous studies
Rock pools Species number recorded Author 1 23 Dodson (1987) 2 88 Bayly, (1997) 3 59 Baron et al. (1998) 4 230 Pinder et al. ( 2000) 5 66 Jocque et al. (2007)
CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHOD
3.1 Study Site
Field sampling was carried out in Upeh Guling, Taman Negara Johor Endau Rompin (TNJER) (Figure 3.1). Four sampling stations were established at geographical locations and elevations as follows: N 02 30.711” E 103 20.984” at 69m (St. 1); N 02 30.723” E 103 20.995” at 80m (St. 2); N 02 30.722” E 103 20.985” at 80m (St. 3); N 02 30.740” E 103 20.996” at 75m (St. 4). Stations (rock pool 1 and 2) received water primarily from rainfall and secondarily fed by the river water flow during the rainy seasons (designated as rain-fed rock pools), whereas, stations (rock pool 3 and 4) received water mainly from river water and secondarily from rainfall (river fed rock pools).
3.2 Field sampling
Samples were collected on a monthly basis for one year. However, due to flash flooding during rainy season, the sampling area was not accessible; hence, sample collection was only possible for a period of six months (March, April, June, July, August and September 2013). The physicochemical parameters (temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, depth) were measured in situ.
16
Source: (http://go2travelmalaysia.com/maps/images/msia1c.jpg).
Figure 3.1: A map showing the location of the study site in TNJER 17
Phytoplankton samples were collected using Van Dorn water sampler. Triplicate samples were transferred in 1L plastic sample bottles and fixed immediately with Lugol’s iodine solution after which, were taken to the laboratory for sample processing and taxonomic identification and enumeration. Zooplankton samples were collected by filtering triplicate 10L pooled water samples using zooplankton net with 67 µm mesh size and preserved with 5% buffered formalin solution immediately. All samples collected were taken to the laboratory for taxonomic identification and enumeration.
Rock pool 1 Rock pool 2
Rock pool 3 Rock pool 4
Plate 3.1: Sampling stations (1-2 –rain-fed rock pools; 3-4 – river fed rock pools) at Upeh Guling, TNJER
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3.3 Laboratory analysis
3.3.1 Sample processing
Upon arrival in the laboratory, phytoplankton samples were allowed to settle for at least three days without disturbing. After which, the water was siphoned out until only 100ml of the sample remained. The remaining samples were then transferred to a labelled opaque plastic bottle and kept in the dark until further analysis. On the other hand, zooplankton samples were identified and enumerated without prior processing as that of the phytoplankton.
3.3.2 Identification and enumeration
Identifications of phytoplankton were done using a compound microscope (ModelYS2-H Nikon Japan) under 40x magnification or higher depending on the size of the species and where the species can be identified comfortably and confidently (McAlice, 1971; Bellinger & Sigee, 2010). A Sedgewick-Rafter counting chamber was used for species enumeration. Triplicate samples were counted each time. The species found were identified to the lowest possible taxa using phytoplankton identification key (Huber-Pestalozzi, 1938; Huber-Pestalozzi, 1941; Prescott, 1970; Yamagishi & Hirano 1973; Huber-Pestalozzi, 1982; Peerapornpisal, 1996; Yinxin & Minjuan, 2005; Shukla et al., 2008; Stamenković & Cvijan, 2008; Bellinger & Sigee, 2010; ITIS, 2010; Sayers et al., 2011; Guiry & Guiry, 2014; Pal & Choudhury, 2014; Parr, et al., 2014). Phytoplankton densities were expressed as cells/mL (Bellinger & Sigee, 2010). The cell concentration was expressed as number of cell per milliliter for each species and was calculated as: cell/ml = N * 1000mm3/A*D*F Were N = number of cell counted A = area of field (mm2) D = depth of a field (chamber depth)(mm) F = number of fields counted 19
The enumerations were done by counting individual cell. In addition, those species of phytoplankton which have countable filaments (e.g. Micrasterias) were counted by individual cell. However, species which have uncountable filaments (e.g. Oscillatoria spp) and species that form colony (e.g. Botryococcus sp.) were estimated following Findlay & Kling (2001). For filamentous (Oscillatoria) and colonial (Botryococcus) species, cell/ml were determined by L*M/y and Z respectively; Where L = length of the species (μm) y= species average length(μm) M = species field(μm) D = diameter of the species colony on stage (μm) r = radius (μm) Z = cell number in colony (μm) Triplicate samples of zooplankton were counted each time using a zooplankton counting chamber under the compound microscope (Model YS2-H Nikon Japan) with low-power objective (10 x magnifications). The zooplankton were identified to the lowest possible taxon using freshwater zooplankton identification keys (Pennak 1979; Idris 1983; ITIS, 2010; Sayers et al., 2011). Estimation of zooplankton densities expressed as individuals/L (Bellinger & Sigee 2010), follows the equation below (Warren & Horvatin, 2003):
Where NA = Number of individual in 1ml aliquots examined (Three 1ml aliquots throughout) Vs = Volume of sub-samples from which aliquots were removed. V = Volume of water filtered (10liters)
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3.5 Data Analysis
The plankton densities were used to determine the plankton community structure using statistical software. The community structures were observed by multivariate techniques using a PRIMER Software package (version 6.1.9, PRIMER-E Ltd), (Clarke & Warwive, 2001). Data (species abundance) were log (x+1) transformed to balance some rare species that are very few in abundance (Clarke & Warwive, 2001). A similarity matrix was obtained using the Bray-Curtis similarity which gives the basis for 2-d ordination plot using non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS). Samples were also grouped by sampling stations and on monthly basis, using t-test to determine the significance difference (P<0.05) between two pools but for months (6 months) one way ANOVA was used. The community structure such as species number (s), total number of species (N), the Shannon Wiener diversity were determined H' = pi ln pi H' = index of diversity In = the natural logarithm pi = proportion of the ith species to the total count Margalefs species richness [(d=(S-1)/log (N)] and Pielou’s species evenness [(J=H'/log e (s)] were calculated for each sample to study the impact in community structure. (Heip, et al., 1998). Correlations between species and environmental factors of rain fed and river fed rock pools were obtained by correspondence component analysis (CCA) using CANOCO Software Package (version 4.5) (Braak & Šmilauer, 2002). The simple ordination was constructed and the percentage differences were revealed (Braak & Šmilauer, 2002). Regression analysis was run to calculate the Pearson correlation coefficient between phytoplankton/zooplankton densities and physicochemical factors. The linear regression model formula (y = a+bX1+bX2+bX3+e) was developed to support the correlation, Where: y= diversity variation, a = constant b = coefficient variable and e= error term. The correlation relationship level is = -1≤ r ≤ 1 while 0.05 indicate the level of p value significant difference (Pallant, 2010).
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
4.1 Phytoplankton Composition and abundance
This finding showed significant variation between phytoplankton species richness of rain fed rock pools and river fed rock pools (Table 4.1). A higher (P< 0.05) phytoplankton density was recorded in rain fed rock pools (1470.02 cells/mL) compared to river fed rock pools (781.38 cells/mL).. A total of 122 species of phytoplankton belonging to 54 genera, 36 families, 27 orders, 10 classes and eight groups were identified (Table 4.2). The green algae group had the highest (P< 0.05) species diversity with 60 species from 25 genera, 12 families, and three classes. Diatoms followed in dominance after green algae with 39 species from 15 genera, and 14 families and one class. The phytoplankton groups which contributed the least in terms of number of species were cryptomonads and golden-brown algae, in which both consisted of two species (Table 4.2). On the other hand, a total of 116 species, from 53 genera, 35 families, 26 orders, and 8 groups of phytoplankton were present in rain fed rock pools (Table 4.2).
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Table 4.1: Average phytoplankton density in rain fed rock pools and river fed rock pools
Rain fed River fed Phytoplankton Average & S. E 1470.02 ± 212.03 781.38 ± 180.8403 cells/mL cells/mL Significant level 0.034
F 4.559
Thirty eight species were found only on rain fed rock pools and some of these species are Stigonema mirabile, Stigonema sp. 1, Euastrum sp. 1, Actinotaenium cucurbita, Micrasterias ceratofera, Micrasterias lux, Micrasterias rotate, Staurodesmus sp. 1, Staurodesmus sp. 2, Triploceras gracile, Netrium sp. 1, Netrium sp. 2 , Spirogyra sp, Spirogyra weberi, Zygnema himalayense, Staurastrum alternans, Staurastrum anatinum, Staurastrum avicula, Staurastrum gracile, Staurastrum manfeldtii, Staurastrum orbiculare, Staurastrum pseudopelagicum, Staurastrum sp. 2 Dictyosphaerium sp., Pediastrum duplex, Scenedesmus sp. 1, Scenedesmus sp. 2, Scenedesmus sp. 3, Binuclearia tatrana, Oedogonium sp, Botryococcus sp,Centritractus sp, Rhizosolenia sp, Epithemia argus Nitzschia sp. 2, Nitzschia sp. 4, Nitzschia sp. 5., Melosira aequalis, Neidium affine (Table 4.2). Whereas, a total of 84 species from 46 genera, 33 families, 26 orders and 8 groups of phytoplankton were present in river fed rock pools. Six species were found present only in the river fed rock pools during the study; these include Pleurotaenium sp, Nitzschia obtusa, Nitzschia sp. 3, Nitzschia sp. 6, Surirella sp. 1 and Surirella sp. 2. Both rock pools recorded common phytoplankton consisting of 78 species (Table 4.2). 23
Table 4.2 Phytoplankton species distribution in rain fed and river fed rock pools (+ denotes presence; - denotes absence) No Group Species Rain River fed fed 1 Blue-green algae Geitlerinema sp. 1 + + 2 Geitlerinema sp. 2 + + 3 Oscillatoria sp. 1 + + 4 Oscillatoria sp. 2 + + 5 Phormidium sp. + + 6 Stigonema cf. mirabile + - 7 Stigonema mamillosum + + 8 Stigonema sp. + + 9 Green algae Actinotaenium cucurbita + - 10 Ankistodesmus sp. + + 11 Arthrodesmus michiganensis + + 12 Binuclearia tatrana + - 13 Botryococcus sp. + - 14 Closterium acerossum + + 15 Closterium ehrenbergii + + 16 Closterium kutzingii + + 17 Closterium leibleinii + + 18 Closterium sp + + 19 Closterium tumidum + + 20 Coelastrum pulchrum + + 21 Cosmarium dispersum + + 22 Cosmarium gotlandicum + + 23 Cosmarium granatum + + 24 Cosmarium hammeri + + 25 Cosmarium quinarium + + 26 Cosmarium sp. 1 + + 27 Cosmarium sp. 2 + + 28 Cosmarium sp. 3 + + 29 Dictyosphaerium sp. + - 30 Euastrum sp. 1 + - 31 Euastrum sp. 2 + + 32 Genicularia sp. + + 33 Gonatozygon sp. 1 + + 34 Gonatozygon sp. 2 + + 35 Gonatozygon sp. 3 + + 36 Micrasterias ceratofera + -
24
Table 4.2 continued No Group Species Rain River fed fed 37 Micrasterias lux + - 38 Micrasterias rotate + - 39 Mougeotia sp. 1 + + 40 Mougeotia sp. 2 + + 41 Mougeotia sp. 3 + + 42 Netrium sp. 1 + - 43 Netrium sp. 2 + - 44 Oedogonium sp + - 45 Pediastrum duplex + - 46 Pleurotaenium ehrenbergii + + 47 Pleurotaenium sp. - + 48 Scenedesmus sp. 1 + - 49 Scenedesmus sp. 2 + - 50 Scenedesmus sp. 3 + - 51 Sphaerozosma granulatum + + 52 Spirogyra sp. + - 53 Spirogyra weberi + - 54 Staurastrum orbiculare + - 55 Staurastrum alternans + - 56 Staurastrum avicula + - 57 Staurastrum gracile + - 58 Staurastrum manfeldtii + - 59 Staurastrum pseudopelagicum + - 60 Staurastrum pseudopelagicum + - 61 Staurastrum smithii + + 62 Staurastrum sp. 1 + + 63 Staurastrum sp. 2 + - 64 Staurodesmus sp. 1 + - 65 Staurodesmus sp. 2 + - 66 Staurodesmus triangularis + + 67 Triploceras gracile + - 68 Zygnema himalayense + - 69 Yellow green algae Centritractus sp. + - 70 Tribonema affine + + 71 Golden-brown algae Dinobryon divergens + + 72 Dinobryon sp. + + 73 Diatoms Achnanthidiun sp. + +
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