Mètode Science Studies Journal ISSN: 2174-3487 [email protected] Universitat de València España

Casal, Paula FRANS DE WAAL. Professor of at (Atlanta). ETHICS AND PRIMATOLOGY Mètode Science Studies Journal, núm. 2, 2012, pp. 11-15 Universitat de València Valencia, España

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How to cite Complete issue Scientific Information System More information about this article Network of Scientific Journals from Latin America, the Caribbean, Spain and Portugal Journal's homepage in redalyc.org Non-profit academic project, developed under the open access initiative FRANS DE WAAL Professor of Primatology at Emory University (Atlanta)

ETHICS AND PRIMATOLOGY

Paula Casal

Frans de Waal (Netherlands, 1948) is one of Last summer I interviewed Robin Dunbar for M ÈTODE the leading primatologists of all time. He and when I asked what difference he saw between is a world authority on humans and , he did not hesitate to behaviour in captivity, and has point to religion. contributed greatly to teaching Dunbar said religion, did he? Well, I would never have the public about the . He answered that. In fact, in we often use the has an outstanding ability to relate term superstition . It is a term that appears frequently primatological data with issues that concern in relation to the behaviours observed in many species politicians, social scientists, psychologists that cannot be explained by any adaptive function. and philosophers, and in 2007 Time Magazine Sometimes we see that certain species always choose ranked him as one of the hundred most infl uential to go the long way round, they are scared of things people in the world. His many books have been that do not pose a threat and insist on spending energy translated into several languages, including Spanish. by going places they have no These include Chimpanzee reason to go. Humans are not the (1982), Peacemaking only creatures of habit, or the Among (1989), Good only ones given to imitate and Natured (1996), Bonobo: The «IF I HAD TO CHOOSE ONE follow others. And this can mean Forgotten Ape (1997), The Ape DIFFERENCE BETWEEN a whole group mimics senseless and the Sushi Master (2001), HUMANS AND CHIMPANZEES behaviour. I do not really see any Our Inner Ape (2005), Primates I WOULD PICK THE HUGE great difference, but if I had to and Philosophers ( 2006) and LEVEL OF SOPHISTICATION choose one I would not single The Age of (2009). out religion, perhaps because He is currently Full Professor of HUMAN LANGUAGE HAS it doesnt interest me. Rather, Primatology at Emory University ACHIEVED, BUT I INSIST THAT I would pick the huge level of in Atlanta, member of the EVEN HERE THE DIFFERENCE sophistication human language National Academy of Sciences IS ONLY TO A POINT» has achieved, but I insist that and director of Living Links even here the difference is Center, Yerkes National only to a point. Whenever the Research Center, the largest biomedical research essential components of something are analysed and centre working with primates. studied for example in the case of language this Frans de Waal says he has no interest in religion, would be its symbolic function and organisational but gladly accepted to take a tour around the role we see that these components are also found in Cathedral and churches in the Gothic Quarter of other species. Linguists have long de Þ ned language as Barcelona with Jaume Bertranpetit last September. «symbolic communication». Then they realised that The scientist stood wide-eyed in front of the if that was the essence of language, then language did cathedral, watching on with his primatologist’s gaze at not make humans special. So then they said syntax how people arrived, left their belongings piled on the was the really essential component. fl oor and started dancing sardanas . He wished to go unnoticed, but as his stature matches his renowned Could you describe a recent primatological discovery intellect, he towered above the swirling circles of or experiment of particular relevance that may dancers like a teacher watching over kids in the have led to this change in our conception of such playground. differences? © Christine Panagiotidis

2012 MÈTODE Annual Review 11 Sure. For example, you can get capuchin monkeys to the beginning of the Obama era. Nowadays, nobody collect pebbles from the courtyard if you pay them for believes in the doctrines advocated by Thatcher and it, with something like cucumber slices. We did this Reagan, who said there was no need to worry because and everything went smoothly until we started to pay markets regulate themselves wonderfully. Rather, the some of them with a «coin» considered more valuable exaltation of cutthroat competition is being replaced than cucumber: grapes. Seeing this, the underpaid by notions of cooperation and social responsibility. capuchins protested at this unequal treatment by People have always resorted to biological arguments throwing their pebbles and cucumber slices up in to justify sel Þ shness and competition but we should the air, and refusing to continue to cooperate with not forget the other side of the coin. Indeed, such arbitrary experimenters. It is an example of the has also produced what keeps communities together : you offer someone 100 euros on and enables members of the human species and of condition that they share it with someone else and they other species to combine and coordinate their efforts accept; then out of greed they only offer to share 15 and to care for those in need. euros, people will reject the deal because they prefer There are also a lot of studies to have nothing than to accept being done into how our animal something they consider unfair. instincts determine our political When I read this in Our Inner Ape choices, like those by Little and I realised that the willingness to Roberts on how people prefer lose something in order to punish individuals with certain traits someone who breaks certain (like Bush) in times of war, or rules must be related to the need by Douglas Johnson on how for members of a species to people who display stronger observe certain rules to survive. physiological reactions on

Among humans, tribes of hunters © Christine Panagiotidis being shown a picture of a large have proven to be those that spider on a frightened face or offer the fairest deal and are less of a wound with maggots are likely to accept unfair play, as «EMPATHY IS SO ANCIENT those who give more extreme their shared fate depends on it. responses in favour of military THAT IT DATES BACK TO A Meanwhile, the least egalitarian spending, the death penalty, gun prove to be farmers, as they do COMMON CORE, SHARED ownership, the Bible, and so on. not depend on anyone. WITH MANY OTHER SPECIES, For example, in his latest book Dunbar says that Obama won Yes, this can be seen in different AND THEREFORE WE CAN the elections not only because species. We chose capuchin OBSERVE SUCH BEHAVIOUR he was taller than his opponent monkeys because they are NOT ONLY IN CHIMPANZEES, but also because his features very cooperative, but these BUT IN MANY OTHER were more symmetrical. experiments have also been done MAMMALS TOO» with chimpanzees. We most certainly make many unconscious positive In contrast to Chimpanzee associations with height, and Politics , your book entitled The Age of Empathy this greatly affects politicians. Sarkozy, for example, does not talk of betrayal and but of positive always poses and gives his speeches standing on trends in a large number of species... a box as he knows height is very important. This Yes, The Age of Empathy is a title with a double is why primatologically speaking it was very meaning. On the one hand, it refers to this ancient interesting to note the confusion stirred up when feeling of empathy, from the evolutionary standpoint. Hilary Clinton entered the stage. Height is important It is so old that it dates back to a common core, shared in politics because politicians are usually men. But with many other species, and therefore we can observe height is not important in women, so it was dif Þ cult such behaviour not only in chimpanzees, but in many to compare because the criteria that apply to women other mammals too. On the other hand, it refers to are different. Her opponents did not know how to our current times, to a moment in which scientists respond in debates either, because although people are focusing on empathy and speaking of cultural like a politician to be Þ rm with their opponents they changes, driven by the global Þ nancial crisis and dont like to see a man thrash a woman in public, so

12 Annual Review MÈTODE 2012 her opponents didnt know quite what to do. It was also very interesting for primatologists to observe their body language, although of course politics is not con Þ ned to this sort of thing. Another reason why people devoted to studying ethics are interested in primatology is the desire to understand not only moral conduct, but also immoral behaviour, and especially some crimes such as infanticide, genocide or rape, which occur in some species but not in others. There have been very controversial explanations of some crimes, such as Thornhill and Palmer’s in A of Rape ... Yes, I wrote a very critical review of this book in the New York Times . And although many women sent me thank-you letters, I dont like doing critical reviews and have decided not to do any more. In this case, I think the book is partially right in that rape is not just an act of domination, but there is clearly a sexual component too. Meanwhile, I think it is wrong when it states that

«IN THE UNITED STATES SCIENTISTS ARE ABANDONING INVASIVE EXPERIMENTATION ON GREAT APES. IN GENERAL, YOUNGER RESEARCHERS ARE LESS LIKELY TO HARM GREAT APES»

rape is an adaptation, i.e., a behavioural trait selected for its usefulness in passing down an individuals genes. There are men who rape other men, or who rape women or girls who are too old or too young to have children. So they do something that does not help them perpetuate their genes and may even lead to their own death. In this respect it is bad for everyone concerned, including the rapist. I dont think it is an adaptive trait,

© John French but rather just a side effect of other traits that may be adaptive such as sexual desire and aggressiveness, which may be extreme in some males and, when combined, lead to sexual assault. I did not like the authors recommendations either: that men should re ß ect on the biological origins of their behaviour «THE WHOLE SYSTEM OF SCIENCE and that women should avoid dressing provocatively IS BASED ON TRUST. IF SCIENTISTS when in dodgy places. Anyway, it is complicated to SAY THEY HAVE CONDUCTED AN demonstrate that a trait is an adaptation in general, and INVESTIGATION AND OBTAINED A RESULT, I do not think the authors managed to show that rape is a way for humans to pass down their genes. Rather, WE MUST BELIEVE THEM. IF THEY BETRAY it is a force derived from males propensity to violence THAT TRUST THEY HARM THE WHOLE and excitability, which can lead to this extreme in SYSTEM» certain abnormal cases.

2012 MÈTODE Annual Review 13 In addition to the origins of moral and immoral Þ rst observation. In the case of Marc D. Hauser, the behaviour, there is another moral issue that concerns problems were related to his particular experiments, philosophers, that is, the ethics of primate research. so it has nothing to do with the method as such. I do not know if you are aware that this summer the European Commission agreed on a moratorium I do not know Hauser personally, but I found his on biomedical research in great apes –except in highly successful book Moral Minds really boring, a emergency situations– which will come into effect in collection of the typical things anyone at Harvard seven years. How likely is it that the United States will might know, including the central idea that we are do something similar? born with certain innate linguistic skills, and with certain abilities for moral evaluation, and that a The United States is working on a similar law. philosopher’s job is to extract, as speakers do, the And anyway, scientists are abandoning invasive grammatical rules of . The idea is fine in itself, experimentation on great apes. The place where I but the idea is John Rawls’ ( A Theory of Justice ), who work is well-known for its experiments on primates explains it more clearly and concisely. and we do not carry out experiments on great apes even though we do experiment on other primates. Some people have also pointed out similarities with In general, the younger researchers are less likely the conferences delivered by John Mikhail two years to harm great apes. I think that in ten years time, earlier. invasive experimentation on great apes will be a thing I understand the decision not to make negative of the past. I prefer not to use the language of rights comments, even about Moral Minds , but there is because it seems to invite confrontation. Id rather something I cannot understand: talk about wellbeing. I think how on earth could he think the rule is this: what you would we would believe that tamarind not do to a human, you should «RAPE IS NOT AN ADAPTIVE monkeys would recognise not do to a great ape. Oh, and TRAIT, BUT RATHER themselves in a mirror? How is theres something else I dont it nobody suspected anything, like, that is, when some people JUST A SIDE EFFECT OF Richard Wrangham, for example? experiment on primates without OTHER TRAITS THAT MAY actually doing it themselves. BE ADAPTIVE, SUCH AS Well I dont know, I dont know if anyone was consulted. The They send orders to third parties SEXUAL DESIRE AND and have no actual contact with fact is, there were some videos the experimental subjects. They AGGRESSIVENESS» allegedly showing tamarind do not know the subjects they monkeys looking into the mirror do not visit or see them before or and supposedly recognising after the experiment. This doesnt seem right. I think themselves. But those who reviewed the material if you are going to do something like this, at least you said what they actually saw were some tamarinds should be there with them. and some mirrors, but they did not demonstrate what Hauser said they did. And speaking of ethics in research, especially as I’m interviewing you for the magazine M ÈTODE , I have no And now we have a better idea of what animals that choice but to ask about the Hauser scandal. recognise themselves really do. Yeah, it was a huge blow in a small community like Yes, we did the experiment with elephants because the one studying primatology. the previous experiments had used mirrors that were And within that community, does this especially too small. The elephants couldnt possibly recognise affect those who use the anecdotal method in as themselves just seeing a piece of rough skin they had much as it depends on the observer to tell the truth? never seen before. But as soon as we put elephant- For example, it is particularly important that Jane size mirrors, they went straight up to them and began Goodall is legit, since nobody else is going to spend to do some really interesting inimitable contortions forty years as observer in Gombe? with their trunks, and the cameras recorded how they touched points highlighted by the scientists in charge No. The problem has nothing to do with the anecdotal of the experiment. method. Individual observations can be corroborated by others, leading to new studies or experiments that Your video shows this clearly, but this also fits in provide new data and which were sparked by that with what we know about their intelligence, memory,

14 Annual Review MÈTODE 2012 realise the importance of controlling factors. Then there are the errors of negligence, because you do not make all the necessary tests, and so on. But falsifying data is as bad as it can get. These are very serious charges. So, what should Harvard do? Well I think what Harvard is doing is not helping. They keep quiet about it, then they come out and say it appears the problem does not affect his work on this or that, trying to separate his properly conducted research from the studies in which he is suspected of misconduct... they are dragging out the problem. Either they should exonerate him altogether if he is innocent, or if the allegations are true they should expel him from the university, and not try to separate the studies in which he committed fraud from those he didnt. The whole system of science is based on trust. If scientists say they have conducted an investigation and obtained such and such a result, we must believe them. If that trust is betrayed, they dont just discredit themselves as researchers, they harm the whole system. Of course, if I know someone has falsi Þ ed data for some of their research, I will not believe in the results they say they got in other investigations. I dread to think about this problem occurring in Spain, knowing how vulnerable young people are to the whims of the «feudal lords» of their research field. Reporting your superiors takes guts in any country. These students have damaged their own curriculum, and the professional standing they might have had thanks to Hausers in ß uence. They have put a great deal at stake by reporting his misconduct. I do not know what will happen, but it is certainly very worrying. © Jaume Bertranpetit I’ve always loved Frans de Waal’s books, but knowing compassion, and so on. My theory is that certain that he refused to recognise great apes’ rights and capabilities are ethically relevant in species with high that he works in a primate experimentation centre maternal investment: a 22 month-long pregnancy, with one of the worst moral reputations in the West, ten years of childhood, offspring do not leave their I had not expected such a gentle person, one so mothers until they are sixteen, and the latter can contrary to confrontation. I also found that despite live up to eighty... But tamarind parents raise their having written so much he still has a lot to tell, and offspring in a flash, in just two years they are adults that he is even better at lecturing than at writing. The and only live to seventeen. It does not add up. And conference he gave at Barcelona’s Molecular Biology this was not all... congress (EMBO) was really amazing. I shall certainly Well, it seems there are eight charges pending carry on reading his books. clari Þ cation, including the charge of falsifying data, which is something really serious. I mean, one can make a mistake accidentally. It could be a mistake Paula Casal. ICREA Research Professor (Catalan Institution for Research due to incompetence, for example, if you do not and Advanced Studies) and University Pompeu Fabra (Barcelona).

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