Music Technology AS | Special Focus: Rock 'n' Roll

Origins In the post-war years of the 1940s, young people in American were hungry for a culture they could relate to and call their own. Lingering in popularity, the phenomenon of Big Band Swing had become the music of their parents, and it was time for something new.

Blues was beginning to evolve into more danceable, ensemble music known as Rhythm & Blues, with increasingly available electric-acoustic guitars playing alongside drums and double bass. was popular in rural areas, merging Folk instruments such as the West African banjo and Irish fiddle with some of the musical elements of Blues. Lively Gospel music could be heard in African American churches, again borrowing from the Blues, but with a very different approach to lyrical content!

The young people of the time were influenced by these various styles of music, and the music they wanted to make would take on various elements from each, forging new, lively, hybrid genres.

One such hybrid genre that had been gaining popularity before and during the Second World War was known as Western Swing, which fused Country music with Blues, Folk, Dixieland Jazz and Swing. What made this uptempo, dance music so distinctive was the use of amplified string instruments, notably the steel guitar, playing alongside instruments such as drums, piano and saxophone.

During the early 1950s group Bill Haley and the Saddlemen were playing a combination of Country music and Western Swing, often with a strong 'bluesy' feel. In 1951 they had a hit with a Country-style cover version of the Rhythm & Blues song “”, featuring the characteristic sound of 'slap-back bass' – a rhythmic technique where the double bass player plucks the strings hard enough for them to fly back and hit the fingerboard creating a percussive effect.

Listening: Bill Haley and the Saddlemen - “Rocket 88” | 1951

The blend of Country elements with Rhythm & Blues heard in “Rocket 88” demonstrates the prototype for what was to become Rock 'n Roll, including a bouncing swing rhythm intensified by an insistent backbeat (beats 2 and 4), and a twelve bar blues chord progression. Two other key elements stand out in the track, namely the used of the guitar as a lead instrument (with a particularly notable overdriven, slide guitar solo) and the lyrical content celebrating a car (Oldsmobile 88) which as well as being a symbol of teen freedom was also a perhaps not-so-subtle metaphor for 'romantic prowess'!

The new, energetic sound the band was making made it necessary for them to change their name in 1952.

Bill Haley and His Comets The name '' started to become associated with this fusion of Country music with Rhythm & Blues, and several other artists during the mid-1950s, such as and , consolidated the style, but it was Bill Haley's group that brought the music to a global audience.

In 1953 the group achieve national success with the song “Crazy Man, Crazy”, the title of which being inspired by a teenage phrase. The recording was featured in a 1953 television play starring James Dean, bringing it to the attention of a wide audience.

Listening: Bill Haley and His Comets - “Crazy Man, Crazy” | 1953

The song featured more of the regular Rock 'n' Roll elements, as the genre continued to evolve, such as distinctive walking bass, call and response (between the voice and guitar), unison 'party' vocals in the chorus, and some boogie-rhythm piano.

When it was originally released in 1954, the electrified Rockabilly song “” achieved little initial success, however their next recording, a cover of 's “Shake, Rattle and Roll” was a bit hit. The sound of Rock 'n' Roll was building in popularity, and lively tracks like “Shake, Rattle and Roll” contributed greatly to the spread of the music. The song also featured saxophone blasting alongside the electric guitar – saxophones were common in early Rock 'n' Roll, although ultimately were eclipsed by guitars.

Listening: Bill Haley and His Comets - “Shake, Rattle and Roll” | 1954

But in March 1955 “Rock Around the Clock” was featured in the film “”, and a re- release to coincide with the film lead to it becoming one of the biggest hits in history. It held the US number 1 spot for eight weeks. Rock 'n' Roll fever swept through America, and the first identifiable teenage culture was born. Young audiences swarmed to Bill Haley concerts, causing riots in some cities. The group's frenetic performances characterised by antics such as double bass-player 'riding' his bass like a horse or swinging it above his head caused a sensation, disapproved of by the nations parents but idolised by teenagers.

Listening: Bill Haley and His Comets - “Rock Around the Clock” | 1954

More hits followed, promoted by hugely successful tours extending to Britain and Europe and even several movie appearances, but as more exciting acts such as Elvis Presley and Jerry Lee Lewis began to dominate the scene Bill Haley and His Comets began to decline. The group maintained a low profile with various line-up changes throughout the 1960s and 1970s, never again achieving the dominance they enjoyed in the mid 1950s. Bill Haley died of an apparent heart attack in 1981.

Little Richard Growing up in an African American, religious family ensured that Richard Penniman began his singing career early. He quickly gained a reputation around his home town of Macon, Georgia for his loud, screaming singing style, and in 1945 was invited on stage to sing with popular gospel star and one of his favourite childhood singers Sister Rosetta Tharpe. The experience of singing to such a large crowd inspired him to pursue music as a career. Another singer who influenced the early development of his vocal style was gospel performer Marion Williams. Her vital energy, epitomised by a high-pitched 'Wooooo!' trademark was adopted by Penniman.

Listening: Marion Williams - “Packin' Up” | 1958

He was also influenced by 'Jump Blues' singer Billy Wright, both in music and appearance, and during the early 1950s he started recording his own brand of Jump with several record labels. None of these recordings scored a success however, and Penniman began pursuing a more Rhythm & Blues sound, further developing his boogie woogie piano technique and taking influence from Ray Charles and Fats Domino. He also assembled a regular live band.

In 1955 signed to LA label Speciality, and at the request of his A&R man, recorded a 'cleaned up' version of an improvised, boogie woogie piano piece called “Tutti Frutti”. Even with the edited lyrical content, the meaning of the song is not subtle, and Penniman's excitable vocal delivery and frenzied piano-playing were perhaps shocking for wider, uninitiated audiences. The song was an instant hit, reaching number 2 in the Billboard R&B chart and number 17 in the Billboard pop chart. Its driving energy and risqué lyrics became something of a blueprint for the flourishing Rock 'n' Roll scene.

Listening: Little Richard - “Tutti Frutti” | 1955

A notable characteristic in the track is the punctuating vocal “A-wop-bop-a-loo-mop-a-lop-bam- boom!” which represents a drum fill and creates an exciting and memorable rhythmic accent. The drums, bass and horn section are simply arranged maintaining the adapted twelve-bar blues structure, leaving Penniman plenty of room to play with his vocal melody and freestyle boogie woogie piano. A saxophone solo demonstrates the importance of that instrument during the early days of Rock 'n' Roll before the electric guitar dominated.

“Tutti Frutti” quickly became a fine example of a popular phenomenon in Rock 'n' Roll, the cover version. Groups and singers would regularly release their own interpretations of current songs, boosting their own careers and escalating those songs to anthemic proportions by increasing the audiences. Not long after Little Richard's first huge hit, Elvis Presley, already a big star, released a version of “Tutti Frutti”. It is interesting to compared the performance styles of the two versions, Elvis's, though exciting, is considerably less wild than Richard's! Listening: Elvis Presley - “Tutti Frutti” | 1956

Between 1955 and 1957 Little Richard scored seventeen more hits, mostly up-tempo Rock 'n' Roll songs featuring his characteristic, driving piano playing and wild screams which captured the essence of his increasingly popular live performances. Another example of typical Little Richard-style Rock 'n' Roll is “Lucille” which was released in 1957, again on Speciality.

Listening: Little Richard - “Lucille” | 1957

Little Richard's concerts were notorious, with the audience going wild in response to his on-stage antics. His popularity helped contribute to the gradual breakdown of audience segregation in areas where it was still prevalent. As a performer, Little Richard was charismatic and dressed theatrically, usually sporting carefully styled hair and make-up to enhance his 'movie star' image. Indeed his music was featured in several films at the time and he actually performed as himself in “Don't Knock the Rock”

“True Fine Mama” is another hit from this period which demonstrates Little Richard's more soulful side. Although still featuring most of the typical Rock 'n' Roll elements such as swing rhythm, 12-bar blues and call and response, the delivery is more controlled and the backing vocals create a somewhat less edgy mood.

Listening: Little Richard - “True Fine Mama” | 1957

In the same year, Little Richard experienced several signs which he took to be messages from God and devoted himself to Christianity for several years, leaving his Rock 'n' Roll career and instead forming an Evangelist team. This event marked the end of his crucial 1950s Rock 'n' Roll era. He did continue to make Gospel music, and then during the 1960s returned to secular music, notably influencing many artists along the way. In fact while he was performing regularly in Hamburg, , Little Richard worked alongside then unknown group The Beatles, offering them direct advice on performance aspects of Rock 'n' Roll.

During his life he has continued to sway between secular music and the church, and has struggled with drug and alcohol dependency, while also demonstrating ambiguity regarding his sexual orientation. Despite all these complications however, Little Richard has been a direct influence on countless artists in all different styles, from rock to funk to hip hop and heavy metal.

Chuck Berry 55-present While Little Richard was one of the pioneers of Rock 'n' Roll piano, Chuck Berry was instrumental in establishing the blueprint of Rock 'n' Roll guitar.

Coming from a middle-class African American background Berry had the opportunity to pursue music from an early age. However, trouble with the law during his teens obstructed development to some extent, and it wasn't until he was in his twenties that Berry began to make a mark on the music scene in St. Louis where he lived.

Early performances with a blues band saw Berry pushing boundaries, playing Country music to black audiences while delivering the equally popular Rhythm & Blues sound to the more affluent white audiences. Incorporating electric guitar riffs and lively performance styles influenced by T-Bone Walker, Berry quickly developed a reputation which would lead to his signing with Chess Records in 1955. His first release with the label, an updated cover of an old Country song “Ida Red” (retitled “Maybelline” for Berry's version) saw him pushing the label into new territory beyond the shrinking Rhythm & Blues market. The delivery and over-driven electric guitar sound took the song into the domain of Rock 'n' Roll and scored Berry a huge hit selling over a million copies.

Listening: Chuck Berry - “Maybelline” | 1955

The clear evidence of Berry's understanding of Country music mixed with his strong Blues guitar background ensured his appealing to a wide audience. The driving attitude and lyrical content of follow-up hit “Roll Over Beethoven” placed him strongly in the Rock 'n' Roll movement however, and the iconic guitar intro became a trademark and along with his accompanying stage antics introduced many to the concept of a guitar hero.

Listening: Chuck Berry - “Roll Over Beethoven” | 1956

Berry's take on Rock 'n' Roll featured most of the typical elements already described, although he often favoured a straight (non-swing) rhythm, using his driving blues guitar riffs to create a somewhat 'heavier' sound.

During the second half of the 1950s Chuck Berry's career went from strength to strength, with a stream of hits and appearances in various Rock 'n' Roll films. He was often associated with pioneering Rock 'n' Roll DJ Alan Freed, appearing with him in the film “Go, Johnny, Go!”, inspired by his hit “Johnny B. Goode”

Listening: Chuck Berry - “Johnny B. Goode” | 1958

Berry enjoyed a successful touring career during this period and also opened an inter-racial nightclub in St Louis among other entrepreneurial ventures. However trouble with the law once again affected his career and in 1962 he went to prison for 18 months, marking the end of his main Rock 'n' Roll era.

On his release he continued to work as a recording artist and performer, riding in the tide of the 1960s 'British Invasion' bands such as The Beatles and The Rolling Stones who all demonstrated Chuck Berry's influence in their music.

Despite continuing personal and legal difficulties, Berry has maintained a performing career to this day and is recognised as one of the most significant contributors to the development of the rock guitar style and will be remembered for his eccentric and characterful stage presence.

Elvis Presley 53-77

By the time he left school in 1953, Elvis Presley was focussing on a career in music. Having spent his teenage years in Memphis, Tennessee, Presley had a love for country music, gospel and blues. Despite the segregation still evident in the south of the US at the time he immersed himself in a cultural mix of music, and was particularly fond of the music of black gospel singer Sister Rosetta Tharpe.

Listening: Sister Rosetta Tharpe - “Strange Things Happening Every Day” | 1944

Elvis also listened to records by a range of country artists, and learned to play (on the guitar) and sing many country songs at a young age, notably those by Hank Snow.

Listening: Hank Snow - “I'm Moving On” | 1950

In August 1953 Presley visited the offices of fledgling label Sun Records with a view to recording two songs on a one-off acetate. He has later claimed the recording was to be a gift for his mother, although others have speculated more ambitious purposes. Nothing directly came from the experience, nor did it from his second self-funded acetate recording in January 1954. He worked as a truck driver in the meantime while he continued trying to further his musical career in the background.

Meanwhile Sam Phillips, owner of Sun Records, was desperately searching for a white singer who could deliver the increasingly popular African American Rhythm & Blues sound on which his label was based. He eventually tried Presley during the summer of 1954 on a ballad. The session was at first unsuccessful. However, just before they completely gave up, Presley started jamming through an old blues song by Arthur Crudup called “That's All Right” with the session guitarist Winfield “Scotty” Moore and upright bassist Bill Black.

Listening: Arthur Crudup - “That's All Right” | 1946

Phillips overheard them through the open studio door and asked them to start again. He pressed record on the tape machine and history was made. Listening: Elvis Presley - “That's All Right” | 1954

Phillips quickly organised another session to record a B-Side, “Blue Moon of ”, which featured a special delay effect using a second tape machine and exploiting the distance between the record and playback heads. This effect became known as 'slapback' delay and become a trademark of Sun Records, although many other record producers adopted the technique. Slapback has remained popular in various genres of popular music ever since. The slapback echo on “Blue Moon of Kentucky” is of a slightly longer delay time than what became normal as Rock 'n' Roll production techniques developed.

Listening: Elvis Presley - “Blue Moon of Kentucky” | 1954

In Presley's debut single Phillips heard what he had been looking for, and with Moore and Black, Presley established himself as a popular white representative of the rockabilly scene in the region. Initial success did not come easily however. White stations would often not play his records as they sounded too much like a black artist, while more specialist Rhythm & Blues DJs felt his delivery was too Country to suit their stations. However, during the next year and a half Presley and his group worked hard, performing live regularly (including a few shows supporting Bill Haley) and recording more singles for Sun, until the end of 1956 when his manager Colonel Tom Parker and Sam Phillips negotiated a deal to sell Presley's recording contract to major label RCA Victor.

Enlisting a drummer to enhance the ensemble, Presley quickly recorded new material at RCA's studio in New York. Added to some previously unreleased Sun tracks, they constituted Elvis Presley's debut, self-titled album with its iconic cover image of Elvis performing on the guitar. The guitar was becoming increasingly considered 'the' Rock 'n' Roll instrument, and Presley's debut record cover contributed greatly to that perception.

The album featured a range of material, some Rockabilly, some more Country and even a lighter, pop element. Of course, a strong theme of the now-established Rock 'n' Roll sound ran through the entire record, clearly recognisable in Presley's cover version of Carl Perkins' anthem “Blue Suede Shoes”.

Listening: Elvis Presley - “Blue Suede Shoes” | 1956

Performing on ever more high-profile TV shows and continuing with live shows and more recording, Presley quickly became a teen idol. His suggestive dance moves caused controversy and at times TV directors were somewhat restrictive about camera angles in an effort to avoid criticism from the older generation who vociferously denounced the singer as a bad influence on the young!

Presley's charisma on- and off-stage, coupled with the variety of his material, allowed him to take the Rock 'n' Roll phenomenon already established by Bill Haley and others and carry it to the next level. One of his most accessible recordings from the period is the song “Don't Be Cruel”.

Listening: Elvis Presley - “Don't Be Cruel” | 1956

Another hit from the period demonstrates the Rock 'n' Roll ballad, for which Presley was well known, was “Love Me Tender” which coincided with his acting debut in the 1956 film of the same name.

Listening: Elvis Presley - “Love Me Tender” | 1956

Films became an integral part of Presley's career, and although often critically slated were often box office successes. Another example of the way music and film were combined during this period of his career is the straight-up Rock 'n' Roll track “Jailhouse Rock” from the film of the same name:

Listening: Elvis Presley - “Jailhouse Rock” | 1957

His performances sparked frenzy, as with many Rock 'n' Roll groups. Fans typically screamed their way through shows, while non-fans denounced him and the entire genre as worthless and at worst actually evil! Presley maintained his integrity however, and became something of an American hero when he was conscripted for US army service between 1958 and 1960.

During the 1960s Presley concentrated on his film career, and was often criticised. He returned to the music scene with a landmark 'comeback' concert in 1968, though his career suffered due to his abuse of prescription drugs and unhealthy lifestyle particularly after the breakdown of his marriage in 1972. He continued to perform (notably as a regular in Las Vegas) until his death in 1977.

Jerry Lee Lewis 54-present Jerry Lee Lewis started his career in the south of United States, growing up in an evangelical family in Louisiana, then spending time in Nashville and Mississippi establishing himself as a Rock 'n' Roll piano player before arriving in Memphis in 1956 where he auditioned for Sun Records. By the start of 1957 he was recording regularly there as an artist in his own right and as a session musician for other artists on the label such as Carl Perkins and Johnny Cash.

His boogie-woogie style was an unusual ingredient in the Rockabilly sound, but it soon became popular and influenced other groups to include the instrument.

Early in his career at Sun Records, Lewis famously contributed to a jam session at the studio there which was fortunately captured by Sam Phillips himself. The impromptu ensemble consisted of Lewis along with Johnny Cash, Carl Perkins and Elvis Presley, and their improvised mixture of Gospel and Rock 'n' Roll songs was eventually re-discovered and released during the 1980s as 'The Million Dollar Quartet'.

Lewis' solo recording career began with a successful series of Sun recordings which included the two songs for which he is most associated, “Whole Lotta Shakin' Goin' on” and “Great Balls of Fire”. Both hits created controversy due to suggestive lyrics, which although by today's standards seem tame were at the time considered risqué to the point where some radio stations refused to play them! This controversy caused Lewis some personal struggle, being a devout Christian himself, but the Rock 'n' Roll was not to be stopped and Jerry Lee Lewis' career leaped forwards during 1957. He achieved several hits and appeared on television shows performing with his group.

Listening: Jerry Lee Lewis - “Whole Lotta Shakin' Goin' on” | 1957

Both of these two key hits featured the characteristic Sun Records slapback delay created by Sam Phillips using a second tape machine. They also feature Lewis' dynamic boogie-woogie piano approach (swung in “Whole Lotta Shakin'...” and more straight in “Great Balls of Fire”), plenty of his trademark glissando sweeps, and his high energy delivery of the Rhythm & Blues style vocals, with excitable and suggestive lyrics.

Listening: Jerry Lee Lewis - “Great Balls of Fire” | 1957

TV appearances captured some of his frenetic performance style, and as with many Rock 'n' Roll stars Jerry Lee Lewis appeared in several musical films. One of these was “High School Confidential” for which he co-wrote and performed the title song.

Listening: Jerry Lee Lewis - “High School Confidential” | 1958

Scandal sadly damaged his career during 1958 when it emerged in the media that Lewis had married his first cousin once removed who was only 13 years old. Although he was still under contract with Sun Records and continued recording and performing he effectively vanished from the music scene. Some slight comeback occurred in Europe during the 1960s but the damage caused by the revelations about his personal life was extensive, and has been since augmented by other personal crises (Lewis has been married seven times!). He is still performing and recording to this day however, and despite the controversy Jerry Lee Lewis is recognised for his significant impact on the 1950s Rock 'n' Roll scene.

Buddy Holly 55-59

From a very young age Charles Hardin Holley (known to his family as 'Buddy') was taught guitar and banjo by his brothers and was singing in a talent contest at the age of five. At school he played Bluegrass (a Folk-influence form of Country music) and sang regularly. In 1955 he saw Elvis Presley perform and was greatly influenced towards the Rockabilly sound, developing a rhythmic guitar approach. Before long his three-piece band were supporting first Elvis, then Bill Haley, and as a result he was signed to whereupon he dropped the 'e' from his surname due to a spelling mistake in the contract!

Early recordings were unfruitful and before long he was dropped by Decca, only to find himself a manager and, bizarrely, two new deals with Decca subsidiaries: One as a solo artist and one with his group .

His first major hit was “That'll be the Day” in 1957 which was released as The Crickets to sidestep legal limitations due to an unsuccessful earlier recording of the song during his initial contract. The song was a runaway hit, topping the Billboard Stores chart.

Listening: & The Crickets - “That'll be the Day” | 1957

The hit version of the song was recorded at Clovis studios in New Mexico with producer . During 1957 Petty's pioneering approach to recording, notably his attention to detail and obsession with capturing the sound of the performing musicians as accurately as possible, blended with Holly's distinctive song-writing to forge one of the most influential team efforts in Rock 'n' Roll history.

Petty utilised overdubbing methods, initially by bouncing from one machine to the other. He was also very thorough with his microphone use, sometimes positioning a microphone or two near Holly's Fender guitar amplifier and then an additional microphone in front of his Stratocaster guitar to capture the noise of the pick on the strings. Neither was Petty afraid of the unorthodox. On the B- Side of Holly's 1957 hit “”, the song “Everyday” features percussion courtesy of drummer tapping his knees and Petty's wife Vi playing celeste!

Listening: Buddy Holly - “Everyday” | 1957

Buddy Holly and the Crickets famously performed on in 1957, and also played some landmark concerts at the Harlem Apollo where they worked hard to convert an African American audience to the Rockabilly sound.

Due to having two separate recording contracts, one as 'Buddy Holly' and one as 'The Crickets', two albums of Buddy Holly material emerged during 1957, “Buddy Holly” and “The Chirping Crickets”. Opening track “Oh Boy!” (a cover version, originally co-written by Norman Petty and here produced by him again at Clovis) features the addition of harmony backing vocals provided by three part vocal group The Picks, reminiscent of the R&B Doo-Wop vocal style. These were recorded as an overdub after the original session. “Oh Boy!” also features a slightly wilder vocal approach delivered by Holly, and the familiar jangly sound of the Fender Stratocaster which was his trademark guitar.

Listening: The Crickets - “Oh Boy!” | 1957

During 1958 Holly spent more time in New York where he married and became immersed in the music industry there. The Crickets split later in the year and Holly concentrated on solo material, while harbouring ambitions for collaborative projects with R&B and Rock 'n' Roll artists and to develop an acting career, following in the footsteps of Elvis Presley and many other performers.

The songs recorded at his last official recording session were his first with orchestral musicians, and resulted in his first stereo recordings. These songs included the ballad “” which features an intricate, rain-inspired string arrangement, celeste, and harp.

Listening: Buddy Holly - “Raining in My Heart” | 1958

Four months after the session Holly gathered a group of musicians to replace the Crickets and set off as part of a touring show called the 'Winter Dance Party', along with fellow performers Ritchie Valens and The Big Bopper. After a show in Iowa on the 2nd February 1959, Holly set off in a small chartered plane with these other two Rock 'n' Roll stars making for the next venue on the tour. The plane crashed nearby in the early hours of February 3rd, tragically killing the pilot and all three passengers.

Holly is remembered as one of the first Rock 'n' Roll musicians to write and become involved in production of his own material while helping to bridge the racial divide in the USA. Other notable contributors to 1950s Rock 'n' Roll

Cliff Richard Sam Phillips Carl Perkins The Big Bopper 53-60 Gene Vincent 55-71