Doctoral Theses in Middle East Studies 中東研究博士論文要旨

Middle East Studies in Japan

IWAMOTO Keiko / 岩本佳子 the viewpoint of the Ottoman nomadic A Study on Nomads in the Pre- people. To achieve this understanding, M o d e r n O t t o m a n E m p i r e : T h e this work focuses on characteristic Yörüks and the Tatars in Rumeli, the nomadic or ex-nomadic peoples: the Descendants of the Conquerors, yörük s, the tatar s, the descendants of and the Nomad Settlement Policy (in the conquerors in the Balkans, and the Japanese) Turkish and Kurdish nomads in Anatolia Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto and northern Syria from the 14th century University, 2015 to the first quarter of the 19th century.

「前近代オスマン朝における遊牧民の研 1. The Yörüks in Rumeli 究――ルメリのユリュク、タタール、征 After the Ottoman conquest of the 服者の子孫たち、定住化政策の事例から Balkans, some nomadic groups called ――」 yörüks crossed the straits from western 京都大学大学院文学研究科、2015年 Anatolia to the Balkan Peninsula, which was called Rumeli in Ottoman Turkish. Summary Thus, the groups that can be referred to as This thesis aims to explore the the yörüks in Rumeli were formed in the relationship between the Ottoman Balkans from the 15th century and into Empire and nomadic peoples, in an the 16th century. These yörüks joined or attempt to understand how empires ruled worked for the Ottoman army in exchange various peoples with particular cultures for partial tax exemptions, such as tolls and occupations. It also looks at how levied on normal farmers or nomads and these nomads related to and survived called avarız, resm-i çift, and öşür in under imperial rule, specifically from Ottoman Turkish. The yörüks in Rumeli

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31-2_中東学会.indb 371 2016/03/15 16:43:36 were subdivided into ocak, meaning livelihoods of the yörük s in Rumeli group in Ottoman Turkish and consisting were influenced by the topographical or of five eşkünci s, who were also part climatic conditions in the places where of the military or worked for logistics. they lived. The tax register stating that Also part of the subdivision were 20-25 “this yörük group came from another yamak s, who paid yamak taxes to the place (ḫāriçden gelüp) and cultivates eşküncis. lands (zirā‘at éderler) here” shows that Throughout the 16th century, both many yörüks legally and habitually were in war and peacetime, the yörüks were allowed to use lands that were allotted not employed as warriors, defenders of forts, to them, but to fief-holding cavalry men and canon carriers, as well as laborers in (sipāhī). Originally, the word “yörük” dockyards, mines, munitions factories, meant nomads or walking and wandering bridge building, and so on. people. Thus, we see that the yörüks in The yörüks in Rumeli sometimes Rumeli were characterized as nomads resisted unlawful demands for tax even in the 16th century. payments by referring to their privileged In the 17th century, the population tax exemption. Respecting their claims on of the yörük s in Rumeli declined, and illegal impositions of taxes, the Ottomans their geographical distribution became occasionally complied with their smaller. Additionally, their ocak structure objections in order to keep the population with five eşkünci s and 20-25 yamak s and the ocak system in good order. The tended to collapse. For example, in the people were an important source of 1544 register, each ocak of the Selanik manpower, which was indispensable to yörük had had 5 eşküncis and 20 yamaks, Ottoman campaigns and military actions. who paid 50 akçe toward the yamak tax, Next, I focus on the yörük s’ without any exemptions. This situation livelihoods, occupations, and land usage changed greatly, with the Selanik yörük patterns through an investigation of population decreasing remarkably from prefectural tax registers. Most of the 12,500 to 3,553 in 1649. In spite of this, yörük s living on the plains of Thrace the amount derived from yamak taxes or Thessaly cultivated land, while the only fell from 500,000 to 472,000 akçe, yörüks living in mountainous Macedonia because the amount of yamak tax paid by engaged in crop-farming and stock- 1 yamak increased from 50 to 150 akçe. farming equally. The occupations and In addition to the decline in population,

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31-2_中東学会.indb 372 2016/03/15 16:43:36 which continued throughout the century, 2. The Tatars in Rumeli the number of standard ocaks, consisting After the Ottoman conquest of of 5 eşküncis and 25 yamaks, was a mere the Balkans, not only the yörüks but also 48, although the register recorded 125 nomadic groups called tatar s crossed ocaks. These numbers show that it was the straits with the Ottomans. The tatars becoming difficult for more than half the served as auxiliary units in the Balkan ocaks to maintain 30 people each. Peninsula, like the yörük s in Rumeli T h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t in the 15th-16th centuries. The tatars implemented a measure to keep a were similarly subdivided into ocak s sufficient amount of yamak tax flowing. consisting of five eşkünci s and 20-25 In the 1675 register, some records of yamak s. Although all groups of tatar s the amount of yamak tax paid appeared in Rumeli were exempted from some under the heading “cemā‘at,” which, like taxes in exchange for military services ocak, meant group in Ottoman Turkish. or labor, they contained various groups The word ocak was not mentioned. who were treated differently from others. Because of the use of this word cemaat, For example, cebelü tatars in the Silistra the Ottoman government was able to district were allotted arable lands, which collect the definite amount of yamak they cultivated in times of peace. Other tax from the Selanik yörük, who did not tatar subgroups, such as the Aktav, Vize, really belong to ocaks. It was only in the and Yanbolu tatars, were not accorded case of the Selanik yörük that both ocak such privilege. and cemaat were used for the purpose of Almost all of the subgroups of recording yörüks. Hence, the amount of the tatar s, such as Aktav , Vize, and yamak taxes collected did not fall, in spite Yanbolu, were recorded together with of the decline of the yamak population the subdivisions of the yörük s in the and the ocak s. Thus, the Ottomans Rumeli in tax registers and the registers maintained the yörük s in Rumeli as a of imperial edicts. Thus, in the mid- unique group in order to apply special 16th century, the Ottoman government taxation to them during the 17th century, confused the word tatar with yörük when at a time when they were not needed to recording them in the tax registers. In take part in wars or join the labor force. the 17th century, the word yörük was used to record such subdivisions as Aktav, Yanbolu, and Vize, without using

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31-2_中東学会.indb 373 2016/03/15 16:43:37 the word tatar. In the end, the tatars in called “the descendants of the conquerors Rumeli were absorbed into the yörük s (evlād-ı fātiḥān).” The name derived in Rumeli because the two peoples were from the legend in which their ancestors very similar. crossed the straits from Anatolia to Rumeli along with the Ottoman sultans 3 . T h e D e s c e n d a n t s o f t h e and viziers in the name of the Islamic Conquerors holy wars. With long-lasting wars against the The descendants of the conquerors Habsburg Empire, Tsarist Russia, and the formally belonged to the askeri class, Iranian dynasties, the late 17th and 18th so they were originally granted a full centuries were troublesome times for the tax exemption in return for fighting Ottoman government. The Second Battle in wars. However, there is plenty of of Vienna in 1683 had ended in defeat evidence to show that some Ottoman for the Ottoman Empire. Consequently, officials did not obey this tax exemption in 1699, the Ottoman state was forced and levied taxes on them nonetheless. to sign the Treaty of Karlowitz, through For example, an order issued on June 4, which the empire lost vast territories, 1709 determined that avarız and nüzül including Hungary and Podolia (modern taxes were due from the descendants southwestern Ukraine). Thereafter, the of the conquerors as reimbursement of Ottoman rulers began to reform their the cost of the Janissary garrisons at the military and financial systems. They had Kandiye and Limni forts in the Aegean difficulty raising sufficient numbers for Sea, in spite of their tax exemption. This a standing army and overcoming their order overturned previous edicts and former deep dependency on irregular regulations. On June 15, 1716, a final troops. The Ottoman army thus started to order was issued that determined their recruit the yörüks in Rumeli to serve as tax exemption according to the same warriors, defenders of forts, and carriers regulations seen in the previous register. of cannons in 1690, for the first time in Consequently, the descendants of the 80 years. conquerors paid the cost of exemption In AH 1108/AD 1696-97, the from military service only in the years Ottoman Sultan issued an imperial when they did not go to war, as in the decree, which ordered the reorganization case of the yörüks in Rumeli. of the yörük s in Rumeli into a corps Clearly, therefore, the Ottoman

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31-2_中東学会.indb 374 2016/03/15 16:43:37 gover nment in the 17th and 18th settle in northern Syria, especially in centuries protected the descendants of the Raqqah Prefecture, as a punishment. conquerors, as they had protected their Initially, nomads were made to settle ancestors, the yörüks in Rumeli, in order in other places as well, but gradually to assure themselves of having sufficient these other places ceased to be used manpower and tax income. and all the Turkish and Kurdish tribes were resettled in northern Syria only. 4. The Settlement Policy in Northern Those who fled and became bandits, if Syria and Other Places caught, were ordered back to the same The end of the 17th century places of resettlement. Because of this, was an important turning point for many members of the tribes who were the Ottomans and the nomads. This resettled in northern Syria fled to eastern chapter reviews the Ottoman policy of or western Anatolia, some also becoming settlement on arable lands, applied to the outlaws. Kurdish nomads and the Turkish nomads (Türkmān), by referring to imperial edicts Conclusion and other archival documents from the Some Ottoman nomadic groups— end of the 17th century through the 18th such as the yörük s in Rumeli and the century. descendants of the conquerors—had Unlike the yörük s and tatar s their roles and occupations forcibly in Rumeli, the Kurdish and Turkish changed according to the demands of nomads had rarely been employed as the Ottoman government during the auxiliary units because of their previous 16th-18th centuries. Because of this, only rebellion against the empire; they were the yörüks in Rumeli and the descendants considered bandits. In addition, whereas of the conquerors remained as distinct the Ottomans previously had not banned groups in the early modern Ottoman nomadic seasonal migrations, and had empire. taken a neutral attitude toward disputes The Ottomans changed their between nomads and farmers, imperial policy on nomads at the end of the 17th edicts show a transformation; at some century. Their solution was to have them point the Ottomans began to consider settle in northern Syria and force them the seasonal migration as troublesome, into crop-farming. This policy led to a and issued orders for the nomads to disturbance of the social order in their

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31-2_中東学会.indb 375 2016/03/15 16:43:37 place of resettlement. The Ottoman nomads were able to maintain their existence as distinct groups by changing their occupation, their place of settlement, or their way of life according to Ottoman rule or policy. This flexibility was the key to their survival.

Research Fellow (PD), Japan Society for the Promotion of Science 日本学術振興会特別研究員（PD）

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