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RATIONING THE DIGITAL The Policy and Politics of Use in Today

INTERNET MONITOR is a research project to evaluate, describe, and summarize the means, mechanisms, and extent of Internet content controls and Internet activity around the world. thenetmonitor.org

INTERNET MONITOR is a project of the Berkman Center for Internet & Society. http://cyber.law.harvard.edu

COVER IMAGE “Panorámica nocturna de la Habana, Capital de Cuba” Alexander Bonilla Used under a CC BY 2.0 license http://www.flickr.com/photos/lexdjelectronic/8070916071/

July 2013

Rationing the Digital: The Policy and Politics of Internet Use in Cuba Today

Ellery Roberts Biddle

INTERNET MONITOR! Rationing the Digital: The Policy and Politics of Internet Use in Cuba Today 1

CUBA has one of the lowest Internet MEDIA IN REVOLUTION penetration rates in the Western hemisphere In 1959, a group of guerilla insurgents led by and is routinely ranked among countries with and Ernesto “Che” Guevara the highest restrictions on Internet use in the stormed the nation’s presidential palace and world. But within both categories, it is ousted former president something of a rare bird. from power. The guerillas formed a new government that sought to remake Cuban While the precise number of Internet users in society using a unique blend of Marxist the country is difficult to calculate, it is clear doctrine and nationalistic ideology. In the that a lack of infrastructure, combined with 1960s, all private enterprises were brought economic and political hurdles, has left access under state ownership; social service systems to the global Internet out of reach for most such as healthcare and education were . But this may soon change. This aggressively developed and rebuilt to serve the spring, the country’s only telecommunications country’s entire population; and many firm, the state-owned ETECSA, activated two independent organizations and informal undersea fiber optic cables that are set to groups were brought under the umbrella of drastically increase connection speeds in state leadership. While the country’s poor, Cuba; the firm also opened over 100 who accounted for most of the population, 1 cybercafes across the island. Officials have generally applauded these reforms, many since made public promises to increase access wealthier citizens left the island in an effort to and lower currently exorbitant fees for protect their wealth.5 Along with massive Internet use. This could fundamentally change shifts in economic, social, and political life, the island’s information economy. media and information on the island underwent a drastic transformation. Nearly all Although Cuba is routinely listed alongside print and broadcast media outlets that had China, , and Saudi Arabia as one of the existed prior to the revolution were closed in most Internet-restrictive countries in the 1961.6 In 1965, the state-run newspapers Hoy world, there is no conclusive evidence that the and Revolución merged to create Granma, which Cuban government practices widespread remains the most widely circulated newspaper filtering.2 While a handful of websites related on the island today.7 State-run television and to dissident activity are blocked, Cubans who radio stations were also established, while use the global Internet are able to browse the independent stations were eliminated. web and participate in digital communities 3 without facing extensive content controls. In addition to controls on media, the But most don’t get this far. Although the government also articulated a new position on country has an active national Intranet, access intellectual expression. In a famous 1961 to the global Internet is availably mainly to address to Cuba’s Union of Writers and those in high-skilled professional sectors and 4 Artists (UNEAC), Fidel Castro proposed a academia. The potential impact of digital new role for intellectuals, inscribing them in media and the global Internet on Cuban the revolution as fighters in the “ideological society has been limited due to the lack of trenches” of the revolution, which is network access on the island. Yet this has not considered to be ongoing.8 He proposed that prevented the increasing circulation of digital critical thinking and expression should exist media among the country’s nascent but only “within” (or in service of) the revolution, growing community of tech-savvy citizens. making it clear that criticism considered damaging to the revolutionary project would not be tolerated. This policy has typically been

INTERNET MONITOR Rationing the Digital: The Policy and Politics of Internet Use in Cuba Today 2 enforced informally by art venues, publishing socialist society.” In practice, this means that houses, and other gatekeepers, but a handful journalists are not explicitly limited in what of artists have faced trial and even jail time for they report on, so long as their coverage their work.9 serves the “ends” or interests of the country’s socialist system. Although the Internet has brought about substantial change within informal While politically “problematic” journalists are information channels over the last six years, often simply not hired by press organizations, little has changed since the 1960s for most there have been instances where journalists Cubans seeking easily accessible news. have faced arrest and imprisonment because Granma, Trabajadores, and other major of their work. In the so-called “Black Spring” newspapers typically run from eight to twelve of 2003, the government systematically pages in length, offering coverage of public arrested, tried, and convicted 29 journalists of works and social service projects, political subversive coverage.12 events, and international news from a markedly anti-US perspective. The reflections The Internet has a limited and highly of Fidel Castro, and transcripts of speeches by controlled role in Cuban society today. Given Raúl Castro and other high-ranking officials, that most Cubans do not have access to the regularly occupy two or three pages of these global Internet, its impact as a space for the newspapers. exchange of news and information is difficult to measure, but presumably limited. The Cubans can also get news from the radio or government has developed various state news via national television news channels such as and information websites, as well as a cadre of Cubavisión and TeleRebelde, but many say state bloggers who chiefly re-post content that state media doesn’t provide adequate from state-run news sites. And a small but coverage of events on the island, particularly vociferous independent blogging community at the local level. Even established intellectual has developed on the island, where bloggers leaders have commented publicly on the mass express a broad range of views on political media’s “ineptitude in reflecting public and social issues in the country. State websites grievances.”10 Most Cubans do not rely solely and blogs often spar with those bloggers who on state media for information. In , identify themselves as anti-government. This home television screens buzz with Colombian comes as no surprise: effectively, blogs have telenovelas and CNN en Español, programs that become the first medium since 1961 wherein are pirated via satellite from stations in Miami. Cubans can express themselves and document Highly educated Cubans may read literary current events without confronting any state- magazines, or Temas, the widely renowned imposed requirement for authorization or intellectual journal on the island, but rarely approval. Granma. State-run periodicals and broadcast media are A COMPLEX ECONOMY OF not explicitly censored per se, but journalists operate under certain expectations concerning CONNECTIVITY ideological character and factual accuracy; for All Internet connections in Cuba today are any person raised and educated in Cuba, these provided by the government-owned are second nature.11 Article 53 of the 1976 ETECSA, the parent company of Cuba’s constitution recognizes freedom of both telecommunications service providers. Most expression and the press, but subordinates Internet users in Cuba connect through a dial- and limits those freedoms to the “ends of the up connection. Though some use DSL,

INTERNET MONITOR Rationing the Digital: The Policy and Politics of Internet Use in Cuba Today 3 wireless connections are very uncommon bureaucratic hurdles and the limited use that outside of high-end hotels.13 Latency times for citizens would derive from networks, given connecting to websites outside the country are that most people do not own laptop generally very slow.14 computers or smart phones. Until early 2013, all Internet connections in Cell phone penetration has increased rapidly the country were via satellite. Through a since regulations on cell phone purchase and partnership with the Venezuelan government ownership were liberalized in 2008.21 In 2011, and the ALBA alliance,15 the government has eleven percent of Cubans owned cell overseen the construction of an undersea phones.22 Some mobile phones in Cuba are fiber optic cable that reportedly will drastically Internet capable, but given the lack of 3G and improve connectivity for Cuban Internet WiFi networks in the country (certain tourist users. Pending the development of adequate areas are rumored to have 3G, but it has not infrastructure on the island, officials say that been detected elsewhere), they are not the cable will increase connection speeds especially useful. SMS messaging is very 3,000-fold.16 Although the project has been popular among Cubans and has provided an underway since 2006, the cable was not put in important fast communication mechanism for place until 2011. It went unused until January activists and citizen journalists. 2013, when Renesys reported signs of new data routes into Cuba and slightly improved Cuban officials attribute many limitations on transmission speeds, indicating that the cable to the US trade embargo on had been activated and that Telefónica Spain Cuba, which has made the costs of technical was sending Internet traffic to the island.17 In hardware and improving telecommunications 23 May 2013, Renesys detected additional data infrastructure exorbitant for Cuba. The routes between Cuba and Jamaica showing Obama administration has eliminated some of that ETECSA was receiving international these restrictions with the express intention of Internet traffic through Cable & Wireless increasing telecommunications access for Jamaica.18 Renesys researcher Doug Madory Cuban citizens, but current policy still leaves posited that the connection to Cable & barriers substantial enough to discourage telecommunications companies from pursuing Wireless Jamaica may be intended to serve as 24 a back-up, should service through the main business opportunities on the island. Cuba- cable be shut off.19 Shortly after this news surfaced, Cuban officials announced plans to increase the number of RATIONING INTERNET ACCESS Internet cafes on the island. Cuban authorities have openly raised concern about the Internet and have declared that the Cubans who wish to have an Internet government must protect Cubans from connection installed in their home or place of “damaging” and “imperialistic” content on business must apply for a connection with the the web, which is often called a “media Ministry of Information Technology and weapon” of the .25 Fidel Castro Communications (MINTIC). Applications for commented on the unique effects of Internet connections in private homes are decentralized communication online in a 2010 rarely accepted; in 2011, the ITU reported interview with the Mexico City-based daily that only 0.4 percent of Cuban households newspaper La Jornada: were connected to the global Internet.20 Businesses and individuals also must apply to The Internet has put the possibility of MINTIC in order to establish WiFi networks. communicating with the world into WiFi is extremely uncommon, both due to our hands. We had nothing like this

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before. … We are facing the most supporters are more likely to be trusted to use powerful weapon that's ever existed… the Internet than those who are not outwardly The power of communication has supportive of the government.29 been, and is, in the hands of the empire and of ambitious private sector For Cubans who do not fall into this elite groups that have used and abused it… category, the government has developed a [A]lthough they've tried to keep this national network, or Intranet. Accessible in universities, youth recreation centers, and post power intact, they haven't been able 30 to. They are losing it day by day… as offices, the Intranet allows users to access many other [voices] emerge each the state email server and sites that are hosted 31 moment.26 in the .cu domain, which is administered by the government. While it is not technically While Fidel’s words might suggest some open, the Intranet hosts a wide variety of sites leniency toward independent voices on the covering topics ranging from news to culture web, he also portrays the Internet as a space to tourism. EcuRed, Cuba’s version of for ideological conflict; this conceptualization Wikipedia, boasts 103,000 articles on topics of has been central to state rhetoric concerning all kinds.32 Within the Intranet, the the Internet.27 government allows citizens to participate in a uniquely Cuban online environment, and Yet the government is also deeply committed academic and medical researchers to build to maintaining its renowned education and networks of scholarly exchange, without healthcare systems, and is reticent to fall having to develop the infrastructure or face behind regional standards because of the political challenges that the global Internet 28 technological barriers. Thus, authorities have would bring. All .cu domain sites are subject mitigated the political and economic to review by the Department of Revolutionary challenges that the Internet presents by Orientation, a measure that eliminates most “rationing” Internet access and content. High- politically objectionable or skilled professionals such as doctors, counterrevolutionary content from the academics, and high-ranking government Intranet.33 There is some degree of ambiguity officials are given access to the global Internet surrounding the Intranet—on the island, one at their places of work because it is deemed notices that Cubans sometimes use the terms necessary to their professional development. Internet and Intranet interchangeably.34 Factory workers, plumbers, bus drivers—and the millions of other workers who do not When describing the positive aspects of the belong to the category of elite professionals— Internet, officials do not acknowledge it as a are not so lucky. space for individual exploration and social connection; the web is framed primarily as a While this privileged group of professionals valuable tool for professional and intellectual may be able to get online, most are unlikely to enrichment. In sum, those who are authorized tread too far outside of what they consider to to use the Internet are expected to do so in be “safe for work”—regardless of whether or order to better do their jobs, or so that they not they are being watched, such activity can may better serve the nation. feel like a substantial political risk. Indeed, several Cuban bloggers contend that in the The tourism industry has created another professional world, Internet access is venue for Internet access on the island. Since distributed not only in accordance with 2001, hotel business centers have offered necessity, but also with political behavior. access to the global Internet, and since 2008, Employees who are known to be government Cubans have been permitted to use these

INTERNET MONITOR Rationing the Digital: The Policy and Politics of Internet Use in Cuba Today 5 services alongside tourists.35 But at prices been growing in Cuba since 2006. Focusing ranging from the equivalent of US$7-12, hotel on topics ranging from human rights to connections are prohibitively expensive for poetry to sexual politics, these bloggers have most Cubans, who earn the equivalent of given people worldwide the opportunity to US$12-25 per month. This is the paradoxical read about daily life in Cuba from tilt of Internet policy in Cuba, and one that independent sources. In a country where most directly contradicts the egalitarian imperative writers, scholars, and novelists are supported of the Cuban socialist project—if you can’t and ‘approved’ by state-run institutions, this is scrape together the money, your opportunities a radical turn: civic discourse is no longer to access the global Internet will be few and solely a product of state-supported journalists far between. But any person with a pocketful and intellectuals. of cash can easily circumvent state restrictions by paying to use a hotel connection. Measuring the degree to which these bloggers are reaching their own fellow citizens is In June of 2013, ETECSA opened 118 difficult, given the low levels of Internet Internet cafes around the country where access on the island. Highly conscious of this Cuban nationals can get online at a lower (if problem, bloggers routinely send their posts still formidable) cost; domestic Intranet use is to Cuban friends and family via email (the priced at the equivalent of US$0.70 per hour, state email system is separate from the while connecting to the global Internet costs Internet and can be accessed wherever US$5.00 per hour.36 ETECSA officials have Intranet connections are found.) Some will announced plans to increase the number of load their writings, as well as news and other centers on the island and to reduce media from the web, to CDs or pen drives connection fees over time.37 that they trade among friends. Those who don’t blog, but have access to these networks Pinpointing Cuba’s Internet penetration rate of exchange, often pass new information is difficult. Government statistics submitted along by word of mouth or, if they own cell to the International Telecommunication phones, by sending it to their friends or Union (ITU) reported Cuba’s Internet posting it to Twitter via SMS. Blogger penetration rate at 14 percent in 2010 and 23 38 Orlando Luis Pardo Lazo describes these percent in 2011. The same report also stated networks of secondary circulation as Cuba’s that there were fewer than four fixed Internet Internet “offline”.40 Like other bloggers, connections per 10,000 inhabitants of the Pardo Lazo believes that this relatively new, 39 country. As mentioned above, most Cubans web-derived information-sharing economy is who access the global Internet do so at work beginning to have some impact on how or school, on a shared computer. Many access Cubans get their news—rather than relying on the Internet on a relatively infrequent basis. state media outlets and word-of-mouth, Researchers also note that numbers submitted Cubans can now more easily learn of the latest by the government could be adjusted to social and political happenings from a range reflect the “informal” or unauthorized use of of sources, including independent and foreign the Internet through black market channels, ones. but it is difficult to estimate how many Cubans have access to such connections. Many of the island’s bloggers have chronicled the development of Cuba’s informal economy of technology, and they point out that these DIGITAL EXPRESSION ON THE ISLAND communities of information exchange In spite of significant barriers to using the correspond to underground networks of Internet, a small blogging community has commercial activity. Since the mid-1990s, the

INTERNET MONITOR Rationing the Digital: The Policy and Politics of Internet Use in Cuba Today 6 presence of hard currency in Cuba has led to a pressure in recent years. The first well- rapid expansion of the informal economy, and documented arrests of Cubans who technological hardware and know-how have participate in online communities occurred in become coveted goods on the black market in 2009, when well-known Havana-based recent years. Bloggers have reported that bloggers Yoani Sánchez, Orlando Luis Pardo, Cubans are increasingly able to access the and Claudia Cadelo were detained while en Internet through unofficial channels. Cubans route to a performance by the controversial who work in hotels obtain Internet café political arts group OMNI ZonaFranca.45 access cards in bulk and sell them for reduced Since this time, Sánchez and Pardo have been prices on the black market. Cubans with arrested and detained several times. Bloggers official authorization to use the Internet will and other netizens are typically arrested while allow their friends to log on using their traveling to a meeting or event of political passwords, or will sell their passwords for a significance. In October 2012, Sánchez and small fee.41 While these exchanges may sound bloggers Agustín Díaz and Reinaldo Escobar too innocent to be called “black market” (Sánchez’s husband) were arrested while they deals, any transaction that is not authorized by were on their way to the trial of Angel a state agency can be classified as Carromero, a Spanish national accused by the unauthorized commercial activity, and thus Cuban government of vehicular manslaughter constitute a criminal offense. But as long as in the death of Oswaldo Payá, a long-standing technical commodities remain “hot” on the advocate for human rights and democratic informal market, they will likely continue to governance in Cuba.46 proliferate among tech-savvy citizens.42 In November 2012, police arrested a large group of dissidents and independent bloggers BLOGGERS: THE “MOST SERIOUS who had gathered outside of a Havana police station to demand that authorities release CHALLENGE” TO CUBA’S POLITICAL certain activists and intellectuals who were STABILITY? being held in detention.47 Antonio Rodiles, Certain bloggers and Twitter users focus organizer of an informal intellectual forum primarily on reporting on dissident activism called “Estado de SATS,” was among those and human rights violations on the island— arrested, and was held for three weeks before for the first time in history, readers around the being released. Rodiles has been chided by world have been able to see photographs of authorities for his work on Estado de SATS, which he video records and posts on abuses shortly after they’ve taken place. This 48 type of activism has likely fueled government YouTube. After his arrest, it was rumored ire towards bloggers, whom officials have that Rodiles would be charged with openly condemned in public address.43 In “contempt and dispersion of false news,” but diplomatic cables sent from the US Interests he was released soon after this information began to circulate. It is unclear whether he Section in Havana (an office that exists in lieu 49 of an actual embassy), released by WikiLeaks will face charges in the future. in December 2010, US officials suggested that Human rights advocacy and international Cuban authorities have come to view the peace-keeping organizations, not to mention island's bloggers as the “most serious 44 foreign governments, are paying attention to challenge” to Cuba's political stability. the new lines of communication that have Cuban netizens have not been persecuted at formed between Cuba and the rest of the the level that they have in countries like Iran world. They are increasingly using these tools or China, but they have faced increasing to further awareness about violations of civil

INTERNET MONITOR Rationing the Digital: The Policy and Politics of Internet Use in Cuba Today 7 and , and to hold the government officials describe as an ongoing Cuban government accountable for its “cyberwar” between Cuba and the US. actions. In her writings, Sánchez has surmised that her international popularity has helped to Both the Gross case and the social network protect her from further persecution by state policy described above illustrate the degree to authorities; if she were physically harmed or which Cuban government control over the incarcerated for a long period of time, she Internet is particularly geared toward shielding suspects the diplomatic and economic costs the country from the cultural and economic for the Cuban government would be great. influence of the United States. In 2009, a US citizen named Alan Gross was arrested for bringing technological equipment SURVEILLANCE FROM THE BOTTOM UP into the country. Gross made five trips to Surveillance in Cuba takes place through a Cuba on behalf of Development Alternatives multi-tiered system that begins at the International, a subcontractor of USAID, on “grassroots” level: in every town and on which he was assigned to set up small WiFi nearly every city block, there is one person networks in an effort to help Jewish who serves as the community’s designated communities in Cuba access the Internet. leader of the local Committee for the Defense After being held without charges for ten of the Revolution (CDR).54 Committees for months, Gross was tried and convicted of the Defense of the Revolution are meant to traveling to the country without proper function as a source of political inspiration permission (Gross entered Cuba on a tourist and solidarity for their communities, while visa, rather than an aid worker’s visa) and acts also serving as the “eyes” of the state at the that violated the “integrity of the Cuban local level. The leader of each local CDR is 50 state.” He was sentenced to fifteen years in charged with keeping a log of unusual, prison; although US State Department potentially counterrevolutionary activity in the representatives have expressed confidence area and reporting these activities to a state that the Gross sentence could be reduced police officer who collects logs on a regular through negotiations, thus far there has been basis. In recent years, CDRs have since no evidence that any progress has been made become a site for trading political favors; 51 in this regard. committee leaders report on their neighbors not necessarily as a way to support the Under , it is illegal for Cuban government, but rather in an effort to citizens to accept financial, material, or any encourage officers to turn a blind eye to their other type of assistance from US government 55 own unauthorized activities. agencies;52 USAID has nevertheless maintained programming in the country that Broadly speaking, there is an expectation of is typically conducted in a clandestine, non- surveillance within Cuban society. Political 53 transparent manner. doctrine is taught from nursery school onward, reinforced by CDR leaders, and In 2012, Cuban bloggers reported that certain repeatedly articulated in the speeches of high- universities had implemented a policy under 56 ranking government officials. Expectations which students who are found using and norms for what is and is not acceptable Facebook or Twitter on university computers are well-understood by most people and can have their Internet use privileges revoked enforced by authority figures (ranging from for up to six months. Bloggers surmise that police officers to employers to university the policy deliberately targets US-based social personnel) when necessary. networking sites, a “weapon” in what

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Those who have attempted to study electronic writer. Sánchez, who is regularly followed by surveillance in Cuba have made little progress. state police officers in plainclothes, has even Various individuals have reported on a documented her followers’ activities. unique, Cuban-made software program known as Avila Link, which prevents users The previously mentioned trend of bloggers from running certain kinds of software, and being arrested while physically en route to an may possess monitoring capabilities.57 It is event or meeting of political significance rumored that public computers use keyloggers presents an important clue to this end, as it that record users’ passwords for online suggests that the government is primarily accounts. For over a decade, researchers at concerned with actions on the ground, not the Universidad de las Ciencias Informáticas actions online. Given the low levels of (UCI) have studied the potential benefits and Internet access among most of the ills of Cuba becoming a networked society.58 population, it is not surprising that the Students at the UCI police the Internet in government continues to rely on physical “Cybernetic Response Brigades,” student task surveillance and real-space punishment of forces that comb the web for Cuba-based those who engage in criticism. sites containing counterrevolutionary sentiment.59 LOOKING TOWARD A MORE Cubans have reported that the island’s relatively new cybercafés require customers to CONNECTED FUTURE show their national ID cards when signing up At present, while recent developments give for time on a computer. The Miami Herald many Cubans hope for a more connected reported that customers also must sign an future, Internet access remains scant, agreement stating that they will not engage in prohibitively expensive, and beyond the reach any activity online “that could be considered of most of the population. It is likely that the … as damaging or harmful to the public underground economy of technology and security.”60 information will continue to grow alongside the state’s multi-tiered system of Internet use. Although some Cuban Internet users surely Cubans in the upper echelon of skilled do worry about electronic surveillance, it is professionals will retain the privilege of important to recognize that the general regular Internet use. Some of the population expectation of physical surveillance often will continue to use state-provided resources. trumps this concern. In fact, many bloggers And most Cubans will remain disconnected on the island have elected to be very open from the online world. The group to watch about their real identities. Sánchez and Cadelo will be the island’s tech-savvy minority. While have high-quality scans of their national ID the flow of technological commodities and cards (carnet) posted on their homepages.61 know-how through underground channels Many say that this is the “safest” way to blog may seem irreversible, it could one day trigger on the island. If it is true that state security is tighter government controls on technology; the most efficiently-run government increased access to the Internet could yield an institution in Cuba, it seems unlikely that any increase in digital surveillance. But as long as blogger in Cuba could remain unknown to bloggers and other Internet users continue to state security for very long. Furthermore, by participate in Cuba’s “offline Internet,” the blogging anonymously, a writer suggests that global Internet will have an increasing impact he or she is saying something that the state on the spread of knowledge and information may find objectionable; this would likely only in Cuban society. increase state suspicion about that particular

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ADDITIONAL RECOMMENDED READING New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Díaz Rodríguez, Elaine. “Blogs y periodismo Press, 2010. en Cuba: entre el ‘deber ser’ y la realidad,” Revista Latina de Comunicación Social 12.64 (2009): 951-967. NOTES http://www.redalyc.org/pdf/819/819117 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 86074.pdf. Doug Madory, “Cuba-Jamaica Link Activated,” Renesys, May 20, 2013, ---. La Polémica Digital. http://www.renesys.com/2013/05/cuba- http://espaciodeelaine.wordpress.com/. jamaica-link-activated/. See also “Cuban Centers to Offer a Costly Glimpse of the “Empowering the Cuban People through Web,” New York Times, May 28, 2013, Technology: Recommendations for http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/29/world Private and Public Sector Leaders.” The /americas/cuban-centers-to-offer-a-costly- Cuba Study Group, in collaboration with glimpse-of-the-web.html?hpw&_r=0. the Council of the Americas and the 2 Brookings Institute, July 2010. Despite several attempts, researchers at the http://www.cubastudygroup.org/index.cf OpenNet Initiative (opennet.net) have been m/empowering-cubans-through- unable to run successful filtering tests in technology. Cuba. Security concerns prevent further testing. Henken, Ted. “A Bloggers' Polemic: Debating 3 Yoani Sánchez, author of the blog Independent Cuban Blogger Projects in a Generación Y, reported that her blog was Polarized Political Context.” Association for blocked in Cuba from March of 2008 until the Study of the Cuban Economy 21 (2011). February of 2010. Blogger Orlando Luis http://www.ascecuba.org/publications/p Pardo also reports that his blog, Boring Home roceedings/volume21/pdfs/henken.pdf. Utopics, is blocked in Cuba. Numerous reports indicate that MartíNoticias, the ---. El Yuma. http://elyuma.blogspot.com. website of Radio Martí, the US government- Press, Larry. “Report on the state of the funded radio station directed at Cubans, is Internet in Cuba.” The Internet in Cuba, also blocked on the island. January 2011. 4 While is has less in common with countries http://som.csudh.edu/fac/lpress/cuba/c that aggressively filter online content, Cuba hapters/lpdraft2.docx. shares some characteristics with —though its policies in certain areas are ---. The Internet in Cuba. far less stringent. In North Korea, access to http://laredcubana.blogspot.com. the global Internet is limited to a few connections via China for select government Sanchez, Yoani. Generacion Y. elites, and a national Intranet serves as http://lageneraciony.com/. citizens’ only known way to experience the Valdés, Nelson. “Cuba y la tecnología de la online world. For more information on información.” Temas: Cultura, Ideología y Internet in North Korea, see: “North Korea,” Sociedad 31 (1997). OpenNet Initiative, May 10, 2007, https://opennet.net/research/profiles/north- Venegas, Cristina. Digital Dilemmas: the State, korea. the Individual, and Digital Media in Cuba.

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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 5 Marifeli Pérez-Stable, The Cuban 14 Larry Press, “Connectivity remains slow and Revolution: Origins, Course, and Legacy variable,” The Internet in Cuba, January 2013, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). http://laredcubana.blogspot.com/2013/01/c 6 Luis Martínez-Fernández et al. eds., onnectivity-remains-slow-and-variable.html. Encyclopedia of Cuba: People, History, 15 “Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas,” Culture, Vol. 1 (Westport, Connecticut: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolivarian_Allia Greenwood Press, 2003), 272. nce_for_the_Americas. 7 “Cuba,” Press Reference, 16 “ITU hails connectivity boost for Cuba,” http://www.pressreference.com/Co- International Telecommunication Union, Fa/Cuba.html. February 11, 2011, 8 Fidel Castro “Words to the Intellectuals,” http://www.itu.int/net/pressoffice/press_rel UNEAC 1961, eases/2011/CM03.aspx#.UdLWjD5gZ1E. http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/castro/db/19 17 Doug Madory, “Mystery Cable Activated in 61/19610630.html. Cuba,” Renesys, January 20, 2013, 9 Jean Franco, The Decline and Fall of the http://www.renesys.com/blog/2013/01/cub Lettered City (Cambridge, MA: Harvard an-mystery-cable-activated.shtml. See also University Press, 2002). Doug Madory, “Cuban Fiber: Completo?,” 10 Renesys, January 22, 2013, Rafael Hernández, “On Cuban Democracy: http://www.renesys.com/blog/2013/01/cub Cuba and the Democratic Culture,” in Phillip an-fiber-completo.shtml. Brenner et al. eds., A Contemporary Cuba 18 Reader: Reinventing the Revolution (Lanham: “Cuba-Jamaica Link Activated,” Doug Rowman and Littlefield, 2008), 77. Madory, Renesys Blog, May 20, 2013, 11 http://www.renesys.com/2013/05/cuba- The DOR is directed by the Secretary of jamaica-link-activated/ Ideology, and operates as part of the political 19 bureau of the central committee of the PCC. Juan Tamayo, “Fiber optic cable linking Cristina Venegas, Digital Dilemmas: the state, Cuba to Jamaica active,” Miami Herald, May the individual, and technology in Cuba (New 21, 2013 Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2010), ,http://www.miamiherald.com/2013/05/21/ 81. 3409338/fiber-optic-cable-linking-cuba.html. 20 12 Carlos Lauria, Monica Campbell, and María “Fixed (wired) Internet subscriptions,” Salazar, “Cuba’s Long Black Spring,” International Telecommunication Union, Committee to Protect Journalists, March 18, http://www.itu.int/en/ITU- 2008, https://cpj.org/reports/2008/03/cuba- D/Statistics/Documents/statistics/2012/Fixe press-crackdown.php. d_Internet_sub_2000-2010.xls. 21 13 “TIC en Cifras Cuba 2011,” Oficina Haroon Siddique, “Cuba lifts mobile phone National de Estadísticas, June 2012, restrictions,” The Guardian, March 28, 2008, http://www.one.cu/publicaciones/06turismo http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/mar ycomercio/TIC%20en%20Cifras%20Cuba%2 /28/cuba. 02011/TIC%20en%20Cifras%20Cuba%2020 22 “ITU ICT Eye: Cuba,” International 11.pdf. See also Larry Press “Updated Cuban Telecommunication Union, 2011, ICT Statistics,” The Internet in Cuba, July http://www.itu.int/ITU- 2012, D/ICTEYE/DisplayCountry.aspx?code=CU http://laredcubana.blogspot.com/2012/07/u B. pdated-cuban-ict-statistics.html.

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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 23 “Empowering Cubans Through 31 Nelson Valdés, “Cuba y la tecnología de la Technology,” Cuba Study Group, July 2010, información,” Temas: Cultura, Ideología y http://www.cubastudygroup.org/index.cfm/e Sociedad. No. 31, 1997. mpowering-cubans-through-technology. 32 EcuRed, 24 Christopher Sabatini, “Havana Calling: It’s http://www.ecured.cu/index.php/EcuRed:E time to lift the communications embargo on nciclopedia_cubana. Cuba,” Foreign Policy, July/August 2010, 33 Cristina Venegas, Digital Dilemmas: the http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2010 State, the Individual, and Digital Media in /07/15/havana_calling. Cuba (New Brunswick: Rutgers University 25 Ellery Roberts Biddle, “Cuba: Cyberwar? Press, 2010). Video Sparks Debate, Anger Skepticism,” 34 Potro Salvaje, “Para que lo sepan,” Global Voices Online, February 16, 2011, http://www.desdecuba.com/potro/?p=23. http://globalvoicesonline.org/2011/02/16/c 35 uba-cyberwar-video-sparks-debate-anger- Manuel Roig-Franzia, “Cuba Repeals Ban skepticism/. on Its Citizens Staying in Hotels on Island,” 26 The Washington Post, April 1, 2008, Carmen Lira Saade, “ ‘Llegue a estar muerte, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp- pero resucité’ [I was at death’s door, but then dyn/content/article/2008/03/31/AR200803 resuscitated],” interview with Fidel Castro, La 3100703.html. Jornada, August 30, 2010, 36 http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2010/08/30/i Juan O. Tamayo, “Cuba’s new Internet ndex.php?section=politica&article=002e1pol. locales remain conditioned,” Miami Herald, 27 June 7, 2013, Ellery Roberts Biddle, “Cuba: Cyberwar? http://www.miamiherald.com/2013/06/07/3 Video Sparks Debate, Anger Skepticism,” 439494/cubas-new-internet-locales- Global Voices Online, February 16, 2011, remain.html. http://globalvoicesonline.org/2011/02/16/c 37 uba-cyberwar-video-sparks-debate-anger- “Otro paso en la informatización de la skepticism/. sociedad cubana,” , May 28, 28 2013, Larry Press, “Cuba to promote social use of http://www.juventudrebelde.cu/cuba/2013- Internet,” The Internet in Cuba, January 2013, 05-28/otro-paso-en-la-informatizacion-de-la- http://laredcubana.blogspot.com/2013/01/c sociedad-cubana/. uba-to-promote-social-use-of-internet.html. 38 29 “Percentage of individuals using the Some information in this paper is derived Internet,” International Telecommunication from a series of in-person interviews Union, http://www.itu.int/en/ITU- conducted by the author with bloggers, D/Statistics/Documents/statistics/2012/Indi journalists, and technologists in Havana in viduals_Internet_2000-2011.xls. July 2009. Many of those interviewed asked to 39 have their names withheld. “Fixed (wired) Internet subscriptions,” 30 International Telecommunication Union, Bert Hoffman, The Politics of the Internet http://www.itu.int/en/ITU- in Third World Development: Challenges in D/Statistics/Documents/statistics/2012/Fixe Contrasting Regimes with Case Studies of d_Internet_sub_2000-2010.xls. Costa Rica and Cuba (New York: Routledge, 40 2004). Ellery Roberts Biddle, “Cuba: Bloggers Discuss the Internet ‘Offline’ on Radio Martí,” Global Voices Online, November 4, 2011,

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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! http://globalvoicesonline.org/2011/11/04/c Online, October 5, 2012, uba-bloggers-discuss-the-internet-offline-on- http://globalvoicesonline.org/2012/10/05/c radio-marti/. uba-yoani-sanchez-arrested/ 41 Yoani Sánchez, “Red ciudadana,” 47 Juan Carlos Chavez, “Cuban dissidents Generación Y, July 1, 2008, detained; Yoani Sánchez released,” Miami http://www.desdecuba.com/generaciony/?p Herald, November 8, 2012, =333. See also: Claudia Cadelo, “Mis http://www.miamiherald.com/2012/11/08/3 demonios a veces están cansados,” Octavo 088460/yoani-sanchez-and-other-cuban.html. Cerco, July 7, 2009, 48 Ellery Roberts Biddle, “Cuba: Heated http://octavocerco.blogspot.com/2009/07/ Controversy Over Scholarly Forum mis-demonios-veces-estan-cansados.html. Continues,” Global Voices Online, April 4, 42 One of the few websites that is consistently 2012, blocked in Cuba is Revólico http://globalvoicesonline.org/2012/04/04/c (http://www.revolico.com), a Craigslist-like uba-heated-controversy-over-scholarly-forum- site where individuals can arrange to buy and continues/. sell items and labor. Much of the site is 49 Juan Carlos Chavez, “2 well-known devoted to the sale of tech commodities and dissidents in Cuba might face charges,” Miami electronics. Herald, November 8, 2012, 43 Ellery Roberts Biddle, “Cuba: Cables Reveal http://www.miamiherald.com/2012/11/08/3 Government Sees Bloggers as ‘Most Serious 088460/yoani-sanchez-and-other-cuban.html. Challenge,’” Global Voices Online, December 50 Damien Cave, “Sentence Upheld for Alan 28, 2010, Gross, Convicted of Crimes Against Cuba,” http://globalvoicesonline.org/2010/12/28/c The New York Times, August 5, 2011, uba-cables-reveal-government-sees-bloggers- http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/06/world as-most-serious-challenge/. /americas/06cuba.html?_r=0. 44 “10HAVANA9, U.S.- CUBA CHILL 51 Juan Tamayo, “Secretary of State: No swap EXAGGERATED, BUT OLD WAYS,” of Cuban spies for Alan Gross,” Miami cable message from US Interests Section, Herald, April 18, 2013, Havana (via Wikileaks), January 6, 2010, http://www.miamiherald.com/2013/04/18/3 http://cablegatesearch.net/cable.php?id=10H 352048/secretary-of-state-no-swap-of.html. AVANA9&q=10havana9%20but%20chill%2 52 0cuba%20exaggerated%20old%20u- Ellery Roberts Biddle “Development s%20ways. Alternatives, Inc. and the case of Alan 45 Gross,” Half-Wired, March 8, 2011, Ernesto Hernández Busto, “La Seguridad http://ellerybiddle.com/2011/03/08/develop de Estado detiene a Yoani Sánchez y otros ment-alternatives-alan-gross/. blogueros cuando iban a participar en una 53 manifestación-performance en la calle 23,” “Alan Gross Case Lifts Veil of Secrecy on Penúltimos Días, November 6, 2011, U.S. Democracy Programs in Cuba,” National http://www.penultimosdias.com/2009/11/0 Security Archive of George Washington 6/la-seguridad-de-estado-detiene-a-yoani- University, January 18, 2013, sanchez-y-otros-blogueros-cuando-iban-a- http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/ participar-en-una-manifestacion-performance- NSAEBB411/. en-la-calle-23/. 54 Manuel Roig-Franzia, “Cuba’s Waning 46 Ellery Roberts Biddle, “Cuba: Blogger System of Block-Watchers,” Washington Post Yoani Sánchez Arrested,” Global Voices Foreign Service, October 29, 2007,

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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp- dyn/content/article/2007/10/29/AR200710 2901934.html. 55 Ibid. 56 Benigno E. Aguirre, “Social Control in Cuba,” Latin American Politics and Society 44:2 (2002), 67-98. 57 Danny O’Brien, “The malware lockdown in Havana and Hanoi,” Committee to Protect Journalists, June 8, 2010, http://cpj.org/blog/2010/06/the-malware- lockdown-in-havana-and-hanoi.php. 58 Nelson Valdés, “Cuba y la tecnología de la información.” Temas: Cultura, Ideología y Sociedad No. 31 (1997), 60. 59 Cristina Venegas, “Shared Dreams and Red Cockroaches: Cuba and Digital Culture,” Hispanic Review 75:4 (2007), 399-414. 60 Juan Tamayo, “Cuba’s new Internet locales remain conditioned,” Miami Herald, June 7, 2013, http://www.miamiherald.com/2013/06/07/3 439494/cubas-new-internet-locales- remain.html. 61 Yoani Sánchez, “Identificados y exhibicionistas,” Generación Y, November 3, 2008, http://lageneraciony.com/?p=515&cp=14.

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