How General the Authority? Individual Conscience and De Facto Infallibility By Cole R. Capener ne of the most compelling yet enigmatic tioner in prayer. Devoted believers have been teachings of the Restoration is the con- promised that through supplication and the cept of divine revelation. Unlike many exercise of sincere faith they may receive coun- religions, Mormonism asserts that God sel from on high (Matt. 7:7-8; James 1:5). has always communicated with mankind These two conduits of divine guidance are ~ in two ways. First, he has imparted his well recognized and accepted by Latter-day will to his followers collectively. Second, God Saints everywhere. The common view is that has rendered instruction to individuals. Both the former is given for the benefit of the Church means are frequently referred to in the scrip- as a whole while the lattei" is limited to the indi- tures, ancient and modern; both means are repre- vidual’s own application. sented to be effective in spanning the vast Unfortunately, the existence of these two dis- expanse that seemingly separ.ates God and man. tinct and separate paths of inspiration necessar- To make possible the first method of com- ily leads to occasional conflict. Such difficulties munication, God has consistently organized some arise, I believe, for a variety of reasons. First, sort of administrative vehicle, if sometimes rudi- although God is not the author of confusion, mentary in form. The patriarchal order in Adam’s whenever he communicates through human time served this purpose and was followed in the language, he is forced to contend with the limi- Old Testament by the leadership of prophets. tations of that system (D&C 1:24). Early in the Christ built his church on Apostles and disciples. century, BYU Professor W. H. Chamberlin went The modern Church was established with the so far as to assert that "revelation could not perception that God presides at its head with the convey absolute truth since it is couched in First Presidency located directly and immediately human words which are tied to limited human below him. The Council of the Twelve Apostles conceptions. There is thus a human element follows with stake presidents, bishops, and finally both in expression and in interpretation; and the individual members occupying their ordered words of a revelation can convey to a man only positions on this vertical scheme. what he is capable of receiving. For men there is As a result of this hierarchical administrative no supernatural language.’’1 Moreover, revela- structure, communication from the highest level tion seems rarely to be given in words and sen- to the lowest is necessarily indirect. However, tences, but tends to be amorphous in nature. As God has always provided a method of direct a result, recipients are forced to interject their communication wh,.’ch functions concurrent with own interpretations and the opportunity for and yet independent of the medium of the insti- , tution. No priest, minister, rabbi, or prophet stands between God and the individual peti- / f /" .

GENERAL ’ ...... AUTHORITY

26 SUNSTONE ILLUSTRATION BY KEN MEYER, JR.

error is enhanced. also disagreed over political issues, as in the A secondBand perhaps primaryBreason for cases of Charles Nibley, Joseph Fielding Smith, conflict is that God’s church is led by fallible and J. Reuben Clark, Jr., who opposed the mortals¯ This is not to discredit those called to League of Nations, and B. H. Roberts, Heber J. direct the Lord’s kingdom. On the contrary, Grant, and George F. Richards, who supported Church leaders are generally extraordinary indi- it.6 viduals¯ Nevertheless, they are, like every one of Contrast this Mormon approach to the us, subject to human limitations¯ As Elder Bruce R. Catholic notion of infallibility. Catholicism McConkie has written, "Though general author- teaches that as successors to the original Apos- ities are authorities in the sense of having power tles, the pope and bishops are responsible for to administer Church affairs, they may or may teaching the church and therefore hold "the not be authorities in the sense of doctrinal charism of truth that does not fail." This assur- knowledge, the intricacies of church procedures, ance of infallibility, however, does not extend to or the receipt of the promptings of the Spirit. A individual bishops but only to the ecumenical call to an administrative position itself adds little council (the college of bishops and its head, the knowledge or power of discernment to an indi- pope). vidual."2 Or, as put it, "a prophet is The Holy See also is considered infallible only a prophet when he [is] acting as such.’3 when he defines doctrine concerning faith or Mormonism thus rejects the doctrine of infal- morals as the shepherd and teacher of all libility of Church leaders, acknowledging the Christians. While this leaves room for error in possibility of error and disagreement over doc- some instances, the doctrine insists that the trinal teachings and other issues. As a result, it is Lord guards the church against false teachings not surprising to find General Authorities, Elder "even when a pope is unworthy in his office.’’7 McConkie for example, labelling as heresy the Curiously, this latter point seems danger- notion of progression among the eternal king- ously close to the view of some Latter-day doms even though another Apostle, Elder James 4 Saints. In spite of Mormonism’s theological E. Talmage, found the idea entirely conceivable. rejection of infallibility, the doctrine maintains a Similarly, Elder Neal A. Maxwell and Elder stalwart de facto existence among many main- McConkie have rejected the notion that God stream members of the Church, who continue progresses in knowledge while earlier Church to view General Authorities as something just leaders, including Brigham Young, Wilford less than divine. Indeed, I have heard repeatedly Woodruff, and Lorenzo Snow, repeatedly taught the assertion that "the Lord will never allow the ! that very concept,s General Authorities have !

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POLI¢’

SUNSTONE 27 Church to be led astray. I will therefore follow some years, and after prayer, finally accepted by all directions of Church leaders regardless of the the Church hierarchy and membership. There nature and content of the counsel, and if my was never a suggestion that God had initially actions are wrong, it is the leader who is in error; directed the action. he not I will be responsible." Too, learned Unfortunately, members often assume all Church members have more than once told me leader-originated directives to be inspired, even that "if the told me to when the leaders themselves make no such jump off a cliff today, I would do it." claim to revelation. Worse still, free agency Members who make these statements have makes it possible for stubborn and proud indi- apparently misunderstood that membership in viduals and leaders occasionally to assert their the Church was never intended to replace one’s own views with a divine imprimatur. decision-making processes. For example, when Instead of expecting God forcibly to restrain asked what members should do if they find an errant Church leader, dic- themselves in disagreement with their bishop or tates that fallen leaders be called before a Church stake president, Hugh B. Brown candidly re- court to prevent further damage to the institu- plied, "Question everything, subject it to your tion. This procedure, as set forth in the Doctrine own reasoning and your own sense; make it and Covenants, even applies to the President of reasonable, make it understandable." In the the Church: same response, Elder Brown indicated that if after such an analysis the member still disagreed There is not any person belonging to the church who is with local leaders, an appeal could be made to the exempt from this council of the church. And inasmuch as a General Authorities.8 President of the High Priesthood shall transgress, he shall Brigham Young also criticized the indiscrimi- be had in remembrance before the common council of the nate acceptance of leaders’ statements: church, who shall be assisted by twelve counselors of the High Priesthood; And their decision upon ,his head shall be These persons do not depend upon themselves for salvation, an end of the controversy surrounding him. Thus, none ~ut upon another of their poor, weak, fellow mortals .... shall be exempted from the justice and law:; of God. (D&C :ay they .... I depend upon you, brother Joseph, upon you, 107:81-84.) brother Brigham, upon you, brother Heber, or upon you, Indeed, even Joseph Smith was once tried under In spite of brother James; I believe your judgment is superior to mine, zz and consequently I let you judge for me .... Now those this procedure, Mormonism’s men, or those women, who know no more about the power of A consideration of these issue:; leads to an rejection of God, and the influence of the Holy Spirit, than to be led important question: How should we act when entirely by another person, suspending their own under- our individual convictions run contrary to the infallibility, the standing, and pinning their faith upon another’s sleeve, counsel or religious teachings of Church leaders? Some would suggest that as in Catholicism, spe- doctrine main- will never be capable of entering into the celestial glory, to be crowned as they anticipate.9 cific "tests" exist for determining whether the tains a de facto divine sanction falls on a given teaching of a Brigham Young also proclaimed, Church leader. The most frequently mentioned existence among How often has it been taught that if you depend entirely test states that everything said by General many main- upon the voice, judgment, and sagacity of those appointed to Authorities during the general conference of lead you, and neglect to enjoy the Spirit for yourselves, how the Church may be considered beyond error. stream members easily you may be led into error,zo However, the utility of this test seems somewhat questionable since talks given at general confer~ of the Church. And finally: ences over the past two decades have rarely / am more afraid that this people have so much confidence in revealed startling new dogma or prophecy or their leaders that they will not inquire for themselves of God made unexpected requests of Church members. whether they are led by Him. I am fearful they settle down In other words, the issues which appear to cause in a state of blind self-security, trusting their eternal des- the greatest conflict are seldom discussed in tiny in the hands of their leaders with a reckless confidence. 11 general conference. Mormonism also rejects the Catholic notion Even when more substantive pronouncements of infallibility as a built-in safeguard over the have been made, they have not necessarily born Church. Fundamental to our understanding of the fruit one would expect from inspired utter- God’s purposes for us is the importance of ances. For example, in an April 1845 conference, human agency. Thus, both Church leaders and Brigham Young declared that "as the Lord lives individual members alike often act free from his we shall build up Jackson county in. this genera- direct influence. This means that many actions, tion, (cries of amen,) and we will be far better off even those of considerable import, may origi- with regard to temporal things."13 ’The fact that nate not directly from God, but from leaders such prophecies did not come to pass casts doubt situated at various levels of the hierarchical on the reliability of the general conference test. order. For example, Elder Gordon B. Hinckley Other members assert that instructions of once told a group of missionaries that the addi- divine origin will always be preceded by the tion in 1976 to the canon of scripture was words "thus saith the Lord." Interestingly, here initiated at the suggestion of one of the General again we see an analogue in Catholicism. Decla- Authorities. It was discussed, apparently over rations falling within the sphere of infallibility 28 SUNSTONE generally use certain prefatory language. Thus the sole authoritative voice in Church govern- in proclaiming the doctrine of the Immaculate ment. Additional helps are needed. Conception, Pius XII first declared: "Pronunti- Thus it cannot be fairly said that the general amus, declaramus et definimus divinitus revela- conference test, the thus saith the Lord test, the tion dogma esse" ("we proclaim, declare, and First Presidency signature test, the standard define that this doctrine is a dogma divinely works test, and the personal revelation test (as revealed").14 For Mormons, the value of any commonly practiced) are by themselves flawless such shibboleth is significantly undercut in indicators of divine revelation. On the contrary, modern times by the paucity if not total absence it is more likely any test will be deficient in some of its use by twentieth-century Church leaders. way. Even prayer and scripture study, avenues Another such test may be called the "First to divine information so direct and vital as to be Presidency signature test." This test insists that indispensible, are not, as we have seen, without the occasional statements released by and over limitation. How then are we to reconcile con- the signatures of the First Presidency invariably flicts between institutional directives and indi- represent inspired direction. While it is of course vidual conscience? true that most of the Church’s significant actions Let me suggest an analysis that may be useful are announced by such statements, this notion in resolvirig this problem. I believe that there is a ignores the multifaceted scope of such state- body of doctrine in the Church that represents ments. These declarations range from the reve- unchallengeable dogma. To choose to associate lation lifting the Church’s prohibi- with the Church and identify oneself as a tion to a letter encouraging a Utah congressman Mormon, one must not challenge this doctrinal to oppose airline deregulation. Few would argue base. At a minimum, I would think that this that all statements of the latter type are the would include an acceptance of the existence of a result of vertical revelation.15 personal god, the divinity of Jesus Christ, and of Still other Latter-day Saints attempt to dis- the prophetic calling of Joseph Smith. However, cern the inspiration of leaders’ instructions mingled with and surrounding this doctrinal through private prayer. Unfortunately, many core is a much greater body of policy, which has Church members assume that the only valid been gradually acquired from historical, environ- witness an individual can obtain is a confirming mental, and other sources, or developed by Learned Church one. If the spiritual experience does not confirm Church leaders themselves. In my view, every- the leader’s teachings, something is presumed thing that is not doctrine falls into the penum- members have wrong with that individual, not the leader’s bral category of "policy." This distinction be- more than once counsel. Thus, the Church leader will always be tween "doctrine" and "policy" may provide "right" and it is incumbent upon the individual guidance for the individual faced with the per- told me that "if Saint to pray until he sees the light. Such an plexing dilemma created when one’s conscience approach renders this test meaningless, for if goes against Church pronouncements. the President of only one answer is possible, there is no reason to How does one determine the difference the Church told petition God at all. between policy and doctrine? While the answer A test which is commonly advanced by mem- to this question is not always clear, an aware- me to jump off bers and General Authorites alike is the "stan- ness of the practice of excommunication does a cliff today, dard works test." This test requires leaders’ suggest an important criterion in making this instructions to be consistent with the teachings distinction. That is, individuals who, in spite ofI would of the Bible, the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine disagreements, desire to remain affiliated with do it." and Covenants, and the Pearl of Great Price. In the institutional Church will recognize excom- many ways, this test appears to avoid the prob- munication as the final line which they do not lems that arise in merely following leaders’ wish to cross. The process of retaining Church admonitions blindly. For one thing, unlike many membership thus becomes an extremely practi- Church authorities, the scriptures do claim cal consideration in handling personal conflict direct divine inspiration as their .source. Too, the with hierarchical directives. standard works have withstood the test of time, An example of such conflict occurred over the maintaining their moral, spiritual, and doctrinal Church’s opposition to the Equal Rights relevance in a variety of cultures and through Amendment. Even as the media publicized the changing political, social, and ethical philoso- excommunication of Sonia Johnson--citing her phies of men. Moreover, the scriptures have support for the amendment as the reason under- been subjected to canonization, a process where- lying the Church’s actions--the Church’s spokes- by members, using their individual insight and men scrambled to clarify that pro-ERa activities inspiration, have the opportunity to cast their or mere opposition to the Church’s stand were own vote for or against the acceptance of these insufficient grounds for excommunication. In books. As a result, the scriptures should occupy doing so, however, the Church implicitly con- a position of authority outweighing statements ceded that its opposition to the ERA was policy, by individual Church leaders. not doctrine. For had the Church’s position Nevertheless, disagreements over the mean- amounted to dogma formulated through revela- ing of various passages of scripture are ex- tion rather than policy, Sonia Johnson could have tremely common, a fact which limits their use as been excommunicated merely for activities in SUNSTONE 2g support of the ERA, just as several had been COLE R. CAPENER, a former resident of New York City, received his excommunicated for their opposition to the iuris doctorate from George Washington University. Church’s extending the priesthood to the blacks in 1978. The Church’s statement opposing MX missle- NOTES basing provided yet another possible source of 1. R. Chamberlin, The Life and Philosophy Of W. H. Chamberlin conflict between individual conviction and insti- (Salt Lake City, Utah: Deseret News, 1925), pp. 146-47. tutional policy. Yet here again there was no talk 2. Bruce R. McConkie, Mormon Doctrine, 2d ed. rev. (Salt Lake of excommunicating those in Utah and else- City: , 1966), p. 309. where who favored and worked for both the 3. Joseph Smith, Jr., History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 2d ed. rev., 7 vols. (Salt development of the missle and its basing in Lake City: Deseret News, 1932-51), 5:265; hereafter cited as Utah. This appears to have been so because the History of the Church. Church’s position represented policy not 4. Bruce R. McConkie, "The Seven Deadly Heresies," 1980 doctrine. Devotional Speeches of the Year: BYU Devotional arid Fireside Addresses To be a self-avowed member of the Church (Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University Press, 1981), p. 78; means accepting (or at least not challenging) the James E. Talmage, A Study of the Articles of F~Iith, 12th ed. rev. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day established doctrines of Jesus Christ, as well as Saints, 1924), p. 409. those pronouncements which seem clearly con- 5. McConkie, "Seven Deadly Heresies," pp. 75-76; Neal A.. sistent with that gospel. By embracing the gos- Maxwell, All These Things Shall Give Thee Experience (Salt Lake pel and determining to abide therewith, one City: Deseret Book Co., 1979), pp. 6-8; Discourse by becomes a true disciple. Brigham Young, 31 July 1859, Journal of Discourses, 26 vols. Such discipleship, however, may not mean (London: Latter-day Saints’ Book Depot, 1854-86; reprint ed., 1967), 6:344; Discourse by Wilford Woodruff, 6 accepting the ever-changing policies of the December 1857, Journal of Discourses, 6:120; Discourse by organized Church. The Church, as the adminis- Lorenzo Snow, Conference Report, 5 April 1901, p. 2. trative vehicle on earth intended to propagate 6. James B. Allen, "Personal Faith and Public Policy: Some the gospel and to nurture the members, has in Timely Observations on the League of Nations Controversy the past adopted and will continue to adopt poli- in Utah," Brigham Young University Studies 14 (Autumn 1973): cies to cope with or react to contemporary 77-98. developments. As new statements are issued 7. Ronald Lawler, Donald W. Wuerl, Thomas Comerford from Church authorities concerning issues, Lawler, eds., The Teaching of Christ: A Catholic Catechism for Adults (Huntington, Ind.: Our Sunday Visitor, 1976), pp. To be a self- religious or otherwise, that seem to create 218, 219, 222, 227, 228. Unlike Mormonism, which connects internal tension, members would be well advised infallibility with the divine origin of revelation, Catholicism avowed thoughtfully and open-mindedly to form their considers the pope to be infallible simply by virtue of his own conclusions, as well as to seek individual office, and not as the result of any revelation or inspiration. member of the Interestingly, the orthodox Catholic is expected to assent to direction from on high. If through study and all the authoritative teachings of the church, even when the Church means sincere and fervent prayer we feel that certain church is not using its full infallible authority. accepting counsel is incorrect and represents policy instead 8. Hugh B. Brown, Questions from the Floor, recording of a of doctrine, we should feel free not to accept it. student forum at the LDS Institute of Reli.gion adjacent to (or at least not That there is risk in such a course of action the University of Utah, 10 October 1969. Compare this cannot be gainsaid. Indeed it has been suggested related thought by Lowell Bennion: "It takes courage to challenging) disagree, to think for oneself .... Too few of us have the that one assumes a far greater risk by rejecting a courage to express sincere disagreement with a... leader in the core doc- Church directive that may be from God than by church or state. It is easier to keep silent in public and talk accepting a directive that is of only human privately with likeminded people behind backs of those with trines of the origin. Superficially, the suggestion seems per- whom we disagree. Too often we love personal comfort more than we love the truth and right." (Teachings of the New gospel. suasive; in truth, it cloaks a very real danger. Testament [Salt Lake City: Deseret Sunday School Union Acting on a false man-made directive can have Board, 1953], pp. 105-6.) equally dire consequences. Consider, for exam- 9. Discourse by Brigham Young, 20 February 1853, Journal of ple, the notion often taught in the Church that Discourses, 1:312. nonwhites who accept the gospel and join the 10. Discourse by Brigham Young, 20 May 1860, Journal of Church gradually become white-skinned, or at Discourses, 8:59. least lighter colored. Statements of this type can 11. Discourse by Brigham Young, 12 January 1862, Journal of Discourses, 9:150. For additional teachings on this subject, see easily inculcate racial chauvinism and bigotry in Journal of Discourses, 3:45; 13:171; 14:204. Church members. Adoption of attitudes like these which seem so antithetical to gospel prin- 12. History of the Church, 2:142-44. ciples can just as easily thwart the sincere 13. Discourse by Brigham Young, Times and Seasons 6 (6 April 1845): 956. member as can rejecting a directive from God. 14. Pius XII, Munifeicentissus Deus, reprinted in H. Denzinger, Needless to say, both pose significant barriers to Enchridion Symbolorum, ed., I.B. Umberg, 20th ed. (St. Louis: true discipleship. Herder Book Co., 1932), p. 282. Conflicts between individual and institutional 15. The notion of vertical revelation is discussed by George views are not resolved through dissidence or T. Boyd, who suggested that God "in his de.alings with men rebellion. Rather, the solution appears to lie in is not limited to speaking vertically from above, but may and does work horizontally from within historical and social accepting the Church’s denial of infallibility and processes" (James B. Allen, Dale C. LeCheminant, and David pursuing active discipleship, individual thought, Whittaker, comps., and eds., Views on Man and Religion: Collected and sincere communication with God. Essays of George T. Boyd [Privately published, 1979], pp. 73-75).

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