National Science Education Standards (1996)

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N A T I O N A L SCIEN C E EDUC AT I O N S T A N D A R D S observe

Change Learn

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NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences,the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance. This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by the Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences,the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government,the public,and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine.Dr. Bruce Alberts and Dr.Harold Liebowitz are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council. The stu dy was su pported by the Na ti onal Scien ce Fo u n d a ti on , the U. S . Dep a r tm ent of E du c a ti on ,t h e Na ti onal Aeron a utics and Space Ad m i n i s tra ti on , the Na ti onal In s ti tutes of He a l t h , and a Na ti on a l Ac ademy of S c i en ces pre s i den t’s discreti on a ry fund provi ded by the Vo lvo North American Corporation, The Ettinger Foundation, Inc.,and the Eugene McDermott Foundation.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

National Science Education Standards. p. cm. “National Research Council.” Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-309-05326-9 1. Science—Study and Teaching—Standards—United States. I. National Research Council (U.S.). Q183.3.A1N364 1996 507.1’0973—dc20 95-45778 CIP

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Ac kn ow l e d g m e nt s

The Na tional Sci en ce Edu c a tion St a n d a rds a re the produ ct of the ef forts of m a ny indivi du a l s and gro u p s . We want to ack n owl ed ge

The National Committee on Science Education Standards and Assessment The Chair’s Advisory Committee The Executive Editorial Committee The Content Working Group The Teaching Working Group The Assessment Working Group The Focus Groups The National Review Groups The many individuals who have served as consultants to the project All who have diligently reviewed the drafts The National Science Education Standards Development Team Angelo Collins, Director Rodger Bybee, Chair, Content Working Group Karen Worth, Chair,Teaching Working Group Audrey Champagne, Chair,Assessment Working Group Harold Pratt, Senior Program Officer The National Research Council Staff Donna M.Gerardi,Special Assistant for New Initiatives Patrice Legro, Senior Program Officer Lee R. Paulson, Managing Editor Douglas K. Sprunger, Senior Project Assistant Suzanne White, Senior Project Assistant Tina M. Winters, Editorial Assistant

See Appendix for members of the above groups.

Major funding for this project was provided by the National Science Foundation,the U.S. Department of Education,the Na ti onal Aeron a utics and Space Ad m i n i s tra ti on ,the National Institutes of Health,and a National Academy of Sciences president’s discretionary fund provided by the Volvo North American Corporation, The Ettinger Foundation, Inc., and the Eugene McDermott Foundation.

o b s e rve

e n co u ra g e

Contents

Call to Action vii National Science Education Standards:An Overview 1 Organization of the Standards, 3 Science Teaching Standards, 4 Professional Development Standards, 4 Assessment Standards, 5 Science Content Standards, 6 Science Education Program Standards, 7 Science Education System Standards, 8 Toward the Future, 9 1 Introduction 11 Why National Science Education Standards?, 12 Goals for School Science, 13 History of the National Science Education Standards, 13 Organization, 15 Guidance for Readers, 17 References for Further Reading, 17 2 Principles and Definitions 19 Perspectives and Terms in the National Science Education Standards, 22 References for Further Reading, 24 3 Science Teaching Standards 27 THE STANDARDS, 29 STANDARD A, 30 STANDARD B, 32 STANDARD C, 37 STANDARD D, 43 STANDARD E, 45 STANDARD F, 51 Changing Emphases for Teaching, 52 References for Further Reading, 53 4 Standards for Professional Development for Teachers of Science 55 THE STANDARDS, 58 STANDARD A, 59 STANDARD B, 62 STANDARD C, 68 STANDARD D, 70 Changing Emphases for Professional Development, 72 References for Further Reading, 73

5 Assessment in Science Education 75 THE STANDARDS, 78 STANDARD A, 78 STANDARD B, 79 STANDARD C, 83 STANDARD D, 85 STANDARD E, 86 Assessments Conducted by Classroom Teachers, 87 Improving Classroom Practice, 87 Planning Curricula, 87 Developing Self-directed Learners, 88 Reporting Student Progress, 88 Researching Teaching Practices, 89 Assessments Conducted at the District,State,and National Levels, 89 Data Analysis, 90 Teacher Involvement, 90 Sample Size, 90 Representative Sample, 90 Sample Assessments of Student Science Achievement, 91 Assessing Understanding of the Natural World, 91 Assessing the Ability to Inquire, 98 Changing Emphases for Assessment, 100 References for Further Reading, 101 6 Science Content Standards 103 Rationale, 104 Unifying Concepts and Processes Standard, 104 Science as Inquiry Standards, 105 Physical Science, Life Science, and Earth and Space Science Standards, 106 Science and Technology Standards, 106 Science in Personal and Social Perspectives Standards, 107 History and Nature of Science Standards, 107 Form of the Content Standards, 108 Criteria for the Content Standards, 109 Use of the Content Standards, 111 Changing Emphases for Contents, 113 Content Standard:K-12, 115 Content Standards:K-4, 121 Science as Inquiry, 121 Physical Science, 123 Life Science, 127 Earth and Space Science, 130 Science and Technology, 135 Science in Personal and Social Perspectives, 138 History and Nature of Science, 141

Content Standards:5-8, 143 Science as Inquiry, 143 Physical Science, 149 Life Science, 155 Earth and Space Science, 158 Science and Technology, 161 Science in Personal and Social Perspectives, 166 History and Nature of Science, 170 Content Standards:9-12, 173 Science as Inquiry, 173 Physical Science, 176 Life Science, 181 Earth and Space Science, 187 Science and Technology, 190 Science in Personal and Social Perspectives, 193 History and Nature of Science, 200 References for Further Reading, 204 7 Science Education Program Standards 209 THE STANDARDS, 210 STANDARD A, 210 STANDARD B, 212 STANDARD C, 214 STANDARD D, 218 STANDARD E, 221 STANDARD F, 222 Changing Emphases for Programs, 224 References for Further Reading, 225 8 Science Education System Standards 227 THE STANDARDS, 230 STANDARD A, 230 STANDARD B, 231 STANDARD C, 231 STANDARD D, 232 STANDARD E, 232 STANDARD F, 233 STANDARD G, 233 Changing Emphases for Systems, 239 References for Further Reading, 240 Epilogue 243 Appendix 246 Index Credits

The world looks so different after learning science. For example, trees are made of air, primarily. When they are burned, they go back to air, and in the flaming heat is released the flaming heat of the sun which was bound in to convert the air into tree. [A]nd in the ash is the small rem- nant of the part which did not come from air, that came from the solid earth, instead. These are beautiful things, and the content of science is wonderfully full of them. They are very inspiring, and they can be used to inspire others.

Richard Feynman

Call to Act i o n

This nati on has establ i s h ed as a goal that all stu dents should ach i e ve scien tific literac y.Th e Na t ional Sci en ce Edu c a tion St a n d a rds a re de s i gn e d to en a ble the nati on to ach i eve that goa l . Th ey spell out a vi s i on of s c i en ce edu c a ti on that wi ll make scien tific literacy for all a re a l i t y in the 21st cen tu ry. Th ey point tow a rd a de s ti n a ti on and provi de a roadmap for how to get there . All of us have a stake, as individuals and as a society, in scientific literacy.An understanding of science makes it possible for everyone to share in the richness and excitement of com- prehending the natural world. Scientific literacy enables people to use scientific principles and processes in making personal decisions and to participate in discussions of scientific issues that affect society. A sound grounding in science strengthens many of the skills that people use every day, like solving problems creatively, thinking critically, working coopera- tively in teams, using technology effectively, and valuing life-long learning.And the economic productivity of our society is tightly linked to the scientific and technological skills of our work force. Many types of individuals will play a critical role in improving science education: teachers; science supervisors; curriculum developers; publishers; those who work in museums, zoos, and science centers; science educators; scientists and engineers across the nation; school administrators; school board members; parents; members of business and industry; and legislators and other public officials. Individuals from all of these groups were involved in the development of the National Science Education Standards, and now all must act together in the national interest. Achieving scientific literacy will take time because the Standards call for dramatic changes throughout school systems. They emphasize a new way of teaching and learning about science that reflects how science itself is done, emphasizing inquiry as a way of achieving knowledge and understanding about the world. They also invoke changes in what students are taught,in how their performance is assessed, in how teachers are educated and keep pace, and in the relationship between schools and the rest of the community—including the nation’s scientists and engineers. The Standards make acquiring scientific knowledge,understanding, and abilities a central aspect of education, just as science has become a central aspect of our society. The Na tional Sci en ce Edu c a t ion St a n d a rds a re prem i s ed on a convi cti on that all stu den t s de s erve and must have the opportu n i ty to become scien ti f i c a lly litera te . The St a n d a rds l oo k tow a rd a futu re in wh i ch all Am eri c a n s , familiar with basic scien tific ideas and proce s s e s , c a n h ave full er and more produ c tive live s . This is a vi s i on of great hope and optimism for Am eri c a , one that can act as a powerful unifying force in our soc i ety. We are exc i ted and hopeful abo ut the d i f feren ce that the St a n d a rds wi ll make in the lives of i n d ivi duals and the vi t a l i ty of the nati on .

Richard Klausner, Chairman Bruce Alberts, President National Committee on Science Education National Academy of Sciences Standards and Assessment

Ch i l d ren on the Ei n s tein statue at the National Aca d e my of Sciences in Wa s h i n g to n ,D C , remind us that there is no more impo rt a nt task be fo re us as a nat i o n .

National Science Education Standards: An Overview

In a world filled with the products

of scientific inquiry, scientific liter-

acy has become a necessity for

everyone. Everyone needs to use

scientific information to make

choices that arise everyday.

Everyone needs to be able to engage intelligently in public discourse and

debate about important issues that involve science and technology. And

everyone deserves to share in the excitement and personal fulfillment that

can come from understanding and learning about the natural world. ❚

Scientific literacy also is of increasing importance in the workplace. More

and more jobs demand advanced skills, requiring that people be able to

learn, reason, think creatively, make decisions, and solve problems. An

understanding of science and the processes of science contributes in an

essential way to these skills. Other countries are investing heavily to create

scientifically and technically literate work forces. To keep pace in global

markets, the United States needs to have an a rich array of learning materials, accommo- equally capable citizenry. dating work spaces,and the resources of the The National Science Education Standards communities surrounding their schools. present a vision of a scientifically literate Responsibility for providing this support populace. They outline what students need falls on all those involved with the science to know, understand,and be able to do to education system. be scientifically literate at different grade Implementing the Standards will require levels. They describe an educational system major changes in much of this country’s sci- in which all students demonstrate high lev- ence education. The Standards rest on the els of performance, in which teachers are premise that science is an active process. empowered to make the decisions essential Learning science is something that students for effective learning, in which interlocking do, not something that is done to them. communities of teachers and students are “Hands-on” activities, while essential,are focused on learning science, and in which not enough. Students must have “minds-on” supportive educational programs and sys- experiences as well. tems nurture achievement. The Standards The Standards call for more than “science point toward a future that is challenging but as process,” in which students learn such attainable—which is why they are written in skills as observing, inferring, and experi- the present tense. menting.Inquiry is central to science learn- The intent of the Standards can be ing.When engaging in inquiry, students expressed in a single phrase: Science stan- describe objects and events, ask questions, dards for all students. The phrase embodies construct explanations, test those explana- both excellence and equity. The Standards tions against current scientific knowledge, apply to all students, regardless of age, gen- and communicate their ideas to others. der, cultural or ethnic background,disabili- They identify their assumptions, use critical ties, aspirations, or interest and motivation and logical thinking, and consider alterna- in science. Different students will achieve tive explanations. In this way, students understanding in different ways,and differ- actively develop their understanding of scient students will achieve different degrees of ence by combining scientific knowledge depth and breadth of understanding with reasoning and thinking skills. depending on interest, ability, and context. The importance of inquiry does not But all students can develop the knowledge imply that all teachers should pursue a sin- and skills described in the Standards, even as gle approach to teaching science. Just as some students go well beyond these levels. inquiry has many different facets, so teach- By emphasizing both excellence and equi- ers need to use many different strategies to ty, the Standards also highlight the need to develop the understandings and abilities give students the opportunity to learn sci- described in the Standards. ence. Students cannot achieve high levels of Nor should the St a n d a rds be seen as performance without access to skilled pro- requ i ring a specific curri c u lu m . A curri c u- fessional teachers, adequate classroom time, lum is the way con tent is or ga n i zed and pre-

s en ted in the cl a s s room . The con ten t be seen as a dynamic understanding that is em b od i ed in the St a n d a rds can be or ga n i z ed always open to review and revision. and pre s en ted with many different em ph a s e s and pers pectives in many different curri c u l a . In s te ad , the St a n d a rds provi de cri teria that Org a n i z ation of people at the loc a l ,s t a te , and nati onal level s can use to ju d ge wh et h er particular acti on s the St a n d a rd s wi ll serve the vi s i on of a scien ti f i c a lly litera te s oc i ety. Th ey bring coord i n a ti on , con s i s ten c y, After an introductory chapter and a chap- and co h eren ce to the improvem ent of s c i en ce ter giving broad principles and definitions edu c a ti on . If people take risks in the name of of terms, the National Science Education i m proving scien ce edu c a ti on ,t h ey know they Standards are presented in six chapters:

wi l l be su pported by policies and procedu re s ■ Standards for science teaching t h ro u gh o ut the sys tem . By moving the prac- (Chapter 3). ti ces of ex tra ord i n a r y te ach ers and ad m i n i s- ■ Standards for professional develop- tra tors to the foref ront of s c i en ce edu c a ti on , ment for teachers of science the St a n d a rds t a ke scien ce edu c a ti on beyon d (Chapter 4). the con s traints of the pre s ent and tow a rd a ■ Standards for assessment in science s h a red vi s i on of the futu re . education (Chapter 5). Hundreds of people cooperated in devel- ■ Standards for science content oping the Standards, including teachers, (Chapter 6). school administrators,parents, curriculum developers, college faculty and administra- ■ Standards for science education pro- tors, scientists, engineers, and government grams (Chapter 7). officials. These individuals drew heavily ■ Standards for science education upon earlier reform efforts, research into systems (Chapter 8). teaching and learning, accounts of exem- For the vision of science education plary practice, and their own personal expe- described in the Standards to be attained, rience and insights. In turn, thousands of the standards contained in all six chapters people reviewed various drafts of the stan- need to be implemented. But the Standards dards. That open,iterative process produced document has been designed so that differ- a broad consensus about the elements of ent people can read the standards in differ- science education needed to permit all stu- ent ways. Teachers, for example, might want dents to achieve excellence. to read the teaching, content, and program Continuing dialogues between those who standards before turning to the professional set and implement standards at the national, development,assessment, and systems stan- state, and local levels will ensure that the dards. Policy makers might want to read the Standards evolve to meet the needs of stu- system and program standards first, while dents, educators, and society at large. The faculty of higher education might want to National Science Education Standards should read the professional development and

teaching standards first, before turning to if they are to achieve the objectives embod- the remaining standards. ied in the Standards. Schools, districts, local communities,and states need to provide teachers with the necessary resources— S c i e n ce Te a c h i n g including time, appropriate numbers of students per teacher, materials, and schedules. St a n d a rd s For teachers to design and implement new ways of teaching and learning science, the The science teaching standards describe practices, policies, and overall culture of what teachers of science at all grade levels most schools must change. Such reforms should know and be able to do. They are cannot be accomplished on a piecemeal or divided into six areas: ad hoc basis. ■ The planning of inquiry-based sci- Considerations of equity are critical in ence programs. the science teaching standards. All students ■ The actions taken to guide and facili- are capable of full participation and of mak- tate student learning. ing meaningful contributions in science ■ The assessments made of teaching classes. The diversity of students’ needs, and student learning. experiences, and backgrounds requires that ■ The development of environments teachers and schools support varied, high- that enable students to learn science. quality opportunities for all students to ■ The creation of communities of sci- learn science. ence learners.

■ The planning and development of the school science program. E f fective te aching is at the heart of s c i en ce Pro fe s s i o n a l edu c a ti on , wh i ch is why the scien ce te ach i n g Deve l o p m e nt s t a n d a rds are pre s en ted firs t .G ood te ach ers of s c i en ce cre a te envi ron m ents in wh i ch they and St a n d a rd s t h eir stu dents work toget h er as active learn ers . Th ey have con ti nu a lly expanding theoreti c a l The professional development standards and practical knowl ed ge abo ut scien ce ,l e a rn- present a vision for the development of pro- i n g, and scien ce te ach i n g.Th ey use assessmen t s fessional knowledge and skill among teach- of s tu dents and of t h eir own te aching to plan ers. They focus on four areas:

and con du ct their te ach i n g.Th ey build stron g, ■ The learning of science content su s t a i n ed rel a ti onships with stu dents that are through inquiry.

gro u n ded in their knowl ed ge of s tu den t s’ s i m i- ■ The integration of knowledge about l a ri ties and differen ce s . And they are active as science with knowledge about learn- m em bers of s c i en ce - l e a rning com mu n i ti e s . ing, pedagogy, and students.

In each of these areas, teachers need sup- ■ The development of the understand- port from the rest of the educational system ing and ability for lifelong learning.

■ The coherence and integration of professional development programs. As s e s s m e nt As envisioned by the standards, teachers St a n d a rd s partake in development experiences appropriate to their status as professionals. Begin- The assessment standards provide criteria ning with preservice experiences and con- against which to judge the quality of assess- tinuing as an integral part of teachers’ pro- ment practices. They cover five areas:

fessional practice, teachers have opportuni- ■ The consistency of assessments ties to work with master educators and with the decisions they are designed reflect on teaching practice. They learn how to inform.

students with diverse interests, abilities, and ■ The assessment of both achievement experiences make sense of scientific ideas and opportunity to learn science.

and what a teacher does to support and ■ The match between the technical guide all students. They study and engage in quality of the data collected and the research on science teaching and learning, consequences of the actions taken regularly sharing with colleagues what they on the basis of those data.

have learned. They become students of the ■ The fairness of assessment practices.

discipline of teaching. ■ The soundness of infe re n ces made Reforming scien ce edu c a ti on requ i re s f rom assessments about student su b s t a n tive ch a n ges in how scien ce is taugh t , a c h i eve m e nt and oppo rt u n i ty to learn . wh i ch requ i res equ a lly su b s t a n tive ch a n ge in In the vision described by the Standards, profe s s i onal devel opm ent practi ces at all lev- assessments are the primary feedback mech- el s . Pro s pective and practicing te ach ers need anism in the science education system. They opportu n i ties to become both sources of provide students with feedback on how well t h eir own growth and su pporters of t h e they are meeting expectations, teachers with growth of o t h e rs . Th ey should be provi ded feedback on how well their students are with opportu n i ties to devel op theoreti c a l learning, school districts with feedback on and practical understanding and abi l i ty, n o t the effectiveness of their teachers and pro- just technical prof i c i en c i e s . Profe s s i on a l grams, and policy makers with feedback on devel opm ent activi ties need to be cl e a rly and how well policies are working.This feedback a ppropri a tely con n ected to te ach ers’ work in in turn stimulates changes in policy, guides the con text of the sch oo l . In this way, te ach- the professional development of teachers, ers gain the knowl ed ge ,u n ders t a n d i n g , a n d and encourages students to improve their a bi l i ty to implem ent the St a n d a rd s. understanding of science. Ideas about assessments have undergone important changes in recent years. In the new view, assessment and learning are two sides of the same coin. Assessments provide an operational definition of standards, in that they define in measurable terms what

teachers should teach and students should learn. When students engage in assessments, S c i e n ce Co nte nt they should learn from those assessments. St a n d a rd s Fu rt h erm ore ,a s s e s s m ents have becom e m ore soph i s ti c a ted and va ri ed as they have The science content standards outline foc u s ed on high er- order skill s . Ra t h er than what students should know, understand, s i m p ly ch ecking wh et h er stu dents have mem- and be able to do in the natural sciences ori zed certain items of i n form a ti on ,n ew over the course of K-12 education. They are a s s e s s m ents probe for stu dents unders t a n d- divided into eight categories:

i n g, re a s on i n g, and use of that knowl ed ge — ■ Unifying concepts and processes the skills that are devel oped thro u gh inqu i ry. in science.

A particular ch a ll en ge to te ach ers is to com- ■ Science as inquiry.

mu n i c a te to parents and policy makers the ■ Physical science.

adva n t a ges of n ew assessment met h od s . ■ Life science.

Assessments can be done in many differ- ■ Earth and space science.

ent ways. Besides conventional paper and ■ Science and technology.

pencil tests, assessments might include per- ■ Science in personal and formances, portfolios, interviews, investiga- social perspective.

tive reports, or written essays. They need to ■ History and nature of science. be developmentally appropriate, set in con- The first category is presented for all texts familiar to students, and as free from grade levels, because the understandings bias as possible. At the district, state, and and abilities associated with these concepts national levels, assessments need to involve need to be developed throughout a student’s teachers in their design and administration, educational experiences. The other seven have well-thought-out goals, and reach rep- categories are clustered for grade levels resentative groups to avoid sampling bias. K-4, 5-8, and 9-12. Assessments also need to measure the E ach con tent standard states that as a opportunity of students to learn science. re sult of activi ties provi ded for all stu d en t s Such assessments might measure teachers’ in those grade level s , the con tent of the stan- professional knowledge, the time available d a rd is to be unders tood or certain abi l i ti e s to teach science, and the resources available a re to be devel oped . The standards refer to to students. Although difficult, such evalua- broad areas of con ten t , su ch as obj ects in the tions are a critical part of the Standards. s ky, the interdepen den ce of or ga n i s m s , or the natu re of s c i en tific knowl ed ge . Fo ll owi n g e ach standard is a discussion of h ow students can learn that materi a l , but these dis- c u s s i ons are illu s tra tive , not pro s c ri p tive . Si m i l a rly, the discussion of e ach standard con clu des with a guide to the fundamen t a l

i deas that underlie that standard , but these ■ The consistency of the science pro- i deas are de s i gn ed to be illu s tra tive of t h e gram with the other standards and s t a n d a rd , not part of the standard itsel f . across grade levels.

Because each content standard subsumes ■ The inclusion of all content standards the knowledge and skills of other standards, in a variety of curricula that are they are designed to be used as a whole. developmentally appropriate, inter- Although material can be added to the con- esting, relevant to student’s lives, tent standards,using only a subset of the organized around inquiry, and con- standards will leave gaps in the scientific lit- nected with other school subjects. eracy expected of students. ■ The coordination of the science program with mathematics education.

■ The provision of appropriate and suf- S c i e n ce Ed u cat i o n ficient resources to all students.

■ The provision of equitable opportu- Prog ram St a n d a rd s nities for all students to learn the The scien ce edu c a ti on program standard s standards. de s c ri be the con d i ti ons nece s s a r y for qu a l i t y ■ The development of communities s ch ool scien ce progra m s . Th e y focus on six that encourage, support, and a re a s : sustain teachers.

Program standards deal with issues at the i n s t i t u t i o n s, and org a n i z at i o n s. school and district level that relate to oppor- ■ The continuity of science education tunities for students to learn and opportuni- policies over time. ties for teachers to teach science. The first ■ The provision of resources to support three standards address individuals and science education policies. groups responsible for the design, develop- ■ The equity embodied in science ment, selection, and adaptation of science education policies. programs—including teachers, curriculum ■ The possible unanticipated effects of directors, administrators,publishers, and policies on science education. school committees. The last three standards ■ The re s po n s i b i l i ty of individuals to describe the conditions necessary if science a c h i eve the new vision of science programs are to provide appropriate oppor- e d u cation po rt rayed in the standard s. tunities for all students to learn science. Schools are part of hierarchical systems Each school and district must translate that include school districts, state school the National Science Education Standards systems, and the national education system. into a program that reflects local contexts Schools also are part of communities that and policies. The program standards discuss contain organizations that influence science the planning and actions needed to provide education, including colleges and universi- comprehensive and coordinated experiences ties, nature centers, parks and museums, for all students across all grade levels. This businesses, laboratories, community organi- can be done in many ways, because the zations, and various media. Standards do not dictate the order, organiza- Although the school is the central institution, or framework for science programs. tion for public education,all parts of the extended system have a responsibility for improving science literacy. For example, functions generally decided at the state (but S c i e n ce Ed u cat i o n sometimes at the local) level include the Sys tem St a n d a rd s content of the school science curriculum, the characteristics of the science program, The science education system standards the nature of science teaching, and assess- consist of criteria for judging the perfor- ment practices. These policies need to be mance of the overall science education sys- consistent with the vision of science educa- tem. They consider seven areas: tion described in the Standards for the

■ The congruency of policies that vision as a whole to be realized. influence science education with Today, different parts of the education the teaching, professional develop- system often work at cross purposes, result- ment, assessment, content, and ing in waste and conflict.Only when most program standards. individuals and organizations share a com-

■ The coo rd i n ation of science educat i o n mon vision can we expect true excellence in policies within and across agencies, science education to be achieved.

teachers, administrators, science teacher Towa rd the educators,curriculum designers, assessment Fu t u re specialists, local school boards, state departments of education, and the federal govern- Im p l em en ting the Na tional Sci en ce ment. It also extends to all those outside the Edu c a t ion St a n d a rd s is a large and sign i f i c a n t system who have an influence on science process that wi l l ex tend over many ye a rs . But education, including students, parents, sci- t h ro u g h the com bi n ed and con ti nu ed su p- entists, engineers, businesspeople, taxpayers, port of a ll Am eri c a n s , it can be ach i eved . legislators, and other public officials. All of Ch a n ge wi l l occur loc a lly, and differen ces in these individuals have unique and comple- i n d ivi du a l s , s ch oo l s , and com mu n i ties wi ll mentary roles to play in improving the edu- produ ce different pathw ays to reform , d i f fer- cation that we provide to our children. ent ra tes of progre s s , and different final Efforts to achieve the vision of science em ph a s e s . Nevert h el e s s , with the com m on education set forth in the Standards will be vi s i on of the St a n d a rd s, we can ex pect del i b- time-consuming, expensive,and sometimes era te movem ent over ti m e ,l e ading to reform uncomfortable. They also will be exhilarat- that is perva s ive and perm a n en t . ing and deeply rewarding. Above all, the No one group can implement the great potential benefit to students requires Standards.The challenge extends to every- that we act now. There is no more impor- one within the education system,including tant task before us as a nation.

By building on the best of curre nt p ra ct i ce, s t a n d a rd s aim to take us beyo n d the co n s t ra i nts of p re s e nt stru ct u res of s c h ooling towa rd a s h a red vision of exce l l e n ce.

Introduction

The National Science Education

Standards are designed to guide our

nation toward a scientifically liter-

ate society. Founded in exemplary

practice and research, the Standards

describe a vision of the scientifically

literate person and present criteria for science education that will allow that

vision to become reality. ❚ Why is science literacy important? First, an

understanding of science offers personal fulfillment and excitement—bene-

fits that should be shared by everyone. Second, Americans are confronted

increasingly with questions in their lives that require scientific information

and scientific ways of thinking for informed decision making.And the col-

lective judgment of our people will determine how we manage shared

resources—such as air, water, and national forests.

Science understanding and ability also ti e s ,h elping them to dec i de wh i ch curri c u- will enhance the capability of all students to lu m ,s t a f f devel opm ent activi ty, or assess- hold meaningful and productive jobs in the m ent program is appropri a te . Na ti onal stan- future. The business community needs d a rds en co u ra ge policies that wi l l bri n g entry-level workers with the ability to learn, coord i n a ti on , con s i s ten c y, and co h eren ce to reason, think creatively, make decisions, and the improvem ent of s c i en ce edu c a ti on : Th ey solve problems. In addition, concerns a ll ow everyone to move in the same direc- regarding economic competitiveness stress ti on , with the assu ra n ce that the risks they the central importance of science and math- t a ke in the name of i m proving scien ce edu- ematics education that will allow us to keep c a ti on wi ll be su pported by policies and pace with our global competitors. practi ces thro u gh o ut the sys tem . Some outstanding things happen in science classrooms today, even without nation- Why Nat i o n a l al standards. But they happen because extra- ordinary teachers do what needs to be done S c i e n ce Ed u cat i o n despite conventional practice. Many gener- ous teachers spend their own money on sci- St a n d a rd s ? ence supplies, knowing that students learn best by investigation. These teachers ignore The term “standard”has multiple meanings. the vocabulary-dense textbooks and encour- Science education standards are criteria to age student inquiry. They also make their judge quality: the quality of what students science courses relevant to students’ lives, know and are able to do; the quality of the instead of simply being preparation for science programs that provide the opportu- another school science course. nity for students to learn science; the quality Implementation of the National Science of science teaching; the quality of the system Education Standards will highlight and pro- that supports science teachers and promote the best practices of those extraordi- grams; and the quality of assessment prac- nary teachers and give them the recognition tices and policies. Science education stan- and support they deserve. School principals dards provide criteria to judge progress who find money in their budgets for field toward a national vision of learning and trips, parents whose bake-sale proceeds pur- teaching science in a system that promotes chase science equipment, and publishers excellence, providing a banner around who are pioneering authentic assessments which reformers can rally. despite the market for multiple-choice tests A hall m a r k of Am erican edu c a ti on is loc a l will also be recognized and encouraged. con tro l , wh ere boa rds of edu c a ti on and The St a n d a rd s h elp to ch a rt the co u rse into te ach e rs make dec i s i ons abo ut what stu den t s the futu re . By building on the best of c u rren t wi ll learn . Na ti onal standards pre s ent cri teri a practi ce ,t h ey aim to take us beyond the con- by wh i ch ju d gm ents can be made by state s traints of pre s ent stru ctu res of s ch oo l i n g and local sch ool pers on n el and com mu n i- tow a rd a shared vi s i on of excell en ce .

while being nurtured by a supportive educa- Goals for Schoo l tion system. S c i e n ce Students could not achieve the standards in most of today’s schools. Implementation The goals for school science that underlie of the Standards will require a sustained, the National Science Education Standards are long-term commitment to change. to educate students who are able to

■ experience the richness and excitement of knowing about and understanding the Hi s to ry of the natural world; ■ use appropriate scientific processes and National Science principles in making personal decisions;

■ engage intelligently in public discourse Ed u ca t i o n and debate about matters of scientific St a n d a rd s and technological concern; and

■ increase their economic productivity Setting national goals and developing through the use of the knowledge, national standards to meet them are recent understanding, and skills of the scientifi- strategies in our education reform policy. cally literate person in their careers. Support for national education standards by These goals define a scientifically literate state governments originated in 1989, when society. The standards for content define the National Governors Association what the scientifically literate person should endorsed national education goals. know, understand, and be able to do after 13 President George Bush immediately added years of school science. The separate stan- his support by forming the National dards for assessment, teaching, program, Education Goals Panel. The support for and system describe the conditions neces- standards was continued by the new admin- sary to achieve the goal of scientific literacy istration after the election of President for all students that is described in the con- William Clinton. tent standards. The first standards appeared in 1989, Schools that implement the Standards when mathematics educators and mathe- will have students learning science by active- maticians addressed the subject of national ly engaging in inquiries that are interesting standards with two publications: and important to them. Students thereby Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for will establish a knowledge base for under- School Mathematics, by the National Council standing science. In these schools, teachers of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) will be empowered to make decisions about (1989); and Everybody Counts: A Report to what students learn,how they learn it, and the Nation on the Future of Mathematics how resources are allocated. Teachers and Education, by the National Research Council students together will be members of a (1989). The NCTM experience was impor- community focused on learning science tant in the development of other education

standards,and it demonstrated that partici- ence education in content, teaching, and pation in the development of standards had assessment.Shortly thereafter, major fund- to be open to all interested parties, especial- ing for this project was provided by the ly those responsible for their realization. Department of Education and the National The National Science Education Standards Science Foundation. had several important precursors. In 1983, A To oversee the important process of stan- Nation at Risk was published,calling for dards development, the NRC established the reconsideration and reform of the U.S. edu- National Committee on Science Education cation system. In the 1980s,the American Standards and Assessment (NCSESA). The Chemical Society (ACS), the Biological committee was chaired successively by Dr. Sciences Curriculum Study, the Education James Ebert and (from November 1993) Dr. Development Center, the Lawrence Hall of Richard Klausner. In addition, the Chair’s Science,the National Science Resources Advisory Committee was formed, consisting Center (NSRC),and the Technical of representatives from NSTA,AAAS, ACS, Education Resources Center all developed NSRC,the American Association of Physics innovative science curricula. In 1989, the Teachers, the Council of State Science American Association for the Advancement Supervisors,the Earth Science Education of Science (AAAS), through its Project 2061, Coalition, and the National Association of published Science for All Americans, defining Biology Teachers. This group helped to scientific literacy for all high school gradu- identify and recruit staff and volunteers for ates. Somewhat later, the National Science all of the committees and working groups Teachers Association (NSTA),through its that were required. Scope, Sequence & Coordination Project, The overs i ght com m i t tee (NCSESA) firs t published The Content Core. m et in May 1992, and the three work i n g In the spring of 1991, the NSTA presi- groups (con ten t , te ach i n g, and assessmen t ) dent, reflecting a unanimous vote of the e ach held intense working sessions over the NSTA board, wrote to Dr. Frank Press— su m m er. An initial phase of s t a n d a rds devel- president of the National Academy of opm ent lasted thro u gh the fall of 1 9 9 3 . Sciences and chairman of the National Du ring that 18 mon t h s ,i n p ut to the stan- Research Council (NRC)—asking the NRC d a rds was solicited from large nu m bers of s c i- to coordinate development of national scien ce te ach ers ,s c i en ti s t s , s c i en ce edu c a tors , ence education standards. The presidents of and many others intere s ted in scien ce edu c a- several leading science and science educa- ti on . More than 150 public pre s en t a ti ons were tion associations, the U.S. secretary of edu- m ade to prom o te discussion abo ut issues in cation,the assistant director for education s c i en ce edu c a ti on reform and the natu re and and human resources at the National con tent of s c i en ce edu c a ti on standard s . Science Foundation, and the cochairs of the Late in 1993, work began on the produc- National Education Goals Panel all encour- tion of a complete “predraft” of the science aged the NRC to play a leading role in the education standards. This predraft was effort to develop national standards for sci- released in May 1994 to a selected set of

focus groups for their critique and review. use of Ben ch m a rks for Sci en ce Li tera c y by Each organization represented on the s t a te fra m ework com m i t tee s , s ch ool and Chair’s Advisory Committee joined by two s ch oo l - d i s tri ct curri c u lum com m i t tee s , a n d additional organizations (NCTM and the devel opers of i n s t ru cti o nal and assessmen t New Standards Project) formed focus m a terials complies fully with the spirit of groups. In addition,the NRC convened five the con tent standard s . focus groups that were composed entirely of individuals who had not yet been involved in the project to critique the predraft. In this Org a n i z at i o n NRC-organized review, separate groups of experts reviewed the content, teaching, The Standards are organized into seven assessment, program, and system standards chapters. The next chapter (Chapter 2) lays present in the predraft. out a set of overarching principles that After the many suggestions for improving underlie the vision of scientific literacy for the predraft were collated and analyzed, an all students. These principles, as well as defi- extensively revised standards document was nitions for key terms, provide the conceptu- prepared as a public document. This draft al basis for the Standards. was released for nationwide review in Teaching and teachers are at the center of December 1994. More than 40,000 copies of the reform in science education. The stan- the draft National Science Education dards for science teaching are,therefore, the Standards were distributed to some 18,000 standards presented first. Found in Chapter individuals and 250 groups. The comments 3, these standards focus on what teachers of the many individuals and groups who know and do. The standards for the profes- reviewed this draft were again collated and sional development of teachers are present- analyzed; these were used to prepare the ed next: Chapter 4 focuses on how teachers final National Science Education Standards develop professional knowledge and skill. that are presented here. Together, the standards in Chapters 3 and 4 The many indivi duals who devel oped the present a broad and deep view of science con tent standards secti ons of the Na ti o n a l teaching that is based on the conviction that S ci en ce Edu c a tion St a n d a rd s m ade indepen- scientific inquiry is at the heart of science dent use and interpret a ti on of the state- and science learning. m ents of what all stu dents should know The science education assessment stan- and be able to do that are publ i s h ed in dards are presented in Chapter 5 as criteria S ci en ce for All Am eri c a n s and Ben ch m a rk s for judging the quality of assessment prac- for Sci en ce Li tera c y. The Na ti onal Re s e a rch tices. The assessment standards are also Council of the Na ti onal Ac ademy of designed to be used as guides in developing S c i en ces gra tef u lly ack n owl ed ges its indebt- assessment practices and policy.These stan- edness to the seminal work by the dards apply equally to classroom-based and Am erican As s oc i a ti on for the Adva n cem en t externally designed assessments and to for- of S c i en ce’s Proj e ct 2061 and bel i eves that mative and summative assessments.

The content standards, organized by K-4, com pon ents of the scien ce edu c a ti on sys tem 5-8, and 9-12 grade levels, are found in beyond the sch ool and distri ct : the peop l e Chapter 6. These standards provide expecta- and en ti ti e s ,i n cluding edu c a ti on profe s s i on- tions for the development of student under- als and the broader com mu n i t y that su p- standing and ability over the course of K-12 ports the sch oo l s . education. Content is defined to include Th ro u gh o ut the St a n d a rd s, ex a m p l e s inquiry; the traditional subject areas of h ave been su pp l i ed that are based in actu a l physical, life, and earth and space sciences; practi ce . These examples dem on s tra te that connections between science and technolo- the vi s i on is attainabl e . E ach ex a m p l e gy; science in personal and social perspec- i n clu d es a bri ef de s c ri pti on of s o me of i t s tives; and the history and nature of science. fe a tu res and lists the standards that migh t The content standards are supplemented be high l i gh ted by the ex a m p l e . Ma ny of t h e with information on developing student examples are appropri a t e on ly if s tu den t s understanding, and they include fundamen- h ave been invo lved in the type of s c i en ce tal concepts that underlie each standard. edu c a ti on de s c ri bed in the St a n d a rd s. For Chapter 7 contains the program stan- i n s t a n ce , the assessment exercises are dards, which provide criteria for judging the a ppropri a te if s tu dents have had the quality of school and district science pro- opportu n i t y to gain the understanding and grams. The program standards focus on s k i lls being assessed . issues that relate to opportunities for stu- The Na t ional Sci en ce Edu c a ti o n dents to learn and teachers to teach science St a n d a rds a r e standards for all Am e ri c a n s : as described in the Standards. Equ i t y is an underlying principle for the The sys tem standards in Ch a p ter 8 con s i s t St a n d a r ds and should pervade all aspect s of c ri teria for ju d ging the perform a n ce of of s c i en ce edu c a ti on .

Gu i d a n ce fo r Re fe re n ces fo r Re a d e r s Fu rther Re a d i n g

The Na tional Sci en ce Edu c a tion St a n d a rd s AAAS (Am erican As s oc i a ti on for the Adva n cem en t a re inten ded to serve as a re s pon s i b le guide of S c i en ce ) .1 9 9 3 . Ben ch m a rks for Scien ce to the cre a ti on of a scien ti f i c a lly litera t e L i terac y. New York : Ox ford Un ivers i t y Pre s s . s oc i ety. Because the St a n d a rd s pre s e nt a AAAS (Am erican As s oc i a ti on for the vi s i on for scien tific literacy that wi l l Adva n cem ent of S c i en ce ) .1 9 8 9 .S c i en ce for All requ i re ch a n ges in the en ti re edu c a ti on sys- Am eri c a n s . New York : Ox ford Un ivers i ty Pre s s . Na ti onal Com m i s s i on on Excell en ce in Edu c a ti on . tem , it is ex p ected that different indivi du a l s 1 9 8 3 . A Na ti on at Ri s k : The Im pera tive for wi l l re ad the St a n d a rd s for different pur- E du c a ti onal Reform . Wa s h i n g ton , DC : U. S . po s e s . It is important that all re aders re ad G overn m ent Pri n ting Office . Ch a pter 2, Pri n ci ples and Def i n i ti o n s, wh i ch NCTM (Na ti onal Council of Te ach ers of s ets the fo u n d a ti on for the vi s i on of s c i en ce Ma t h em a ti c s ) .1 9 8 9 . Cu rri c u lum and Eva lu a ti on edu c a ti on reform . The order of re ading then S t a n d a rds for Sch ool Ma t h em a ti c s . Re s ton , VA : m i ght differ, depending on the re ader ’s pur- N C T M . po s e . The bri e f g u i de bel ow (Ta b le 1.1) NRC (National Research Council).1989. provi des directi on for loc a t ing differen t Everybody Counts:A Report to the Nation of types of i n form a ti on . the Future of Mathematics Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. TABLE 1.1. GUIDE TO USING N S TA (Na ti onal Scien ce Te a ch ers As s oc i a ti on ) . T HE S TA N D A R D S 1 9 9 2 . S cope , Sequ en ce and Coord i n a ti on of Secon d a r y Sch o ol Scien ce . Vo l . 1 . Th e PURPOSE Con tent Core : A Gu i d e for Cu r ri c u lu m Devel opers . Wa s h i n g ton , DC : N S TA . Defining scientific literacy SCANS (Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Principles and Definitions (Chapter 2) Necessary Skills). 1991. What Work Requires Content Standards (Chapter 6) of Schools. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Providing guidance for teachers and other Printing Office. science educators Teaching Standards (Chapter 3) Assessment Standards (Chapter 5) Professional Development Standards (Chapter 4) Clarifying the responsibility of policy makers and the community Program Standards (Chapter 7) System Standards (Chapter 8)

Li felong scientific l i te ra cy begins with attitudes and values established in the e a rliest ye a r s.

Principles and Definitions

The devel opm e nt of the Na ti o n a l

S ci en ce Edu c a t ion St a n d a rd s w a s

g u i ded by certain pri n c i p l e s . Th o s e

principles are

■ Science is for all students.

■ Le a rning science is an act i ve proce s s.

■ School science reflects the intellectual and cultural traditions that characterize

the practice of contemporary science.

■ Improving science education is part of systemic education reform.

Ten s i on inevi t a bly accom p a n i ed the incorpora ti on of these pri n c i p l e s

i n to standard s . Ten s i o n also wi ll arise as the principles are app l i ed in

s ch ool scien ce programs and cl a s s room s . The fo ll owing discussion el a bo-

ra tes upon the principles and cl a r ifies some of the assoc i a ted difficulti e s .

See Teaching SCIENCE IS FOR ALL STUDENTS . This c u r rently exist between advantaged and dis- Standard B, principle is one of equity and excellence. advantaged students. Assessment Science in our schools must be for all stu- Standard D, dents: All students, regardless of age,sex, LEARNING SCIENCE IS AN AC T I V E See Teaching Program Standard cultural or ethnic background, disabilities, P RO C E S S . Learning science is something Standard B E,and System aspirations, or interest and motivation in students do, not something that is done to Standard E science, should have the opportunity to them. In learning science, students describe attain high levels of scientific literacy. objects and events, ask questions, acquire The St a n d a rd s a s sume the inclu s i on of a ll knowledge, construct explanations of natur- s tu dents in ch a ll en ging scien ce learn i n g al phenomena, test those explanations in opportu n i ties and define levels of u n der- many different ways, and communicate standing and abi l i ties that all should devel op. their ideas to others. Th ey em ph a ti c a lly rej e ct any situ a ti on in sci- In the National Science Education en ce edu c a ti on wh ere some peop l e — for Standards, the term “active process” implies ex a m p l e ,m em bers of certain pop u l a ti on s — physical and mental activity. Hands-on a re disco u ra ged from pursuing scien ce and activities are not enough—students also exclu ded from opportu n i ties to learn scien ce . must have “minds-on” experiences. Science Excellence in science education embodies the ideal that all students can achieve Le a r ning sci en ce is so m ething understanding of science if they are given s tu d ents do, n ot so m e thing that the opportunity. The content standards describe outcomes—what students should is done to them . understand and be able to do, not the manner in which students will achieve those teaching must involve students in inquiry- outcomes. Students will achieve under- oriented investigations in which they inter- standing in different ways and at different act with their teachers and peers. Students depths as they answer questions about the establish connections between their current natural world. And students will achieve the knowledge of science and the scientific outcomes at different rates, some sooner knowledge found in many sources; they than others. But all should have opportuni- apply science content to new questions; they ties in the form of multiple experiences over engage in problem solving, planning, deci- several years to develop the understanding sion making, and group discussions; and associated with the Standards. they experience assessments that are consis- See Program The com m i tm ent to scien ce for all stu- tent with an active approach to learning. Standard D and dents has implicati ons for both progra m Emphasizing active science learning System Standard D de s i g n and the edu c a ti on sys tem . In parti c- means shifting emphasis away from teachers u l a r, re s o u rces must be all oc a ted to en su re presenting information and covering science that the St a n d a rd s do not ex a cerb a t e the topics. The perceived need to include all d i f feren ces in opportu n i ties to learn that the topics, vocabulary, and information in

textbooks is in direct conflict with the cen- trad i ti ons of s c i en ce and that, in histori c a l tral goal of having students learn scientific pers p ective , s c i en ce has been practi c ed in knowledge with understanding. m a ny different cultu re s . S c i en ce is a way of k n owing that is ch a r - SCHOOL SCIENCE REFLECTS THE INTEL- acteri z ed by em p i r ical cri teri a , l o gical argu- L E C T UAL AND CULT U RAL T RA D I T I O N S m en t , and skeptical revi ew. S tu den t s T H AT CHARACTERIZE THE PRACTICE OF should devel op an understanding of wh a t CO N T E M P O RA RY SCIENCE. To develop a s c i en ce is, what scien ce is not, what scien ce can and cannot do, and how scien ce con- Students should develop an tri butes to cultu re . understanding of what science is, I M P ROVING SCIENCE EDUCATION IS what science is not, what science can PA RT OF SYSTEMIC EDUCAT I O N and cannot do, and how science R E F O R M . National goals and standards contributes to culture. contribute to state and local systemic initiatives, and the national and local reform efforts complement each other. Within the ri ch knowl ed ge of s c i en ce and the natu ra l larger education system, we can view science worl d , s tu dents must become familiar wi t h education as a subsystem with both shared m o des of s c i en tific inqu i r y, rules of evi- and unique components. The components den ce , w ays of formu l a t ing qu e s ti on s , a n d include students and teachers; schools with w ays of proposing ex p l a n a ti on s . The rel a- principals, superintendents, and school ti on of s c i en ce to mathem a t ics and to tech- boards; teacher education programs in col- n o l ogy and an understanding of the natu re leges and universities; textbooks and text- of s c i en ce should also be part of t h e ir edu- book publishers; communities of parents c a ti on . and of students; scientists and engineers; An explicit goal of the Na t ional Sci en ce science museums; business and industry; Edu c a t ion St a n d a rd s is to establish high and legislators. The National Science See definition of l evels of s c i en tific literacy in the Un i t ed Education Standards provide the unity of science literacy S t a te s . An essen t ial aspect of s c i en tific liter- purpose and vision required to focus all of acy is gre a ter knowl ed ge and unders t a n d- those components effectively on the impor- ing of s c i en ce su bj ect matter, that is, t h e tant task of improving science education for k n owl ed ge spec i f i c a l ly assoc i a t ed with the all students, supplying a consistency that is phys i c a l , l i fe , and earth scien ce s . S c i en ti f i c needed for the long-term changes required. l i teracy also inclu des understanding the n a tu re of s c i en ce , the scien tific en terpri s e , and the role of s c i en ce in soc i e ty and per- s o nal life . The St a n d a rd s recogn i ze that m a ny indivi duals have con tri buted to the

ate citizen should be able to evaluate the Pe r s pe ct i ves and quality of scientific information on the basis of its source and the methods used to gener- Te rms in the ate it. Scientific literacy also implies the National Science capacity to pose and evaluate arguments based on evidence and to apply conclusions Ed u ca t i o n from such arguments appropriately. Individuals will display their scientific lit- St a n d a rd s eracy in different ways, such as appropriately using technical terms, or applying scien- Al t h o u gh terms su ch as “s c i en tific litera- tific concepts and processes. And individuals cy”and “s c i en ce con t ent and curri c u lu m” often will have differences in literacy in dif- f requ en t ly appear in edu c a ti on discussion s ferent domains, such as more understanding and in the popular press wi t h o ut def i n i- of life-science concepts and words, and less ti on , those terms have a specific meaning understanding of physical-science concepts as used in the Na t ional Sci en ce Edu c a ti o n and words. St a n d a rd s. Scientific literacy has different degrees and forms; it expands and deepens over a SCIENTIFIC LITERAC Y. Scientific literacy lifetime, not just during the years in school. is the knowledge and understanding of sci- But the attitudes and values established entific concepts and processes required for toward science in the early years will shape a personal decision making, participation in person’s development of scientific literacy as civic and cultural affairs, and economic pro- an adult. ductivity. It also includes specific types of abilities. In the National Science Education CONTENT AND CURRICULU M . Th e See Program Standards, the content standards define sci- con t ent of s ch ool scien ce is broadly def i n e d Standard B entific literacy. to inclu d e specific capac i ti e s , u n ders t a n d- Scientific literacy means that a person can i n gs , and abi l i ties in scien ce . The con ten t ask, find, or determine answers to questions s t a n d a rds are not a scien ce curri c u lu m . derived from curiosity about everyday expe- Cu rri c u lum is the way con tent is del ivered : riences. It means that a person has the abili- It inclu des the stru ctu re , or ga n i z a ti on , b a l - ty to describe, explain,and predict natural a n ce , and pre s en t a ti on of the con tent in phenomena. Scientific literacy entails being the cl a s s room . able to read with understanding articles The con tent standards are not scien ce about science in the popular press and to l e s s on s , cl a s s e s , co u r ses of s tu dy, or sch oo l engage in social conversation about the s c i en ce progra m s . The com pon e nts of t h e validity of the conclusions. Scientific literacy s c i en ce con tent de s c ri bed can be or ga n i zed implies that a person can identify scientific with a va ri ety of em phases and pers pective s issues underlying national and local deci- i n to many different curri c u l a . The or ga n i- sions and express positions that are scientif- z a ti onal sch emes of the con tent standard s ically and technologically informed.A liter- a re not inten ded to be used as curri c u l a ;

i n s te ad , the scope , s equ en ce , and coord i n a- presupposes that students are actively ti on of con cept s , proce s s e s , and topics are engaged with the ideas of science and have l eft to those who de s i gn and implem en t many experiences with the natural world. c u rricula in scien ce progra m s . I N QU I RY. Scientific inquiry refers to the See Content Curricula often will integrate topics from diverse ways in which scientists study the Standards A & G different subject-matter areas—such as life natural world and propose explanations (all grade levels) and physical sciences—from different con- based on the evidence derived from their tent standards—such as life sciences and sci- work. Inquiry also refers to the activities of See Teaching students in which they develop knowledge Standard B Scientific literacy implies that a person and understanding of scientific ideas, as well can identify scientific issues underlying as an understanding of how scientists study the natural world. national and local decisions and express Inquiry is a multifaceted activity that positions that are scientifically and involves making observations; posing ques- technologically informed. tions; examining books and other sources of information to see what is already known; planning investigations; reviewing what is ence in personal and social perspectives— already known in light of experimental evi- and from different school subjects—such as dence; using tools to gather, analyze, and science and mathematics, science and lan- interpret data; proposing answers, explana- guage arts, or science and history. tions, and predictions; and communicating K N OWLEDGE AND UNDERSTA N D I N G . the results. Inquiry requires identification of Implementing the National Science assumptions, use of critical and logical Education Standards implies the acquisition thinking, and consideration of alternative of scientific knowledge and the develop- explanations.Students will engage in select- ment of understanding. Scientific knowl- ed aspects of inquiry as they learn the scien- edge refers to facts, concepts, principles, tific way of knowing the natural world, but laws, theories, and models and can be they also should develop the capacity to acquired in many ways. Understanding sci- conduct complete inquiries. ence requires that an individual integrate a Although the Standards emphasize complex structure of many types of knowl- inquiry, this should not be interpreted as edge, including the ideas of science, rela- recommending a single approach to science tionships between ideas, reasons for these teaching.Teachers should use different relationships, ways to use the ideas to strategies to develop the knowledge, under- explain and predict other natural phenome- standings, and abilities described in the con- na, and ways to apply them to many events. tent standards. Conducting hands-on sci- Understanding encompasses the ability to ence activities does not guarantee inquiry, use knowledge, and it entails the ability to nor is reading about science incompatible distinguish between what is and what is not with inquiry. Attaining the understandings a scientific idea. Developing understanding and abilities described in Chapter 6 cannot

be achieved by any single teaching strategy or learning experience. Re fe re n ces fo r

SCIENCE AND T E C H N O LO G Y. As used Fu rther Re a d i n g in the Standards, the central distinguishing characteristic between science and technolo- A AUW (Am erican As s oc i a ti on of Un ivers i ty gy is a difference in goal: The goal of science Wom en ) .1 9 9 2 . How Sch ools Shortch a n ge is to understand the natural world, and the G i rl s . Wa s h i n g ton , DC :A AU W. Beane, D.B. 1988. Mathematics and Science: goal of technology is to make modifications Critical Filters for the Future of Minority in the world to meet human needs. Students. Washington, DC: The Mid-Atlantic Technology as design is included in the Center for Race Equity. Standards as parallel to science as inquiry. Brown ,A . L . 1 9 9 2 . De s i gn ex p eri m en t s : Tech n o l o gy and scien ce are cl o s e ly Th eoretical and met h odo l o gical ch a ll en ges in rel a ted . A single probl e m of ten has bo t h c re a t ing com p l ex interven ti ons in cl a s s room s et ti n gs . The Jo u r nal of the Le a rn i n g s c i en tific and tech n o l ogical aspect s . Th e S c i en ce s , 2 : 1 4 1 - 1 7 8 . n eed to answer qu e s ti ons in the natu ra l Brown, J.S.,A. Collins,and P.Duguid.1989. world drive s the devel opm ent of tech n o- Situated cognition and the culture of learning. l ogical produ ct s ; m oreover, tech n o l ogi c a l Educational Researcher, 18: 32-42. n eeds can drive scien tific re s e a rch . An d Bruer, J.T. 1993.Schools for Thought:A Science tech n o l ogical produ ct s , f rom pencils to of Learning in the Classroom. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press/Bradford Books. com p uters , provi de tools that prom o t e the Bybee , R . W. 1 9 9 4 . Reforming Scien ce u n derstanding of n a tu ral ph en om en a . E du c a ti on : Social Pers pectives and Pers on a l See Content The use of “tech n o l ogy ” in the Ref l ecti on s . New York : Te a ch e rs Co ll ege Standard E St a n d a rds is not to be con f u s e d wi t h Pre s s , Co lu m bia Un ivers i t y. (all grade levels) “ i n s tru c ti onal tech n o l ogy,” wh i ch pro- Bybee , R . W. , and G. De B oer. 1 9 9 4 . Re s e a rch as vi des stu dents and te ach ers with exc i ti n g goals for the scien ce curri c u lu m . In Ha n d b ook on Re s e a r ch on Scien ce Te ach i n g too l s — su ch as com p uters — to con du ct and Le a rn i n g, D. G a b el , ed . New York : i n qu i r y and to understand scien ce . Mac Mi llan Pu blishing Com p a ny. Additional terms important to the Ch a m p a gn e ,A . B. , and L.E. Horn i g. 1 9 8 7 . National Science Education Standards, such Practical App l i c a ti o n of Th eories Abo ut as “teaching,”“assessment,” and “opportuni- Le a rn i n g. In This Year in Sch ool Scien ce ty to learn,” are defined in the chapters and 1 9 8 7 : The Report of the Na ti onal Forum for S ch ool Scien ce ,A . B.Ch a m p a gne and L.E. sections where they are used. Throughout, Horn i g , ed s . Wa s h i n g ton , DC : Am eri c a n we have tried to avoid using terms that have As s oc i a ti on for the Adva n cem e nt of S c i en ce . different meanings to the many different Cl ewell , B. C . , B. T.An ders on , and M.E. Th o rpe . groups that will be involved in implement- 1 9 9 2 . Breaking the Ba r ri ers : Helping Fem a l e ing the Standards. and Mi n ori t y Stu dents Su cceed in Ma t h em a t ics and Scien ce . San Fra n c i s co : Jo s s ey - Ba s s . De Boer, G .1 9 9 1 . A Hi s tory of Ideas in Scien ce E du c a ti on : Im p l i c a ti ons for Practi ce . New York : Te a ch e rs Co ll ege Pre s s .

Form a n , E . A . , and C.B. Ca zden . 1 9 8 5 . Ex p l ori n g O a ke s , J. 1 9 9 0 . Lost Ta l en t : The Un derp a rti c i p a ti on Vygotskian pers pectives in edu c a ti on : Th e of Wom en , Mi n ori ti e s , and Di s a bl ed Pers ons in cogn i tive va lue of peer interacti on . In S c i en ce . Santa Mon i c a ,C A : RAND Corpora ti on . Cu l tu re , Com mu n i c a ti on , and Cogn i ti on : Ohlsson,S. 1992. The Cognitive Skill of Theory Vygotskian Pers p ective s , J. V. Wert s ch , ed : 3 2 3 - Articulation:A Neglected Aspect of Science 3 4 7 . New York : Ca m bri d g e Un ivers i ty Pre s s . Education. Science & Education, 1 (2):121-92. Frederiksen,N.1984. Implications of cognitive Piaget, J. 1970.Genetic Epistemology. Translated theory for instruction in problem solving. by Eleanor Duckworth. New York: Columbia Review of Educational Research,54: 363-407. University Press. Green o,J. G .1 9 8 9 . Si tu a ti on s ,m ental model s ,a n d Piaget, J. 1954. The Construction of Reality in the gen era tive knowl ed ge . In Com p l ex In form a ti on Child. Translated by M. Cook. New York: Proce s s i n g : The Im p act of Herbert A . Si m on . Ballantine Books. D. Klahr and K. Ko tovs ky ed s . Hi ll s d a l e ,N J : Resnick,L.B., and L.E. Klopfer, eds.1989. Toward L awren ce Erlbaum and As s oc i a te s . the Thinking Curriculum: Current Cognitive Gross, P. R.,and N. Levitt. 1994. Higher Research. Alexandria, VA: Association for Superstition: The Academic Left and Its Supervision and Curriculum Development. Quarrels With Science. Baltimore,MD: Johns Shayer, M.,and P. Adey. 1981. Towards a Science Hopkins University Press. of Science Teaching: Cognitive Development Ho l ton ,G .1 9 9 3 .S c i en ce and An ti - s c i en ce . and Curriculum Demand. London: Ca m b ri d ge ,M A : Ha rva rd Un ivers i ty Pre s s . Heinemann Educational Books. Jo h n s on , D. W. , and F. Jo h n s on .1 9 9 4 . Joi n i n g Tyson-Bernstein,H.1988. America’s Textbook Toget h er: Group Th eory and Group Sk i ll s ,5 t h Fiasco:A Conspiracy of Good Intentions. ed . Bo s ton : Allyn and Bacon . Washington, DC: Council for Basic Education. Ka h l e , J. B. 1 9 8 8 .G en der and scien ce edu c a ti on Vera,A.H.,and H.A. Simon. 1993. Situated I I . In Devel o pm ent and Di l e mmas in Sci- action: a symbolic interpretation. Cognitive en ce Edu c a ti on , P. Fen s h a m , ed . New York : Science,17: 7-48. Fa l m er Pre s s . White, B.Y. 1993. Thinkertools: Causal models, Lee, O.,and C.W.Anderson. 1993. Task conceptual change,and science education. engagement and conceptual change in middle Cognition and Instruction,10:1-100. school science classrooms. American Educational Research Journal,30:585-610. NCTM (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics). 1989. Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics. Reston, VA: NCTM. NRC (National Research Council).1989. High- School Biology Today and Tomorrow. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. NRC (National Research Council).1987. Education and Learning to Think,L. Resnick, ed. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. NSF (National Science Foundation).1992. The Influence of Testing on Teaching Math and Science in Grades 4-12: Report of a Study. Chestnut Hill,MA: Center for the Study of Testing, Evaluation,and Educational Policy.

Envisioned is a new o rder where te a c h e r s and students ca n wo rk together as a ct i ve learn e r s.

ScienceTeaching Standards

S c i en ce te a ching is a com p l ex activi-

ty that lies at the heart of the vi s i on

of s c i en ce edu c a ti on pre s en ted in

the St a n d a rd s. The te aching stan-

d a rds provi de cri teria for making

ju d gm ents abo ut progress tow a rd

the vi s i on ; t h ey de s c ri be what te ach ers of s c i en ce at all grade levels should

u n derstand and be able to do. ❚ To high l i ght the import a n ce of te ach ers in

s c i en ce edu c a ti on , these standards are pre s en ted firs t . However, to attain the

vi s i on of s c i en ce edu c a ti on de s c ri bed in the St a n d a rd s, ch a n ge is needed in

the en ti re sys tem . Te ach ers are cen t ral to edu c a ti on , but they must not be

p l aced in the po s i ti on of being solely re s p on s i ble for reform . Te ach e rs wi ll

n eed to work within a co ll egi a l , or ga n i z a ti on a l , and policy con text that is

su pportive of good scien ce te ach i n g. In ad d i ti on , s tu dents must accept and

s h a re re s pon s i bi l i ty for their own learn i n g.

In the vision of science education portrayed change as described in the program and sys- by the Standards, effective teachers of sci- tem standards. They must work within a ence create an environment in which they framework that encourages their efforts. and students work together as active learn- The ch a n ges requ i red in the edu c a ti on a l ers. While students are engaged in learning s ys tem to su pport qu a l i ty scien ce te ach i n g about the natural world and the scientific a re major on e s .E ach com pon ent of the sys- principles needed to understand it, teachers tem wi ll ch a n ge at a different pace , and most are working with their colleagues to expand ch a n ges wi ll be increm en t a l . Non et h el e s s , their knowledge about science teaching. To ch a n ges in te aching must begin before all of teach science as portrayed by the Standards, the sys temic probl ems are solved . teachers must have theoretical and practical W H AT STUDENTS LEARN IS GREAT LY knowledge and abilities about science, learn- I N F LUENCED BY HOW T H EY ARE ing, and science teaching. TAU G H T. The decisions about content and The standards for science teaching are activities that teachers make, their interac- grounded in five assumptions. tions with students, the selection of assess- ■ The vision of science educat i o n ments, the habits of mind that teacher d e s c ri bed by the St a n d a rds re q u i re s changes throughout the ent i re sys te m .

■ What students learn is greatly influ- Teachers must have theoretical and enced by how they are taught. practical knowledge and abilities about ■ The actions of teachers are deeply influenced by their perceptions of science, learning, and science teaching. science as an enterprise and as a sub- demonstrate and nurture among their stu- ject to be taught and learned. dents, and the attitudes conveyed wittingly ■ Student understanding is actively and unwittingly all affect the knowledge, constructed through individual and understanding, abilities, and attitudes that social processes. students develop. ■ Actions of teachers are deeply influenced by their understanding of and THE ACTIONS OF T E ACHERS ARE relationships with students. D E E P LY INFLUENCED BY THEIR PE R- THE VISION OF SCIENCE EDUCAT I O N CEPTIONS OF SCIENCE AS AN ENTER- DESCRIBED BY THE STA N D A R D S PRISE AND AS A SUBJECT TO BE R E QUIRES CHANGES T H RO U G H O U T TAUGHT AND LEARNED. All teachers of THE ENTIRE SYS T E M . The educational science have implicit and explicit beliefs system must act to sustain effective teach- about science, learning, and teaching. ing.The routines, rewards, structures, and Teachers can be effective guides for students See Professional expectations of the system must endorse the learning science only if they have the oppor- Development vision of science teaching portrayed by the tunity to examine their own beliefs, as well Standard A Standards.Teachers must be provided with as to develop an understanding of the tenets resources, time, and opportunities to make on which the Standards are based.

STUDENT UNDERSTANDING IS AC T I V E- teaching and with the vision of science edu- LY CO N S T RUCTED T H ROUGH INDIVID- cation described in the Standards. UAL AND SOCIAL PRO C E S S E S . In the The te aching standards begin with a foc u s same way that scientists develop their on the lon g - term planning that te ach ers do. knowledge and understanding as they seek The discussion then moves to fac i l i t a ti n g answers to questions about the natural l e a rn i n g, a s s e s s m en t , and the cl a s s room envi- world, students develop an understanding of ron m en t .F i n a lly, the te aching standard s the natural world when they are actively ad d ress the te ach er ’s role in the sch ool com- engaged in scientific inquiry—alone and mu n i ty. The standards are app l i c a ble at all with others. grade level s , but the te aching at different grade l evels wi ll be different to ref l ect the capabi l i ti e s ACTIONS OF T E ACHERS ARE DEEPLY and interests of s tu dents at different age s . I N F LUENCED BY THEIR UNDERSTA N D- Te ach ers ac ross the co u n t ry wi ll find ING OF AND RELATIONSHIPS W I T H s o me of t h e ir current practi ces ref l ected See Teaching S T U D E N TS . The standards for scien ce Standard D te aching requ i re building stron g , su s t a i n e d rel a ti onships with stu d en t s . These rel a ti on- A challenge to teachers of science is to ships are gro u n ded in knowl ed ge and aw a reness of the similari ties and differ- balance and integrate immediate needs en ces in stu d en t s’ b ack g ro u n d s , ex p eri- with the intentions of the yearlong en ce s , and current vi ews of s c i en ce . Th e framework of goals. d ivers i t y of tod ay ’s stu d ent pop u l a ti on and the com m i tm ent to scien ce edu c a ti on for bel ow. Th e y also wi ll find cri teria that su g - a ll requ i res a firm bel i ef that all stu den t s gest new and different practi ce s . Bec a u s e can learn scien ce . ch a n ge takes time and takes place at the l o cal level , d i f f eren ces in indivi du a l s , The St a n d a rds s ch oo l s , and com mu n i ties wi l l be ref l e cted in different pathw ays to reform , d i f feren t Dividing science teaching into separate ra t es of progre s s , and different em ph a s e s . components oversimplifies a complex For ex a m p l e , a beginning te ach e r migh t process; nevertheless, some division is focus on devel oping skills in managing the required to manage the presentation of cri- l e a r ning envi ron m e nt ra t h er than on lon g - teria for good science teaching, accepting term planning, wh ereas a more ex p eri- that this leaves some overlap.In addition, en ced group of te a ch e rs might work the teaching standards cannot possibly toget h er on new modes for assessing stu- address all the understanding and abilities dent ach i evem en t . Del i b era t e movem en t that masterful teachers display. Therefore, over time tow a rd the vi s i o n of s c i en ce the teaching standards focus on the qualities te aching de s c ri bed here is important if that are most closely associated with science reform is to be perva s ive and perm a n en t .

T E ACHING STANDARD A: Teachers also change their plans based on Teachers of science plan an the assessment and analysis of student i n q u i ry-based science prog ra m achievement and the prior knowledge and for their student s. In doing this, beliefs students have demonstrated. Thus, te a c h e r s an inquiry might be extended because it ■ Develop a framework of yearlong and sparks the interest of students, an activity short-term goals for students. might be added because a particular con- ■ Select science content and adapt and cept has not been understood, or more design curricula to meet the interests, group work might be incorporated into the knowledge, understanding, abilities, plan to encourage communication. A chal- and experiences of students. lenge to teachers of science is to balance and ■ Se l e ct teaching and assessment strate- integrate immediate needs with the inten- gies that suppo r t the deve l o p m e nt of tions of the yearlong framework of goals. s t u d e nt understanding and nurt u re a During planning, goals are translated into See Program co m m u n i ty of science learn e r s. a curriculum of specific topics, units,and Standard B ■ Work together as colleagues sequenced activities that help students make within and across disciplines sense of their world and understand the and grade levels. fundamental ideas of science. The content standards,as well as state,district,and D EV E LOP A FRA M E WORK OF Y E A R- school frameworks, provide guides for LONG AND SHORT-TERM GOALS FOR teachers as they select specific science topics. S T U D E N TS . All teachers know that plan- Some frameworks allow teachers choices in ning is a critical component of effective determining topics, sequences, activities, teaching. One important aspect of planning and materials. Others mandate goals, objec- is setting goals. In the vision of science edu- tives, content, and materials. In either case, cation described in the Standards, teachers teachers examine the extent to which a cur- of science take responsibility for setting riculum includes inquiry and direct experi- yearlong and short-term goals; in doing so, mentation as methods for developing they adapt school and district program understanding.In planning and choosing goals, as well as state and national goals, to curricula, teachers strive to balance breadth the experiences and interests of their stu- of topics with depth of understanding. dents individually and as a group. Once teachers have devised a framework SELECT SCIENCE CONTENT AND of goals, plans remain flexible. Decisions are ADAPT AND DESIGN CURRICULA TO visited and revisited in the light of experi- MEET THE INTERESTS ,K N OW L E D G E, ence. Teaching for understanding requires U N D E R S TA N D I N G , A B I L I T I E S , A N D responsiveness to students, so activities and E X PERIENCES OF STUDENTS . In deter- strategies are continuously adapted and mining the specific science content and refined to address topics arising from stu- activities that make up a curriculum, teach- dent inquiries and experiences, as well as ers consider the students who will be learn- school, community, and national events. ing the science. Whether working with man-

dated content and activities, selecting from teaching and learning models relevant to extant activities, or creating original activi- classroom science teaching.Knowing the ties, teachers plan to meet the particular strengths and weaknesses of these models, interests, knowledge, and skills of their stu- teachers examine the relationship between dents and build on their questions and the science content and how that content is See Program ideas. Such decisions rely heavily on a to be taught. Teachers of science integrate a Standard E and teacher’s knowledge of students’ cognitive sound model of teaching and learning, a System Standard E potential, developmental level, physical practical structure for the sequence of activ- attributes, affective development, and moti- ities, and the content to be learned. vation—and how they learn. Teachers are In qu i ry into aut h en tic qu e s ti ons gen e r- aware of and understand common naive a ted from stu d ent ex p eri en ces is the cen t ra l concepts in science for given grade levels, as s t ra tegy for te aching scien ce . Te ach ers well as the cultural and experiential back- focus inqu i r y predom i n a n t ly on real ph e- ground of students and the effects these n om en a , in cl a s s room s , o u tdoors , or in have on learning.Teachers also consider l a bora tory set ti n gs , wh e re stu dents are their own strengths and interests and take given inve s ti ga ti ons or guided tow a rd fash- into account available resources in the local i o ning inve s ti ga ti ons that are dem a n d i n g environment. For example,in Cleveland, the but within their capabi l i ti e s . study of Lake Erie, its pollution,and As more complex topics are addressed, students cannot always return to basic phe- Inquiry into authentic questions nomena for every conceptual understand- generated from student experiences is ing. Nevertheless, teachers can take an inquiry approach as they guide students in the central strategy for teaching science. acquiring and interpreting information from sources such as libraries, government cleanup is an important part of a science documents, and computer databases—or as curriculum,as is the study of earthquakes they gather information from experts from in the Los Angeles area. Teachers can work industry, the community, and government. with local personnel, such as those at Other teaching strategies rely on teachers, science-rich centers (museums, industries, texts, and secondary sources—such as video, universities, etc.), to plan for the use of film, and computer simulations. When sec- exhibits and educational programs that ondary sources of scientific knowledge are enhance the study of a particular topic. used,students need to be made aware of the processes by which the knowledge presented SELECT T E ACHING AND ASSESSMENT in these sources was acquired and to under- S T RATEGIES T H AT SUPPORT T H E stand that the sources are authoritative and D EV E LOPMENT OF STUDENT UNDER- accepted within the scientific community. S TANDING AND NURTURE A CO M M U- Another dimension of planning relates to See Teaching N I T Y OF SCIENCE LEARNERS. Over the the organization of students. Science often is Standard E years, educators have developed many a collaborative endeavor, and all science

depends on the ultimate sharing and debat- development of knowledge, understanding, ing of ideas. When carefully guided by and abilities as students pursue their work teachers to ensure full participation by all, throughout the academic year. interactions among individuals and groups WORK TOGETHER AS CO L L E AG U E S in the classroom can be vital in deepening WITHIN AND AC R OSS DISCIPLINES the understanding of scientific concepts and AND GRADE LEV E L S . In d i vi dual and the nature of scientific endeavors. The size co ll ective planning is a corn e rs tone of s c i - of a group depends on age, resources,and en c e te a ch i n g ; it is a veh i cle for profe s s i on- the nature of the inquiry. al su p port and growt h . In the vi s i on of s c i- Te ach ers of s c i en ce must dec i d e wh en and en ce edu c a ti on de s c ri bed in the St a n d a rd s, See Program for what purposes to use wh o l e - class instru c- m a ny planning dec i s i o ns are made by Standard F ti on ,s m a ll - group co ll a bora ti on , and indivi d- groups of te ach ers at grade and bu i l d i n g ual work . For ex a m p l e ,i nve s ti ga ting simple l e vels to con s t ru ct co h erent and arti c u l a ted el ectric circuits initi a lly might best be programs within and ac ross grade s . ex p l ored indivi du a lly. As stu dents move S ch ools must provi d e te ach ers with ti m e tow a rd building com p l ex circ u i t s ,s m a ll and access to their co lleagues and others group interacti ons might be more ef fective to who can serve as re s o u r ces if co ll a bora t ive s h a re ideas and materi a l s , and a full - class dis- planning is to occ u r. c u s s i on then might be used to verify ex p eri- en ces and draw con clu s i on s . T E ACHING STANDARD B: The plans of teachers provide opportuni- Teachers of science guide and ties for all students to learn science. f a c i l i t ate learn i n g. In doing this, Therefore, planning is heavily dependent on te a c h e r s the teacher’s awareness and understanding ■ Focus and support inquiries while of the diverse abilities, interests, and cultural interacting with students. backgrounds of students in the classroom. ■ Orchestrate discourse among students Planning also takes into account the social about scientific ideas. structure of the classroom and the chal- ■ Challenge students to accept and lenges posed by diverse student groups. share responsibility for their own Effective planning includes sensitivity to learning. student views that might conflict with cur- ■ Recognize and respond to student rent scientific knowledge and strategies that diversity and encourage all students help to support alternative ways of making to participate fully in science learning. sense of the world while developing the sci- ■ Encourage and model the skills of scientific explanations. entific inquiry, as well as the curiosity, Teachers plan activities that they and the openness to new ideas and data,and students will use to assess the understanding skepticism that characterize science. and abilities that students hold when they begin a learning activity. In addition, appro- Coord i n a ting peop l e , i de a s , m a teri a l s , a n d priate ways are designed to monitor the the scien c e cl a s s room envi r on m e nt are

d i f f i c u l t , con ti nual tasks. This standard secondary sources—including media, books, focuses on the work that te ach ers do as and journals in a library. t h e y implem ent the plans of S t a n d a rd A In successful science classrooms, teachers in the cl a s s r oom . and students collaborate in the pursuit of Teachers of science constantly make deci- ideas, and students quite often initiate new sions, such as when to change the direction activities related to an inquiry. Students for- of a discussion,how to engage a particular mulate questions and devise ways to answer them, they collect data and decide how to At all stages of inquiry, represent it, they organize data to generate teachers guide, focus, challenge, and knowledge,and they test the reliability of encourage student learning. the knowledge they have generated. As they proceed, students explain and justify their student, when to let a student pursue a par- work to themselves and to one another, ticular interest, and how to use an opportu- learn to cope with problems such as the lim- nity to model scientific skills and attitudes. itations of equipment, and react to chal- Teachers must struggle with the tension lenges posed by the teacher and by class- between guiding students toward a set of mates. Students assess the efficacy of their predetermined goals and allowing students efforts—they evaluate the data they have to set and meet their own goals. Teachers collected, re-examining or collecting more if face a similar tension between taking the necessary, and making statements about the time to allow students to pursue an interest generalizability of their findings. They plan See Teaching in greater depth and the need to move on to and make presentations to the rest of the Standard E new areas to be studied. Furthermore, class about their work and accept and react teachers constantly strike a balance among to the constructive criticism of others. the demands of the understanding and abil- At all stages of i n qu i ry, te ach ers guide , ity to be acquired and the demands of stu- foc u s , ch a ll en ge , and en co u ra ge stu den t dent-centered developmental learning.The l e a rn i n g .Su ccessful te ach ers are skill ed result of making these decisions is the ob s ervers of s tu den t s , as well as knowl ed ge- enacted curriculum—the planned curricu- a ble abo ut scien ce and how it is learn ed . lum as it is modified and shaped by the Te ach ers match their acti ons to the parti c u - interactions of students, teachers, materials, lar needs of the stu d en t s , deciding wh en and and daily life in the classroom. h ow to guide — wh en to demand more ri gor- ous gra ppling by the stu den t s , wh en to pro- FOCUS AND SUPPORT INQU I R I E S . vi de inform a ti on , wh en to provi de parti c u l a r See Content Student inquiry in the science classroom too l s , and wh en to con n ect stu dents wi t h Standard A (all encompasses a range of activities. Some o t h er source s . grade levels) activities provide a basis for observation, In the science classroom envisioned by See Program data collection, reflection, and analysis of the Standards, effective teachers continually Standard E and firsthand events and phenomena. Other create opportunities that challenge students System Standard E activities encourage the critical analysis of and promote inquiry by asking questions.

earthworms from a biological supply house, Ea rt h wo rm s they would come with egg cases and baby earthworms and the children would be able M s . F. is planning and te a ching a unit that to observe the adult earthworms, the egg provides stu d ents with the oppo r tu n i t y to u n d e rstand the sci en ce in the K-4 Li fe Sci en ce cases, the young earthworms, and some of Co n tent St a n d a rd . She plans to do this the animal’s habits. t h rou g h inquiry. Of the many organisms she Before preparing a habitat for the earth- m i ght ch oo se to use , she sel e cts an orga n i s m worms, students spent time outdoors closely that is familiar to the stu d en t s , one that they examining the environment where the h ave ob s erved in the sch oolya rd . As a life - l o n g worms had been found. This fieldtrip was l e a rn er, M s . F. u s es the re sou r ces in the co m- followed by a discussion about important mu n i ty, a local mu seu m , to incre a se her k n owl ed ge and help with her pl a n n i n g . Sh e aspects of keeping earthworms in the class- a l so uses the re sou rces of the sch ool — m a teri a l s room: How would students create a place ava i l a ble for sci en ce and media in the sch ool for the earthworms that closely resembled l i b ra r y. She mod els the habits and values of the natural setting? An earthworm from sci en ce by the care provi d ed to the animals. outside was settled into a large terrarium Stu d ents wri te and draw their ob serva ti o n s . away from direct sun; black paper was Devel oping co m mu n i c a tion skills in sci en ce and in language arts rei n fo rce one anot h er. secured over the sides of the terrarium into which the children had put soil, leaves, and [This example highlights some elements of grass.A week later the earthworms arrived Teaching Standards A, B, D, and E; Professional Development Standard C; K-4 from the supply company and were added Content Standards A and C; Program to the habitat. Standards B and D; and System Standard D.] Ms. F. had been thinking about what she wanted the children to achieve and the While studying a vacant lot near school, guidance she needed to give. She wanted the several of Ms. F.’s third-grade students students to become familiar with the basic became fascinated with earthworms. needs of the earthworms and how to care Although she had never used earthworms in for them. It was important that the children the science classroom before,and she knew develop a sense of responsibility toward liv- she could use any of a number of small ani- ing things as well as enhance their skills of mals to meet her goals, Ms. F. felt she could observation and recording. She also felt that draw from her experience and knowledge this third grade class would be able to working with other small animals in the design simple experiments that would help classroom.She called the local museum of the students learn about some of the behav- natural history to talk with personnel to be iors of the earthworms. sure she knew enough about earthworms to In the first 2 weeks, the students began care for them and to guide the children’s closely observing the earthworms and explorations. She learned that it was rela- recording their habits. The students record- tively easy to house earthworms over long ed what the earthworms looked like, how periods. She was told that if she ordered the they moved, and what the students thought

the earthworms were doing.The students library. They had also removed several very described color and shape; they weighed young (very small) earthworms from the and measured the earthworms and kept a terrarium and were trying to decide how large chart of the class data, which provoked they might keep track of the growth. a discussion about variation. They observed Two groups were investigating what kind and described how the earthworms moved of environment the earthworms liked best. on a surface and in the soil. Questions and Both were struggling with several variables ideas about the earthworms came up con- at once—moisture,light,and temperature. tinually. Ms. F. recorded these thoughts on a Ms. F. planned to let groups struggle before chart, but she kept the students focused on suggesting that students focus on one vari- their descriptive work. Then Ms. F. turned able at a time. She hoped they might come to what else the children might want to find to this idea on their own. out about earthworms and how they might A fourth group was trying to decide what go about doing so.Among the many ques- the earthworms liked to eat. The students tions on the chart were: How do the earth- had been to the library twice and now were worms have babies? Do they like to live in ready to test some foods. some kinds of soil better than others? What The last two groups were working on set- are those funny things on the top of the ting up an old ant farm with transparent soil? Do they really like the dark? How do sides to house earthworms, because they they go through the dirt? How big can an were interested in observing what the earth- earthworm get? worms actually did in the soil and what M s . F. l et all the qu e s ti ons flow in a dis- happened in different kinds of soil. c u s s i on , and then she asked the stu dents to In their study of earthworms, Mrs. F.’s d ivi de into groups and to see if t h ey co u l d students learned about the basic needs of come up with a qu e s ti on or topic that they animals,about some of the structures and would like to ex p l ore . Wh en the class recon- functions of one animal, some features of ven ed , e ach group shared what they were animal behavior, and about life cycles. They going to ex p l ore and how they might inve s ti- also asked and answered questions and ga te the top i c . The stu dents en ga ged in lively communicated their understandings to one d i s c u s s i on as they shared their propo s ed another. They observed the outdoors and ex p l ora ti on s . M s . F. t h en told the stu den t s used the library and a classroom well that they should think abo ut how they migh t equipped to teach science. con du ct their inve s ti ga ti ons and that they would share these ideas in the next cl a s s . A week later, the investigations were well under way. One group had chosen to investigate the life cycle of earthworms and had found egg cases in the soil. While waiting for baby earthworms to hatch, they had checked books about earthworms out of the

Although open exploration is useful for stu- small and larger group interactions is to lis- dents when they encounter new materials ten, encourage broad participation, and and phenomena, teachers need to intervene judge how to guide discussion—determin- to focus and challenge the students, or the ing ideas to follow, ideas to question, infor- exploration might not lead to understand- mation to provide, and connections to ing. Premature intervention deprives stu- make. In the hands of a skilled teacher, such dents of the opportunity to confront prob- group work leads students to recognize the lems and find solutions, but intervention expertise that different members of the that occurs too late risks student frustration. group bring to each endeavor and the Teachers also must decide when to challenge greater value of evidence and argument over students to make sense of their experiences: personality and style. At these points,students should be asked to

explain, clarify, and critically examine and CHALLENGE STUDENTS TO ACC E P T assess their work. AND SHARE RESPONSIBILITY FOR THEIR OWN LEARNING. Teachers make O RC H E S T RATE DISCOURSE AMONG it clear that each student must take respon- S T U D E N TS ABOUT SCIENTIFIC IDEAS. An important stage of inquiry and of stu- sibility for his or her work. The teacher also dent science learning is the oral and written creates opportunities for students to take discourse that focuses the attention of stu- responsibility for their own learning, indi- dents on how they know what they know vidually and as members of groups. and how their knowledge connects to larger Teachers do so by supporting student ideas ideas, other domains,and the world beyond and questions and by encouraging students the classroom. Teachers directly support and to pursue them. Teachers give individual guide this discourse in two ways: They students active roles in the design and require students to record their work— implementation of investigations, in the teaching the necessary skills as appropri- preparation and presentation of student ate—and they promote many different work to their peers, and in student assess- forms of communication (for example, spo- ment of their own work. ken, written, pictorial, graphic, mathematical, and electronic). R E COGNIZE AND RESPOND TO STU- Using a collaborative group structure, DENT DIVERSITY AND ENCO U R AG E teachers encourage interdependency among ALL STUDENTS TO PA RT I C I PATE FULLY group members, assisting students to work IN SCIENCE LEARNING. In all aspects of together in small groups so that all partici- science learning as envisioned by the pate in sharing data and in developing Standards, skilled teachers recognize the group reports. Teachers also give groups diversity in their classes and organize the opportunities to make presentations of their classroom so that all students have the work and to engage with their classmates in opportunity to participate fully. Teachers explaining, clarifying, and justifying what monitor the participation of all students, they have learned. The teacher’s role in these carefully determining, for instance,if all

members of a collaborative group are work- inquiry. Teachers who exhibit enthusiasm ing with materials or if one student is mak- and interest and who speak to the power ing all the decisions. This monitoring can be and beauty of scientific understanding particularly important in classes of diverse instill in their students some of those same students, where social issues of status and attitudes toward science. Teachers whose authority can be a factor. actions demonstrate respect for differing Teachers of science orchestrate their class- ideas, attitudes, and values support a dispo- es so that all students have equal opportuni- sition fundamental to science and to science ties to participate in learning activities. classrooms that also is important in many Students with physical disabilities might everyday situations. The ability of teachers to do all that is Teachers who are enthusiastic, required by Standard B requires a sophisticated set of judgments about science,stu- interested, and who speak of the power dents, learning, and teaching.To develop and beauty of scientific understanding these judgments, successful teachers must instill in their students some of have the opportunity to work with colleagues to discuss, share, and increase their those same attitudes. knowledge. They are also more likely to succeed if the fundamental beliefs about stu- require modified equipment; students with dents and about learning are shared across limited English ability might be encouraged their school community in all learning to use their own language as well as English domains. Successful implementation of this and to use forms of presenting data such as vision of science teaching and learning also pictures and graphs that require less lan- requires that the school and district provide guage proficiency; students with learning the necessary resources,including time, sci- disabilities might need more time to com- ence materials, professional development plete science activities. opportunities, appropriate numbers of students per teacher, and appropriate sched- E N CO U RAGE AND MODEL THE SKILLS ules. For example, class periods must be OF SCIENTIFIC INQU I RY, AS WELL AS long enough to enable the type of inquiry THE CURIOSITY, O PENNESS TO NEW teaching described here to be achieved. I D E A S , AND SKEPTICISM T H AT CHAR- ACTERIZE SCIENCE. Implementing the recommendations above requires a range of T E ACHING STANDARD C: actions based on careful assessments of stu- Teachers of science engage in dents, knowledge of science, and a reper- ongoing assessment of their toire of science-teaching strategies. One teaching and of student learn i n g. aspect of the teacher’s role is less tangible: In doing this, te a c h e r s

teachers are models for the students they ■ Use multiple methods and systemati- teach.A teacher who engages in inquiry cally gather data about student with students models the skills needed for understanding and ability.

■ Analyze assessment data to guide tasks that are also good learning ex p eri en ce s . teaching. These assessment tasks focus on import a n t

■ Guide students in self-assessment. con tent and perform a n ce goals and provi de

■ Use student data,observations of s tu dents with an opportu n i ty to dem on s tra te teaching, and interactions with col- t h eir understanding and abi l i ty to con du ct leagues to reflect on and improve s c i en ce . Al s o, te ach ers use many stra tegies to teaching practice. ga t h er and interpret the large amount of

■ Use student data,observations of i n form a ti on abo ut stu dent understanding of teaching, and interactions with col- s c i en ce that is pre s ent in though tful instru c - leagues to report student achieve- ti onal activi ti e s . ment and opportunities to learn to Classroom assessments can take many students, teachers, parents, policy forms. Teachers observe and listen to stu- makers, and the general public. dents as they work individually and in The word “assessment” is commonly equat- groups. They interview students and require ed with testing, grading, and providing feed- formal performance tasks, investigative back to students and parents. However, reports, written reports,pictorial work, these are only some of the uses of assess- models,inventions,and other creative ment data. Assessment of students and of expressions of understanding.They examine teaching—formal and informal—provides portfolios of student work,as well as more teachers with the data they need to make the traditional paper-and-pencil tests. Each many decisions that are required to plan mode of assessment serves particular pur- and conduct their teaching.Assessment data poses and particular students. Each has par- also provide information for communicat- ticular strengths and weaknesses and is used ing about student progress with individual to gather different kinds of information students and with adults, including parents, about student understanding and ability. other teachers, and administrators. The teacher of science chooses the form of the assessment in relationship to the partic- USE MULTIPLE METHODS AND SYS- ular learning goals of the class and the expe- T E M AT I CA L LY GATHER DATA ON STU- riences of the students. DENT UNDERSTANDING AND ABILITY. Du ring the ord i n a r y opera ti on of a cl a s s , A N A LYZE ASSESSMENT DATA TO GUIDE See Assessment in i n form a ti on abo ut stu den t s’ u n ders t a n d i n g T E AC H I N G . An a lysis of s tu dent assessmen t Science Education of s c i en ce is needed almost con ti nu o u s ly. data provi des te ach ers with knowl ed ge to in Chapter 5 As s e s s m ent tasks are not aftert h o u ghts to m eet the needs of e ach stu den t . It gives them i n s tru cti o nal planning but are built into the i n d i c a tors of e ach stu den t’s current under- de s i gn of the te ach i n g . Because assessmen t s t a n d i n g, the natu re of e ach stu den t’s think- i n form a ti on is a powerful tool for mon i tor- i n g, and the ori gin of what each knows . Th i s ing the devel opm ent of s tu dent unders t a n d- k n owl ed ge leads to dec i s i ons abo ut indivi d- i n g, m od i f ying activi ti e s , and prom o ting stu- ual te ach er- s tu dent interacti on s , to mod i f i c a- dent sel f - ref l ecti on , the ef fective te ach er of ti ons of l e a rning activi ties to meet divers e s c i en ce caref u lly sel ects and uses assessmen t s tu dent needs and learning approach e s ,a n d

ASSESSMENT PURPOSE: This assess- S c i e n ce Oly m p i a d ment activity provides the teacher with information about student achievement. This example illustrates the close relationship That information can be used to assign between teaching and assessment. The assessment tasks are developmentally appropriate grades to students and to make promotion for young children, including recognition of decisions. By involving the community, par- students’ physicals skills and cognitive abili- ents, and older siblings in the assessment ties. The titles in this example (e.g., “Science process, the activity increases the communi- Content”) emphasize some important compo- ty's understanding of and support for the nents of the assessment process. As students elementary school science program. move from station to station displaying their understanding and ability in science, mem- D ATA : S tu dent records in scien ce labora tory bers of the community evaluate the students’ n o teboo k s science achievement and can observe that the Teachers' observations of students students have had the opportunity to learn science. An Olympiad entails extensive plan- Com mu n i ty mem bers' ob s erva ti on s ning, and even when the resources are com- of s tu den t s mon and readily available, it takes time to CO N T E X T: Assessment activities of this design and set up an Olympiad. general form are appropriate as an end-of- [This example highlights some elements of the-year activity for grades 1-4. The public Teaching Standards A, C,and D; Assessment performance involves students engaging in Standards A, B, C, and E; K-4 Content inquiry process skills at several stations Standards A and B; Program Standards D located in and around the science class- and F; and System Standards D and G.] room. Parents, local business persons, community leaders, and faculty from higher SCIENCE CO N T E N T: The K-4 Content education act as judges of student perfor- Standard for Science as Inquiry sets the cri- mance. Benefits to the students and to the terion that students should be able to use school and the science program, such as simple equipment and tools to gather data. increased parental and community involve- In this assessment exercise, four tasks use ment,are well worth the costs of the consid- common materials to allow students to erable planning and organization on the demonstrate their abilities. part of the teacher. Planning includes 1) selecting appropriate tasks, 2) collecting ASSESSMENT AC T I V I T Y: Students make necessary equipment, 3) making task cards, and record observations. 4) checking the equipment, 5) obtaining ASSESSMENT TY PE : Performance,pub- and training judges, and 6) preparing stu- lic, authentic, individual. dents for public performance.

As s e s s m e nt Exe rc i s e :

S TATION A. Measuring Wind Speed S TATION C. Comparing Weights a. Equipment a. Equipment 1. Small, battery-operated fan 1. Balance 2. Wind gauge 2. Collections of objects in bags 3. Table marked with a letter-by- (Teachers select objects that have number grid irregular shapes and are made of 4. Task cards with directions materials of different densities so that b. Task volume and mass are not correlated.) 1. Place the wind gauge at position D-4 3. Task card with directions on the grid. b. Task 2. Place the fan at position G-6 facing 1. Arrange the objects in one bag in the wind gauge. order of their weights. 3. Turn the fan on to medium speed. 2. Describe how you arranged the 4. Record the wind speed and direction objects. in your laboratory notebook. S TATION D. Measuring Volumes S TATION B. Rolling Cylinders a. Equipment a. Equipment 1. Graduated cylinder, calibrated in half 1. Four small clear plastic cylinders— cubic centimeters. one filled with sand, one empty, one 2. Numbered stones of various colors, 1/4 filled with sand, and one 1/2 shapes, and sizes but small enough to filled with sand fit into the cylinder. 2. Adjustable incline 3. Several containers marked A, B, C, 3. Strips of colored paper of various and D. lengths 4. Task cards with directions 4. Task cards with directions b. Task 1 b. Task 1 1. Measure the volume of container A. 1. Roll each cylinder down the incline. 2. Record your measurement in your 2. Describe the motion of the cylinders laboratory notebook. and their relation to each other. c. Task 2 c. Task 2 1. Measure the volume of the stone 1. Place the blue strip of paper at the marked 1. bottom of the incline. 2. Record your measurement in your 2. Select one of the cylinders, and adjust laboratory notebook. the angle of the incline so that the cylinder consistently rolls just to the end of the blue strip.

EVA LUATING STUDENT P E R F O R M A N C E

Aspects of a student's performance and criteria for evaluation include:

PERFORMANCE INDICATOR EVIDENCE Following directions Student follows the directions. Measuring and recording data Measurements are reasonably accurate and include correct units Planning Student organizes the work: (1) observations of the rolling cylinders are sequenced logically, (2) student selects the cylinder with the most predictable motion for Part 2 of the rolling- cylinders task,(3) student records the weights of the objects before attempting to order them in the ordering-by-weight task. Elegance of approach Student invents a sophisticated way of collecting, recording, or reporting observations. Evidence of reflection Student comments on observations in ways that indicate that he/she is attempting to find patterns and causal relationships. Quality of observations Observations are appropriate to the task, complete, accurate,and have some basis in experience or scientific understanding. Behavior in the face of adversity The student seeks help and does not panic if sand or water is spilled or glassware is broken, but proceeds to clean up, get replacements,and continue the task.

to the de s i gn of l e a rning activi ties that bu i l d USE STUDENT DATA ,O B S E RVAT I O N S f rom stu dent ex peri en ce ,c u l tu re , and pri or OF T E AC H I N G , AND INTERAC T I O N S u n ders t a n d i n g. WITH CO L L E AGUES TO REFLECT ON AND IMPROVE T E ACHING PRAC T I C E. See Inproving GUIDE STUDENTS IN SELF- A S S E S S- In the science education envisioned by the Classroom Pratice M E N T. Sk i ll ed te ach ers guide stu dents to Standards, teachers of science approach in Chapter 5 u n derstand the purposes for their own their teaching in a spirit of inquiry—assess- l e a rning and to formu l a te sel f - a s s e s s m en t ing, reflecting on,and learning from their s tra tegi e s . Te ach ers provi de stu dents wi t h own practice. They seek to understand opportu n i ties to devel op their abi l i ties to which plans, decisions, and actions are assess and ref l ect on their own scien ti f i c effective in helping students and which are accom p l i s h m en t s . This process provi de s not. They ask and answer such questions as: te ach ers with ad d i ti onal pers pectives on stu- “Why is this content important for this dent learn i n g, and it deepens each stu den t’s group of students at this stage of their development? Why did I select these partic- Skilled teachers guide students to ular learning activities? Did I choose good understand the purposes for their examples? How do the activities tie in with own learning and to formulate student needs and interests? How do they build on what students already know? Do self-assessment strategies. they evoke the level of reasoning that I wanted? What evidence of effect on students u n derstanding of the con tent and its app l i- do I expect?” c a ti on s . The interacti ons of te ach ers and stu- As teachers engage in study and research dents con cerning eva lu a ti on cri teria hel p s about their teaching, they gather data from See Program s tu dents understand the ex pect a ti ons for classroom and external assessments of stu- Standard F t h eir work , as well as giving them ex p eri en ce dent achievement, from peer observations in app lying standards of s c i en tific practi ce to and supervisory evaluations, and from self- t h eir own and others’ s c i en tific ef fort s . Th e questioning.They use self-reflection and i n tern a l i z a ti on of su ch standards is cri tical to discussion with peers to understand more s tu dent ach i e vem ent in scien ce . fully what is happening in the classroom Invo lving stu dents in the assessmen t and to explore strategies for improvement. process does not diminish the re s pon s i bi l i- To engage in reflection on teaching, teachers ties of the te ach er—it increases them . It must have a structure that guides and requ i res te ach ers to help stu dents devel op encourages it—a structure that provides s k i lls in sel f - ref l ecti on by building a learn i n g opportunities to have formal and informal envi ron m ent wh ere stu dents revi ew each dialogues about student learning and their o t h er ’s work , of fer su gge s ti on s , and ch a ll en ge science teaching practices in forums with m i s t a kes in inve s ti ga tive proce s s e s , f a u l ty peers and others; opportunities to read and re a s on i n g, or poorly su p ported con clu s i on s . discuss the research literature about science

content and pedagogy with other education ■ Create a setting for student work that professionals; opportunities to design and is flexible and supportive of science revise learning experiences that will help inquiry.

students to attain the desired learning; ■ Ensure a safe working environment.

opportunities to practice, observe, critique, ■ Make the available science tools, and analyze effective teaching models and materials, media,and technological the challenges of implementing exemplary resources accessible to students.

strategies; and opportunities to build the ■ Identify and use resources outside skills of self-reflection as an ongoing process the school.

throughout each teacher’s professional life. ■ Engage students in designing the learning environment. USE STUDENT DATA ,O B S E RVAT I O N S Time, space, and materials are critical com- OF T E AC H I N G , AND INTERAC T I O N S ponents of an effective science learning WITH CO L L E AGUES TO REPORT STU- environment that promotes sustained DENT AC H I EVEMENT AND OPPORT U- inquiry and understanding. Creating an NITIES TO LEARN TO STUDENTS , adequate environment for science teaching T E AC H E R S , PA R E N TS , POLICY MAKERS, is a shared responsibility. Teachers lead the AND THE GENERAL PUBLIC. Teachers way in the design and use of resources, but have the obligation to report student school administrators,students, parents, achievement data to many individuals and agencies, including the students and their parents, certification agencies, employers, Teachers of science need regular, policy makers, and taxpayers. Although adequate space for science. reports might include grades, teachers and community members must meet their might also prepare profiles of student responsibility to ensure that the resources achievement. The opportunity that students are available to be used. Developing a sched- have had to learn science is also an essential ule that allows time for science investiga- component of reports on student achieve- tions needs the cooperation of all in the ment in science understanding and ability. school; acquiring materials requires the T E ACHING STANDARD D: appropriation of funds; maintaining scien- Teachers of science design and tific equipment is the shared responsibility manage learning env i ro n m e nt s of students and adults alike; and designing t h at provide students with the appropriate use of the scientific institutions t i m e, s p a ce, and re s o u rces need- and resources in the local community ed for learning science. In doing requires the participation of the school and t h i s, te a c h e r s those institutions and individuals. See Program ■ Structure the time available so that This standard ad d resses the cl a s s room Standard D students are able to engage in use of ti m e , s p a ce , and re s o u rces—the ways and System extended investigations. in wh i ch te ach ers make dec i s i o ns abo u t Standard D

h ow to de s i gn and manage them to cre a te p l ay their re su l t s . Te ach ers also provi de stu- the best po s s i ble opportu n i ties for stu d en t s dents with the opportu n i ty to con tri bute thei r to learn scien ce . i deas abo ut use of s p ace and furn i s h i n gs .

S T RUCTURE THE TIME AVA I LABLE SO ENSURE A SAFE WORKING ENVIRO N- See Program T H AT STUDENTS ARE ABLE TO ENGAG E M E N T. Safety is a fundamental concern in Standard D IN EXTENDED INVESTIGATIONS. Bu i l d i n g all experimental science. Teachers of science scientific understanding takes time on a must know and apply the necessary safety daily basis and over the long term. Schools regulations in the storage, use,and care of must restructure schedules so that teachers the materials used by students. They adhere can use blocks of time, interdisciplinary to safety rules and guidelines that are estab- strategies,and field experiences to give stu- lished by national organizations such as the dents many opportunities to engage in seri- American Chemical Society and the Occu- ous scientific investigation as an integral part of their science learning.When consid- Effective science teaching depends ering how to structure available time, skilled teachers realize that students need time to on the availability and organization try out ideas, to make mistakes, to ponder, of materials, equipment, media, and to discuss with one another. Given a See Program voice in scheduling, teachers plan for ade- and technology. Standard F quate blocks of time for students to set up scientific equipment and carry out experi- pational Safety and Health Administration, ments, to go on field trips, or to reflect and as well as by local and state regulatory agen- share with each other. Teachers make time cies. They work with the school and district for students to work in varied groupings— to ensure implementation and use of safety alone, in pairs,in small groups, as a whole guidelines for which they are responsible, class—and on varied tasks, such as reading, such as the presence of safety equipment conducting experiments, reflecting, writing, and an appropriate class size. Teachers also and discussing. teach students how to engage safely in investigations inside and outside the classroom. C R E ATE A SETTING FOR STUDENT WORK T H AT IS FLEXIBLE AND SUP- MAKE THE AVA I LABLE SCIENCE TO O L S , P O RTIVE OF SCIENCE INQU I RY. Th e M AT E R I A L S , M E D I A , AND T E C H N O LO G- a rra n gem ent of ava i l a ble space and furn i s h- I CAL RESOURCES ACCESSIBLE TO STU- i n gs in the cl a s s room or labora tory influ en ce s D E N TS . E f fective scien ce te aching depen d s See Program the natu re of the learning that takes place . on the ava i l a bi l i ty and or ga n i z a ti on of m a te- Standard D and Te ach ers of s c i en ce need reg u l a r, adequ a te ri a l s , equ i pm en t , m ed i a , and tech n o l ogy. An System Standard D s p ace for scien ce . Th ey plan the use of t h i s ef fective scien ce learning envi ron m en t s p ace to all ow stu dents to work safely in requ i res a broad ra n ge of basic scien ti f i c groups of va r ious sizes at va rious tasks, to m a teri a l s , as well as specific tools for parti c- maintain their work in progre s s , and to dis- ular topics and learning ex peri en ce s .

Te ach ers must be given the re s o u rces and and around the school can be used as a liv- a ut h ori t y to sel ect the most appropri a te ing laboratory for the study of natural phe- m a terials and to make dec i s i ons abo ut wh en , nomena. Whether the school is located in a wh ere , and how to make them acce s s i bl e . Su ch dec i s i ons balance safety, proper use, The sch ool sci en ce pro gram must and ava i l a bi l i ty with the need for stu dents to p a rti c i p a te actively in de s i g ning ex peri m en t s , extend beyond the wa lls of the sch ool to s el ecting too l s , and con s tru cting app a ra tu s , i n clude the re sou rces of the co m mu n i ty. a ll of wh i ch are cri tical to the devel opm en t of an understanding of i n qu i ry. densely populated urban area, a sprawling It is also important for students to learn suburb, a small town, or a rural area, the how to access scientific information from environment can and should be used as a books, periodicals, videos, databases, elec- resource for science study. Working with tronic communication,and people with others in their school and with the commu- expert knowledge.Students are also taught nity, teachers build these resources into their to evaluate and interpret the information work with students. they have acquired through those resources. E N G AGE STUDENTS IN DESIGNING T H E Teachers provide the opportunity for stu- LEARNING ENVIRO N M E N T. As part of dents to use contemporary technology as challenging students to take responsibility they develop their scientific understanding. for their learning, teachers involve them in IDENTIFY AND USE RESOURCES OUT- the design and management of the learning SIDE THE SCHOOL. The classroom is a environment. Even the youngest students limited environment. The school science can and should participate in discussions program must extend beyond the walls of and decisions about using time and space the school to the resources of the communi- for work. With this sharing comes responsi- ty. Our nation’s communities have many bility for care of space and resources. As stu- specialists, including those in transporta- dents pursue their inquiries, they need tion, health-care delivery, communications, access to resources and a voice in determin- computer technologies, music, art, cooking, ing what is needed. The more independently mechanics, and many other fields that have students can access what they need,the scientific aspects. Specialists often are avail- more they can take responsibility for their able as resources for classes and for individ- own work.Students are also invaluable in ual students. Many communities have access identifying resources beyond the school. to science centers and museums,as well as to the science communities in higher educa- T E ACHING STANDARD E: tion, national laboratories,and industry; Teachers of science develop co m - these can contribute greatly to the under- munities of science learners that standing of science and encourage students re f l e c t the inte l l e c tual rigor of sci- to further their interests outside of school. e ntific inquiry and the at t i t u d e s In addition,the physical environment in and social values co n d u c i ve

to science learn i n g. In doing this, D I S P LAY AND DEMAND RESPECT FOR te a c h e r s THE DIVERSE IDEAS, S K I L L S , AND

■ Display and demand respect for the E X PERIENCES OF ALL STUDENTS . diverse ideas, skills, and experiences Re s pect for the ide a s , activi ti e s , and thinking of all students. of a ll stu dents is dem on s tra ted by wh a t

■ Enable students to have a significant te ach ers say and do, as well as by the flex i bi l i- voice in decisions about the content ty with wh i ch they re s p ond to stu dent inter- and context of their work and require e s t s ,i de a s ,s tren g t h s , and need s . Wh et h er students to take responsibility for ad ju s ting an activi t y to ref l ect the cultu ra l the learning of all members of the b ackground of p a r ticular stu den t s , provi d- community. ing re s o u rces for a small group to pursue an

■ Nu rt u re co l l a bo ration among student s. i n tere s t , or su g ge s ting that an idea is va lu-

■ Structure and facilitate ongoing for- a ble but cannot be pursu ed at the mom en t , mal and informal discussion based on te a ch e rs model what it means to re s pect a shared understanding of rules of and va lue the vi e ws of o t h ers . Te ach ers scientific discourse. te a ch re s p ect ex p l i c i t ly by focusing on thei r

■ Model and emphasize the skills, atti- own and stu den t s’ po s i tive interacti on s , a s tudes, and values of scientific inquiry. well as con f ron ting disre s p ect , s t ereo t yp i n g , and preju d i ce wh en ever it occ u rs in the The focus of this standard is the social and s ch ool envi ron m en t . i n tell ectual envi ron m ent that must be in Science is a discipline in which creative See Content p l ace in the cl a s s room if a ll stu dents are to and sometimes risky thought is important. Standards A & G su cceed in learning scien ce and have the New ideas and theories often are the result (all grade levels) opportu n i ty to devel op the skills and dispo- of creative leaps. For students to understand See Teaching s i ti ons for life - l ong learn i n g. E l em ents of this aspect of science and be willing to Standard B o t h er standards are bro u ght toget h er by this express creative ideas, all of the members of and Program s t a n d a rd to high l i ght the import a n ce of t h e the learning community must support and Standard F com mu n i ty of l e a rn ers and what ef fective respect a diversity of experience, ideas, te ach ers do to fo s ter its devel opm en t . A thought, and expression. Teachers work with com mu n i ty approach en h a n ces learn i n g : It students to develop an environment in h e lps to adva n ce unders t a n d i n g , expand stu- which students feel safe in expressing ideas. den t s’ c a p a bi l i ties for inve s ti ga ti on , en ri ch the qu e s ti ons that guide inqu i r y, and aid stu- ENABLE STUDENTS TO HAVE A SIGNIFI- dents in giving meaning to ex peri en ce s . CANT VOICE IN DECISIONS ABOUT T H E An assumption of the Standards is that all CONTENT AND CO N T E XT OF T H E I R students should learn science through full WORK AND GIVE STUDENTS SIGNIFI- participation and that all are capable of CANT RESPONSIBILITY FOR T H E making meaningful contributions in science LEARNING OF ALL MEMBERS OF T H E classes. The nature of the community in CO M M U N I TY. A community of science which students learn science is critical to learners is one in which students develop a making this assumption a reality. sense of purpose and the ability to assume

Ms.R. chose to introduce technology as M u s i c a l part of the study of sound. That winter, I n s t r u m e n t s when the end of the sound study neared, Ms. R. was ready with a new culminating This example includes a description of teach- activity—making musical instruments. She ing and an assessment task, although the posed a question to the entire class: Having assessment task is indistinguishable from the studied sound for almost 6 weeks, could teaching activity. The example begins with the they design and make musical instruments teachers at King School working as a team that would produce sounds for entertain- involved in school reform. The team naturally builds on previous efforts; for example, the ment? Ms.R. had collected a variety of technology unit is modified from an existing materials, which she now displayed on a unit. Other indicators that King School is table, including boxes, tubes, string, wire, working toward becoming a community of hooks, scrap wood, dowels, plastic, rubber, learners is the availability of older students to fabric, and more. The students had been help the younger students with tasks beyond their physical abilities and the decision for one working in groups of four during the sound class to give a concert for another class. In her study, and Ms. R.asked them to gather into planning, Ms. R. integrates the study of the those groups to think about the kinds of science of sound with the technology of pro- instruments they would like to make. Ms.R. ducing sound. Recognizing the different inter- asked the students to think particularly ests and abilities of the students, Ms. R. allows students to work alone or in groups and plans about what they knew about sound, what a mixture of whole-class discussions and work kind of sound they would like their instru- time. She encourages the students in planning ments to make, and what kind of instru- and communicating their designs. She impos- ment it would be. How would the sound be es constraints on materials and time. produced? What would make the sound? [This example highlights some elements of all She suggested they might want to look at of the Teaching Standards; Assessment the materials she had brought in, but they Standard A; K-4 Content Standards B, E, and could think about other materials too. F; and Program Standards A, D, and E.] M s .R .s ent the stu dents to work in thei r The King School was reforming its sci- gro u p s . Co ll a bora tive work had been the basis ence curriculum. After considerable research of most of the scien ce inqu i ry the stu den t s into existing curriculum materials and h ad don e ; for this ph a s e ,M s . R . felt that the much discussion, the team decided to build s tu dents should work toget h er to discuss and a technology piece into some of the current s h a re ide a s , but she su gge s ted that each stu- science studies. The third-grade teacher on dent might want to have an instru m ent at the the team,Ms. R., said that she would like to end to play and to take hom e . work with two or three of her colleagues on As the students began to talk in their the third-grade science curriculum. They groups, Ms. R. added elements to the selected three topics that they knew they activity. They would have only the would be teaching the following year: life following 2 weeks to make their instru- cycles, sound, and water. ments. Furthermore, any materials they

needed beyond what was in the boxes had wooden box that som eone had ad ded to the to be materials that were readily available su pp ly tabl e . In a few cases, the ori gi n a l and inexpensive. de s i gn was abandon ed , and a new de s i gn M s . R . k n e w that planning was a ch a l - em er ged as the instru m ent took shape . l en ge for these third graders . She moved At the end of the second week,Ms. R. set a m o ng gro u p s , l i s t ening and adding com- aside 2 days for the students to reflect on m en t s . Wh en she felt that discussions had what they had done individually and as a gone as far as they could go, she asked class. On Friday, they were once again to e a ch group to draw a pictu re of t h e draw and write about their instruments. i n s t ru m e nts the ch i l d ren thought they Where groups had worked together on an would like to make , wri t e a short piece on instrument, one report was to be prepared. h ow they thought they would make them , On the next Monday, each group was to and make a list of the materials that they make a brief presentation of the instrument, would need . M s . R . m a de a list of wh a t what it could do, how the design came to was needed , n o t ed wh i c h ch i l d ren and be, and what challenges had been faced. As a wh i c h groups might profit from dis- final effort, the class could prepare a concert cussing their ideas with one another, a n d for the other third grades. su gge s t ed that the ch i l d ren think abo u t In making the musical instruments, stu- t h e ir task, co ll ect materials if t h e y co u l d , dents relied on the knowledge and under- and come to sch o ol in the next week pre- standing developed while studying sound, as p a red to build their instru m en t s . well as the principles of design, to make an M s . R .i nvi ted several sixth graders to joi n instrument that produced sound. the class du ring scien ce time the fo ll owi n g The assessment task for the musical wee k ,k n owing that the third grade stu den t s instruments follows. The titles emphasize m i g ht need their help in working with the some important components of the assess- m a teri a l s . Some de s i g ns were simple and ment process. easy to implem en t ; e . g. , one group was mak- SCIENCE CO N T E N T: The K-4 science ing a ru bber-band player by stretching dif- content standard on science and technology ferent widths and lengths of ru bber bands is supported by the idea that students a round a plastic ga ll on milk con t a i n er wi t h should be able to communicate the purpose the top cut of f . An o t h er group was making of a design. The K-4 physical science stan- d rums of va rious sizes using some thick dard is supported by the fundamental c a rd boa rd tu bes and pieces of thin ru bber understanding of the characteristics of roofing materi a l . For many, the de s i gn s sound, a form of energy. could not be tra n s l a ted into re a l i t y, a n d mu ch ch a n ge and trial and error en su ed . ASSESSMENT AC T I V I T Y: Students One group planned to build a guitar and demonstrate the products of their design de s i gn ed a special shape for the sound box , work to their peers and reflect on what the but after the glu ed sides of t h eir ori ginal box project taught them about the nature of co ll a p s ed twi ce , the group dec i ded to use the sound and the process of design.

ASSESSMENT TY PE : This can be public, b. How like the instru m ent you wanted group, or individual, embedded in teaching. to make is the one you actu a lly made ? c. Why did you change your design? ASSESSMENT PURPOSE: This activity d. What tools and materials did you assesses student progress toward under- use to make your instrument? standing the purpose and processes of 7. Explain why people make musical design. The information will be used to plan instruments. the next design activity. The activity also permits the teacher to gather data about EVALUATING STUDENT PERFORMANCE: understanding of sound. S tu dent understanding of sound wi ll be reve a l ed by understanding that the sound is D ATA : Ob s erva ti ons of the stu dent produ ced in the instru m ent by the part of t h e perform a n ce s . i n s tru m ent that vi b ra te s ( m oves ra p i dly back CO N T E X T: Third-grade students have just and fort h ) , that the p i tch ( h ow high or how completed a design project. Their task is to l ow) can be ch a n ged by ch a n ging how ra p i dly present the product of their work to their the vi bra ting part move s , and the loudness peers and talk about what they learned can be ch a n ged by the force (how hard yo u about sound and design as a result of doing p lu ck ,t a p, or bl ow the vi bra ting part) wi t h the project. This is a challenging task for wh i ch the vi bra ting part is set into moti on . third-grade students, and the teacher will An avera ge stu dent perform a n ce wo u l d have to provide considerable guidance to i n clu de the abi l i ty to iden tify the source of t h e the groups of students as they plan their vi bra ti on and ways to ch a n ge ei t h er pitch or presentations. The following directions pro- loudness in two directi ons (raise and lower vide a framework that students can use to the pitch of the instru m ent or make the plan their presentations. i n s tru m ent louder and sof ter) or ch a n ge the p i tch and loudness in one directi on (make the 1. Play your instrument for the class. p i tch high er and the sound louder ) . An exem- 2. Show the class the part of the instrument p l a r y perform a n ce by a stu dent wo u l d that makes the sound. i n clu de not on ly the abi l i ty to iden tify the 3. Describe to the class the purpose (func- s o u rce of the vi bra ti on but also to ch a n ge tion) that other parts of the instrument p i tch and loudness in both directi on s . have. Student understanding of the nature of 4. Show the class how you can make the technology will be revealed by the students’ sound louder. ability to reflect on why people make musi- 5. Show the class how you can change the cal instruments—e.g., to improve the quali- pitch (how high or how low the sound ty of life—as well as by their explanations of is) of the sound. how they managed to make the instrument 6 . Tell the class abo ut how you made the despite the constraints faced—that is,the i n s t ru m en t , i n c lu d i n g ability to articulate why the conceptualiza- a . What kind of i n s t ru m ent did yo u tion and design turned out to be different want to make ? from the instrument actually made.

See Improving responsibility for their learning.Teachers MODEL AND EMPHASIZE THE SKILLS, See Content Classroom give students the opportunity to participate ATT I T U D E S , AND VA LUES OF SCIENTIFIC Standard A (all Practice in the in setting goals, planning activities, assessing I N QU I RY. Certain attitudes, such as won- grade levels) Assessment work,and designing the environment. In so der, curiosity, and respect toward nature are Standards doing, they give students responsibility for a vital parts of the science learning communi- significant part of their own learning, the ty. Those attitudes are reinforced when the learning of the group, and the functioning adults in the community engage in their of the community. own learning and when they share positive attitudes toward science. Environments that See Content N U RTURE CO L LA B O RATION AMONG promote the development of appropriate Standards A & G S T U D E N TS . Working collaboratively with attitudes are supported by the school (all grade levels) others not only enhances the understanding administration and a local community that of science,it also fosters the practice of many of the skills, attitudes,and values that E f fe ctive te a ch ers design many characterize science. Effective teachers design many of the activities for learning a ctivi ties for group learn i n g , n ot science to require group work, not simply as s i m ply as an ex erci se but as an exercise, but as essential to the inquiry. The teacher’s role is to structure the groups coll a b o ra tion essen tial to inquiry. and to teach students the skills that are has taken responsibility for understanding needed to work together. the science program and supports students S T RUCTURE AND FAC I L I TATE ONGO- and teachers in its implementation. ING FORMAL AND INFORMAL DISCUS- Com mu n i ties of l e a rn ers do not em er ge SION BASED ON A SHARED UNDER- s pon t a n eo u s ly; t h ey requ i re careful su pport S TANDING OF RULES OF SCIENTIFIC f rom skillful te ach ers . The devel opm ent of a D I S CO U R S E. A fundamental aspect of a com mu n i ty of l e a rn ers is initi a ted on the community of learners is communication. f i rst day that a new group comes toget h er, Effective communication requires a founda- wh en the te ach er begins to devel op with stu- tion of respect and trust among individuals. dents a vi s i on of the class envi ron m ent they The ability to engage in the presentation of wish to form . This vi s i on is com mu n i c a ted , evidence, reasoned argument, and explana- d i s c u s s ed , and ad a pted so that all stu den t s tion comes from practice. Teachers encour- come to share it and re a l i ze its va lu e . Ru l e s age informal discussion and structure sci- of con du ct and ex pect a ti ons evo lve as the ence activities so that students are required com mu n i ty functi ons and takes shape over to explain and justify their understanding, the weeks and months of the sch ool ye a r. argue from data and defend their conclu- Some students will accommodate quickly; sions, and critically assess and challenge the others will be more resistant because of the scientific explanations of one another. responsibilities required or because of dis- crepancies between their perceptions of what they should be doing in school and

what is actually happening.The optimal typically in the hands of teachers. Any environment for learning science is con- improvement of science education will structed by students and teachers together. require that the structure and culture of Doing so requires time, persistence, and skill schools change to support the collaboration on everyone’s part. of the entire school staff with resources in the community in planning, designing, and T E ACHING STANDARD F: carrying out new practices for teaching and Teachers of science act i ve ly part i c- learning science. i p ate in the ongoing planning and Although individual teachers continually d eve l o p m e n t of the school science make adaptations in their classrooms, the p rog ra m . In doing this, te a c h e r s school itself must have a coherent program

■ Plan and develop the school science of science study for students. In the vision program. described by the National Science Education

■ Participate in decisions concerning Standards, the teachers in the school and the allocation of time and other school district have a major role in design- resources to the science program. ing that program, working together across

■ Participate fully in planning and science disciplines and grade levels, as well implementing professional growth as within levels. Teachers of science must and development strategies for them- also work with their colleagues to coordi- selves and their colleagues. nate and integrate the learning of science understanding and abilities with learning in See Teaching P LAN AND DEV E LOP THE SCHOOL SCI- Standard E ENCE PRO G RA M . The teaching in indi- Although individual teachers vidual science classrooms is part of a larger continually make adaptations in system that includes the school, district, state, and nation. Although some teachers their classrooms, the school itself might choose involvement at the district, must have a coherent program of state,and national levels, all teachers have a science study for students. professional responsibility to be active in some way as members of a science learning other disciplines. Teachers working together community at the school level, working determine expectations for student learning, with colleagues and others to improve and as well as strategies for assessing, recording, maintain a quality science program for all and reporting student progress. They also students. Many teachers already assume work together to create a learning commu- these responsibilities within their schools. nity within the school. However, they usually do so under difficult circumstances. Time for such activities is PA RT I C I PATE IN DECISIONS CO N C E R N I N G minimal, and involvement often requires THE ALLO CATION OF TIME AND OT H E R work after hours. Resources are likely to be R E S O U RCES TO THE SCIENCE PRO G RA M . See Program scarce as well. Furthermore, the authority to Time and other resources are critical ele- Standard D plan and carry out necessary activities is not ments for effective science teaching.

Teachers of science need to have a signifi- on going profe s s i onal devel opm ent opportu- cant role in the process by which decisions n i ties they need to en h a n ce their skills in are made concerning the allocation of time te aching scien ce , as well as their abi l i ties to and resources to various subject areas. i m prove the scien ce programs in thei r However, to assume this responsibility, s ch oo l s .O f ten they em p l oy the servi ces of schools and districts must provide teachers s pecialists in scien ce , ch i l d ren , l e a rn i n g , c u r- with the opportunity to be leaders. ri c u lu m ,a s s e s s m en t , or other areas of i n ter- e s t . In doing so, t h ey must have the su pport See Professional PA RT I C I PATE FULLY IN PLANNING AND of t h eir sch ool distri ct s . Development IMPLEMENTING PROFESSIONAL GROWT H Standard D AND DEV E LOPMENT STRATEGIES FOR T H E M S E LVES AND THEIR CO L L E AG U E S . Working as co ll e a g u e s , te ach ers are re s pon s i- ble for de s i g ning and implem en ting the

CHANGING EMP H A S E S

The Na tional Sci en ce Edu c a t ion St a n d a rds envi s i on ch a n ge thro u gh o ut the sys tem . The te a ching standards en compass the fo ll owing ch a n ges in em ph a s e s :

LESS EMPHASIS ON MORE EMPHASIS ON Treating all students alike and responding to Understanding and responding to individual the group as a whole student’s interests,strengths,experiences,and needs Rigidly following curriculum Selecting and adapting curriculum Focusing on student acqu i s i ti on of i n form a ti on Focusing on student understanding and use of scientific knowledge, ideas,and inquiry processes Presenting scientific knowledge through lecture, Guiding students in active and extended text,and demonstration scientific inquiry Asking for recitation of acquired knowledge Providing opportunities for scientific discussion and debate among students Testing students for factual information at the Continuously assessing student understanding end of the unit or chapter Maintaining responsibility and authority Sharing responsibility for learning with students Supporting competition Supporting a classroom community with cooperation,shared responsibility, and respect Working alone Working with other teachers to enhance the science program

Loucks-Horsley, S., J.G. Brooks,M.O.Carlson, P. Re fe re n ces fo r Kuerbis, D.P.Marsh,M. Padilla,H. Pratt,and K.L. Smith.1990. Developing and Supporting Fu rther Re a d i n g Teachers for Science Education in the Middle Years. Andover, MA: The National Center for Berei ter, C . , and M. S c a rd a m a l i a .1 9 8 9 . In ten ti on a l Improving Science Education. l e a rning as a goal of i n s tru cti on . In Kn owi n g, Loucks-Horsley, S.,M.O.Carlson,L.H. Brink, P. Le a rn i n g, and In s tru cti on :E s s ays in Hon or of Horwitz, D.P.Marsh,H. Pratt,K.R. Roy, and K. Robert Glaser, L . B.Re s n i ck , ed . :3 6 1 - 3 9 2 . Worth. 1989. Developing and Supporting Hi ll s d a l e ,N J :L awren ce Erlbaum and As s oc i a te s . Teachers for Elementary School Science Brown,A.1994.The advancement of learning. Education. Andover, MA: The National Center Presidential Address, American Educational for Improving Science Education. Research Association.Educational Researcher, 23: McGilly, K., ed.1994. Classroom Lessons: 4-12. Integrating Cognitive Theory and Classroom Brown,A.L.,and J.C. Campione.1994. Guided Practice. Cambridge,MA:MIT Press. discovery in a community of learners. In NBPTS (National Board for Professional Teaching Classroom Lessons: Integrating Cognitive Theory Standards).1991. Toward High and Rigorous and Classroom Practice,K. McGilly, ed.: 229-270. Standards for the Teaching Profession: Initial Cambridge,MA:MIT Press. Policies and Perspectives of the National Board Bruer, J.T. 1993.Schools for Thought:A Science of for Professional Teaching Standards,3rd ed. Learning in the Classroom. Cambridge,MA: Detroit,MI:NBPTS. MIT Press. NCTM (Na ti onal Council of Te ach ers of Carey, S.1985. Conceptual Change in Childhood. Ma t h em a ti c s ) .1 9 9 1 . Profe s s i onal Standards for Cambridge,MA:MIT Press. Te aching Ma t h em a ti c s . Re s ton , VA :N C T M . Carey, S.,and R.Gelman, eds.1991. The Epigenesis NRC (National Research Council). 1994. Learning, of Mind:Essays on Biology and Cognition. Remembering, Believing:Enhancing Human Hillsdale,NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates. Performance, D. Druckman and R.A.Bjork, eds. Ch a m p a gn e ,A . B. 1 9 8 8 .S c i en ce Te ach i n g : Ma k i n g Washington, DC: National Academy Press. the Sys tem Work . In This Year in Sch ool Scien ce NRC (National Research Council).1990. Fulfilling 1 9 8 8 : Pa pers from the Forum for Sch o ol Scien ce . the Promise: Biology Education in the Nation’s Wa s h i n g ton , DC : Am erican As s oc i a ti on for the Schools. Washington, DC: National Academy Adva n cem ent of S c i en ce . Press. Cohen, D.K.,M.W.McLaughlin,and J.E. Talbert, N RC (Na ti onal Re s e a rch Co u n c i l ) .1 9 8 7 .E du c a ti on eds.1993. Teaching for Understanding: and Le a rning to Th i n k ,L . B.Re s n i ck , ed . Challenges for Policy and Practice. San Francisco: Wa s h i n g ton , DC : Na ti onal Ac a demy Pre s s . Jossey-Bass. Schoen, D. 1987.Educating the Reflective Darling-Hammond,L.1992.Standards of Practice Practitioner: Toward a New Design for Teaching for Learner Centered Schools. New York: and Learning in the Professions. San Francisco: National Center for Restructuring Schools and Jossey-Bass. Learning. Shulman,L.S.1987. Knowledge and teaching Harlen, W. 1992. The Teaching of Science. London: foundations of the new reform. Harvard David Fulton Publishers. Education Review, 57 (1):1-22. Leinhardt,G.1993.On Teaching. In Advances in Instructional Psychology, R.Glaser ed., vol.4:1- 54. Hillsdale,NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates.

Be coming an e f fe ct i ve science teacher is a co ntinuous proce s s t h at stre tches acro s s the life of a te a c h e r, f rom his or her u n d e rg ra d u ate years to the end of a p ro fessional ca re e r.

Standards for Professional Development for Teachers of Science

The National Science Education

Standards present a vision of learn-

ing and teaching science in which

all students have the opportunity to

become scientifically literate. In this

vision, teachers of science are pro-

fessionals responsible for their own professional development and for the

maintenance of the teaching profession. The standards in this chapter pro-

vide criteria for making judgments about the quality of the professional

development opportunities that teachers of science will need to implement

the National Science Education Standards. ❚ Professional development for

teachers should be analogous to professional development for other profes-

sionals. Becoming an effective science teacher is a continuous process that

stretches from preservice experiences in undergraduate years to the end of a

professional career. Science has a rapidly changing knowledge base and

expanding relevance to societal issues, and The current reform ef fort in scien ce edu- teachers will need ongoing opportunities to c a ti on requ i res a su b s t a n tive ch a n ge in how build their understanding and ability. s c i en ce is taugh t . Implicit in this reform is an Teachers also must have opportunities to equ a l ly su b s t a n tive ch a n ge in profe s s i on a l develop understanding of how students devel opm ent practi ces at all level s . Mu ch cur- with diverse interests, abilities, and experi- rent profe s s i onal devel opm ent invo lves trad i- ences make sense of scientific ideas and ti onal lectu res to convey scien ce con tent and what a teacher does to support and guide all em phasis on technical training abo ut te ach- students. And teachers require the opportu- i n g. For ex a m p l e ,u n der gradu a te scien ce nity to study and engage in research on sci- co u rses typ i c a lly com mu n i c a te scien ce as a ence teaching and learning, and to share body of f acts and rules to be mem ori zed , with colleagues what they have learned. ra t h er than a way of k n owing abo ut the nat- The standards in this ch a pter are inten ded u ral worl d ; even the scien ce labora tories in to inform everyone with a role in profe s s i on- most co ll eges fail to te ach scien ce as inqu i r y. al devel opm en t . Th ey are cri teria for the sci- Moreover, te ach er- prep a ra ti on co u rses and en ce and edu c a ti on fac u l ties of co ll eges and i n s ervi ce activi ties in met h ods of te ach i n g u n ivers i ti e s , who have the pri m a ry re s pon s i- s c i en ce frequ en t ly em ph a s i ze technical skill s bi l i t y for the initial prep a ra ti on of te ach ers ra t h er than dec i s i on making, t h eory, and re a- of s c i en ce ; for te ach ers who sel ect and de s i g n s on i n g. If reform is to be accom p l i s h ed , profe s s i onal devel opm ent must inclu de ex peri- The current reform effort requires en ces that en ga ge pro s pective and practi c i n g a substantive change in how science te ach ers in active learning that builds thei r is taught; an equally substantive k n owl ed ge ,u n ders t a n d i n g, and abi l i ty. Th e vi s i on of s c i en ce and how it is learn ed as change is needed in professional de s c ri bed in the St a n d a rds wi ll be nearly development practices. i m po s s i ble to convey to stu dents in sch ools if the te ach ers them s elves have never ex peri- activi ties for pers onal profe s s i onal devel open ced it. Si m p ly put , pre s ervi ce progra m s m en t ; and for all others who de s i g n and lead and profe s s i onal devel opm ent activi ties for profe s s i onal devel opm e nt activi ti e s . practicing te ach ers must model good scien ce These standards are also criteria for state te ach i n g, as de s c ri b ed in the te aching stan- and national policy makers who determine d a rds in Ch a pter 3. important policies and practices, such as Four assu m pti ons abo ut the natu re of pro- requirements for teacher certification and fe s s i onal devel opm ent ex peri en ces and abo ut the budget for professional development. In the con text within wh i ch they take place this vision of science education, policies f rame the profe s s i onal devel opm ent standard s :

must change so that ongoing, effective pro- ■ Professional development for a fessional development becomes central in teacher of science is a continuous, teachers’ lives. lifelong process.

■ The traditional distinctions between their colleagues. This gradual development “targets,”“sources,” and “supporters” has several implications—the transition of teacher development activities are between the education of prospective and artificial. practicing teachers is a case in point. The ■ The conventional view of profession- primary responsibility for the early stages of al development for teachers needs to preservice education rests with colleges and shift from technical training for spe- universities, but it must be shared with the cific skills to opportunities for intel- practice community as prospective teachers lectual professional growth. begin their clinical work. For inservice edu- ■ The process of transforming schools cation,the practice community has the requires that professional develop- major responsibility, drawing upon the ment opportunities be clearly and resources of higher education, science-rich appropriately connected to teachers’ centers, and the scientific community. work in the context of the school. Continuous professional development requires a gradual shift from campus to See Professional P ROFESSIONAL DEV E LOPMENT FOR A Development T E ACHER OF SCIENCE IS A CO N T I N U- Science content increases and Standard D O U S , L I F E LONG PRO C E S S . The understanding and abilities required to be a mas- ch a n ge s , and a te a ch er ’s unders t a n d i n g terful teacher of science are not static. in science must keep pace. Science content increases and changes, and a teacher’s understanding in science must school, accompanied by collaboration keep pace. Knowledge about the process of among all those engaged in professional learning is also continually developing, development activities. requiring that teachers remain informed. Because the following standards assume Further, we live in an ever-changing society, continuous professional development, they which deeply influences events in schools; are not divided into standards for the edu- social changes affect students as they come cation of prospective teachers and standards to school and affect what they need to carry for the professional development of practic- away with them. In addition, teachers must ing teachers. Rather they are applicable to See Professional be involved in the development and refine- all activities and programs that occur over a Development ment of new approaches to teaching, assess- teacher’s career. Standard A ment,and curriculum. Teachers of science build skills gradually, THE T RADITIONAL DISTINCTIONS starting in their undergraduate years, where B E T WEEN “TA RG E TS ,”“S O U RC E S ,” A N D they engage in science and gain some expe- “S U P P O RT E R S” OF T E ACHER DEV E LO P- rience in teaching.They then experience the MENT ACTIVITIES ARE ART I F I C I A L . realities of their first years in the classroom, In the vision of science education described work with other teachers, take advantage of by the Standards, practicing teachers—tradi- professional development offerings, and tionally the targets for professional develop- learn from their own efforts and those of ment—have the opportunity to become

sources of their own growth as well as sup- activity to one requiring both theoretical porters of the growth of others. Prospective and practical understanding and ability. teachers must have the opportunity to Professional development occurs in many become active participants in schools more ways than delivery of information in through internships, clinical studies,and the typical university course, institute, or research. Teachers should have opportuni- teacher workshop. Another way to learn ties for structured reflection on their teach- more about teaching science is to conduct classroom-based research, and a useful way The challenge of professional to learn science content is to participate in research at a scientific laboratory. In all development. . .is to create optimal instances, professional development activi- collaborative learning situations in ties must be sustained, contextual,and which the best sources of expertise are require participation and reflection. The Standards assume broad concepts of how, in linked with the experiences and what formats,and under what conditions current needs of the teachers. professional development can take place.

THE PROCESS OF T RA N S F O R M I N G ing practice with colleagues, for collabora- SCHOOLS REQUIRES T H AT PRO F E S- tive curriculum planning, and for active SIONAL DEV E LOPMENT OPPORT U N I- participation in professional teaching and TIES BE CLEARLY AND APPRO P R I AT E LY scientific networks. The challenge of profes- CONNECTED TO T E AC H E R S’ WORK IN sional development for teachers of science is THE CO N T E XT OF THE SCHOOL. to create optimal collaborative learning situ- Whenever possible, the professional devel- ations in which the best sources of expertise opment of teachers should occur in the con- are linked with the experiences and current texts where the teachers’ understandings needs of the teachers. and abilities will be used. Although learning Principals and qualified community science might take place in a science labora- members should also participate in profes- tory, learning to teach science needs to take sional development activities in order to place through interactions with practition- increase their own understanding of student ers in places where students are learning sci- science learning and of the roles and ence, such as in classrooms and schools. responsibilities of teachers.

THE CONVENTIONAL V I EW OF PRO- FESSIONAL DEV E LOPMENT FOR The St a n d a rd s T E ACHERS NEEDS TO SHIFT FRO M T E C H N I CAL T RAINING FOR SPE C I F I C The first three professional development SKILLS TO OPPORTUNITIES FOR INTEL- standards can be summarized as learning L E C T UAL PROFESSIONAL GROWT H . science, learning to teach science, and learn- This assumption highlights the need for a ing to learn.Each begins with a description shift from viewing teaching as a technical of what is to be learned followed by a

description of how the opportunities to hours that states, professional organizations, learn are best designed. The fourth standard and higher education institutions use to addresses the characteristics of quality pro- prescribe content requirements are inade- fessional development programs at all levels. quate indicators of what is learned in a course. Therefore, the following discussion P ROFESSIONAL DEV E LO P M E N T focuses on the nature of the opportunities S TANDARD A: to learn science needed by teachers, rather Pro f essional deve l o p m e nt fo r than on credit hours. It is assumed that teachers of science re q u i res learn- teachers of science will continue to learn ing essential science co nte n t science throughout their careers. t h rough the pe r s pe ct i ves and To meet the St a n d a rd s, a ll te ach ers of s c i- m e t h ods of inquiry. S c i e n ce learn- en ce must have a stron g, broad base of s c i ening ex pe ri e n ces for teachers must tific knowl ed ge ex ten s ive en o u g h for them to ■ Invo lve teachers in act i ve ly inve s t i g at i n g ■ Understand the nature of scientific See Content phenomena that can be studied scient i f- inquiry, its central role in science, and Standards i ca l ly,i nte rp reting re s u l t s,and maki n g how to use the skills and processes of sci- (all grade levels) sense of findings co n s i s te nt with cur- entific inquiry. in Chapter 6 re nt ly acce p ted scientific understanding. ■ Understand the fundamental facts and ■ Address issues, events, problems, or concepts in major science disciplines. topics significant in science and of ■ Be able to make conceptual connections interest to participants. within and across science disciplines, as ■ Introduce teachers to scientific litera- well as to mathematics, technology, and ture, media,and technological other school subjects. resources that expand their science ■ Use scientific understanding and ability knowledge and their ability to access when dealing with personal and further knowledge. societal issues. ■ Build on the teacher’s current science Beyond the firm foundation provided by the understanding, ability, and attitudes. content standards in Chapter 6, how much ■ Incorporate ongoing reflection on the more science a teacher needs to know for a process and outcomes of understand- given level of schooling is an issue of ing science through inquiry. breadth versus depth to be debated and ■ Encourage and support teachers in decided locally while respecting the intent of efforts to collaborate. the Standards. K N OWLEDGE AND UNDERSTA N D I N G Breadth implies a focus on the basic ideas OF SCIENCE of science and is central to teaching science One of the most serious questions in science at all grade levels. Depth refers to knowing education is what science a teacher needs to and understanding not only the basic ideas know. What does it mean to know a lot or a within a science discipline, but also some of little, have a sound foundation, and have in- the supporting experimental and theoretical depth understanding? The criteria of credit knowledge. The ways ideas interconnect and

build upon each other within and across soning skills, and use more sophisticated content areas are other important aspects of apparatus and technology. These require- the depth of understanding.The depth of ments of the science courses change the understanding of science content required character of the conceptual background varies according to the grade level of teach- required of middle level teachers of science. ing responsibility. While maintaining a breadth of science Teachers of grades K-4 usually are gener- knowledge, they need to develop greater alists who teach most, if not all, school sub- depth of understanding than their col- jects.A primary task for these teachers is to leagues teaching grades K-4. An intensive, lay the experiential, conceptual, and attitu- thorough study of at least one scientific dis- dinal foundation for future learning in sci- cipline will help them meet the demands of ence by guiding students through a range of their teaching and gain appreciation for inquiry activities. To achieve this, elemen- how scientific knowledge is produced and tary teachers of science need to have the how disciplines are structured. opportunity to develop a broad knowledge At the secondary level, effective teachers of science content in addition to some in- of science possess broad knowledge of all depth experiences in at least one science disciplines and a deep understanding of the subject. Such in-depth experiences will scientific disciplines they teach. This implies allow teachers to develop an understanding being familiar enough with a science disci- of inquiry and the structure and production pline to take part in research activities within that discipline. Prospective and practicing teachers Teachers must possess the skills necessary must take science courses in which they to guide inquiries based on students’ questions. An important test of the appropriate learn science through inquiry, having level of understanding for all teachers of sci- the same opportunities as their students ence at all levels is the teacher’s ability to will have to develop understanding. determine what students understand about science and to use this data to formulate of science knowledge. That knowledge pre- activities that aid the development of sound pares teachers to guide student inquiries, scientific ideas by their students. appraise current student understanding, and further students’ understanding of scientific LEARNING SCIENCE ideas. Although thorough science knowledge Prospective and practicing teachers of sci- in many areas would enhance the work of ence acquire much of their formal science an elementary teacher, it is more realistic to knowledge through coursework in colleges expect a generalist’s knowledge. and universities. For all teachers, undergrad- Science curricula are organized in many uate science courses are a major factor in different ways in the middle grades. Science defining what science content is learned. experiences go into greater depth, are more Those courses also provide models for how quantitative, require more sophisticated rea- science should be taught. For K-4 teachers

and 5-8 teachers with general certification, should all ow te ach ers to devel op unders t a n d- undergraduate introductory science courses ing of the logical re a s oning that is dem on- often are the only science courses taken. s tra ted in re s e a rch papers and how a spec i f i c See System Because of the crucial role of such courses, p i ece of re s e a rch adds to the acc u mu l a ted Standard B reform in the content and teaching of k n owl ed ge of s c i en ce . Those co u rses should undergraduate science is imperative. The also su pport te a ch ers in using a va ri ety of courses for practicing teachers—those tech n o l ogical too l s , su c h as com p uteri zed taught at universities as part of graduate databases and spec i a l i zed labora tory too l s . programs as well as those typically included In the vision described by the Standards, in school-based,inservice programs—also all prospective and practicing teachers who require redesign. Teachers of science will be the representa- Teachers of science will be tives of the science community in their the representatives of the science classrooms, and they form much of their community in their classrooms. image of science through the science courses that they take in college. If that image is to study science participate in guided activities reflect the nature of science as presented in that help them make sense of the new con- these standards, prospective and practicing tent being learned, whether it comes by lec- teachers must take science courses in which ture, reading, small-group discussion, or they learn science through inquiry, having laboratory investigation. Courses and other the same opportunities as their students will activities include ongoing opportunities for have to develop understanding.College sci- teachers to reflect on the process and the ence faculty therefore must design courses outcomes of their learning.Instructors help that are heavily based on investigations, teachers understand the nature of learning where current and future teachers have science as they develop new concepts and direct contact with phenomena, gather and skills. Those who teach science must be interpret data using appropriate technology, attentive to the scientific ideas that teachers and are involved in groups working on real, bring with them, provide time for learning open-ended problems. Those science cours- experiences to be shared, and be knowledge- es must allow teachers to develop a deep able about strategies that promote and understanding of accepted scientific ideas encourage reflection. and the manner in which they were formu- Science faculty also need to design cours- lated. They must also address problems, es for prospective and practicing teachers issues, events, and topics that are important that purposely engage them in the collabo- to science, the community, and teachers. rative aspects of scientific inquiry. Some Le a rning scien ce thro u gh inqu i ry should aspects of inquiry are individual efforts, but also provi de opportu n i ties for te ach ers to use many are not, and teachers need to experi- s c i en tific litera tu re ,m ed i a , and tech n o l ogy to ence the value and benefits of cooperative broaden their knowl ed ge beyond the scope of work as well as the struggles and tensions i m m ed i a te inqu i ri e s . Co u rses in scien ce that it can produce.

P R OFESSIONAL DEV E LO P M E N T f rom that of s c i en ti s t s . It is one el em ent that S TANDARD B: defines a profe s s i onal te ach er of s c i en ce . Pro f essional deve l o p m e nt fo r In ad d i ti on to solid knowl ed ge of s c i en ce , teachers of science re q u i res inte- te ach ers of s c i en ce must have a firm gro u n d - g rating kn owledge of science, ing in learning theory — u n derstanding how l e a rn i n g, pe d a g o gy, and student s ; l e a rning occ u rs and is fac i l i t a ted . Le a r ning is it also re q u i r es applying that an active process by wh i ch stu dents indivi d- See the principle kn owledge to science te a c h i n g. u a lly and co ll a bora t ively ach i eve under- Learning science is Le a rning ex pe ri e n ces for te a c h e r s s t a n d i n g . E f fective te aching requ i res that an active process of science must te ach ers know what stu dents of certain age s in Chapter 2 ■ Co n n e c t and inte g rate all pe rt i n e nt a re likely to know, u n ders t a n d , and be abl e a s pe cts of science and science to do ; what they wi l l learn qu i ck ly; and wh a t e d u cat i o n . wi ll be a stru ggl e . Te ach ers of s c i en ce need to ■ Occur in a variety of places where a n ti c i p a te typical misu n ders t a n d i n gs and to effective science teaching can be illustrated and modeled, permitting teach- Skilled teachers of science have ers to struggle with real situations and special understandings and abilities expand their knowledge and skills in that integrate their knowledge of appropriate contexts.

■ Address teachers’ needs as learners science content, curriculum, learning, and build on their current knowledge teaching, and students. of science content, teaching, and learning. ju d ge the appropri a teness of con cepts for the ■ Use inquiry, reflection,interpretation devel opm ental level of t h eir stu den t s . In of research,modeling, and guided ad d i ti on , te ach ers of s c i en ce must devel op See Teaching practice to build understanding and u n derstanding of h ow stu dents with differ- Standard B skill in science teaching. ent back gro u n d s , ex peri en ce s ,m o tiva ti on s , l e a rning styl e s ,a bi l i ti e s , and interests learn K N OWLEDGE OF SCIENCE T E AC H I N G s c i en ce . Te ach ers use all of that knowl ed ge to E f fective scien ce te aching is more than m a ke ef fective dec i s i ons abo ut learn i n g k n owing scien ce con tent and some te ach i n g obj ective s , te aching stra tegi e s , a s s e s s m en t s tra tegi e s . Sk i ll ed te ach ers of s c i en ce have t a s k s , and curri c u lum materi a l s . s pecial unders t a n d i n gs and abi l i ties that E f fective te a ch ers of s c i en ce also have a See Program i n tegra te their knowl ed ge of s c i en ce con ten t , broad repertoi re of i n s tru cti onal stra tegi e s Standard B c u r ri c u lu m , l e a rn i n g, te ach i n g, and stu den t s . that en ga ge stu dents in mu l t iple ways . Su ch knowl ed ge all ows te ach ers to tailor Th ey are familiar with a wi de ra n g e of c u r- l e a rning situ a ti ons to the needs of i n d ivi du- ri c u l a . Th ey have the abi l i t y to ex a m i n e als and gro u p s . This special knowl ed ge , c ri ti c a lly and sel ect activi ties to use wi t h c a ll ed “ped a gogical con tent knowl ed ge ,” d i s- t h e ir stu d ents to prom o te the unders t a n d - tinguishes the scien ce knowl ed ge of te ach ers ing of s c i en ce .

Inquiry into practice is essential for effec- LEARNING TO T E ACH SCIENCE tive teaching.Teachers need continuous Developing pedagogical content knowl- opportunities to do so.Through collabora- edge of science requires that teachers of sci- tions with colleagues, teachers should ence have the opportunity to bring together the knowledge described above and develop Teachers use their knowledge of an integrated view of what it means to teach learning to make effective decisions and learn science. The teaching standards in about learning objectives, teaching Chapter 3 are designed to guide teachers’ decisions about each of the complex activi- strategies, assessment tasks, and ties involved in teaching science. In the curriculum materials. vision described by the Standards, teachers also develop concepts and language to inquire into their own practice by posing engage in discourse with their peers about questions such as the following: content, curriculum, teaching, learning, How should laboratory journals be structured? assessment,and students. The development of pedagogical content Is this experiment appropriate for the understanding and ability of the students? knowledge by teachers mirrors what we know about learning by students; it can be What type of research do students need to do to fully developed only through continuous extend their understanding? experience. But experience is not sufficient. Is this curriculum unit appropriate for this Teachers also must have opportunities to group of third-grade students? engage in analysis of the individual compo- Does a particular study allow students sufficient nents of pedagogical content knowledge— opportunity to devise their own experiments? science, learning, and pedagogy—and make Are all students participating equally? connections between them. Assessment is an important tool for good In this vision, people responsible for pro- See Professional See Teaching inquiry into teaching.In the daily operation fessional development work together with Development Standard C of their classrooms, skilled teachers of sci- each other and with teachers as they inte- Standard D ence are diagnosticians who understand stu- grate their knowledge and experiences. For dents’ ideas, beliefs, and reasoning. Effective example,higher education science and edu- teachers are knowledgeable about the vari- cation faculty must learn to work together: ous educational purposes for assessment An instructor in a university science course and know how to implement and interpret a might invite a member of the science educa- variety of assessment strategies. tion faculty to participate in regular discus- Skilled teachers of science also know how sion time designed to help students reflect See Teaching to create and manage the physical, social, on how they came to learn science concepts. Standards D and E and intellectual environment in a classroom Not only must the departments in higher community of science learners. education institutions work together, but schools and higher education institutions must enter into true collaboration. And

computer programs are available that simu- Ge n e t i c s late genetics events. M s . J. is convi n ced that many import a n t Ms. J. recently attended a workshop with other teachers at the university where she l e a r ning goals of the sch o olís scien ce pro- learned equally from the instructors and the gram can be met in this co u rs e . She wants other attendees. She also reads research regu- to provi de the stu dents with opportu n i ti e s larly, reviews resources, and makes judgments to understand the basic principles of tra n s- about their value for her teaching. Ms. J. engages in an iterative planning process, mov- m i s s i on gen eti c s . She also wants them to ing from a broad semester plan to daily a pprec i a t e how using a mental model is details. The students in her high-school class u s eful to unders t a n d i n g . She wants her stu- have opportunities to develop mental models, dents to en ga ge in and learn the proce s s e s work with instructional technology, use multi- of i n qu i ry as they devel op their men t a l ple materials, teach one another, and consider the personal, social, and ethical aspects of sci- m odel s . M s . J. also wants stu dents to ence. She has the support of the school and u n derstand the ef f ect of tra n s m i s s i o n district and has the resources she needs. She gen etics on their lives and on soc i ety; h ere also relies on resources in the community. she wants them to ad d ress an issue that

[This example highlights some elements from i n clu des scien ce and et h i c s . Teaching Standards A, B, D, and E; Sel e cting an appropri a te com p uter pro- Professional Development Standards A, B, gram is import a n t , because simu l a ti on wi l l and C; 9-12 Content Standards A, C, F, and be key to mu c h of the first qu a r ter of t h e G; Program Standards C and D; and System co u rs e . M s . J. has revi ewed several and Standards D and G.] n o ted com m on fe a tu re s . E a ch simu l a ti on Ms. J. is eager to begin the school year, a ll ows stu dents to sel e ct parental ph en o- and is particularly looking forward to teach- types and make cro s s e s . O f fs pring were ing a semester course on transmission produ ced qu i ck ly by all the progra m s ; genetics—how traits are inherited from one gen o types and ph en o types are distri buted generation to the next. She taught the s t och a s ti c a lly according to the inheri t a n ce course before and read extensively about the p a t tern . With su ch progra m s , s tu dents wi l l difficulties students have with transmission be able to simu l a te many gen e ra ti ons of genetics conceptually and as a means of c rosses in a single class peri od . All the pro- developing problem-solving skills. She also grams are open - en ded—no answer boo k s has been learning about new approaches to a re provi ded to ch eck answers . All the pro- teaching genetics. From her reading and grams all ow stu dents to begin with data from a workshop she attended for high- and con s t ru ct a model of the el em ents and school teachers at the local university, she processes of an inheri t a n ce pattern . knows that many people have been experi- S tu dents wi ll be able to use the model to menting with ways to improve genetics pred i ct the ph en o types and gen o t ypes of instruction. She also knows that several f u tu re of fs pring and ch eck pred i cti ons by

making the cro s s e s . M s . J. ch ooses one of to meet the needs of the stu den t s . E ach the simu l a ti ons after revi ewing it caref u l ly or ganism has adva n t a ges and limitati on s and con s i d ering the bu d get she has for su p- wh en used to stu dy tra n s m i s s i o n gen e ti c s ; p l i e s . E n o u g h com p uters are ava i l a ble to s tu dents wi ll be working in teams and wi ll permit stu dents to work in teams of fo u r. s h a re with other teams what they learn Stu dents wi ll work in their teams to f rom the different or ga n i s m s . devel o p models of i n h eri t a n ce patterns du r - Du r ing the second qu a r ter, s tu dents wi ll ing the first qu a r ter. M s . J. plans to obt a i n focus on human gen e ti c s . M s . J. i n tends to reprints of Men del ’s ori g inal arti cle for stu- con t act the local univers i t y to arra n ge for a dents to re ad early in the qu a r ter. It has a p a rticular spe a ker from the clinical gen eti c s n i ce model for an inheri t a n ce pattern , a n d dep a r tm en t . The spe a ker and Ms. J. h ave s tu dents wi ll examine it as they iden t ify el e- worked toget h er before , and she knows how m ents of a mental model . In ad d i ti on to well the spe a ker pre s ents inform a ti on on using the simu l a ti on s , M s . J. wants stu den t s classes of i n h e ri ted human disorders , to work with living or ga n i s m s . She wi ll human ped i g ree analys i s , n ew re s e a rch in n eed to order the proper yeast stra i n s , f ru i t gen e tic su s c epti bi l i ty to com m on ill n e s s e s , f l i e s , and Fast Plants. She has com m e rc i a lly and the many careers assoc i a ted wi t h prep a red units in gen e tics using each of human gen e ti c s . Som eone from the state these or g anisms and has ad a pted the units l a bora tory also wi ll come and dem on s tra te

k a r yo t yping and leave some ph o togra p hs Having revi ewed the goals and stru c tu re so stu dents can try sorting ch rom o s omes to of the co u rs e , M s . J.’s next planning step is get a feel for the skill requ i red to do this. to map tasks by wee k . She has a good ide a Having stu dents perform a karyo type wi ll of h ow long different activi t ies wi l l take give new meaning to a ph r ase in the tex t : f rom her previous ex peri en ce te aching this “the ch rom o s ome images are sorted by co u rs e . Planning for each week hel p s type .” en su re that the live materials and the spe a k - E ach stu dent wi l l become an “ex pert” i n ers are coord i n a ted for the ri g ht ti m e . But one inheri ted human disorder, l e a rn i n g M s . J. k n ows that it is likely that she wi l l a bo ut the mode of i n h eri t a n ce , s ym ptom s , n e ed to ad just sch e du l i n g . M s . J. and the f requ en c y, ef fect on indivi duals and family, s tu dents wi ll set ro utines and procedu re s c a re , and su ch . S tu dents wi l l pre s ent thei r du ring the first wee k ; t h en stu dents wi ll do reports to the cl a s s . Th e y wi ll also work in mu ch of the class work in their te a m s . p a i r s to solve an ethical case stu dy assoc i a t- F i n a l ly, M s . J. begins to map out the days ed with an inheri ted disorder. D rawing on of the first wee k . On the first day of cl a s s , s e veral arti cles abo ut te aching ethical issu e s the stu dents wi l l share why they chose this to ch i l d ren , M s . J. has cre a ted one of h er co u rse and what their hopes and ex pect a- own , and with the help of co lleagues and ti ons are . Th e y might also de s c ri be wh a t the staff at the clinical gen etics cen ter, s h e t h ey alre a dy know abo u t gen etics and wh a t has devel oped several case studies from qu e s ti ons they bring to cl a s s . wh i ch the stu dents wi ll devel op their et h i c a l i s sue papers . Pa r t of the case stu dy wi l l requ i re stu dents to draw a ped i gree . M s . J. is ga t h e ring print matter: f l i ers from the Ma rch of Di m e s , tex tbooks on cl i n i c a l gen eti c s , s ome novels and short stori e s a bo ut people with inheri ted disorders , a n d a rti cles from popular maga z i n e s . This is an on going ef fort—she has been co ll ecti n g m a terial for some ye a r s now. She also has po s ters and pictu res from servi ce or ga n i z a- ti ons she wi ll put up around the room , but s ome wall space needs to be saved for student data ch a rt s .

science-rich centers, industry, and other teaching, to conduct research on their own organizations must participate in profes- teaching, and to compare, contrast,and sional development activities with teachers. revise their views, they come to understand See Program Some of the most powerful connections the nature of exemplary science teaching. Standard D and between science teaching and learning are Learning experiences for prospective and System Standard D made through thoughtful practice in field practicing teachers must include inquiries experiences, team teaching, collaborative into the questions and difficulties teachers research, or peer coaching. Field experience have. Assessment is an example. Teachers starts early in the preservice program and must have opportunities to observe practi- continues throughout a teaching career. tioners of good classroom assessment and to Whenever possible, the context for learning to teach science should involve actual stu- Wh en te a ch ers have the time and dents, real student work, and outstanding oppo rtu n i ty to descri be their own vi ews curriculum materials. Trial and error in teaching situations, continual thoughtful a b out learning and te a ch i n g , to co n du ct reflection, interaction with peers, and much re se a rch on their own te a ch i n g , and to repetition of teaching science content com- co m pa re , co n tra s t , and revi se their vi ews , bine to develop the kind of integrated understanding that characterizes expert t h ey come to understand the natu re of teachers of science. ex em pl a ry sci en ce te a ch i n g . New forms of collaboration that foster integrated professional development for review critically assessment instruments and teachers must be developed. One promising their use. They need to have structured possibility is the reorganization of teacher opportunities in aligning curriculum and education institutions into a professional assessment, in selecting and developing development school model, where practi- appropriate assessment tasks, and in analyz- tioners and theoreticians are involved in ing and interpreting the gathered informa- teacher education activities in a collegial tion. Teachers also need to have opportuni- relationship.Another is extensive collabora- ties to collaborate with other teachers to See Assessments tion among schools, colleges, local industry, evaluate student work—developing, refin- Conducted by and other science-rich centers. ing, and applying criteria for evaluation. Classroom Teachers Many teachers come to learning activities Practicing teachers will benefit from oppor- in Chapter 5 with preconceptions about teaching science. tunities to participate in organized sessions At a minimum, their own science learning for scoring open-ended assessments. experiences have defined teaching for them. Profe s s i onal devel opm ent activi ties cre a te More accomplished teachers have their own opportu n i ties for te ach ers to con f ront new teaching styles and strategies and their own and different ways of t h i n k i n g ; to parti c i p a te views of learning and teaching.When teach- in dem on s tra ti ons of n ew and different ways ers have the time and opportunity to of acti n g ; to discuss, ex a m i n e , c ri ti qu e , describe their own views about learning and ex p l ore ,a r g u e , and stru ggle with new ide a s ;

to try out new approaches in different situ a- collegial reflection,such as peer ti ons and get feed b ack on the use of n ew coaching, portfolios, and journals.

i de a s ,s k i ll s , too l s , and beh avi ors ; to ref l ect on ■ Su p po rt the sharing of teacher ex pe r- the ex peri m ents and ex peri en ces of te ach i n g tise by pre p a ring and using mento r s, s c i en ce , and then to revise and try aga i n . teacher adv i s e r s, co a c h e s, lead te a c h e r s, Teacher learning is analogous to student and re s o u rce teachers to provide pro- learning: Learning to teach science requires fessional deve l o p m e nt oppo rt u n i t i e s.

that the teacher articulate questions,pursue ■ Provide opportunities to know and answers to those questions, interpret infor- have access to existing research and mation gathered, propose applications, and experiential knowledge.

fit the new learning into the larger picture ■ Provide opportunities to learn and use of science teaching. the skills of research to generate new These su gge s ti ons for pre s ervi ce and inser- knowledge about science and the vi ce profe s s i onal devel opm ent do not dict a te teaching and learning of science. a certain stru ctu re . Th ey could be met in a The primary job of a teacher is to promote co ll ege co u rs e , a su s t a i n ed inservi ce work- learning, and it follows that teachers them- s h op or insti tute , a re s i dency in a scien ce - ri ch selves are dedicated learners. Lifelong learn- cen ter, a seminar for new te ach ers , a te ach er ing by teachers is essential for several rea- s tu dy or acti on re s e a rch gro u p, or a te ach e r sons. One obvious reason is to keep current n et work . It is the natu re of the learning situ a- in science. Teachers do not leave preservice See Professional ti on that is import a n t , not the stru ctu re . programs with complete understanding of Development P ROFESSIONAL DEV E LO P M E N T all the science they will need in their teach- Standard A S TANDARD C: ing careers, and they need to continue to Pro f essional deve l o p m e nt fo r clarify and deepen their understanding of teachers of science re q u i res build- the science content that is part of their ing understanding and ability fo r teaching responsibility. l i felong learn i n g. Pro fe s s i o n a l Another reason teachers must have the d eve l o p m e nt activities must opportunity to continue to learn is made

■ Provide regular, frequent opportuni- clear by the observation that tomorrow’s ties for individual and collegial exami- students will have markedly different needs nation and reflection on classroom from today’s students; even today’s employ- and institutional practice. ers require employees who can frame prob-

■ Provide oppo rtunities for teachers to lems and design their own tasks, think criti- re ce i ve feedback about their te a c h i n g cally, and work together. and to understand,a n a ly ze,and apply Teaching itself is complex, requiring con- See Professional t h at feedback to improve their pra ct i ce. stant learning and continual reflection. New Development

■ Provide opportunities for teachers knowledge,skills, and strategies for teaching Standard B to learn and use various tools and come from a variety of sources—research, techniques for self-reflection and new materials and tools, descriptions of best

practice, colleagues, supervisors, self-reflec- LEARNING SKILLS FOR LIFELO N G tion on teaching, and reflection on the L E A R N I N G learning of students in the classroom. The integrated knowledge needed to teach Teachers continually consider and con- science well is developed over time. Thus, tribute to the advances in the knowledge the acquisition of the skills for continuous base of teaching and learning. learning should be an explicit component of all learning experiences. K N OWLEDGE FOR LIFELO N G As lifel ong learn ers , te ach ers need to L E A R N I N G ref l ect on their ex peri en ces and have tech- From their first days con s i dering te aching as a n i ques and the time to do so. Pre s ervi ce profe s s i on thro u g h their en ti re careers , te ach- co u rses must all oc a te time to te ach pro s pec- ers of s c i en ce devel op the skills to analy ze tive te ach ers tech n i ques for ref l ecti on , a n d t h eir learning needs and styles thro u gh sel f - practicing te ach ers must be given opportu n i- ref l ecti on and active solicitati on of feed b ack ties to devel op these skills as well . Ma ny f rom others . Th ey must have the skills to use tech n i ques for ref l ecti on on practi ce are tools and tech n i ques for sel f - a s s e s s m ent (su ch ava i l a bl e , and their use is becoming more as journal wri ti n g, s tu dy gro u p s , and portfo- wi de s pre ad . Sel f - ref l ecti on tools su ch as lios) and co ll a bora tive ref l ecti on stra tegi e s j o u rn a l s , a u d i o t a pes or vi deo t a pe s , and port- ( su ch as peer coach i n g, m en tori n g, and peer folios all ow te ach ers to captu re their te ach- con su l ti n g ) . Te ach ers of s c i en ce should be i n g, track their devel opm ent over ti m e , a n a- a ble to use the St a n d a rds and distri ct ex pect a- ly ze their progre s s , and iden tify needs for ti ons to set pers onal goals and take re s pon s i- f u rt h er learn i n g.Ot h er tech n i ques inclu de bi l i ty for their own profe s s i onal devel opm en t . peer ob s erva ti on , coach i n g, and men tori n g Learning is a developmental process that beginning te ach ers in ei t h er stru ctu red or takes time and often is hard work. As does u n s tru ctu red set ti n gs . Te ach ers also need any professional, teachers of science will opportu n i ties to form stu dy groups or hold stumble, wrestle, and ponder, while realizing l e s s - formal sharing session s . that failure is a natural part of developing Continuous learning is an active process new skills and understanding. However, that will require different norms from those effective teachers know how to access that are presently operative in colleges and research-based resources and, when faced in schools: norms of experimentation and with a learning need, pursue new knowledge risk-taking, of trust and collegial support, and skills that are based on research or and, most relevant to science, of careful and effective practice. Teachers of science need dedicated inquiry. Schools in which risk- to develop the skills to conduct research in taking is encouraged will provide learning their classrooms on science teaching and communities for adults as well as for stu- learning and be able to share their results dents. Other learning environments that can with others. provide such conditions are professional networks—collegial groups where teachers

find help, support, ideas, strategies, and ■ Integration and coordination of the solutions to their problems. Examples program components so that under- include professional science-teaching associ- standing and ability can be built over ations, state and local organizations, and time, reinforced continuously, and telecommunications networks. Those types practiced in a variety of situations.

of groups provide safe and rich learning ■ Options that recognize the develop- environments in which teachers can share mental nature of teacher professional resources, ask and address hard questions, growth and individual and group and continue to learn. interests, as well as the needs of See Program Being a lifelong learner also requires that teachers who have varying degrees Standard D and teachers have the resources for professional of experience, professional expertise, System Standard D development and the time to use them. and proficiency.

Such resources include access to formal and ■ Co l l a bo ration among the pe o p l e informal courses that allow them to keep i nvo lved in prog ra m s,including te a c h- abreast of current science, access to research e r s, teacher educato r s, teacher unions, on curriculum, teaching, and assessment s c i e nt i s t s, a d m i n i s t rato r s,po l i cy mak- found in journals and at professional meet- e r s, m e m bers of pro fessional and sci- ings; media and technology to access data- e ntific org a n i z at i o n s,p a re nt s, a n d bases and to analyze teaching; and opportu- business pe o p l e,with clear re s pe ct fo r nities to observe other teachers. Conducting the pe r s pe ct i ves and ex pe rtise of each.

formal and informal classroom-based ■ Re cognition of the histo ry,c u l t u re,a n d research is a powerful means to improve o rg a n i z ation of the school env i ro n m e nt.

practice. This research includes asking ques- ■ Co ntinuous prog ram assessment that tions about how students learn science, try- ca p t u res the pe r s pe ct i ves of all those ing new approaches to teaching, and evalu- i nvo l ve d,uses a va ri e ty of strate g i e s, ating the results in student achievement focuses on the process and effe cts of from these approaches. Conducting such the prog ra m , and feeds dire ct ly into research requires time and resources. p rog ram improve m e nt and eva l u at i o n .

P ROFESSIONAL DEV E LO P M E N T The professional development of teachers See Program S TANDARD D: is complicated: there is much for teachers of Standard A Pro fessional deve l o p m e nt pro- science to know and be able to do; materials g rams for teachers of science need to be critiqued and questions need to must be co h e re nt and inte g r ate d. be researched; a variety of information and Qu a l i t y pre s e rv i ce and inserv i ce expertise needs to be tapped; and many p rog rams are chara c te ri zed by individuals and institutions claim responsi-

■ Clear, shared goals based on a vision bility for professional development. of science learning, teaching, and However, for an individual teacher, prospec- teacher development congruent with tive or practicing, professional development the National Science Education too often is a random combination of Standards. courses, conferences, research experiences,

workshops, networking opportunities, n eeds and intere s t s . The many provi ders of internships, and mentoring relationships. te ach er profe s s i onal devel opm ent activi ti e s More coherence is sorely needed. wi ll con ti nue to de s i gn progra m s . However, Profe s s i onal devel opm ent programs and the stron gest programs re sult from co ll a bora- practi ces requ i re a focus on the vi s i on of s c i- ti ons among te a ch ers , devel opers (su ch as en ce edu c a ti on pre s en ted by the St a n d a rd s. u n ivers i ty fac u l ty, s c i en ce coord i n a tors ,a n d At ten ti on must be paid at the state , d i s tri ct , te ach ers ) , and other stakeh o l ders (inclu d i n g and co ll ege and sch ool levels to fitting the com mu n i ty agen c i e s ,s c i en ce - ri ch cen ters , va r ious pieces of profe s s i onal devel opm en t s c i en ti s t s , s ch ool ad m i n i s tra tors , and bu s i- programs toget h er to ach i e ve a com m on set ness and indu s try ) . Su ch co ll a bora ti on s See System of goa l s . Pre s ervi ce program coord i n a ti on i n c rease co h eren ce , and they bring a wi de Standards A and B requ i res mechanisms and stra tegies for con- va ri ety of ex pertise and re s o u rces to bear on n ecting and integra t ing scien ce co u rs e s , ped- a set of com m on goals that are direct ly con- a gogy co u rs e s , and clinical ex peri en ces (i.e., n ected to the needs of te ach ers . ex peri en ces in sch o ols and cl a s s room s ) . Su ch The su ccess of profe s s i onal devel opm en t coord i n a ti on also is needed for programs for for practicing te ach ers is heavi ly depen den t practicing te ach ers , who of ten face myri ad on the or ga n i z a ti onal dynamics of s ch oo l i n g, of feri n gs by sch o ol distri ct s ,i n d ivi du a l su ch as a cl i m a te that permits ch a n ge and s ch oo l s , profe s s i onal assoc i a ti on s , u n i on s , ri s k - t a k i n g, good rel a ti onships among sch oo l business and indu s t ry, regi onal servi ce cen- pers on n el , com mu n i c a ti on stru ctu re s , and an ters , p u blishing com p a n i e s , l ocal univers i ti e s , a ppropri a te distri buti on of a ut h ori ty. n e a rby re s e a rch labora tori e s , mu s eu m s , a n d Profe s s i onal devel opm ent programs therefore federal and state agen c i e s . must invo lve ad m i n i s tra tors and other sch oo l Profe s s i onal devel opm ent opportu n i ties for s t a f f . All must be com m i t ted to en su ring that te ach ers must account for differing degrees and pro s pective te ach ers , n ew te ach ers , and prac- forms of ex pertise repre s en ted in any gro u p, ticing te ach ers who wish to implem ent new and they must recogn i ze the natu re of qu a l i ty i deas as part of t h eir profe s s i onal devel op- ex peri en ces as de s c ri bed in standards A and B. m ent are su pported and integra ted into the Programs must be de s i gn ed not just to impart on going life of the sch oo l . technical skill s , but to deepen and en ri ch Finally, those who plan and conduct pro- u n derstanding and abi l i ty. Profe s s i onal devel- fessional development programs must con- opm ent activi ties must ex tend over long peri- tinually evaluate the attainments of teachers ods and inclu de a ra n ge of s tra tegies to provi de and the opportunities provided them to opportu n i ties for te ach ers to refine their knowl- ensure that their programs are maximally ed ge ,u n ders t a n d i n g, and abi l i ties con ti nu a lly. useful for teachers. In d ivi dual te ach ers of s c i en ce should have the opportu n i ty to put toget h er programs for profe s s i onal devel opm en t , as should gro u p s of te ach ers , wh et h er form a lly con s ti tuted or i n form a lly con n ected thro u gh com m on

CHANGING EMP H A S E S

The National Science Education Standards envision change throughout the system. The professional development standards encompass the following changes in emphases:

LESS EMPHASIS ON MORE EMPHASIS ON Transmission of teaching knowledge and skills Inquiry into teaching and learning by lectures Learning science by lecture and reading Learning science through investigation and inquiry Separation of science and teaching knowledge Integration of science and teaching knowledge Separation of theory and practice Integration of theory and practice in school settings Individual learning Collegial and collaborative learning Fragmented, one-shot sessions Long-term coherent plans Courses and workshops A variety of professional development activities Reliance on external expertise Mix of internal and external expertise Staff developers as educators Staff developers as facilitators, consultants,and planners Teacher as technician Teacher as intellectual, reflective practitioner Teacher as consumer of knowledge about Teacher as producer of knowledge about teaching teaching Teacher as follower Teacher as leader Teacher as an individual based in a classroom Teacher as a member of a collegial professional community Teacher as target of change Teacher as source and facilitator of change

Little, J.W. 1993. Teachers’ professional Re fe re n ces fo r development in a climate of educational reform. Educational Evaluation and Policy Fu rther Re a d i n g Analysis,15 (2): 129-151. McDermott,L.C.1990.A perspective in teacher AAAS (American Association for the preparation in physics and other sciences: the Advancement of Science). 1990. The Liberal need for special science courses for teachers. Art of Science: Agenda for Action: The Report American Journal of Physics,58(1990). of the Project on Liberal Education and the NRC (National Research Council).1996. The Sciences. Washington, DC:AAAS Role of Scientists in the Professional Darling-Hammond,L. 1993. Reframing the Development of Science Teachers. school reform agenda: Developing capacity for Washington, DC: National Academy Press. school transformation. Phi Delta Kappan,74 NRC (National Research Council).1990. (10): 752-761. Fulfilling the Promise: Biology Education in Feiman-Nemser, S. 1989. Teacher Preparation: the Nation’s Schools. Washington, DC: Structural and Conceptual Alternatives. East National Academy Press. Lansing, MI: National Center for Research on Raizen, S.A.,and A.M. Michelsohn, eds..1994. Teaching. The Future of Science in Elementary Schools: Goodlad, J.I. 1994.Educational Renewal: Better Educating Prospective Teachers. San Teachers, Better Schools. San Francisco: Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Jossey-Bass. Shulman,L.S.1990. Reconnecting foundations to Hargreaves,A., and M.G. Fullan, eds. 1992. the substance of teacher education. Teachers Understanding Teacher Development. New College Record,91 (3): 301-310. York: Teachers College Press. Stevenson,H.W., and J.W. Stigler. 1992. The Holmes Group. 1986. Tomorrow’s Teachers: A Learning Gap: Why Our Schools Are Failing Report of the Holmes Group. East Lansing, and What We Can Learn from Japanese and MI: Holmes Group. Chinese Education. New York: Summit Books. Joyce, B., ed. 1990. Changing School Culture Tyson,H. 1994. Who Will Teach the Children? Through Staff Development:1990 Yearbook of Progress and Resistance in Teacher Education. The Association for Supervision and San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Curriculum Development. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Ka h l e , J. B. 1 9 9 3 . Te aching scien ce for excell en ce and equ i ty. In This Year in Sch ool Scien ce 1993, A . E . Ha l ey - Ol i phant and S. Rogg, ed s . Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science. Lieberman,A.,and L. Miller, eds.1991. Staff Development for Education in the ‘90s: New Demands, New Realities, New Perspectives, 2nd ed. New York: Teachers College Press.

St u d e nt achieve m e nt can be inte rp re te d o n ly in light of the q u a l i ty of the p rog rams they h ave ex pe ri e n ce d.

Assessment in Science Education

The assessment standards provide

criteria to judge progress toward

the science education vision of sci-

entific literacy for all. The standards

describe the quality of assessment

practices used by teachers and state

and federal agencies to measure student achievement and the opportunity

provided students to learn science. By identifying essential characteristics of

exemplary assessment practices, the standards serve as guides for develop-

ing assessment tasks, practices, and policies. These standards can be applied

equally to the assessment of students, teachers, and programs; to summative

and formative assessment practices; and to classroom assessments as well as

large-scale, external assessments. This chapter begins with an introduc-

tion that describes the components of the assessment process and a con-

temporary view of measurement theory and practice. This introduction

is fo ll owed by the assessment standards and teachers are to teach,and where resources t h en by discussions of s ome ways te ach ers are to be allocated. use assessments and some ch a r acteri s tics of Assessment is a systematic, multistep a s s e s s m ents con du cted at the distri ct ,s t a te , process involving the collection and inter- and nati onal level s . The ch a pter closes wi t h pretation of educational data. The four components of the assessment process are The asse s s m ent pro cess is an ef fe ctive tool detailed in Figure 5.1. for co m mu n i c a ting the expe ct a tions of t h e As scien ce edu c a tors are ch a n ging the way t h ey think abo ut good scien ce edu c a ti on , sci en ce edu c a tion sys tem to all co n cern ed edu c a ti onal measu rem ent specialists are with sci en ce edu c a ti o n . ack n owl ed ging ch a n ge as well . Recogn i ti on of the import a n ce of a s s e s s m e nt to con tem- t wo sample assessment tasks, one to probe pora r y edu c a ti onal reform has cataly zed s tu den t s’ u n derstanding of the natu r al worl d re s e a rch , devel opm en t , and implem en t a ti on and another to probe their abi l i ty to inqu i re . of n ew met h ods of data co ll ecti on alon g In the vision described by the National with new ways of ju d ging data qu a l i ty. Th e s e Science Education Standards, assessment is a ch a n ges in measu rem ent theory and practi ce primary feedback mechanism in the science a re ref l ected in the assessment standard s . education system. For example, assessment In this new view, assessment and learning data provide students with feedback on how are two sides of the same coin. The methods well they are meeting the expectations of used to collect educational data define in their teachers and parents, teachers with measurable terms what teachers should feedback on how well their students are teach and what students should learn. And learning, districts with feedback on the when students engage in an assessment effectiveness of their teachers and programs, exercise, they should learn from it. and policy makers with feedback on how This view of assessment places greater well policies are working. Feedback leads to confidence in the results of assessment pro- changes in the science education system by cedures that sample an assortment of vari- stimulating changes in policy, guiding ables using diverse data-collection methods, teacher professional development, and rather than the more traditional sampling of encouraging students to improve their one variable by a single method. Thus, all understanding of science. aspects of science achievement—ability to The assessment process is an effective tool inquire, scientific understanding of the nat- for communicating the expectations of the ural world, understanding of the nature and science education system to all concerned utility of science—are measured using mul- with science education. Assessment practices tiple methods such as performances and and policies provide operational definitions portfolios, as well as conventional paper- of what is important. For example, the use and-pencil tests. of an extended inquiry for an assessment The assessment standards include See Assessment task signals what students are to learn, how increased emphasis on the measurement of Standard B

FIGURE 5.1. CO M P O N E N T S OF THE ASSESSMENT PRO C E S S

The four components can be combined in numerous ways. For example, teachers use student achievement data to plan and modify teaching practices,and business leaders use per capita educational expenditures to locate businesses. The variety of uses,users,methods,and data contributes to the complexity and importance of the assessment process.

DATA USE D ATA CO L L E C T I O N METHODS TO USERS OF DATA COLLECT DATA ■ Plan teaching To describe and ■ Teachers ■ ■ quantify: Paper and pencil ■ Guide learning testing Students ■ Student ■ Calculate grades ■ Educational achievement and ■ Performance administrators ■ Make comparisons attitude testing ■ ■ Parents ■ Credential and ■ Teacher Interviews preparation and ■ license ■ Portfolios Public ■ quality ■ Determine access ■ Performances Policymakers to special or ■ Program ■ Institutions of advanced characteristics ■ Observing higher education education programs,students, ■ Resource and teachers in ■ Business and ■ Develop education allocation classroom industry theory ■ Policy instruments ■ Transcript analysis ■ Government ■ Inform policy formulation ■ Expert reviews of ■ educational Monitor effects of materials policies ■ Allocate resources ■ Evaluate quality of curricula, programs,and teaching practices

DECISIONS AND ACTION BASED ON DATA

opportunity to learn. Student achievement can be interpreted only in light of the quali- The St a n d a rds ty of the programs they have experienced. Another important shift is toward ASSESSMENT STANDARD A: “authentic assessment.”This movement calls As s e s s m e nts must be co n s i s te nt for exercises that closely approximate the with the decisions they are intended outcomes of science education. designed to info rm . Authentic assessment exercises require stu- ■ Assessments are deliberately dents to apply scientific knowledge and rea- designed. soning to situations similar to those they ■ Assessments have explicitly will encounter in the world outside the stated purposes. classroom, as well as to situations that ■ The relationship between the deci- approximate how scientists do their work. sions and the data is clear. An o t h er con ceptual shift within the edu- ■ Assessment procedures are c a ti onal measu rem ent area that has sign i f i- internally consistent. cant implicati ons for scien ce assessmen t The essential characteristic of well-designed i nvo lves va l i d i ty. Va l i d i ty must be con cern e d assessments is that the processes used to col- not on ly with the technical qu a l i ty of edu c a- lect and interpret data are consistent with ti onal data, but also with the social and edu- the purpose of the assessment. That match c a ti onal con s equ en ces of data interpret a ti on . of purpose and process is achieved through An important assumption underlying the thoughtful planning that is available for assessment standards is that states and local public review. districts can develop mechanisms to measure students’ achievement as specified in A S S E S S M E N TS ARE DELIBERAT E LY the content standards and to measure the D E S I G N E D. Educational data profoundly opportunities for learning science as speci- influence the lives of students,as well as the fied in the program and system standards. If people and institutions responsible for sci- the principles in the assessment standards ence education. People who must use the are followed, the information resulting from results of assessments to make decisions and new modes of assessment applied locally take actions,as well as those who are affect- can have common meaning and value in ed by the decisions and actions, deserve terms of the national standards, despite the assurance that assessments are carefully con- use of different assessment procedures and ceptualized. Evidence of careful conceptual- instruments in different locales. This con- ization is found in written plans for assess- trasts with the traditional view of educa- ments that contain

tional measurement that allows for compar- ■ Statements about the purposes that the isons only when they are based on parallel assessment will serve.

forms of the same test. ■ Descriptions of the substance and technical quality of the data to be collected.

■ S pec i f i c a ti ons of the nu m ber of s tu dents or s ch ools from wh i ch data wi ll be obt a i n ed .

■ Descriptions of the data-collection ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES NEED TO method. BE INTERNALLY CO N S I S T E N T. For an

■ Descriptions of the method of data inter- assessment to be internally consistent, each pretation. component must be consistent with all oth-

■ Descriptions of the decisions to be made, ers. A link of inferences must be established including who will make the decisions and reasonable alternative explanations and by what procedures. eliminated. For example, in the district management example above, the relation- A S S E S S M E N TS HAVE EXPLICITLY STAT E D ship between the management system and P U R P O S E S . Con du cting assessments is a student achievement is not adequately tested re s o u rce - i n ten s i ve activi ty. Ro utine assess- if student achievement is the only variable m ents in the cl a s s room place con s i dera bl e measured. The extent to which the manage- demands on the time and intell ectu a l ment system increased teacher responsibility re s o u rces of te a ch ers and stu den t s .L a r ge - and led to changes in the science programs scale assessmen t s , su ch as those con du cted by that could influence science achievement d i s tri ct s , s t a te s , and the federal govern m en t , must also be measured. requ i re trem en dous human and fiscal ex pen- d i tu re s . Su ch re s o u rces should be ex p en ded ASSESSMENT STANDARD B: on ly with the assu ra n ce that the dec i s i on s Ac h i eve m e nt and oppo rt u n i ty to and acti ons that fo ll ow wi ll increase the sci- l e a rn science must be assessed. en t ific literacy of the stu dents—an assu ra n ce ■ Achievement data collected focus on that can be made on ly if the purpose of t h e the science content that is most a s s e s s m ent is cl e a r. important for students to learn.

■ Opportunity-to-learn data collected THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN T H E focus on the most powerful indicators. DECISIONS AND THE DATA IS CLEAR. ■ Equal attention must be given to the As s e s s m ents test assu m pti ons abo ut rel a ti on- assessment of opportunity to learn ships among edu c a ti onal va ri a bl e s . For and to the assessment of student ex a m p l e ,i f the purpose is to dec i de if a s ch ool distri ct’s managem ent sys tem should achievement. be con ti nu ed ,a s s e s s m ent data might be co l- ACHIEVEMENT DATA COLLECTED FOCUS See Teaching l ected abo ut stu dent ach i evem en t . Th i s ON THE SCIENCE CONTENT THAT IS Standard F ch oi ce of a s s e s s m ent would be based on the MOST IMPORTANT FOR STUDENTS TO fo ll owing assu m ed rel a ti on s h i p : the manage- LEARN. The content standards define the m ent sys tem gives te ach ers re s pon s i bi l i ty for science all students will come to understand. s el ecting the scien ce progra m s , te ach ers have They portray the outcomes of science edu- an incen t ive to implem ent ef fectively the pro- cation as rich and varied, encompassing

grams they sel ect , and ef fective implem en t a - ■ The ability to inquire.

ti on improves scien ce ach i evem en t . The rel a- ■ Knowing and understanding scientific ti onship bet ween the dec i s i on to be made facts, concepts, principles, laws, and and the data to be co ll ected is spec i f i ed . theories.

ASSESSMENT PURPOSE: The teacher The In s e ct and the uses the information from this activity to Sp i d e r improve the lesson. D ATA : Students’ written responses. Titles in this example emphasize some of the Teacher’s observations. components of the assessment process. In the vision of science education described in the CO N T E X T: A seventh-grade class is study- Standards, teaching often cannot be distinguished from assessment. In this example, Ms. ing the motion of objects. One student, M. uses information from observations of stu- describing his idea about motion and forces, dent work and discussion to change classroom points to a book on the desk and says “right practice to improve student understanding of now the book is not moving.” A second stu- complex ideas. She has a repertoire of analo- dent interrupts, “Oh, yes it is. The book is gies, questions, and examples that she has developed and uses when needed. The stu- on the desk, the desk is on the floor, the dents develop answers to questions about an floor is a part of the building, the building is analogy using written and diagrammatic rep- sitting on the Earth, the Earth is rotating on resentations. The administrator recognizes its axis and revolving around the Sun, and that teachers make plans but adapt them and provided Ms. M. with an opportunity to the whole solar system is moving through explain the reasoning supporting her decision. the Milky Way.” The second student sits [This example highlights some elements of back with a self-satisfied smile on her face. Teaching Standard A and B; Assessment All discussion ceases. Standard A, 5-8 Content Standard B, and Ms. M. signals time and poses the follow- Program Standard F.] ing questions to the class. Imagine an insect SCIENCE CO N T E N T: The 5-8 Physical and a spider on a lily pad floating down a Science Content Standard includes an stream. The spider is walking around the understanding of motions and forces.One edge of lily pad. The insect is sitting in the of the supporting ideas is that the motion of middle of the pad watching the spider. How an object can be described by the change in would the insect describe its own motion? its position with time. How would the insect describe the spider’s motion? How would a bird sitting on the ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY: S tu dents re s pon d edge of the stream describe the motion of to qu e s ti ons abo ut frames of referen ce wi t h the insect and the spider? After setting the ex ten ded wri tten re s ponses and diagra m s . class to work discussing the questions,the ASSESSMENT TY PE : This is an indivi d - teacher walks around the room listening to ual ex ten ded re s p onse exercise em b ed ded the discussions. Ms.M. asks the students to in te ach i n g . write answers to the questions she posed; she suggests that the students use diagrams as a part of the responses.

The school principal had been observing and the motion of the spider in terms of its Ms. M. during this class and asked her to reference frame, the lily pad. In contrast, the explain why she had not followed her origi- bird watching from the edge of the stream nal lesson plan. Ms. M. explained that the would describe the motion of the lily pad girl had made a similar statement to the and its passengers in terms of its reference class twice before. Ms. M. realized that the frame, namely the ground on which it was girl was not being disruptive but was mak- standing. Someone on the ground observing ing a legitimate point that the other mem- the bird would say that the bird was not in bers of the class were not grasping.So Ms. motion, but an observer on the moon M. decided that continuing with the discus- would have a different answer. sion of motions and forces would not be fruitful until the class had developed a better concept of frame of reference. Her questions were designed to help the students realize that motion is described in terms of some point of reference. The insect in the middle of lily pad would describe its motion

■ The ability to reason scientifically. standards portray the conditions that must

■ The ability to use science to make per- exist throughout the science education sys- sonal decisions and to take positions on tem if all students are to have the opportu- societal issues. nity to learn science.

■ The ability to communicate effectively At the classroom level,some of the most about science. powerful indicators of opportunity to learn This assessment standard high l i ghts the com- are teachers’ professional knowledge,includ- p l ex i ty of the con tent standards wh i l e ing content knowledge, pedagogical knowl- ad d ressing the import a n ce of co ll ecting data edge,and understanding of students; the on all aspects of s tu dent scien ce ach i evem en t . extent to which content, teaching, profes- See Content E du c a ti onal measu rem ent theory and prac- sional development, and assessment are Standards B, C,and ti ce have been well devel oped pri m a ri ly to coordinated; the time available for teachers D (all grade levels) m e a su re stu dent knowl ed ge abo ut su bj ect to teach and students to learn science; the m a t ter; t h erefore , m a ny edu c a tors and po l i c y availability of resources for student inquiry; a n a lysts have more con f i den ce in instru m en t s and the quality of educational materials de s i gn ed to measu re a stu den t’s command of available. The teaching and program stan- i n form a ti on abo ut scien ce than in instru- dards define in greater detail these and m ents de s i gn ed to measu re stu den t s’ u n der- other indicators of opportunity to learn. standing of the natu ral world or their abi l i ty Some indicators of opportunity to learn See the principal to inqu i re . Ma ny current scien ce ach i evem en t have their origins at the federal, state,and Learning science is tests measu re “ i n ert” k n owl ed ge — d i s c rete , district levels and are discussed in greater an active process in i s o l a ted bits of k n owl ed ge — ra t h er than detail in the systems standards. Other pow- Chapter 2 “active” k n owl ed ge — k n owl ed ge that is ri ch erful indicators of opportunity to learn and well - s t ru ctu red . As s e s s m ent proce s s e s beyond the classroom include per-capita that inclu de all outcomes for stu dent ach i eve- educational expenditures,state science m ent must probe the ex tent and or ga n i z a ti on requirements for graduation,and federal of a stu den t’s knowl ed ge . Ra t h er than ch eck- allocation of funds to states. ing wh et h er stu dents have mem ori zed cert a i n Compelling indicators of opportunity to i tems of i n form a ti on ,a s s e s s m ents need to learn are continually being identified, and probe for stu den t s’ u n ders t a n d i n g , re a s on i n g, ways to collect data about them are being and the uti l i z a ti on of k n owl ed ge . As s e s s m en t designed. Measuring such indicators pre- and learning are so cl o s ely rel a ted that if a ll sents many technical,theoretical, economic, the outcomes are not assessed , te ach ers and and social challenges, but those challenges s tu dents likely wi ll redefine their ex pect a ti on s do not obviate the responsibility of moving for learning scien ce on ly to the outcomes that forward on implementing and assessing a re assessed . opportunity to learn. The assessment stan- O P P O RT U N I T Y- TO-LEARN DATA CO L - dards call for a policy-level commitment of LECTED FOCUS ON THE MOST POW E R- the resources necessary for research and FUL INDICATO R S . The system, program, development related to assessing opportuni- teaching, and professional development ty to learn. That commitment includes the

development of the technical skills to assess greater confidence those making the deci- opportunity to learn among science educa- sions must have in the technical quality of tion professionals, including teachers, super- the data. Confidence is gauged by the quali- visors, administrators,and curriculum ty of the assessment process and the consis- developers. tency of the measurement over alternative assessment processes. Judgments about con- E QUAL ATTENTION MUST BE GIVEN TO fidence are based on several different indica- THE ASSESSMENT OF OPPORT U N I T Y tors, some of which are discussed below. TO LEARN AND TO THE ASSESSMENT OF STUDENT AC H I EV E M E N T. Students THE FEATURE T H AT IS CLAIMED TO BE See Program cannot be held accountable for achievement MEASURED IS AC T UA L LY MEASURED. Standard E and unless they are given adequate opportunity The con tent and form of an assessment task System Standard E to learn science. Therefore, achievement and must be con gru ent with what is su ppo s ed to opportunity to learn science must be be measu red . This is “ va l i d i t y.”For instance , assessed equally. i f an assessment claims to measu re stu den t s’ a bi l i ty to frame qu e s ti ons for con du cting sci- ASSESSMENT STANDARD C: en t ific inqu i r y and to de s i gn an inqu i r y to The te c h n i cal quality of the dat a ad d ress the qu e s ti on s , a short - a n s wer form a t co l l e c ted is well matched to the would not be an appropri a te task. Requ i ri n g decisions and actions taken on s tu dents to pose qu e s ti ons and de s i gn the basis of their inte rp re t at i o n . i n qu i ries to ad d ress them would be an ■ The feature that is claimed to be a ppropri a te task. However, i f the purpose of measured is actually measured. ■ Assessment tasks are authentic. The content and form of an ■ An individual student’s performance is similar on two or more tasks that assessment task must be congruent claim to measure the same aspect of with what is su ppo sed to be measu red . student achievement. an assessment task is to measu re stu den t s’ ■ Students have adequate opportunity k n owl ed ge of the ch a racteri s tics that disti n- to demonstrate their achievements. guish groups of m i n era l s , a mu l ti p l e - ch oi ce ■ Assessment tasks and methods of pre- format might be su i t a ble as well as ef f i c i en t . senting them provide data that are

sufficiently stable to lead to the same ASSESSMENT TASKS ARE AU T H E N T I C . decisions if used at different times. When students are engaged in assessment Standard C addresses the degree to which tasks that are similar in form to tasks in the data collected warrant the decisions and which they will engage in their lives outside actions that will be based on them. The the classroom or are similar to the activities quality of the decisions and the appropriate- of scientists, great confidence can be ness of resulting action are limited by the attached to the data collected. Such assess- quality of the data. The more serious the ment tasks are authentic. consequences for students or teachers, the

Classroom assessments can take many opportunity to demonstrate their full forms, including observations of student understanding and ability. Assessment tasks performance during instructional activities; must be developmentally appropriate, must interviews; formal performance tasks; port- be set in contexts that are familiar to the folios; investigative projects; written reports; students, must not require reading skills or and multiple choice, short-answer, and essay vocabulary that are inappropriate to the stu- examinations. The relationship of some of dents’ grade level, and must be as free from those forms of assessment tasks to the goals bias as possible. of science education are not as obvious as ASSESSMENT TASKS AND THE METH- others. For instance, a student’s ability to ODS OF PRESENTING THEM PROV I D E obtain and evaluate scientific information D ATA T H AT ARE SUFFICIENTLY STA B L E might be measured using a short-answer TO LEAD TO THE SAME DECISIONS IF test to identify the sources of high-quality USED AT DIFFERENT T I M E S . This is scientific information about toxic waste. An another aspect of reliability, and is especially alternative and more authentic method is to important for large-scale assessments, where ask the student to locate such information changes in performance of groups is of and develop an annotated bibliography and interest. Only with stable measures can valid a judgment about the scientific quality of inferences about changes in group perfor- the information. mance be made. AN INDIVIDUAL STUDENT’S PE R F O R- Although the confidence indicators dis- MANCE IS SIMILAR ON TWO OR MORE cussed above focus on student achievement TASKS T H AT CLAIM TO MEASURE T H E data, an analogous set of confidence indica- SAME ASPECT OF STUDENT AC H I EV E- tors can be generated for opportunity to M E N T. This is one aspect of reliability. Suppose that the purpose of an assessment Assessment tasks must be is to measure a student’s ability to pose developmentally appropriate, must appropriate questions.A student might be be set in contexts that are familiar to the asked to pose questions in a situation set in the physical sciences. The student’s perfor- students, must not require reading skills mance and the task are consistent if the per- or vocabulary that are inappropriate formance is the same when the task is set in to the students’ grade level, and must the context of the life sciences, assuming the student has had equal opportunities to learn be as free from bias as possible. physical and life sciences. learn. For instance, teacher quality is an S T U D E N TS HAVE ADEQUATE OPPOR- indicator of opportunity to learn. TUNITIES TO DEMONSTRATE T H E I R Authenticity is obtained if teacher quality is AC H I EV E M E N TS . For decision makers to measured by systematic observation of See Teaching have confidence in assessment data, they teaching performance by qualified Standard C need assurance that students have had the observers. Confidence in the measure is

achieved when the number of observations ■ Large-scale assessments must use sta- is large enough for a teacher to exhibit a full tistical techniques to identify poten- range of teaching knowledge and skill. tial bias among subgroups.

Consistency of performance is also estab- ■ Assessment tasks must be appropri- lished through repeated observations. ately modified to accommodate the Data-collection methods can take many needs of students with physical dis- forms. Each has advantages and disadvan- abilities, learning disabilities, or limit- tages. The choice among them is usually ed English proficiency.

■ Assessment tasks must be set in a The choice of assessment form variety of contexts, be engaging to students with different interests and should be consistent with what one experiences, and must not assume the wants to measure and to infer. perspective or experience of a particular gender, racial,or ethnic group.

constrained by tradeoffs between the type, A premise of the National Science Education See Program quality, and amount of information gained, Standards is that all students should have Standard E and and the time and resources each requires. access to quality science education and System Standard E However, to serve the intended purpose, the should be expected to achieve scientific lit- choice of assessment form should be consis- eracy as defined by the content standards. It tent with what one wants to measure and to follows that the processes used to assess stu- infer. It is critical that the data and their dent achievement must be fair to all stu- method of collection yield information with dents. This is not only an ethical require- confidence levels consistent with the conse- ment but also a measurement requirement. quences of its use. Public confidence in edu- If assessment results are more closely related cational data and their use is related to tech- to gender or ethnicity than to the prepara- nical quality. This public confidence is influ- tion received or the science understanding enced by the extent to which technical qual- and ability being assessed, the validity of the ity has been considered by educators and assessment process is questionable. policy makers and the skill with which they communicate with the public about it. ASSESSMENT TASKS MUST BE R EV I EWED FOR THE USE OF STEREO- ASSESSMENT STANDARD D: TY PE S , FOR ASSUMPTIONS T H AT As s e s s m e nt pra ct i ces must be fair. REFLECT THE PE R S PECTIVES OR EXPE-

■ Assessment tasks must be reviewed RIENCES OF A PA RT I C U LAR GRO U P, for the use of stereotypes, for assump- FOR LA N G UAGE T H AT MIGHT BE tions that reflect the perspectives or OFFENSIVE TO A PA RT I C U LAR GRO U P, experiences of a particular group, for AND FOR OTHER FEATURES T H AT language that might be offensive to a MIGHT DISTRACT STUDENTS FRO M particular group, and for other fea- THE INTENDED TA S K . Those who plan tures that might distract students and implement science assessments must from the intended task. pay deliberate attention to issues of fairness.

The concern for fairness is reflected in the OR EXPERIENCE OF A PA RT I C U LA R procedures used to develop assessment G E N D E R , RAC I A L , OR ETHNIC GRO U P. tasks,in the content and language of the The requirement that assessment exercises assessment tasks, in the processes by which be authentic and thus in context increases students are assessed,and in the analyses of the likelihood that all tasks have some assessment results. degree of bias for some population of students. Some contexts will have more appeal LA RG E - S CALE ASSESSMENTS MUST USE to males and others to females. If, however, S TAT I S T I CAL T E C H N I QUES TO IDENTIFY assessments employ a variety of tasks,the P OTENTIAL BIAS AMONG SUBGRO U P S . collection will be “equally unfair” to all. This S t a ti s tical tech n i ques requ i re that both sexe s is one way in which the deleterious effects of and different racial and ethnic back gro u n d s bias can be avoided. be inclu ded in the devel opm ent of l a r ge - s c a l e a s s e s s m en t s . Bias can be determ i n ed wi t h ASSESSMENT STANDARD E: s ome cert a i n t y thro u g h the com bi n a ti on of The infe re n ces made from assess- s t a ti s tical evi den ce and ex pert ju d gm en t . For m e nts about student achieve m e nt i n s t a n ce ,i f an exercise to assess unders t a n d- and oppo rt u n i ty to learn must be ing of i n ertia using a fly wh eel re sults in differ- s o u n d. en tial perform a n ce bet ween females and ■ When making inferences from assess- m a l e s , a ju d gm ent that the exercise is bi a s ed ment data about student achievement m i g ht be plausible based on the assu m pti on and opportunity to learn science, that males and females have different ex peri- explicit reference needs to be made en ces with fly wh eel s . to the assumptions on which the inferences are based. ASSESSMENT TASKS MUST BE MODI- Even wh en assessments are well planned and FIED APPRO P R I AT E LY TO ACCO M M O - the qu a l i ty of the re su l ting data high , t h e D ATE THE NEEDS OF STUDENTS W I T H i n terpret a ti ons of the em p i rical evi den ce can PH YS I CAL DISABILITIES, L E A R N I N G re sult in qu i te different con clu s i on s . Ma k i n g D I S A B I L I T I E S , OR LIMITED ENGLISH i n feren ces invo lves looking at em p i r ical data P RO F I C I E N C Y. Whether assessments are t h ro u g h the lenses of t h eory, pers on a l large scale or teacher conducted, the princi- bel i efs , and pers onal ex peri en ce . Ma k i n g ple of fairness requires that data-collection obj ective inferen ces is ex trem ely difficult, methods allow students with physical dis- p a rt ly because indivi duals are not alw ays abilities, learning disabilities, or limited aw a r e of t h eir assu m pti on s . Con s equ en t ly, English proficiency to demonstrate the full con f i den ce in the va l i d i t y of i n feren ce s extent of their science knowledge and skills. requ i res explicit referen ce to the assu m p- ASSESSMENT TASKS MUST BE SET IN ti ons on wh i ch those inferen ces are based . A VA R I E T Y OF CO N T E XTS , BE ENGAG- For ex a m p l e , i f the scien ce ach i evem en t ING TO STUDENTS WITH DIFFERENT on a large-scale assessment of a sample of I N T E R E S TS AND EXPE R I E N C E S , A N D s tu dents from a certain pop u l a ti on is high , MUST NOT ASSUME THE PE R S PE C T I V E s e veral con clu s i ons are po s s i bl e . S tu den t s

f rom the pop u l a ti on might be high l y moti- information. They observe critical incidents va ted ; or because of excell ent instru c ti on , in the classroom, formulate hypotheses s tu dents from the pop u l a ti on might have about the causes of those incidents, ques- gre a ter opportu n i t y to learn scien ce ; or the tion students to test their hypotheses, inter- test might be bi a s ed in some way in favor of pret student’s responses, and adjust their the stu d en t s . Little con f i den ce can be placed teaching plans. in any of these con c lu s i ons wi t h o ut cl e a r s t a tem ents abo u t the assu m p ti o ns and a P LANNING CURRICULA devel o ped line of re a s oning from the evi- Teachers use assessment data to plan cur- den ce to the con clu s i on . The level of con f i - ricula. Some data teachers have collected den c e in con c lu s i ons is ra i s ed wh en those themselves; other data come from external con du cting assessments have been well sources. The data are used to select content, tra i n e d in the process of making inferen ce s activities,and examples that will be incor- f rom edu c a ti onal assessment data. Even porated into a course of study, a module, a t h en , the gen eral publ i c , as well as profe s - unit, or a lesson. Teachers use the assess- s i on a l s , should demand open and under- ment data to make judgments about s t a n d a ble de s c ri pti ons of h ow the infer- ■ The developmental appropriateness of en ces were made . the science content. ■ Student interest in the content.

■ The effectiveness of activities in produc- As s e s s m e nt s ing the desired learning outcomes. ■ The ef fectiveness of the sel ected ex a m p l e s . Co n d u cted by ■ The understanding and abilities students must have to benefit from the selected Cl a s s roo m activities and examples. Planning for assessment is integral to Te a c h e r s instruction. Assessments embedded in the Te ach ers are in the best po s i ti on to put curriculum serve at least three purposes: to a s s e s s m e nt data to powerful use. In the determine the students’ initial understand- vi s i o n of s c i en ce edu c a ti on de s c ri bed by ings and abilities, to monitor student the St a n d a rd s, te a ch ers use the assessmen t progress,and to collect information to data in many ways . Some of the ways grade student achievement. Assessment te ach e rs might use these data are pre s en ted tasks used for those purposes reflect what in this secti on . students are expected to learn; elicit the full extent of students’ understanding; are set in I M P ROVING CLA S S ROOM PRAC T I C E a variety of contexts; have practical, aesthet- See Teaching Teachers collect information about stu- ic, and heuristic value; and have meaning Standard C dents’ understanding almost continuously outside the classroom. Assessment tasks also and make adjustments to their teaching on provide important clues to students about the basis of their interpretation of that what is important to learn.

D EV E LO PING SELF- D I R E C T E D ■ Select a piece of their own work to pro- L E A R N E R S vide evidence of understanding of a sci- S tu dents need the opportu n i ty to eva lu a te entific concept, principle, or law—or and ref l ect on their own scien tific unders t a n d- their ability to conduct scientific inquiry. ■ ing and abi l i ty. Before stu dents can do this, Explain orally, in writing, or through t h ey need to understand the goals for learn i n g illustration how a work sample provides s c i en ce . The abi l i ty to self-assess unders t a n d- evidence of understanding. ■ ing is an essen tial tool for sel f - d i rected learn- Critique a sample of their own work i n g.Th ro u gh sel f - ref l ecti on ,s tu dents cl a ri f y using the teacher’s standards and criteria i deas of what they are su ppo s ed to learn . Th ey for quality. ■ Critique the work of other students in constructive ways. When teachers treat students as Invo lving stu dents in the assessment proce s s serious learners and serve as coaches i n c reases the re s pon s i bi l i ties of the te ach er. rather than judges, students come to Te ach ers of s c i en ce are the repre s en t a t ives of the scien tific com mu n i ty in their cl a s s room s ; understand and apply standards of t h ey repre s ent a cultu re and a way of t h i n k- good scientific practice. ing that might be qu i te unfamiliar to stu- den t s . As repre s en t a tive s , te ach ers are ex pected to model ref l ecti on , fo s tering a learn i n g begin to intern a l i ze the ex pect a ti on that they envi ron m ent wh ere stu dents revi ew each can learn scien ce . Devel oping sel f - a s s e s s m en t o t h ers’ work , of fer su gge s ti on s , and ch a ll en ge s k i lls is an on going process thro u gh o ut a stu- m i s t a kes in inve s ti ga tive proce s s e s , f a u l ty den t’s sch ool career, becoming incre a s i n gly re a s on i n g, or poorly su p ported con clu s i on s . m ore soph i s ti c a ted and sel f - i n i ti a ted as a stu- A te ach er ’s formal and informal eva lu a- dent progre s s e s . ti ons of s tu dent work should exemplify scien- Conversations among a teacher and stu- tific practi ce in making ju d gm en t s . The stan- dents about assessment tasks and the d a rds for ju d ging the sign i f i c a n ce ,s o u n d n e s s , teacher’s evaluation of performance provide and cre a tivi ty of work in profe s s i onal scien ti f- students with necessary information to ic work are com p l ex , but they are not arbi- assess their own work. In concert with tra ry. In the work of cl a s s room learning and opportunities to apply it to individual work i nve s ti ga ti on , te ach ers repre s ent the standard s and to the work of peers, that information of practi ce of the scien tific com mu n i ty. Wh en contributes to the development of students’ te ach ers treat stu dents as serious learn ers and self-assessment skills. By developing these s erve as coaches ra t h er than ju d ge s ,s tu den t s skills, students become able to take respon- come to understand and app ly standards of sibility for their own learning. good scien tific practi ce . Teachers have communicated their assessment practices,their standards for perfor- R E P O RTING STUDENT PRO G R E S S mance, and criteria for evaluation to stu- An essen tial re s pon s i bi l i ty of te ach ers is to See Teaching dents when students are able to report on stu dent progress and ach i e vement Standard C

to the students themselves, to their col- assessment plans. Equally important is that leagues, to parents and to policy makers. the plans have explicit criteria for judging Progress reports provide information about the quality of students’ work that policy

■ The teacher’s performance standards and makers and parents can understand. criteria for evaluation. R E S E A RCHING T E ACHING PRAC T I C E S ■ A stu den t’s progress from marking peri od Master teachers engage in practical See Professional to marking peri od and from year to ye a r. inquiry of their own teaching to identify Development ■ A student’s progress in mastering the sci- conditions that promote student learning Standards B and C ence curriculum. and to understand why certain practices are ■ A student’s achievement measured effective. The teacher as a researcher engages against standards-based criteria. in assessment activities that are similar to See System E ach of these issues requ i res a differen t scientific inquiries when collecting data to Standards A and B kind of i n form a ti on and a different mode answer questions about effective teaching of a s s e s s m en t . practices. Engaging in classroom research Especially challenging for teachers is means that teachers develop assessment communicating to parents and policy mak- plans that involve collecting data about stu- ers the new methods of gathering informa- dents’ opportunities to learn as well as their tion that are gaining acceptance in schools. achievement. Parents and policy makers need to be reas- sured that the newer methods are not only as good as, but better than,those used when they were in school. Thus, in developing As s e s s m e nt s plans for assessment strategies to compile evidence of student achievement, teachers Co n d u cted at the demonstrate that alternative forms of data collection and methods of interpreting them Di s t ri ct, St ate, a n d are as valid and reliable as the familiar National Levels short-answer test. The purported objectivity of short- Science assessments conducted by dis- See System answer tests is so highly valued that newer trict, state, and national authorities serve Standards A and B modes of assessment such as portfolios, per- similar purposes and are distinguished pri- formances,and essays that rely on apparent- marily by scale—that is, by the number of ly more subjective scoring methods are less students, teachers, or schools on which data trusted by people who are not professional are collected. educators. Overcoming this lack of trust Assessments may be conducted by requires that teachers use assessment plans authorities external to the classroom for the for monitoring student progress and for purposes of

grading.Clearly relating assessment tasks ■ Formulating policy.

and products of student work to the valued ■ Monitoring the effects of policies.

goals of science education is integral to ■ Enforcing compliance with policies.

■ Demonstrating accountability. others who make contributions to the

■ Making comparisons. assessment process, such as educational

■ Monitoring progress toward goals. researchers, educational measurement spe- See Program In ad d i ti on to those purpo s e s ,a s s e s s m ents are cialists, curriculum specialists, and educa- Standard A con du cted by sch ool distri cts to make ju d g- tional policy analysts. m ents abo ut the ef fectiveness of s pecific progra m s ,s ch oo l s , and te ach ers and to report to SAMPLE SIZE t a x p ayers on the distri ct’s accom p l i s h m en t s . The size of the sample on wh i ch data are The high cost of ex ternal assessments and co ll ected depends on the purpose of t h e t h eir influ en ce on scien ce te aching practi ce s a s s e s s m ent and the nu m ber of s tu den t s , te ach- demand careful planning and implem en t a- ers ,s ch oo l s ,d i s tri ct s , or states that the assess- ti on . Well - p l a n n ed ,l a r ge-scale assessmen t s m ent plan ad d re s s e s . If , for instance , a state i n clu de te ach ers du ring planning and imple- con du cts an assessment to learn abo ut stu den t m en t a ti on . In ad d i ti on , a ll data co ll ected are s c i en ce ach i evem ent in com p a ri s on with stu- a n a ly zed , sample sizes are well ra ti on a l i zed , dents in another state , it is su f f i c i ent to obt a i n and the sample is repre s en t a tive of the pop- data from a scien ti f i c a lly def i n ed sample of t h e u l a ti on of i n tere s t . This secti on discusses the s tu dents in the state . If ,h owever, the purpo s e ch a racteri s tics of l a r ge-scale assessmen t s . of the assessment is to give state - l evel credit to i n d ivi dual stu dents for scien ce co u rs e s ,t h en D ATA ANALYS I S data must be co ll ected for every stu den t . Far too often, more educational data are collected than are analyzed or used to make R E P R E S E N TATIVE SAMPLE decisions or take action. Large-scale assess- For all large-scale assessments, even those ment planners should be able to describe at the district level,the information should how the data they plan to collect will be be collected in ways that minimize the time used to improve science education. demands on individual students. For many accountability purposes,a sampling design T E ACHER INVO LV E M E N T can be employed that has different represen- See Teaching The development and interpretation of tative samples of students receiving different Standard F externally designed assessments for moni- sets of tasks. This permits many different toring the educational system should dimensions of the science education system include the active participation of teachers. to be monitored. Policy makers and taxpay- Teachers’ experiences with students make ers can make valid inferences about student them indispensable participants in the achievement and opportunity to learn design, development, and interpretation of across the nation,state, or district without assessments prepared beyond the classroom. requiring extensive time commitments from Their involvement helps to ensure congru- every student in the sample. ence of the classroom practice of science education and external assessment practices. Whether at the district, state, or national level, teachers of science need to work with

In feren ces abo ut stu den t s’ u n ders t a n d i n g Sa m p l e can be based on the analysis of t h eir perfor- As s e s s m e nts of m a n ces in the scien ce cl a s s room and thei r work produ ct s . Types of perform a n ce s St u d e nt Science i n clu de making class or public pre s en t a ti on s , discussing scien ce matters with peers or Ac h i eve m e nt te ach ers , and con du cting labora tory work . Produ cts of s tu dent work inclu de ex a m i n a- To illustrate the assessment standards, two examples are provided below. The con- Clearly relating assessment tasks and tent standards are stated in terms of under- products of student work to the valued standings and abilities; therefore,the first example is about understanding the natural goals of science education is integral world. This example requires a body of sci- to assessment plans. entific knowledge and the competence to ti on s ,j o u rnal note s , wri t ten report s ,d i a- reason with that information to make pre- gra m s , data set s , physical and mathem a ti c a l dictions, to develop explanations, and to act m odel s , and co ll ecti ons of n a tu ral obj ect s . in scientifically rational ways. The example Com mu n i c a ti on is fundamental to both per- focuses on predictions and justifying those form a n ce and produ ct - b a s ed assessmen t s . predictions. The second example is about Understanding takes different perspec- the ability to inquire, which also requires a tives and is displayed at different levels of body of scientific information and the com- sophistication.A physicist’s understanding petence to reason with it to conceptualize, of respiration might be quite different from plan, and perform investigations. (These that of a chemist, just as a cell biologist’s assessment tasks and the content standards understanding of respiration is quite differ- do not have a one-to-one correspondence.) ent from that of a physician. The physicist, ASSESSING UNDERSTANDING OF T H E the chemist, the biologist,and the physician N AT U RAL WO R L D all have a highly sophisticated understand- The content standards call for scientific ing of respiration. They bring many of the understanding of the natural world. Such same scientific principles to bear on the understanding requires knowing concepts, concept. However, each is likely to give principles, laws, and theories of the physical, greater emphasis to concepts that have spe- life, and earth sciences,as well as ideas that cial significance in their particular disci- are common across the natural sciences. pline.A physicist’s emphasis might be on That understanding includes the capacity to energetics, with little emphasis on the reason with knowledge. Discerning what a organisms in which respiration takes place. student knows or how the student reasons is The physician, on the other hand, might not possible without communication, either emphasize respiration as it specifically verbal or representational, a third essential applies to humans. The context of applica- component of understanding. tion also contributes to differences in per-

spective. The cell biologist’s understanding learn whether a student knows a particular might focus on the mechanisms by which fact or concept, but rather to tap the depth respiration occurs in the cell; the physician’s and breadth of the student’s understanding. understanding might focus on human respi- Exercises of this sort are difficult to design ratory disorders and physical and pathologi- and are a challenge to score. The example cal causes. that follows illustrates these challenges. An ordinary citizen’s understanding of THE PRO M P T. The assessment task begins respiration will be much less sophisticated with a prompt that includes a description of Eliciting and analyzing the task and directions. The prompt reads Some moist soil is pl a ced inside a clear glass ja r. explanations are useful ways of A healthy gre en plant is pl a n ted in the so i l .T h e assessing science achievement. cover is screwed on ti gh t ly. The jar is located in a wi n d ow wh ere it re ceives su n l i gh t . Its tem per- a tu re is maintained betwe en 60° and 80°F. than that of a practicing scientist. However, How long do you pred i ct the plant wi ll live ? even the citizen’s understanding will have Wri te a justi f i c a tion su ppo r ting your pred i cti o n . different perspectives, reflecting differences Use rel evant ideas from the life ,p hys i c a l , a n d in experience and exposure to science. e a rth sci en ces to make a pred i ction and justi f i- Legitimate differences in perspectives and c a ti o n . If you are unsu re of a pred i cti o n , you r sophistication of understanding also will be j u s ti f i c a tion should state that, and tell wh a t evident in each student’s scientific under- i n fo rm a tion you would need to make a bet ter standing of the natural world.A challenge pred i cti o n . You should know that there is not a s i n gle co rre ct pred i c ti o n . to teachers and others responsible for assessing understanding is to decide how Many attributes make the “plant in a jar” such variability is translated into judgments a good exercise for assessing understanding. about the degree to which individual stu- The situation, a plant in a closed jar, can be dents or groups of them understand the described to students verbally, with a dia- See Teaching natural world. The example that follows gram, or with the actual materials, thus Standard B illustrates how explanations of the natural eliminating reading as a barrier to a student world can be a rich source of information response. The situation can be understood about how students understand it. by students of all ages, minimizing students’ Because explanation is central to the sci- prior knowledge of the situation as a factor entific enterprise, eliciting and analyzing in ability to respond. The explanation for explanations are useful ways of assessing sci- the prediction can be developed at many ence achievement. The example illustrates different levels of complexity, it can be qual- how thoughtfully designed assessment exer- itative or quantitative. It can be based on cises requiring explanations provide stu- experience or theory, and it uses ideas from dents with the opportunity to demonstrate the physical,life,and earth sciences, as well the full range of their scientific understand- as cross-disciplinary ideas, thus allowing ing. Exercises of this sort are not designed to students to demonstrate the full range of

their understanding of science at various responses to the exercise that reflect how levels of their study of science. each believes a scientifically literate adult should respond. They also seek responses D EV E LO PING SCORING RU B R I C S . The from other adults. Based on the individual process of scoring student-generated expla- responses, the team negotiates a team nations requires the development of a scor- response that serves as the initial standard. ing rubric. The rubric is a standard of per- The te a m’s standard is analy zed into the formance for a defined population. com pon ents of the re s pon s e . In the plant-in- Typically, scoring rubrics are developed by a - jar exerc i s e , the com p on ents are the pred i c- the teachers of the students in the target ti on s , the inform a ti on used to ju s tify the pre- population. The performance standard is d i cti on s , the re a s oning used to ju s tify pred i c- developed through a consensus process ti on s , and the qu a l i t y of the com mu n i c a ti on . called “social moderation.”The steps in Examples of predictions from a scientifi- designing a scoring rubric involve defining cally literate adult about how long the plant the performance standard for the scientifi- can live in the jar might include (1) insuffi- cally literate adult and then deciding which cient information to make a prediction, (2) elements of that standard are appropriate the plant can live indefinitely, or (3) insects for students in the target population. The or disease might kill the plant. Whatever the draft performance standard is refined by prediction, it should be justified. For exam- subsequent use with student performance ple, if the assertion is made that the infor- and work. Finally, student performances mation provided in the prompt is insuffi- with respect to the rubric are differentiated. cient to make a prediction, then the expla- Performances are rated satisfactory, exem- nation should describe what information is plary, or inadequate. Differences in opinions needed to make a prediction and how that about the rubric and judgments about the information would be used. quality of students’ responses are moderated Scientifically literate adults will rely on a by a group of teachers until consensus is range of knowledge to justify their predic- reached for the rubric. tions. The standard response developed by Because a target population has not been the team of teachers will include concepts See Content identified,and rubrics need to function in from the physical, life, and earth sciences, as Standards B, C,and the communities that develop them, this well as unifying concepts in science. All are D (all grade levels) section does not define a rubric. Rather the applicable to making and justifying a pre- steps in developing a rubric are described. diction about the life of a plant in a jar, but THE PERFORMANCE OF A SCIENTIFI- because of the differences in emphasis, no CA L LY LITERATE ADULT. Developing a one person would be expected to use all of scoring rubric begins with a description of them. Some concepts, such as evaporation, the performance standard for scientifically condensation, energy (including heat, light, literate adults. That performance standard is chemical), energy conversions, energy trans- developed by a rubric development team. mission, chemical interactions, catalysis, Members of the team write individual conservation of mass,and dynamic equilib-

rium,are from physical science. Other con- the soil become a part of the plant is impor- cepts are from life sciences, such as plant tant to the explanation. physiology, plant growth, photosynthesis, A deeper understanding of science might respiration, plant diseases, and plant and be inferred from a prediction and justifica- insect interaction.Still other concepts are tion that included knowledge of the physical from the earth sciences, such as soil types, chemistry of photosynthesis and respira- composition of the atmosphere, water cycle, tion. Photosynthesis is a process in which solar energy, and mineral cycle. Finally, uni- radiant energy of visible light is converted fying concepts might be used to predict and into chemical bond energy in the form of See Unifying justify a prediction about the plant in the special carrier molecules, such as ATP, which Concepts and jar.Those might include closed, open, and in turn are used to store chemical bond Processes in isolated systems; physical models; patterns energy in carbohydrates. The process begins Chapter 6 of change; conservation; and equilibrium. with light absorption by chlorophyll, a pig- The knowledge required to predict the ment that gives plants their green color. In life of a plant in a jar is not be limited to photosynthesis, light energy is used to drive single concepts.A deeper understanding of the reaction: A well-crafted justification . .. Carbon dioxide + water ➝ sugar + oxygen. demonstrates reasoning characterized Respiration is a process in which energy is released when chemical compounds react by a succession of statements that with oxygen. In respiration, sugars are bro- follow one another logically without ken down to produce useful chemical ener- gaps from statement to statement. gy for the plant in the reaction: Sugar + oxygen ➝ water + carbon dioxide. the phenomena could be implied by a justification that includes knowledge of chemi- Photosynthesis and respiration are comple- cal species and energy. Keeping track of mentary processes, because photosynthesis results in the storage of energy, and respira- energy, of C6H12O6 (sugar), CO2 (carbon tion releases it. Photosynthesis removes CO dioxide), H2O (water), and O2 (oxygen), 2 and of minerals requires knowing about the from the atmosphere; respiration adds CO2 changes they undergo in the jar and about to the atmosphere. equilibria among zones in the jar (soil and A justification for a prediction about the atmosphere). The jar and its contents form life of the plant in the jar might include a closed system with respect to matter but knowledge of dynamic equilibrium. an open system with respect to energy. The Equilibrium exists between the liquid and analysis of the life expectancy of the plant in vapor states of water. The liquid water evap- the jar also requires knowing that the matter orates continuously. In the closed container, in the jar changes form, but the mass at constant temperature,the rate of conden- remains constant. In addition, knowing that sation equals the rate of evaporation. The gases from the atmosphere and minerals in water is in a state of dynamic equilibrium.

Another attribute of a well-crafted justifi- By grade 12, the level of sophistication cation relates to assumptions. The justifica- should be much higher. Ideally, the 12th tion should be explicit about the assump- grader would see the plant in a jar as a phys- tions that underlie it and even contain some ical model of the Earth’s ecosystem, and speculation concerning the implications of view photosynthesis and respiration as com- making alternative assumptions. plementary processes. F i n a lly, a well - c ra f ted ju s ti f i c a ti on for any Setting a performance standard for a pred i cti on abo ut the plant in the jar dem on- population of students depends on the pop- s tra tes re a s oning ch a racteri zed by a su cce s s i on ulation’s developmental level and their of s t a tem ents that fo ll ow one another logi c a lly experiences with science. Considerations to wi t h o ut gaps from statem ent to statement. be made in using student responses for developing a rubric can be illustrated by S CORING RUBRICS FOR DIFFERENT discussing two justifications constructed by P O P U L ATIONS OF STUDENTS . The students who have just completed high- plant-in-a-jar assessment exercise is an school biology. Student E has constructed appropriate prompt for understanding an exemplary justification for her prediction plants at any grade level. Development of about the plant in the jar. Student S has the scoring rubrics for students at different constructed a less satisfactory response but grade levels requires consideration of the has not completely missed the point. science experiences and developmental level of the students. For instance,the justifica- STUDENT E: If there are no insects in the jar tions of students in elementary school could or microorganisms that might cause some plant be expected to be based primarily on experi- disease,the plant might grow a bit and live for ences with plants. Student justifications quite a while. I know that when I was in ele- would contain little, if any, scientific termi- mentary school we did this experiment. My nology. A fourth-grade student might plant died—it got covered with black mold. But respond to the exercise in the following way: some of the plants other kids had got bigger and lived for more than a year. The plant could live. It has water and sunlight. The plant can live because it gets energy from It could die if it got frozen or a bug eats it. We the sunlight.When light shines on the leaves, planted seeds in third grade. Some kids forgot to photosynthesis takes place. Carbon dioxide and water them and they died. Eddie got scared that water form carbohydrates and oxygen. This his seeds would not grow. He hid them in his reaction transforms energy from the sun into desk.They did. The leaves were yellow. After chemical energy. Plants can do this because they Eddie put it in the sun it got green.The plants in have chlorophyll. our terrarium live all year long. The plant needs carbohydrates for life processes Ex pect a ti ons for ju s ti f i c a ti ons con s tru c ted like growing and moving. It uses the carbohy- by stu dents in grades 5-8 are differen t . Th e s e drates and oxygen to produce energy for life should contain more gen era l i zed knowl ed ge processes like growth and motion. Carbon diox- and use more soph i s ti c a ted language and sci- ide is produced too. en t ific con cepts su ch as ligh t , h e a t , ox ygen , Af ter some time the plant proba bly wi l l stop c a rbon diox i de , en er gy, and ph o to s y n t h e s i s . growi n g . I think that happens wh en all the

m i n erals in the soil are used up.For the plant to in all the plant will not live long (3 days at the grow it needs minerals from the soil.When parts most then downhill). of the plant die, the plant material rots and Ju d ging the qu a l i t y of i n form a ti on con- minerals go back into the soil. So that’s why I t a i n ed in a ju s ti f i c a ti on requ i res con s en su s think that how much the plant will grow will depend on the minerals in the soil. on the inform a ti on con t a i n ed in it and then using certain standards to com p a re that The gases, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapor just keep getting used over and over. What i n form a ti on with the inform a ti on in the I’m not sure about is if the gases get used up. ru bri c .S t a n d a rds that might be app l i ed Can the plant live if there is no carbon dioxide i n clu de the scien t ific acc u racy of the infor- left for photosynthesis? If there is no carbon m a ti on in the ju s ti f i c a ti on , the appropri a te- dioxide, will the plant respire and keep living? ness of the knowl ed ge to the stu den t’s age I’m pretty sure a plant can live for a long time and ex peri en ce , the soph i s ti c a ti on of t h e sealed up in a jar, but I’m not sure how long or k n owl ed ge , and the appropri a teness of t h e exactly what would make it die. a pp l i c a ti on of the knowl ed ge to the situ a ti on .

STUDENT S: I believe that putting a small Foremost, judgments about the quality of plant in a closed mayonnaise jar at 60-80°F is the information contained in the justifica- murder. I believe that this plant will not last tion should take into account the accuracy past a week (3 days). This is so for many rea- of the information the student used in craft- sons. Contained in a jar with constant sunlight ing the response. Student S’s justification at 80°F the moisture in the soil will most likely contains some misinformation about the start to evaporate almost immediately. This will water evaporation-condensation cycle and leave the soil dry while the air is humid. Since we are in a closed container no water can be about dynamic equilibrium in closed sys- restored to the soil (condensation).This in turn tems. The statements in which this inference will cause no nutrients from the soil to reach the is made are “the moisture in the soil will upper plant, no root pressure! most likely start to evaporate almost imme- Besides this, with photosynthesis occurring in the diately. This will leave the soil dry while the leaves, at least for a short time while water sup- air is humid. Since we are in a closed con- plies last, the CO2 in the air is being used up tainer no water can be restored to the soil and O2 is replacing it. With no CO2 and no (condensation).”The student’s statement H O, no light reaction and/or dark reaction can 2 that “soil in the container will be dry while occur and the plant can’t make carbohydrates. the air is humid,” suggests lack of knowledge The carbohydrates are needed for energy. about equilibrium in a closed system. In In co n cl u s i o n , in a jar cl o sed from CO and wa ter, 2 contrast with Student S’s misinformation, plants use up their re sou rces quick ly, preven ti n g Student E’s justification contains informa- the equation CO2 + H2O ➝ C6H1 2 O6 and O2 a n d ,t h erefo re , en ergy from carb ohyd ra te s . tion that is neither unusually sophisticated when viewed against the content of most This jar also works as a catalyst to speed up the high-school biology texts, nor erroneous. process by causing evaporation of H2O through incomplete vaporization. This would shut down Ju d gm ents abo ut the appropri a teness of the root hair pressure in the plant which allows the inform a ti on are more difficult to make . water (if any) + nutrients to reach the leaves. All A pers on familiar with the bi o l ogy co u rs e

the stu dent took might assert that the infor- dent’s uncertainty about the quantitative m a ti on in the stu den t’s re s ponse is not as details of the condition under which photo- s oph i s ti c a ted as what was taught in the synthesis and respiration occur.The student co u rs e . In that case, the con tent of the bi o l o- is explicit about certain assumptions, for gy co u r se is being used as the standard for instance, the relationship of minerals in the ra ting the qu a l i t y of the re s pon s e s . soil and plant growth. The questions the Al tern a t ively, the standard for ra ting the student poses in the justification can be a ppropri a teness of the inform a ti on might be interpreted as evidence that alternative the scien tific ideas in the con tent standard s . assumptions have been considered. Student E’s response is rated higher than In contrast, Student S’s prediction is stat- Student S’s on the basis of the quality of ed with unwarranted assurance and justified information.Student S’s justification pro- without consideration of anything more vides some information about what the stu- than the availability of sufficient water. dent does and does not know and provides Furthermore, the justification does not pro- some evidence for making inferences about ceed in a sequential way, proceeding from the structure of the student’s knowledge. general principles or empirical evidence to a For example,the student did not consider justification for the prediction. the complementary relationship of photo- Student S’s response highlights an impor- synthesis and respiration in crafting the jus- tant point that justifies separating the scor- tification. Perhaps the student does not ing of information from the scoring of rea- know about respiration or that the processes soning. A student can compose a well-rea- are complementary. Alternatively, the two soned justification using incorrect informa- concepts may be stored in memory in a way tion. For instance, had the student posed the that did not facilitate bringing both to bear following justification, the reasoning would on the exercise. Testing the plausibility of be adequate even if the conclusion that the the inferences about the student’s knowl- soil is dry were not correct. The reasoning edge structure would require having a con- would be rated higher had the student com- versation with the student. To learn if the municated that student knows about respiration, one simply Plants need energy to live. Plants get energy has to ask. If the student knows about it and from sunlight through a process of photosynthe- did not apply it in making the prediction, sis. Plants need water to photosynthesize. this is evidence that respiration is not Because the soil is dry, water can’t get to the understood in the context of the life leaves, the plant can’t photosynthesize and will die from lack of energy. processes of plants. Student E’s response is well structured Devel oping scoring ru brics thro u gh mod- and consistent with the prediction. The era ti on requ i res high ly inform ed te ach ers statements form a connected progression. ex p eri en ced in the proce s s . Even wh en te ach- The prediction is tentative and the justifica- ers are adequ a tely prep a red , the modera ti on tion indicates it is tentative due to the lack process takes ti m e . The con tent standard s of information in the prompt and the stu- c a ll for knowl ed ge with unders t a n d i n g.

Con s i dera ble re s o u rces must therefore be year.It involves students working as individ- devo ted to prep a r ing te ach ers and others in uals and in small groups investigating a the scien ce edu c a ti on sys tem to de s i gn and question of their choice. ra te assessments that requ i re stu dents to dis- IDENTIFYING A WO RTHWHILE AND p l ay unders t a n d i n g, su ch as just de s c ri bed . R E S E A R CHABLE QU E S T I O N . ASSESSING THE ABILITY TO INQU I R E Throughout the school science program, students have been encouraged to identify The second assessment example focuses questions that interest them and are on inquiry. The content standards call for amenable to investigation. These questions understanding scientific inquiry and devel- are recorded in student research notebooks. oping the ability to inquire. As in under- Early in the senior year of high school,stu- standing the natural world, understanding dents prepare draft statements of the ques- and doing inquiry are contingent on know- tion they propose to investigate and discuss ing concepts, principles,laws, and theories why that question is a reasonable one. Those of the physical, life, and earth sciences. drafts are circulated to all members of the Inquiry also requires reasoning capabilities class. Students prepare written reviews of and skills in manipulating laboratory or their classmate’s proposals, commenting on field equipment. the quality of the research question and the As in understanding the natural world, rationale for investigating it. Students then inferences about students’ ability to inquire revise their research question based on peer feedback. Finally, students present and Understanding and doing inquiry defend their revised questions to the class.

are contingent on knowing concepts, P LANNING THE INVESTIGAT I O N . The principles, laws, and theories of the teacher encourages but does not require students to work together in research groups of physical, life, and earth sciences. two to four students. After presenting research questions to the class,students and their understanding of the process can form the research groups, which come to be based on the analysis of performance in agreement on a question to investigate and the science classroom and work products. begin developing a preliminary plan for The example that follows describes conducting the investigation. Each individ- twelfth grade students’ participation in an ual in the group is required to keep exten- extended inquiry. The exercise serves two sive records of the group’s work, especially purposes. It provides the teacher with infor- documenting the evolution of their final mation about how well students have met research question from the several questions the inquiry standards. Equally important, it originally proposed. As plans for investiga- serves as a capstone experience for the tions evolve, the research questions are school science program. The extended sharpened and modified to meet the practi- inquiry is introduced early in the school cal constraints of time and resources avail-

able to the class. Each student maintains ual critiques. This feedback is used by the journal notes on this process. When a group group to prepare its final report. is satisfied that their plan has progressed to ASSESSING INDIVIDUAL STUDENT the point where work can begin, the plan is AC H I EV E M E N T. While the class is en ga ged presented to classmates. Written copies of in the ex ten ded inve s ti ga ti on , the te a ch e r the plan are distributed for written review, ob s e rves each stu d en t’s perform a n ce as the followed by a class seminar to discuss each s tu dent makes pre s en t a ti ons to the cl a s s , research plan.On the basis of peer feedback, i n teracts with peers , and uses com p u ters each group revises its research plan, recog- and labora tory app a ra tu s . In ad d i ti on , t h e nizing that as the plan is implemented, it te a ch er has produ cts of the indivi d ual stu- will require still further revisions. Each stu- den t’s work , as well as group work , i n clu d- dent in the class is responsible for reviewing ing draft re s e a rch qu e s ti on s , c ri ti ques of the research plan of every group, including a o t h e r stu d ent work , and the indivi dual stu- written critique and recommendations for den t ’s re s e a r ch noteboo k . Those ob s erva- modifying the plan. ti ons of s tu dent perform a n ce and work EXECUTING THE RESEARCH PLA N . produ c ts are a ri ch source of data from During this phase of the extended investiga- wh i ch the te a ch e r can make inferen ce s tion, students engage in an iterative process a bo ut each stu d en t’s understanding of s c i - involving assembling and testing apparatus; en tific ideas and the natu re of s c i en ti f i c designing and testing forms of data collec- i n qu i ry. For instance , in the con t ext of tion; developing and testing a data collec- planning the inqu i r y, s tu dents pose qu e s - tion schedule; and collecting, organizing, ti ons for inve s ti ga ti on . Th eir ju s ti f i c a ti on s and interpreting data. for why the qu e s ti on is a scien t ific one pro-

D R AFTING THE RESEARCH REPORT. vi d e evi den ce from wh i c h to infer the Based on the notes of individuals, the group ex tent and qu a l i t y of t h eir unders t a n d i n g prepares a written report, describing the of the natu re of s c i en ce , u n derstanding of research. That report also includes data that the natu ral worl d , u n d erstanding of t h e have been collected and preliminary analy- l i fe , phys i c a l , and earth scien ce s , as well as sis. Based on peer feedback, the groups the qu a l i t y and ex t ent of t h e ir scien ti f i c modify their procedures and continue data k n o wl ed ge and their capac i t y to re a s on collection. When a group is convinced that s c i en ti f i c a lly. the data-collection method is working and Evidence for the quality of a student’s the data are reasonably consistent,they ana- ability to reason scientifically comes from lyze the data and draw conclusions. the rationale for the student’s own research After a seminar at which the research question and from the line of reasoning group presents its data, the analysis,and used to progress from patterns in the col- conclusions,the group prepares a first draft lected data to the conclusions. In the first of the research report. This draft is circulat- instance, the student distills a research ques- ed to classmates for preparation of individ- tion from an understanding of scientifi c

i deas assoc i a ted with some natu ral ph e- n om en on . In the second instance , the student gen era tes scien t ific inform a ti on based on data. In ei t h e r case, the qu a l i ty of t h e re a s oning can be inferred from how well con n e cted the chain of re a s oning is, h ow explicit the stu dent is abo u t the assu m p- ti o ns made , and the ex t ent to wh i ch spec u- l a ti ons on the implicati ons of h aving made a l tern a tive assu m pti ons are made . The wri ting and speaking requ i rem en t s of this ex ten ded inve s ti ga ti on provi de ample evi den ce for assessing the abi l i t y of the stu dent to com mu n i c a te scien t ific ide a s .

CHANGING EMP H A S E S

The National Science Education Standards envision change throughout the system. The assessment standards encompass the following changes in emphases:

LESS EMPHASIS ON MORE EMPHASIS ON

Assessing what is easily measured Assessing what is most highly valued

Assessing discrete knowledge Assessing rich, well-structured knowledge

Assessing scientific knowledge Assessing scientific understanding and reasoning

Assessing to learn what students do not know Assessing to learn what students do understand

Assessing only achievement Assessing achievement and opportunity to learn

End of term assessments by teachers S t u dents en ga g ed in on going assessment of t h eir work and that of others

Development of external assessments by Teachers involved in the development measurement experts alone of external assessments

NRC (National Research Council).1991. Re fe re n ces fo r Improving Instruction and Assessment in Early Childhood Education: Summary of a Fu rther Re a d i n g Workshop Series. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Baron, J.B. 1992.SEA Usage of Alternative NRC (National Research Council).1989. Fairness Assessment: The Connecticut Experience. In in Employment Testing:Validity Focus on Evaluation and Measurement, vol. 1 Generalization, Minority Issues,and the and 2. Proceedings of the National Research General Aptitude Test Battery. J.A. Hartigan, Symposium on Limited English Proficient and A.K. Wigdor, eds. Washington, DC: Student Issues.. Washington, DC. National Academy Press. Baxter, G.P.,R.J. Shavelson, and J. Pine. 1992. Oakes, J., T. Ormseth,R. Bell,and P.Camp. 1990. Evaluation of procedure-based scoring for Multiplying Inequalities: The Effect of Race, hands-on science assessment. Journal of Social Class,and Tracking on Students’ Educational Measurement,29 (1): 1-17. Opportunities to Learn Mathematics and Champagne,A.B.,and S.T. Newell.1992. Science. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Directions for Research and Development: Corporation. Alternative Methods of Assessing Scientific Raizen, S.A., J.B.Baron,A.B.Champagne,E. Literacy.Journal of Research in Science Haertel,I.V.Mullis,and J. Oakes. 1990. Teaching 29 (8):841-860. Assessment in Science Education: The Middle Glaser, R.1992. Cognitive Theory as the Basis for Years. Washington, DC: National Center for Design of Innovative Assessment: Design Improving Science Education. Characteristics of Science Assessments. Los Raizen, S.A., J.B.Baron,A.B.Champagne,E. Angeles,CA: National Center for Research on Haertel,I.V.Mullis,and J. Oakes. 1989. Evaluation, Standards,and Student Testing. Assessment in Elementary School Science Koretz, D., B. Stecher, S. Klein, and D.McCaffrey. Education. Washington, DC: National Center 1994. The Vermont Portfolio Assessment for Improving Science Education. Program: Findings and Implications. Ruiz-Primo, M.A.,G.P.Baxter, and R.J. Educational Measurement: Issues and Shavelson.1993.On the stability of Practice,13 (3): 5-16. performance assessments. Journal of Loucks-Horsley, S.,R. Kapitan,M.O.Carlson, P.J. Educational Measurement,30 (1): 41-53. Kuerbis,R.C. Clark, G.M. Nelle, T.P. Sachse, Shavelson,R.J. 1991. Performance assessment in and E. Walton.1993. Elementary School science. Applied Measurement in Education, 4 Science for the ‘90s. Andover, MA: The (4):347-62. Network, Inc. Shavelson, R.J.,G. Baxter, and J. Pine. 1992. Messick, S.1994. The interplay of evidence and Performance assessments: Political rhetoric consequences in the validation of performance and measurement reality. Educational assessments.Educational Researcher, 23 (2): Researcher, 21 (4): 22-27. 13-23. Moss, P.A. 1994. Can there be validity without reliability? Educational Researcher, 23 (2): 13- 23.

St u d e nts need kn owledge and understanding in p hys i ca l ,l i fe, and eart h and space science to a p p ly science.

Science Content Standards

The content standards presented in

this chapter outline what students

should know, understand, and be

able to do in natural science. The

content standards are a complete

set of outcomes for students; they

do not prescribe a curriculum. These standards were designed and devel-

oped as one component of the comprehensive vision of science education

presented in the National Science Education Standards and will be most

effective when used in conjunction with all of the standards described in

this book. Furthermore, implementation of the content standards cannot

be successful if only a subset of the content standards is used (such as

implementing only the subject matter standards for physical, life, and earth

science). ❚ This introduction sets the framework for the content standards

by describing the categories of the content standards with a rationale for

e ach category, the form of the standard s ,t h e of i n qu i ry, and inqu i r y is the fo u n d a ti on for c ri teria used to sel ect the standard s , and som e the devel opm ent of u n ders t a n d i n g s and abi l- advi ce for using the scien ce con tent standard s . i ties of the other con tent standard s . The per- s onal and social aspects of s c i en ce are em ph a s i zed incre a s i n gly in the progre s s i o n Rat i o n a l e f rom scien ce as inqu i r y standards to the history and natu re of s c i en ce standard s . The eight categories of content standards are S tu dents need solid knowl ed ge and under-

■ Unifying concepts and processes in standing in phys i c a l , l i fe , and earth and science. s p ace scien ce if t h ey are to app ly scien ce .

■ Science as inquiry. Multidisciplinary perspectives also

■ Physical science. increase from the subject-matter standards

■ Life science. to the standard on the history and nature of

■ Earth and space science. science, providing many opportunities for

■ Science and technology. integrated approaches to science teaching.

■ Science in personal and social perspectives. UNIFYING CO N C E P TS AND PRO C E S S E S

■ History and nature of science. S TA N D A R D The standard for unifying concepts and Conceptual and procedural schemes unify processes is presented for grades K-12, science disciplines and provide students because the understanding and abilities with powerful ideas to help them under- associated with major conceptual and pro- stand the natural world. Because of the cedural schemes need to be developed over underlying principles embodied in this stan- an entire education, and the unifying con- dard,the understandings and abilities cepts and processes transcend disciplinary described here are repeated in the other boundaries. The next seven categories are content standards. Unifying concepts and clustered for grades K-4, 5-8, and 9-12. processes include

Those clusters were selected based on a ■ Systems, order, and organization.

combination of factors,including cognitive ■ Evidence, models, and explanation.

development theory, the classroom experi- ■ Ch a n g e, co n s t a n cy, and measure m e nt.

ence of teachers, organization of schools, ■ Evolution and equilibrium.

and the frameworks of other disciplinary- ■ Form and function. based standards. References for additional This standard describes some of the inte- reading for all the content standards are grative schemes that can bring together stu- presented at the end of Chapter 6. dents’ many experiences in science educa- The sequ en ce of the seven grade - l evel tion across grades K-12. The unifying con- con tent standards is not arbi tra r y: E a ch cepts and processes standard can be the s t a n d a rd su b sumes the knowl ed ge and skill s focus of instruction at any grade level but of o t h er standard s .S tu den t s’ u n ders t a n d i n g s should always be closely linked to outcomes and abi l i ties are gro u n ded in the ex peri en ce aligned with other content standards. In the

early grades, instruction should establish the ■ Skills necessary to become independent meaning and use of unifying concepts and inquirers about the natural world.

processes—for example, what it means to ■ The dispo s i ti ons to use the skill s ,a bi l i ti e s , measure and how to use measurement tools. and atti tu des assoc i a ted with scien ce . At the upper grades, the standard should Science as inquiry is basic to science edu- facilitate and enhance the learning of scien- cation and a controlling principle in the tific concepts and principles by providing ultimate organization and selection of stu- students with a big picture of scientific dents’ activities. The standards on inquiry ideas—for example,how measurement is highlight the ability to conduct inquiry and important in all scientific endeavors. develop understanding about scientific inquiry. Students at all grade levels and in SCIENCE AS INQU I RY STA N D A R D S every domain of science should have the In the vision presented by the Standards, opportunity to use scientific inquiry and inquiry is a step beyond “science as a develop the ability to think and act in ways process,” in which students learn skills, such associated with inquiry, including asking as observation, inference, and experimenta- questions,planning and conducting investi- tion. The new vision includes the “processes gations,using appropriate tools and tech- of science” and requires that students com- niques to gather data, thinking critically and bine processes and scientific knowledge as logically about relationships between evi- they use scientific reasoning and critical dence and explanations, constructing and thinking to develop their understanding of analyzing alternative explanations, and com- science. Engaging students in inquiry helps municating scientific arguments. Table 6.1 students develop shows the standards for inquiry. The science

■ Understanding of scientific concepts. as inquiry standards are described in terms

■ An appreciation of “how we know” what of activities resulting in student develop- we know in science. ment of certain abilities and in terms of stu-

■ Understanding of the nature of science. dent understanding of inquiry.

TABLE 6.1. SCIENCE AS INQ U I R Y STA N D A R D S

LEVELS K-4 LEVELS 5-8 LEVELS 9-12 Abilities necessary to do Abilities necessary to do Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry scientific inquiry scientific inquiry Understanding about Understanding about Understanding about scientific inquiry scientific inquiry scientific inquiry

PH YS I CAL SCIENCE, LIFE SCIENCE, SCIENCE AND T E C H N O LO G Y AND EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE S TA N D A R D S S TA N D A R D S The scien ce and tech n o l ogy standards in The standards for physical scien ce ,l i fe sci- Ta ble 6.5 establish con n ecti ons bet ween the en ce , and earth and space scien ce de s c ri be n a tu ral and de s i gn ed worlds and provi de stu- the su bj ect matter of s c i en ce using three dents with opportu n i ties to devel op wi dely accepted divi s i ons of the domain of dec i s i on-making abi l i ti e s . Th ey are not stan- s c i en ce . S c i en ce su bj ect matter focuses on d a rds for tech n o l ogy edu c a ti on ; ra t h er, t h e s e the scien ce fact s , con cept s , pri n c i p l e s , t h eo- s t a n d a rds em ph a s i ze abi l i ties assoc i a ted wi t h ri e s , and models that are important for all the process of de s i gn and fundamen t a l s tu dents to know, u n ders t a n d , and use. u n ders t a n d i n gs abo ut the en terprise of s c i- Ta bles 6.2, 6 . 3 , and 6.4 are the standards for en ce and its va rious linkages with tech n o l ogy. physical scien ce ,l i fe scien ce , and earth and As a complement to the abilities devel- s p ace scien ce , re s pectively. oped in the science as inquiry standards,

TABLE 6.2. P H YS I C AL SCIENCE STA N D A R D S

LEVELS K-4 LEVELS 5-8 LEVELS 9-12 Properties of objects and Properties and changes of Structure of atoms materials properties in matter Structure and properties of Position and motion of objects Motions and forces matter Light,heat, electricity, Transfer of energy Chemical reactions and magnetism Motions and forces Conservation of energy and increase in disorder Interactions of energy and matter

TABLE 6.3. LIFE SCIENCE STA N D A R D S

LEVELS K-4 LEVELS 5-8 LEVELS 9-12 Characteristics of organisms Structure and function in living The cell systems Life cycles of organisms Molecular basis of heredity Reproduction and heredity Organisms and environments Biological evolution Regulation and behavior Interdependence of organisms Populations and ecosystems Matter, energy, and organization Diversity and adaptations of in living systems organisms Behavior of organisms

these standards call for students to develop tives standards help students develop abilities to identify and state a problem, decision-making skills. Understandings design a solution—including a cost and associated with the concepts in Table 6.6 risk-and-benefit analysis—implement a give students a foundation on which to solution,and evaluate the solution. base decisions they will face as citizens. Science as inquiry is parallel to technology as design. Both standards emphasize stu- H I S TO RY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE dent development of abilities and under- S TA N D A R D S standing. Connections to other domains, In learning scien ce ,s tu dents need to such as mathematics, are clarified in u n derstand that scien ce ref l e cts its history Chapter 7, Program Standards. and is an on goi n g , ch a n ging en terpri s e . Th e s t a n d a rds for the history and natu re of s c i- SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND SOCIAL en ce recom m end the use of h i s tory in sch oo l PE R S PECTIVES STA N D A R D S s c i en ce programs to cl a rify different aspect s An important purpose of science educa- of s c i en tific inqu i r y, the human aspects of tion is to give students a means to under- s c i en ce , and the role that scien ce has played stand and act on personal and social issues. in the devel opm ent of va rious cultu re s . Ta bl e The science in personal and social perspec- 6.7 provi des an overvi ew of this standard .

TA B LE 6 .4 . E A R TH AND SPACE SCIENCE STA N D A R D S

LEVELS K-4 LEVELS 5-8 LEVELS 9-12 Properties of earth materials Structure of the earth system Energy in the earth system Objects in the sky Earth’s history Geochemical cycles Changes in earth and sky Earth in the solar system Origin and evolution of the earth system Origin and evolution of the universe

TABLE 6.5. SCIENCE AND T E C H N O L OG Y S TA N D A R D S

LEVELS K-4 LEVELS 5-8 LEVELS 9-12 Abilities to distinguish between Abilities of technological design Abilities of technological design natural objects and objects Understanding about science Understanding about science and made by humans and technology technology Abilities of technological design Understanding about science and technology

TABLE 6.6. SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND SOCIAL P E R S PE C T I V E S

LEVELS K-4 LEVELS 5-8 LEVELS 9-12 Personal health Personal health Personal and community health Characteristics and changes in Populations, resources,and Population growth populations environments Types of resources Natural hazards Natural resources Changes in environments Risks and benefits Environmental quality Science and technology in local Science and technology in Na t u r al and hu m a n - i n du ced challenges society h a z a rd s S c i en ce and tech n o l ogy in loc a l , n a ti on a l , and gl obal ch a ll en ge s

TA B L E 6 .7 . H I S TO R Y AND NATURE OF SCIENCE STA N D A R D S

LEVELS K-4 LEVELS 5-8 LEVELS 9-12 Science as a human endeavor Science as a human endeavor Science as a human endeavor Nature of science Nature of scientific knowledge History of science Historical perspectives

Af ter each con tent standard is a secti on Fo rm of the en ti t l ed , D evel oping Student Un der s t a n d i n g Co nte nt St a n d a rd s ( or abi l i ties and unders t a n d i n g , wh en appropri a te ) , wh i ch el a bora tes upon issues assoc i- Below is an example of a content standard. a ted with opportu n i ties to learn the con ten t . Each content standard states that, as the This secti on de s c ri bes linkages among stu- result of activities provided for all students dent learn i n g, te ach i n g, and cl a s s room situ a- in the grade level discussed,the content of ti on s . This discussion on devel oping stu den t the standard is to be understood or the abil- u n ders t a n d i n g, i n cluding the rem a rks on the ities are to be developed. s el ecti on of con tent for grade level s , is based PH YS I CAL SCIENCE (EXA M P L E ) in part on edu c a ti onal re s e a rch . It also incorpora tes the ex p eri en ces of m a ny though tf u l CONTENT STANDARD B: peop l e , i n cluding te ach ers , te ach er edu c a- As a result of the activities in tors ,c u rri c u lum devel opers , and edu c a ti on a l g rades K-4, all students should re s e a rch ers .( Some referen ces to re s e a rch on d evelop an understanding of s tu dent understanding and abi l i ties are

■ Properties of objects and materials l oc a ted at the end of the ch a pter. )

■ Position and motion of objects The next section of each standard is a

■ Li g ht, h e at, e l e ct ri c i ty, and magnetism Guide to the Content Standard, which

describes the fundamental ideas that underlie the standard. Content is fundamental if it Cri te ria for the ■ Represents a central event or phenome- Co nte nt St a n d a rd s non in the natural world.

■ Represents a central scientific idea and Three criteria influence the selection of organizing principle. science content. The first is an obligation to

■ Has rich explanatory power. the domain of science. The subject matter in

■ Guides fruitful investigations. the physical,life, and earth and space sci-

■ Applies to situations and contexts ence standards is central to science educa- common to everyday experiences. tion and must be accurate. The presentation

■ Can be linked to meaningful in national standards also must accommo- learning experiences. date the needs of many individuals who will

■ Is developmentally appropriate for implement the standards in school science students at the grade level specified. programs. The standards represent science

TABLE 6.8. CONTENT STA N D A R D S , G RA DE S K - 4

UNIFYING CO N C E P TS SCIENCE AS PHYSICAL SCIENCE LIFE SCIENCE AND PRO C E S S E S INQUIRY Properties of objects Characteristics of Systems, order, and Abilities necessary to and materials organisms organization do scientific inquiry Position and motion of Life cycles of organisms Evidence,models, and Understandings about objects explanation scientific inquiry Organisms and Light, heat, electricity, environments Change, constancy, and and magnetism measurement Evolution and equilibrium Form and function

EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE AND SCIENCE IN PE R S O N A L H I S TO RY AND SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIAL N ATURE OF PE R S PE C T I V E S S C I E N C E Properties of earth Abi l i ties of tech n o l ogi c a l materials de s i g n Personal health Science as a human endeavor Objects in the sky Understandings about Characteristics and science and technology changes in populations Ch a n ges in earth and s ky Abilities to distinguish Types of resources bet ween natural Changes in obj ects and objects environments made by humans Science and technology in local challenges

content acc u ra tely and appropri a tely at all 5 - 8 , and 9-12, re s pectively. These tables provi de grade s , with increasing prec i s i on and more an overvi ew of the standards for el em en t a ry - , s c i en tific nom en cl a tu re from kinder ga rten to m i d dl e - , and high - s ch ool scien ce progra m s . grade 12. The third cri teri on is an obl i ga ti on to pre- The second criterion is an obligation to s ent standards in a usable form for those wh o develop content standards that appropriate- must implem ent the standard s ,e . g. ,c u rri c u- ly represent the developmental and learning lum devel opers ,s c i en ce su pervi s ors , te ach ers , abilities of students. Organizing principles and other sch ool pers on n el . The standard s were selected that express meaningful links n eed to provi de en o u g h bre adth of con ten t to direct student observations of the natural to define the domains of s c i en ce , and they world. The content is aligned with students’ n eed to provi de en o u g h depth of con tent to ages and stages of development. This criteri- d i rect the de s i gn of s c i en ce curri c u l a . Th e on includes increasing emphasis on abstract de s c ri pti ons also need to be unders t a n d a bl e and conceptual understandings as students by sch ool pers on n el and to accom m od a te the progress from kindergarten to grade 12. s tru ctu res of el em en t a ry, m i d dl e , and high Ta bles 6.8, 6 . 9 , and 6.10 display the stan- s ch oo l s , as well as the grade levels used in d a rds gro u ped according to grade levels K-4, n a ti onal standards for other disciplines.

TABLE 6.9. CONTENT STA N D A R D S , G RA D E S 5 -8

UNIFYING CO N C E P TS SCIENCE AS PH YS I CAL SCIENCE LIFE SCIENCE AND PRO C E S S E S I N QU I RY Properties and ch a n ge s S tru ct u re and functi on Sys tem s , order, a n d Abi l i t ies nece s s a r y to of p roperties in matter in living sys tem s orga n i z a ti on do scien tific inqu i r y Mo ti ons and force s Rep rodu c ti on and Evi den ce ,m odel s , and Un der s t a n d i n gs abo ut h ered i ty e x p l a n a ti on s c i en tific inqu i r y Tra n s f er of en ergy Reg u l a ti on and beh avi or Ch a n ge , con s t a n c y, a n d m e a su rem en t Pop u l a ti ons and eco s ys tem s Evo luti on and equ i l i briu m D iver s i ty and ad a pt a ti ons of orga n i s m s Form and functi on

E A RTH AND SPACE SCIENCE AND SCIENCE IN PE R S O N A L H I S TO RY AND S C I E N C E T E C H N O LO G Y AND SOCIAL N ATURE OF PE R S PE C T I V E S S C I E N C E S tru ct u re of the eart h Abi l i ties of tech n o l ogi c a l s ys tem de s i gn Per s onal health S c i en ce as a hu m a n en de avor Ea rt h’s history Un der s t a n d i n gs abo ut Pop u l a ti on s , re s o u rce s , s c i en ce and tech n o l ogy and envi ron m en t s Na t u re of s c i en ce Ea rth in the solar sys tem Na t u ral hazard s Hi s tory of s c i en ce Risks and ben ef i t s S c i en ce and tech n o l ogy in soc i ety

TABLE 6.10. CONTENT STA N D A R D S , G RA D E S 9 -1 2

UNIFYING CO N C E P TS SCIENCE AS PHYSICAL SCIENCE LIFE SCIENCE AND PRO C E S S E S INQUIRY Structure of atoms The cell Systems, order, and Abilities necessary to do organization scientific inquiry Structure and properties Molecular basis of of matter heredity Evidence, models,and Understandings about explanation scientific inquiry Chemical reactions Biological evolution Change, constancy, and Motions and forces Interdependence of organisms measurement Conservation of energy Evolution and and increase in disorder Matter, energy, and organization in living equilibrium Interactions of energy systems Form and function and matter Behavior of organisms

EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE AND SCIENCE IN PE R S O N A L HISTORY AND SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIAL NATURE OF PE R S PE C T I V E S SCIENCE Energy in the earth Abi l i ties of tech n o l ogi c a l system de s i gn Per s onal and com mu n i ty Science as a human h e a l t h endeavor Geochemical cycles Understandings about science and techology Population growth Nature of scientific Origin and evolution of knowledge the earth system Natural resources Historical perspectives Origin and evolution of Environmental quality the universe Natural and human- induced hazards Science and technology in local,national,and global challenges

structure, organization,balance, and presen- Use of the Co nte nt tation of the content in the classroom. St a n d a rd s Although the structure for the content standards organizes the understanding and abil- Many different individuals and groups ities to be acquired by all students K-12,that will use the content standards for a variety structure does not imply any particular of purposes. All users and reviewers are organization for science curricula. reminded that the content described is not a Persons responsible for science curricula, science curriculum. Content is what students teaching, assessment and policy who use the should learn. Curriculum is the way content Standards should note the following is organized and emphasized; it includes ■ None of the ei g ht categories of con t ent

s t a n d a rds should be el i m i n a ted . For progra m s . However, ad d i ti on of con ten t i n s t a n ce , s tu dents should have opportu- must not prevent the learning of f u n d a- n i ties to learn scien ce in pers onal and m ental con cepts by all stu den t s .

s ocial pers p ectives and to learn abo ut ■ The content standards must be used in the history and natu re of s c i en ce , as well the context of the standards on teaching as to learn su bj ect matter, in the sch oo l and assessment. Using the standards with s c i en ce progra m . traditional teaching and assessment

■ No standards should be eliminated from strategies defeats the intentions of the a category. For instance, “biological evo- National Science Education Standards. lution” cannot be eliminated from the As scien ce adva n ce s , the con tent standard s life science standards. m i ght ch a n ge , but the con ceptual or ga n i z a-

■ S c i en ce con tent can be ad ded . The con n ecti on wi l l con ti nue to provi de stu dents wi t h ti on s , dept h , det a i l , and sel ecti on of top i c s k n owl ed ge ,u n ders t a n d i n g, and abi l i ties that can be en ri ch ed and va ri ed as appropri a te wi ll improve their scien tific literac y. for indivi dual stu dents and sch ool scien ce

CHANGING EMP H A S E S

The National Science Education Standards envision change throughout the system. The science content standards encompass the following changes in emphases:

LESS EMPHASIS ON MORE EMPHASIS ON Knowing scientific facts and information Understanding scientific concepts and developing abilities of inquiry Studying subject matter disciplines (physical,life, Learning subject matter disciplines in the context of earth sciences) for their own sake inquiry, technology, science in personal and social perspectives,and history and nature of science Separating science knowledge and science process Integrating all aspects of science content Covering many science topics Studying a few fundamental science concepts Implementing inquiry as a set of processes Implementing inquiry as instructional strategies, abilities, and ideas to be learned

CHANGING EMPHASES TO PRO M O T E I N Q U I R Y

LESS EMPHASIS ON MORE EMPHASIS ON Activities that demonstrate and verify science Activities that investigate and analyze science content questions Investigations confined to one class period Investigations over extended periods of time Process skills out of context Process skills in context Emphasis on individual process skills such as Using multiple process skills—manipulation, observation or inference cognitive,procedural Getting an answer Using evidence and strategies for developing or revising an explanation Science as exploration and experiment Science as argument and explanation Providing answers to qu e s ti ons abo ut scien ce con ten t Communicating science explanations Individuals and groups of students analyzing and Groups of students often analyzing and synthesizing synthesizing data without defending a conclusion data after defending conclusions Doing few investigations in order to leave time to Doing more investigations in order to develop cover large amounts of content understanding,ability, values of inquiry and knowledge of science content Concluding inquiries with the result of the Applying the results of experiments to scientific experiment arguments and explanations Management of materials and equipment Management of ideas and information Private communication of student ideas and Public communication of student ideas and work to conclusions to teacher classmates

Li felong scientific l i te ra cy begins with attitudes and values established in the e a rliest ye a r s

Content Standard:K–12

Unifying Co n cepts and Proce s s e s

S TA N D A R D : As a result of act i v i - ties in grades K-12, all student s should develop understanding and abilities aligned with the fo l- l owing co n c epts and proce s s e s :

■ Systems, order, and organization

■ Evidence, models, and explanation

■ Constancy, change, and measurement

■ Evolution and equilibrium

■ Form and function D EV E LO PING STUDENT UNDERSTA N D I N G This standard presents broad unifying concepts and processes that complement the analytic, more discipline-based perspectives presented in the other content standards. The conceptual and procedural schemes in this standard provide students with productive and insightful ways of thinking about and integrating a range of basic ideas that explain the natural and designed world. The unifying concepts and processes in this standard are a subset of the many unifying ideas in science and technology. Some of the criteria used in the selection and organization of this standard are

■ The concepts and processes provide connections between and among traditional scientific disciplines.

■ The concepts and processes are fundamental and comprehensive.

■ The concepts and processes are understandable and usable by people who will implement science programs.

■ The concepts and processes can be expressed and experienced in a developmentally appropriate manner during K-12 science education. E ach of the con cepts and processes of this standard has a con ti nuum of com p l ex i ty that

l e nds itsel f to the K-4, 5 - 8 , and 9-12 grade - investigate and comprehend all at once. l e vel clu s ters used in the other con ten t Scientists and students learn to define small s t a n d a rd s . In this standard , h owever, t h e portions for the convenience of investiga- bo u n d a r ies of disciplines and grade - l evel tion. The units of investigation can be d ivi s i ons are not disti n ct — te ach ers should referred to as “systems.” A system is an orga- devel op stu den t s’ u n ders t a n d i n g s con ti nu- nized group of related objects or compo- o u s ly ac ross grades K-12. nents that form a whole. Systems can con- Sys tems and su b s ys tem s , the natu re of sist, for example, of organisms, machines, m odel s , and con s erva ti on are fundamen t a l fundamental particles, galaxies, ideas, num- con cepts and processes inclu ded in this stan- bers, transportation, and education. Systems d a rd . Young stu dents tend to interpret ph e- have boundaries, components, resources n om ena sep a ra tely ra t h er than in terms of a flow (input and output), and feedback. s ys tem . Force , for ex a m p l e , is perceived as a The goal of this standard is to think and property of an obj ect ra t h er than the re su l t a n a ly ze in terms of s ys tem s . Thinking and of i n teracting bod i e s . S tu dents do not recog- a n a lyzing in terms of s ys tems wi ll help stu- n i ze the differen ces bet ween parts and wh o l e dents keep track of m a s s , en er gy, obj e ct s , s ys tem s , but vi ew them as similar. Th e refore , or ga n i s m s , and events referred to in the te ach ers of s c i en ce need to help stu d ents rec- o t h er con tent standard s . The idea of s i m p l e ogn i ze the properties of obj ect s , as em ph a- s ys tems en compasses su b s ys tems as well as s i zed in grade - l e vel con tent standard s , wh i l e i den ti f ying the stru ctu re and functi on of s ys- h elping them to understand sys tem s . tem s , feed b a ck and equ i l i briu m , and the dis- As another example, students in middle ti n c ti on bet ween open and cl o s ed sys tem s . school and high school view models as Science assumes that the behavior of the physical copies of reality and not as concep- universe is not capricious, that nature is the tual representations. Teachers should help same everywhere,and that it is understand- students understand that models are devel- able and predictable. Students can develop oped and tested by comparing the model an understanding of regularities in systems, with observations of reality. and by extension, the universe; they then Teachers in elementary grades should rec- can develop understanding of basic laws, ognize that students’ reports of changes in theories, and models that explain the world. such things as volume, mass, and space can Newton’s laws of force and motion, represent errors common to well-recognized Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, conserva- developmental stages of children. tion laws, Darwin’s laws of natural selection, and chaos theory all exemplify the idea of GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STA N D A R D order and regularity. An assumption of Some of the fundamental concepts order establishes the basis for cause-effect that underlie this standard are relationships and predictability. S YS T E M S , O R D E R , AND ORG A N I Z A- Pred i cti on is the use of k n owl ed ge to iden- See Program TION The natural and designed world is tify and explain ob s erva ti on s , or ch a n ge s ,i n Standard C complex; it is too large and complicated to adva n ce . The use of m a t h em a tics, especially

probability, allows for greater or lesser cer- tory power. Models help scientists and engi- tainty of predictions. neers understand how things work. Models O rder—the beh avi or of units of m a t ter, take many forms, including physical objects, obj ect s , or ga n i s m s , or events in the uni- plans, mental constructs, mathematical verse—can be de s c ri bed stati s ti c a lly. equations,and computer simulations. Prob a bi l i ty is the rel a tive cert a i n ty (or uncer- Scientific explanations incorporate exist- t a i n ty) that indivi duals can assign to sel ected ing scientific knowledge and new evidence events happening (or not happening) in a s pec i f i ed space or ti m e . In scien ce , redu cti on As stu d ents devel op and. . .u n d ers t a n d of u n cert a i n t y occ u rs thro u gh su ch proce s s e s as the devel opm ent of k n owl ed ge abo ut fac- m o re sci en ce co n cepts and pro ce s se s , tors influ encing obj e ct s , or ga n i s m s , s ys tem s , t h eir expl a n a tions should be come more or even t s ; bet ter and more ob s erva ti on s ; a n d bet ter ex p l a n a tory model s . sop h i s ti c a ted. . .f re q u en t ly ref l e cting a ri ch Types and levels of organization provide sci en tific knowl ed ge ba se , evi d en ce of l o gi c , useful ways of thinking about the world. h i gh er levels of a n a lys i s , and gre a ter Types of organization include the periodic table of elements and the classification of tol era n ce of cri ti cism and uncert a i n ty. organisms.Physical systems can be described at different levels of organiza- from observations, experiments, or models tion—such as fundamental particles, atoms, into internally consistent, logical statements. and molecules. Living systems also have dif- Different terms, such as “hypothesis,” ferent levels of organization—for example, “model,”“law,”“principle,”“theory,” and cells, tissues, organs, organisms, popula- “paradigm” are used to describe various tions, and communities. The complexity types of scientific explanations. As students and number of fundamental units change in develop and as they understand more sci- extended hierarchies of organization. ence concepts and processes,their explana- Within these systems,interactions between tions should become more sophisticated. components occur.Further, systems at dif- That is, their scientific explanations should ferent levels of organization can manifest more frequently include a rich scientific different properties and functions. knowledge base, evidence of logic, higher levels of analysis, greater tolerance of criti- EVIDENCE, MODELS,AND EXPLANATION cism and uncertainty, and a clearer demon- Evidence consists of observations and data stration of the relationship between logic, on which to base scientific explanations. evidence, and current knowledge. See Content Using evidence to understand interactions Standard A allows individuals to predict changes in nat- CONSTANCY, CHANGE, AND MEASUREMENT (all grade levels) ural and designed systems. Although most things are in the process of See Content Models are tentative schemes or struc- becoming different—changing—some Standard B tures that correspond to real objects, events, properties of objects and processes are char- (grades 9-12) or classes of events, and that have explana- acterized by constancy, including the speed

of light, the charge of an electron,and the Different systems of measurement are total mass plus energy in the universe. used for different purposes. Scientists usual- Changes might occur, for example, in prop- ly use the metric system. An important part erties of materials, position of objects, of measurement is knowing when to use motion, and form and function of systems. which system. For example, a meteorologist Interactions within and among systems might use degrees Fahrenheit when report- result in change. Changes vary in rate,scale, ing the weather to the public, but in writing and pattern, including trends and cycles. scientific reports, the meteorologist would E n er gy can be tra n s ferred and matter can use degrees Celsius. be ch a n ged . Nevert h el e s s , wh en measu red ,t h e Scale includes understanding that differ- sum of en er gy and matter in sys tem s , and by ent characteristics, properties, or relation- ex ten s i on in the univers e , remains the same. ships within a system might change as its Changes in systems can be quantified. dimensions are increased or decreased. Evidence for interactions and subsequent Rate involves comparing one measured change and the formulation of scientific quantity with another measured quantity, explanations are often clarified through for example,60 meters per second. Rate is quantitative distinctions—measurement. also a measure of change for a part relative Mathematics is essential for accurately mea- to the whole, for example, change in birth suring change. rate as part of population growth.

EVO LUTION AND EQU I L I B R I U M See Content Evolution is a series of changes, some grad- Standard C ual and some sporadic, that accounts for the (grades 9-12) present form and function of objects, organisms,and natural and designed systems. The general idea of evolution is that the present arises from materials and forms of the past. Although evolution is most commonly associated with the biological theory explaining the process of descent with modification of organisms from common ancestors, evolution also describes changes in the universe. Equilibrium is a physical state in which forces and changes occur in opposite and off-setting directions: for example, opposite forces are of the same magnitude, or off-setting changes occur at equal rates. Steady state,balance, and homeostasis also describe equilibrium states. Interacting units of matter tend toward equilibrium states in which the energy is distributed as randomly and uniformly as possible.

See Content FORM AND FUNCTION Form and func- Standard C tion are complementary aspects of objects, (grades 5-8) organisms,and systems in the natural and designed world. The form or shape of an object or system is frequently related to use, operation, or function. Function frequently relies on form. Understanding of form and function applies to different levels of organization. Students should be able to explain function by referring to form and explain form by referring to function.

In element a ry g ra d e s, s t u d e nt s begin to develop the p hys i cal and i nte l l e ctual abilities of scientific inquiry.

Content Standards:K-4

S c i e n ce as In q u i ry

CONTENT STANDARD A: As a result of activities in grades K-4, all students should deve l o p

■ Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry

■ Understanding about scientific inquiry D EV E LO PING STUDENT ABILITIES AND U N D E R S TA N D I N G From the earliest grades, students should experience science in a form that engages them in the active construction of ideas and explanations and enhances their opportunities to develop the abilities of doing science. Teaching science as inquiry provides teachers with the opportunity to develop student abilities and to enrich student understanding of science. Students should do science in ways that are within their developmental capabilities. This standard sets forth some abilities of scientific inquiry appropriate for students in grades K-4. In the early years of school, students can investigate earth materials, organisms, and properties of common objects. Although children develop concepts and vocabulary from such experiences,they also should develop inquiry skills. As students focus on the processes of doing investigations, they develop the ability to ask scientific questions, investigate aspects of the world around them, and use their observations to construct reasonable explanations for the questions posed. Guided by teachers, students continually develop their science knowledge. Students should also learn through the inquiry process how to communicate about their own and their peers’ investigations and explanations. Th ere is logic is behind the abi l i ties out l i n ed in the inqu i r y standard , but a step - by - s tep s equ en ce or scien t ific met h od is not implied . In practi ce ,s tu dent qu e s ti ons might arise from previous inve s ti ga ti on s ,p l a n n ed cl a s s room activi ti e s , or qu e s ti ons stu dents ask each other. For instance ,i f ch i l d ren ask each other how animals are similar and differen t , an inve s ti ga ti on

m i ght arise into ch a racteri s tics of or ga n i s m s possible for many students to consider by t h ey can ob s erve . fourth grade. Fu ll inqu i r y invo lves asking a simple E M P LOY SIMPLE EQUIPMENT AND qu e s ti on , com p l e ting an inve s ti ga ti on , TOOLS TO GATHER DATA AND EXT E N D a n s wering the qu e s ti on , and pre s en ting the THE SENSES. In early years, students re s ults to others . In el em en t a ry grade s , s tu- develop simple skills, such as how to dents begin to devel op the physical and observe, measure, cut, connect, switch, turn i n tell ectual abi l i ties of s c i en tific inqu i r y. on and off, pour, hold, tie, and hook. Th ey can de s i g n inve s ti ga ti ons to try things Beginning with simple instruments, stu- to see what happen s — t h e y tend to focus on dents can use rulers to measure the length, con c rete re sults of tests and wi l l en tert a i n height, and depth of objects and materials; the idea of a “f a i r ” test (a test in wh i ch on ly thermometers to measure temperature; one va ri a ble at a time is ch a n ged ) . watches to measure time; beam balances However, ch i l d r en in K-4 have difficulty and spring scales to measure weight and with ex peri m en t a ti on as a process of te s ti n g force; magnifiers to observe objects and i deas and the logic of using evi den ce to for- organisms; and microscopes to observe the mu l a te ex p l a n a ti on s . finer details of plants, animals, rocks,and GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STA N D A R D other materials. Children also develop skills in the use of computers and calculators for Fundamental abilities and concepts conducting investigations. that underlie this standard include USE DATA TO CO N S T RUCT A REASON- ABILITIES NECESSARY TO DO ABLE EXPLA N AT I O N . This aspect of t h e SCIENTIFIC INQU I RY s t a n d a rd em ph a s i zes the stu den t s’ t h i n k i n g ASK A QUESTION ABOUT OBJECTS , as they use data to formu l a te ex p l a n a ti on s . O RG A N I S M S , AND EV E N T S IN T H E Even at the earliest grade level s , s tu den t s E N V I RO N M E N T. This aspect of the stan- should learn what con s ti tutes evi den ce and dard emphasizes students asking questions ju d ge the merits or strength of the data and that they can answer with scientific knowl- i n form a ti on that wi ll be used to make ex p l a- edge, combined with their own observa- n a ti on s . Af ter stu dents propose an ex p l a n a- tions. Students should answer their ques- ti on , t h ey wi l l appeal to the knowl ed ge and tions by seeking information from reliable evi den ce they obt a i n ed to su p port thei r sources of scientific information and from ex p l a n a ti on s .S tu dents should ch eck thei r their own observations and investigations. ex p l a n a ti ons against scien tific knowl ed ge , ex peri en ce s , and ob s erva ti ons of o t h ers . P LAN AND CONDUCT A SIMPLE INVES- T I G AT I O N . In the earliest years, investiga- CO M M U N I C ATE INVESTIGATIONS AND tions are largely based on systematic obser- E X P LA N AT I O N S . Students should begin See Teaching vations. As students develop, they may developing the abilities to communicate, Standard B design and conduct simple experiments to critique, and analyze their work and the answer questions. The idea of a fair test is work of other students. This communica-

tion might be spoken or drawn as well as D EV E LO PING STUDENT written. U N D E R S TANDING U N D E R S TANDINGS ABOUT Du r ing their early ye a rs , ch i l d ren’s natu ra l SCIENTIFIC INQU I RY c u ri o s i ty leads them to ex p l ore the world by

See Content ■ Scientific investigations involve asking ob s erving and manipulating com m on obj ect s Standard G and answering a question and comparing and materials in their envi ron m en t . Ch i l d ren (grades K-4) the answer with what scientists already com p a re , de s c ri be , and sort as they begin to know about the world. form ex p l a n a ti ons of the worl d . Devel oping a

■ Scientists use different kinds of investiga- su bj ect - m a t ter knowl ed ge base to explain and tions depending on the questions they are trying to answer. Types of investiga- Full inquiry involves asking a simple tions include describing objects, events, question, completing an investigation, and organisms; classifying them; and answering the question, and doing a fair test (experimenting).

See Program ■ Simple instruments, such as magnifiers, presenting the results to others. Standard C thermometers, and rulers, provide more information than scientists obtain using pred i ct the world requ i res many ex peri en ce s only their senses. over a long peri od . Young ch i l d ren bri n g

■ Scientists develop explanations using ex peri en ce s , u n ders t a n d i n g, and ideas to observations (evidence) and what they s ch oo l ; te ach ers provi de opportu n i ties to con- already know about the world (scientific ti nue ch i l d ren’s ex p l ora ti ons in foc u s ed set- knowledge). Good explanations are based ti n gs with other ch i l d ren using simple too l s , on evidence from investigations. su ch as magn i f i e rs and measu r ing devi ce s .

■ Scientists make the results of their inves- Physical science in grades K-4 includes tigations public; they describe the investi- topics that give students a chance to increase gations in ways that enable others to their understanding of the characteristics of repeat the investigations. objects and materials that they encounter

■ Scientists review and ask questions about daily. Through the observation, manipula- the results of other scientists’ work. tion,and classification of common objects, children reflect on the similarities and differences of the objects. As a result,their ini- Phys i cal Science tial sketches and single-word descriptions lead to increasingly more detailed drawings CONTENT STANDARD B: and richer verbal descriptions. Describing, As a result of the activities in grouping, and sorting solid objects and g rades K-4, all students should materials is possible early in this grade d evelop an understanding of range. By grade 4, distinctions between the

■ Properties of objects and materials properties of objects and materials can be

■ Position and motion of objects understood in specific contexts, such as a set

■ Light, heat, electricity, and magnetism of rocks or living materials.

Willie the Ha m s te r their pet hamster, is leaving his cage at night and drinking the water. The class decides to M s . W. en cou ra ges stu d ents to en ga ge in an test Marie’s idea by covering the watering i nve s ti ga tion initi a ted by a question that sig- can so that Willie cannot drink the water. nals stu d ent intere s t . The co n text for the inve s- The children implement their investigation, ti ga tion is one familiar to the stu d ents—a pet and the next morning observe that the in the cl a s s roo m . She te a ches some of t h e water level has not dropped. The children i m po rtant aspe cts of i n q u i r y by asking the stu- now have proof that their explanation is d ents to co n s i d er altern a t ive expl a n a ti o n s , to correct. Ms. W. asks the class to consider l ook at the evi d en ce , and to design a simpl e i nve s ti ga tion to test a hypot h e s i s .M s . W. h a s alternative explanations consistent with pl a n n ed the sci en ce cl a s s es caref u lly, bu t their observations. Are they sure that Willie ch a n ges her plans to re s pond to stu d ent inter- is getting out of his cage at night? The chil- e s t s , k n owing the goals for the sch ool sci en ce dren are quite certain that he is. pro gram and shaping the activi ties to be co n- “How can you be sure?”asks Ms. W. The s i s tent with those goa l s . She understands wh a t children devise an ingenious plan to con- is devel o pm en t a lly appropri a te for stu d ents of this age—she ch oo ses not to launch into an vince her that Willie is getting out of the a b s tra ct expl a n a tion of eva po ra ti o n . She has a cage. They place his cage in the middle of cl a s s room with the re sou rces she needs for the the sand table and smooth the sand. After s tu d ents to en ga ge in an inquiry activi ty. several days and nights,the children observe [This exa m ple high l i g hts some el em ents of that no footprints have appeared in the Te a ching St a n d a rds A , B , D, E , and F; K-4 sand, and the water level has not changed. Co n t ent St a n d a rds A and B; Pro gra m The children now conclude that Willie is St a n d a rds A , C , and D; and Sys tem St a n d a r d not getting out of his cage at night. D. ] “But wait.” says Kahena, “Why should G e or ge is annoyed . Th ere was plen ty of Willie get out of his cage? Willie can see that w a ter in the watering can wh e n he left it on the watering can is covered.”So the class the wi n dows i ll on Fri d ay. Now the can is decides to leave the cage in the middle of almost em pty, and he won’t have time to go the sand table and take the cover off the the re s troom and fill it so that he can water watering can. The water level begins to drop the plants before scien ce class start s . As again, yet there are no footprints in the s o on as Ms. W. begins scien ce cl a s s , G e or g e sand. Now the children dismiss the original raises his hand to complain abo ut the dis- idea about the disappearance of the water, a ppe a ra n ce of the water. “Who used the and Ms. W. takes the opportunity to give the w a t er ? ” he asks. “ Did som eone drink it? class more experiences with the disappear- Did som e one spill it?” None of the stu den t s ance of water. in the class to u ch ed the watering can, a n d At Ms. W.’s suggestion, a container of M s . W asks what the stu d ents think hap- water with a wide top is placed on the win- pen ed to the water. dowsill and the class measures and records Marie has an idea. If none of the children changes in the water level each day using took the water, then it must be that Willie, strips of paper to represent the height of the

water. These strips are dated and pasted on Based on their experience using strips of a large sheet of paper to create a bar graph. paper to measure changes in the level of After a few days, the students discern a pat- water and in identifying patterns of change, tern: The level of water fell steadily but did the students and Ms. W. plan an investiga- not decrease the same amount each day. tion to learn whether water disappears faster After considerable discussion about the dif- when it is warmer. ferences, Patrick observes that when his The ch i l d ren’s ex peri en ces with the dis- mother dries the family’s clothes, she puts a p pe a ra n ce of w a ter con ti nue with an them in the dryer. Patrick notes that the i nve s ti ga ti on abo ut how the size (area) of clothes are heated inside the dryer and that the uncovered porti o n of the con t a i n er when his mother does not set the dial on i n f lu en ces how fast the water disappe a r s the dryer to heat, the clothes just spin and another wh e re the ch i l d ren inve s ti ga te around and do not dry as quickly. Patrick wh et h er using a fan to bl ow air over the suggests that water might disappear faster su rf ace of a con t a i n er of w a ter makes the when it is warmer. w a ter disappear faster.

Young children begin their study of mat- ob s erved , m e a su red , and con tro ll ed in ter by examining and qualitatively describ- va rious ways . The ch i l d ren cannot under- ing objects and their behavior. The impor- stand a com p l ex con cept su ch as en er gy. tant but abstract ideas of science, such as Non et h el e s s , t h ey have intu i t ive noti ons of atomic structure of matter and the conser- en er gy — for ex a m p l e , en er gy is needed to vation of energy, all begin with observing get things don e ; humans get en er gy from and keeping track of the way the world food . Te ach ers can build on the intu i tive behaves. When carefully observed, n o ti ons of s tu dents wi t h o ut requ i r ing them described, and measured, the properties of to mem ori ze technical def i n i ti on s . objects, changes in properties over time, and Sounds are not intu i t ively assoc i a ted the changes that occur when materials inter- with the ch a racteri s tics of t h e ir source by act provide the necessary precursors to the yo u n ger K-4 stu den t s , but that assoc i a ti on later introduction of more abstract ideas in can be devel oped by inve s ti ga ting a va ri ety the upper grade levels. of con c r ete ph en om ena tow a rd the end of S tu dents are familiar with the ch a n g e of the K-4 level . In most ch i l d ren’s minds, s t a te bet ween water and ice , but the idea of el ectri c i ty begins at a source and goes to a l i quids having a set of properties is more t a r get . This mental model can be seen in n ebulous and requ i res more instru c ti on a l s tu den t s’ f i r st attem pts to light a bulb using ef f ort than working with solids. Most stu- a battery and wi re by attaching one wi re to dents wi ll have difficulty with the gen e ra l- a bu l b. Repe a ted activi ties wi l l help stu- i z a ti on that many su b s t a n ces can exist as dents devel o p an idea of a circuit late in ei t h e r a liquid or a solid. K-4 stu d ents do this grade ra n ge and begin to grasp the not understand that water exists as a ga s ef fect of m o re than one battery. Ch i l d ren wh e n it boils or eva p ora te s ; t h e y are more cannot distinguish bet ween heat and tem- l i kely to think that water disappe a rs or pera tu re at this age ; t h erefore , i nve s ti ga ti n g goes into the sky. De s p i te that limitati on , heat nece s s a ri ly must focus on ch a n g es in s tu dents can con du ct simple inve s ti ga ti on s tem pera tu re . with heating and eva p ora ti on that devel o p As children develop facility with lan- i n qu i ry skills and familiari z e them wi t h guage, their descriptions become richer and the ph en om en a . include more detail. Initially no tools need Wh en stu dents de s c ri be and manipulate to be used, but children eventually learn obj ects by pushing, p u ll i n g, t h rowi n g , d rop- that they can add to their descriptions by p i n g, and ro ll i n g, t h e y also begin to foc u s measuring objects—first with measuring on the po s i ti on and movem ent of obj ect s : devices they create and then by using con- de s c ri bing loc a ti on as up, down , in fron t , or ventional measuring instruments, such as beh i n d , and discovering the va r ious kinds rulers, balances, and thermometers. By of m o ti on and forces requ i red to con t rol it. recording data and making graphs and By ex p eri m en ting with ligh t , h e a t , el ectri c i- charts, older children can search for patterns ty, m a gn eti s m , and sound, s tu dents begin and order in their work and that of their to understand that ph en om ena can be peers. For example, they can determine the

speed of an object as fast, faster, or fastest in ■ Sound is produced by vibrating objects. the earliest grades. As students get older, The pitch of the sound can be varied by they can represent motion on simple grids changing the rate of vibration. and graphs and describe speed as the dis- L I G H T, H E AT, E L E C T R I C I T Y, A N D tance traveled in a given unit of time. M AG N E T I S M GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STA N D A R D ■ Light travels in a straight line until it Fundamental concepts and principles strikes an object. Light can be reflected that underlie this standard include by a mirror, refracted by a lens, or absorbed by the object. P RO PE RTIES OF OBJECTS AND ■ Heat can be produ ced in many ways , su ch M AT E R I A L S as bu rn i n g, ru bbi n g, or mixing one su b- ■ Objects have many observable properties, s t a n ce with another. Heat can move from including size, weight, shape, color, tem- one obj ect to another by con du cti on . perature, and the ability to react with ■ E l e ctri c i t y in circuits can produ ce ligh t , other substances. Those properties can be h e a t , s o u n d , and magn etic ef fect s . measured using tools, such as rulers, bal- E l e ctrical circuits requ i r e a com p l e te ances,and thermometers. l o op thro u g h wh i c h an el e ctrical cur- ■ Obj ects are made of one or more materi a l s , rent can pass. su ch as paper, wood , and met a l . Obj ect s ■ Magnets attract and repel each other and can be de s c ri bed by the properties of t h e certain kinds of other materials. m a terials from wh i ch they are made ,a n d those properties can be used to sep a ra te or s ort a group of obj ects or materi a l s .

■ Ma terials can exist in different state s — Li fe Science s o l i d ,l i qu i d , and ga s . Some com m on materi a l s , su ch as water, can be ch a n ged from CONTENT STANDARD C: one state to another by heating or coo l i n g. As a result of activities in gra d e s K - 4 , all students should deve l o p POSITION AND MOTION OF understanding of

O B J E C TS ■ The characteristics of organisms

■ The position of an object can be ■ Life cycles of organisms

described by locating it relative to anoth- ■ Organisms and environments er object or the background. ■ An object’s motion can be described D EV E LO PING STUDENT by tracing and measuring its position U N D E R S TANDING over time. During the elementary grades, children ■ The position and motion of objects can build understanding of biological concepts be changed by pushing or pulling.The through direct experience with living things, size of the change is related to the their life cycles,and their habitats. These strength of the push or pull. experiences emerge from the sense of won-

der and natural interests of children who reproducing to define life . As stu dents have a ask questions such as:“How do plants get va ri ety of ex peri en ces with or ga n i s m s ,a n d food? How many different animals are su b s equ en t ly devel op a knowl ed ge base in there? Why do some animals eat other ani- the life scien ce s ,t h eir anthropom orphic attri- mals? What is the largest plant? Where did buti ons should decl i n e . the dinosaurs go?” An understanding of the In classroom activities such as classifica- characteristics of organisms,life cycles of tion, younger elementary students generally organisms,and of the complex interactions use mutually exclusive rather than hierar- among all components of the natural envi- chical categories. Young children, for exam- ronment begins with questions such as these ple, will use two groups, but older children and an understanding of how individual will use several groups at the same time. organisms maintain and continue life. Students do not consistently use classifica- Making sense of the way organisms live in tion schemes similar to those used by biolo- their environments will develop some gists until the upper elementary grades. understanding of the diversity of life and As students investigate the life cycles of how all living organisms depend on the liv- organisms, teachers might observe that ing and nonliving environment for survival. young children do not understand the con- Because the child’s world at grades K-4 is tinuity of life from, for example, seed to closely associated with the home, school, seedling or larvae to pupae to adult. But and immediate environment, the study of teachers will notice that by second grade, organisms should include observations and most students know that children resemble interactions within the natural world of the their parents. Students can also differentiate child. The experiences and activities in learned from inherited characteristics. grades K-4 provide a concrete foundation However, students might hold some naive for the progressive development in the later thoughts about inheritance, including the grades of major biological concepts, such as belief that traits are inherited from only one evolution, heredity, the cell, the biosphere, parent, that certain traits are inherited interdependence, the behavior of organisms, exclusively from one parent or the other, or and matter and energy in living systems. that all traits are simply a blend of charac- Ch i l d ren’s ideas abo ut the ch a racteri s ti c s teristics from each parent. of or ganisms devel op from basic con cepts of Young ch i l d ren think con c retely abo ut l iving and non l ivi n g. P i a get noted , for i n d ivi dual or ga n i s m s . For ex a m p l e , a n i m a l s i n s t a n ce , that young ch i l d ren give anthropo- a re assoc i a ted with pets or with animals kept m orphic ex p l a n a ti ons to or ga n i s m s . In lower in a zoo. The idea that or g anisms depend on el em en t a ry grade s , m a ny ch i l d ren assoc i a te t h eir envi ron m ent (including other or ga n- “l i fe” with any obj ects that are active in any isms in some cases) is not well devel oped in w ay. This vi ew of l i fe devel ops into one in young ch i l d ren . In grades K-4, the foc u s wh i ch movem ent becomes the defining ch a r- should be on establishing the pri m a ry assoc i- acteri s ti c . Even tu a lly ch i l d ren incorpora te a ti on of or ganisms with their envi ron m en t s o t h er con cept s , su ch as eati n g, bre a t h i n g, a n d and the secon d a r y ideas of depen den ce on

va rious aspects of the envi ron m ent and of ■ Many characteristics of an organism are beh avi ors that help va rious animals su r vive . inherited from the parents of the organ- Lower el em en t a ry stu dents can unders t a n d ism, but other characteristics result from the food link bet ween two or ga n i s m s . an individual’s interactions with the environment. Inherited characteristics GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STA N D A R D include the color of flowers and the Fundamental concepts and principles number of limbs of an animal. Other that underlie this standard include features, such as the ability to ride a bicy- THE CHARACTERISTICS OF cle, are learned through interactions with O RG A N I S M S the environment and cannot be passed

■ O r ganisms have basic need s . For ex a m p l e , on to the next generation. animals need air, w a ter, and food ; p l a n t s O RGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRO N- requ i re air, w a ter, nutri en t s , and ligh t . M E N TS O r ganisms can su rvive on l y in envi ron- ■ All animals depend on plants. Some ani- m ents in wh i ch their needs can be met . mals eat plants for food. Other animals The world has many different envi ron- eat animals that eat the plants. m en t s , and disti n ct envi ron m ents su pport ■ An organism’s patterns of behavior are the life of d i f ferent types of or ga n i s m s . related to the nature of that organism’s ■ Each plant or animal has different struc- environment, including the kinds and tures that serve different functions in numbers of other organisms present, the growth, survival,and reproduction. For availability of food and resources, and example, humans have distinct body the physical characteristics of the envi- See Content structures for walking, holding, seeing, ronment. When the environment Standard F and talking. changes, some plants and animals survive (grades K-4) ■ The beh avi or of i n d ivi d ual or ganisms is and reproduce, and others die or move to i n f lu en ced by internal cues (su ch as new locations. hu n ger) and by ex ternal cues (su ch as a ■ All or ganisms cause ch a n g es in the ch a n ge in the envi ron m en t ) . Humans and envi r on m ent wh ere they live . Some of o t h er or ganisms have senses that hel p these ch a n g es are detri m e ntal to the t h em detect internal and ex ternal cues. or ganism or other or ga n i s m s , wh ere a s LIFE CYCLES OF ORG A N I S M S o t h ers are ben ef i c i a l .

■ Plants and animals have life cycles that ■ Humans depend on their natural and include being born, developing into constructed environments. Humans adults, reproducing, and eventually change environments in ways that can be dying.The details of this life cycle are either beneficial or detrimental for them- different for different organisms. selves and other organisms.

■ Plants and animals closely resemble their parents.

observing and describing the properties of Ea rth and Sp a ce many rocks, children will begin to see that S c i e n ce some rocks are made of a single substance, but most are made of several substances. In later grades, the substances can be identified CONTENT STANDARD D: as minerals. Understanding rocks and min- As a result of their activities in erals should not be extended to the study of g rades K-4, all students should the source of the rocks, such as sedimentary, d evelop an understanding of igneous, and metamorphic, because the ori- ■ Properties of earth materials gin of rocks and minerals has little meaning ■ Objects in the sky to young children. ■ Changes in earth and sky Playgrounds and nearby vacant lots and D EV E LO PING STUDENT parks are convenient study sites to observe a U N D E R S TA N D I N G variety of earth materials. As students col- Young children are naturally interested in lect rocks and observe vegetation, they will everything they see around them—soil, become aware that soil varies from place to rocks, streams, rain, snow, clouds, rainbows, place in its color, texture, and reaction to sun, moon, and stars. During the first years water. By planting seeds in a variety of soil of school, they should be encouraged to samples, they can compare the effect of dif- observe closely the objects and materials in ferent soils on plant growth. If they revisit their environment, note their properties, study sites regularly, children will develop distinguish one from another and develop an understanding that earth’s surface is con- their own explanations of how things stantly changing.They also can simulate become the way they are. As children some changes, such as erosion, in a small become more familiar with their world,they tray of soil or a stream table and compare can be guided to observe changes, including their observations with photographs of sim- cyclic changes, such as night and day and ilar, but larger scale, changes. the seasons; predictable trends, such as By observing the day and night sky regu- growth and decay, and less consistent larly, children in grades K-4 will learn to changes, such as weather or the appearance identify sequences of changes and to look of meteors. Children should have opportu- for patterns in these changes. As they nities to observe rapid changes, such as the observe changes, such as the movement of movement of water in a stream, as well as an object’s shadow during the course of a gradual changes, such as the erosion of soil day, and the positions of the sun and the and the change of the seasons. moon, they will find the patterns in these Children come to school aware that movements. They can draw the moon’s earth’s surface is composed of rocks, soils, shape for each evening on a calendar and water, and living organisms, but a closer then determine the pattern in the shapes look will help them identify many addition- over several wee k s . These unders t a n d i n gs al properties of earth materials. By carefully should be con f i n e d to ob s e rva ti on s ,

build measurement instruments; analyze We at h e r data to find patterns and relationships within the data; and communicate their work to Mr. H. plans a year-long science activity inte- the entire school. gral to the entire school science program.The students are to observe and record informa- Mr. H. introduced the weather station to tion about the daily weather. Mr. H. begins the students soon after school opened. After the activity by assessing what students know, a discussion of students’ experiences with but realizes that students might use terms and ideas about weather, Mr. H. asked the without understanding. He focuses on the class what kinds of information they aspects of weather that his teaching experience thought would be important to collect and and knowledge from research on student abil- how they might go about collecting it. The ities lead him to believe are developmentally appropriate, and he keeps a record of terms to children quickly identified the need to help him modify his plans as the activity pro- record whether the day was sunny or cloudy, gresses. Students design instruments for mea- presence of precipitation, and the tempera- suring weather that are within the range of ture. Mr. H.asked some questions, and the their skills and a parent provides expertise. list became more complicated: What kinds They make measurements using their mathe- of clouds were evident? How much precipi- matical knowledge and skills; they organize data in a meaningful way and communicate tation accumulated? How did temperature the data to other students. There is an ebb change during the day? What was the wind and flow of teacher-directed, whole-class dis- speed and direction? One student said that cussions and small-group work sessions. he had heard on the weather report that [This example highlights some elements of there was a high-pressure front moving in. Teaching Standards A, B, D, and E; What is a front, he asked, and is it impor- Professional Development Standard C; the tant? At the end of the discussion, someone Content Standard on Unifying Concepts and mentioned humidity and recalled the Processes; K-4 Content Standards A, D, E, muggy heat wave of the summer. and F; and Program Standards A, C, and D.] Wh en Mr. H . t h o u ght abo ut the lesson Mr. H.’s fourth grade class was in charge and revi ewed what he was going to do nex t , of the school weather station as part of the he re a l i zed that mu ch of what the stu den t s schoolwide science program. In planning for h ad said was pred i ct a bl e . He won dered abo ut the weather station, Mr. H. reviewed the the last two item s — hu m i d i t y and air pre s- objectives he and his colleagues had defined su re . Those con cepts were well beyond the for the activity. Because of their age, the stu- s tu den t s’ a bi l i ty to fully unders t a n d , yet they dents would not be studying the causes of were familiar with the word s .M r. H . dec i ded weather change such as air pressure, the to con ti nu e , as he had planned , focusing on worldwide air currents, or the effects of land the most ob s erva ble we a t h er con d i ti ons and and sea masses. Rather, over the course of s ee wh et h er the ch i l d ren’s interests in hu m i d- the year, they would identify and observe i ty and air pre s su re were maintained . the elements of weather; devise and use The class spent time the next week dis- measurement and data collection strategies; cussing and planning how they were going

to measure weather conditions, what tools ture,using a commercial thermometer (the would they need, and how they would col- students did make a thermometer following lect and organize their data. Groups worked the directions in a book but decided that in the classroom and in the library; each they would get better data with a commer- group chose one aspect of weather for its cial one); precipitation,using a rain gauge; focus. Mr. H. spent some time with each and cloud formation. Design of the group supporting their ideas, pushing them anemometer was extremely difficult. It was further, and providing specific guidance easy to build something that would turn in when needed. He encouraged the groups to the wind, but the students needed help in get together and compare notes. Twice dur- figuring how to measure the speed. The ing the week, the whole class came together children were also measuring air pressure and groups shared their work while students with a homemade barometer that a parent critiqued and offered ideas. had helped one group construct. Mr. H. Several weeks later, the weather station of supported this, although the children’s abili- the fourth grade was in operation. After ty to understand the concept was limited. much work, including some trial and error, The interest of the student and her parent library research, and the helpful input of a and the class’ familiarity with the term parent who was a skilled mechanic,the stu- seemed reason enough. dents were recording data twice a day for The students recorded their data on wind direction and speed, using a class- charts in the classroom for 2 months. Then made anemometer and wind vane; tempera- it was time to analyze the data, write the

first report for the class weather book, and The weather class continued to operate make a report to the school. Again, the work the weather station all year.The students began with a discussion. What were some of became quite independent and efficient in the ideas that the students had about the collecting data. The data were analyzed weather after all this measuring and record- approximately every 2 months. Some new ing? Were any patterns observed? Many stu- questions were considered,and the basic dents thought the temperature was getting ones continued. Midyear Mr. H. was satis- lower; several noted that if it was windy one fied that the students understood the use of day, it rained the next day. As ideas were charts and graphs, and he introduced a sim- presented,other students agreed or chal- ple computer program that the students lenged what was said.Mr. H. listened and could use to log their data. wrote the ideas on a chart as the students Not only did students learn to ask ques- spoke. When the discussion quieted,he tions and collect, organize,and present data, turned the students’ attention to the list and they learned how to describe daily weather asked them to think about which of the changes in terms of temperature, windspeed ideas on the board they might actually be and direction, precipitation,and humidity. able to confirm by reviewing the data. They listed several and agreed on the following list for a starting place: Is the temperature getting lower? What is the relationship between the direction of the wind and the weather the next day? What happened when the pressure went down or up? Was it colder when it was cloudy? Mr. H. reminded the students of some ways they might represent the data to help them in the analysis; he then assigned tasks, and the students returned to their groups. Several days later, the work was well under way. One group was working on a bar graph showing the total number of sunny, cloudy, and rainy days; another had made a temperature graph that showed the daily fluctuations and showed the weather definitely was getting colder; an interesting table illustrated that when the pressure dropped the weather usually seemed to get worse. The next challenge was to prepare an interesting report for the school, highlighting all that had been learned.

de s c ri ptions,and finding patterns. the resources that humans use.

Attempting to extend this understanding ■ Soils have properties of co l or and tex tu re , into explanations using models will be lim- c a p ac i t y to retain water, and abi l i ty to ited by the inability of young children to su pport the growth of m a ny kinds of understand that earth is approximately p l a n t s ,i n cluding those in our food su pp ly.

spherical. They also have little understand- ■ Fossils provide evidence about the plants ing of gravity and usually have misconcep- and animals that lived long ago and the tions about the properties of light that allow nature of the environment at that time. us to see objects such as the moon. O B J E C TS IN THE SKY (Although children will say that they live on ■ a ball, probing questions will reveal that The su n , m o on , s t a rs , cl o u d s , bi rd s , a n d their thinking may be very different.) a i rplanes all have properti e s , l oc a ti on s , S tu dents can discover patterns of we a t h er and movem ents that can be ob s erved ch a n ges du ring the year by keeping a journ a l . and de s c ri bed . ■ Yo u n ger stu dents can draw a daily we a t h er The sun provi des the light and heat nec- p i ctu re based on what they see out a wi n dow e s s a r y to maintain the tem pera tu re of or at rece s s ; o l der stu dents can make simple the eart h . ch a r ts and gra phs from data they co ll ect at a CHANGES IN THE EARTH AND SKY simple sch ool we a t h er stati on . ■ The su rf ace of the earth ch a n ge s . Som e Emphasis in grades K-4 should be on ch a n ges are due to slow proce s s e s , su ch as developing observation and description ero s i on and we a t h eri n g, and some ch a n ge s skills and the explanations based on obser- a re due to rapid proce s s e s , su ch as land- vations. Younger children should be encour- s l i de s , volcanic eru pti on s , and eart h qu a ke s . aged to talk about and draw what they see ■ Weather changes from day to day and and think. Older students can keep journals, over the seasons. Weather can be use instruments, and record their observa- described by measurable quantities, such tions and measurements. as temperature, wind direction and GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STA N D A R D speed, and precipitation. ■ Objects in the sky have patterns of move- Fundamental concepts and principles ment. The sun, for example,appears to that underlie this standard include move across the sky in the same way P RO PE RTIES OF EARTH MAT E R I A L S every day, but its path changes slowly

■ Earth materials are solid rocks and soils, over the seasons. The moon moves across water, and the gases of the atmosphere. the sky on a daily basis much like the The varied materials have different physi- sun. The observable shape of the moon cal and chemical properties, which make changes from day to day in a cycle that them useful in different ways, for exam- lasts about a month. ple, as building materials, as sources of fuel, or for growing the plants we use as food. Earth materials provide many of

activity and other times separately. When S c i e n ce and the activities are informal and open, such as Te c h n o l ogy building a balance and comparing the weight of objects on it, it is difficult to separate inquiry from technological design. At CONTENT STANDARD E: other times, the distinction might be clear As a result of activities in gra d e s to adults but not to children. K - 4 , all students should deve l o p Children’s abilities in technological prob- ■ Abilities of technological design lem solving can be developed by firsthand ■ Understanding about science experience in tackling tasks with a techno- and technology logical purpose. They also can study techno- ■ Abilities to distinguish between logical products and systems in their natural objects and objects made world—zippers, coat hooks, can openers, by humans bridges, and automobiles. Children can D EV E LO PING STUDENT ABILITIES engage in projects that are appropriately AND UNDERSTANDING challenging for their developmental level— The science and technology standards ones in which they must design a way to connect students to the designed world, fasten,move, or communicate. They can offer them experience in making models of study existing products to determine func- useful things,and introduce them to laws of tion and try to identify problems solved, nature through their understanding of how materials used, and how well a product does technological objects and systems work. what it is supposed to do. An old technolog- This standard em ph a s i zes devel oping the ical device, such as an apple peeler, can be a bi l i ty to de s i gn a soluti on to a probl em and used as a mystery object for students to u n derstanding the rel a ti onship of s c i en ce investigate and figure out what it does, how and tech n o l ogy and the way people are it helps people, and what problems it might i nvo lved in bo t h . This standard helps estab- solve and cause. Such activities provide lish de s i g n as the tech n o l ogical para ll el to excellent opportunities to direct attention to i n qu i r y in scien ce . L i ke the scien ce as inqu i ry specific technology—the tools and instru- s t a n d a rd , this standard begins the under- ments used in science. standing of the de s i gn proce s s , as well as the Suitable tasks for children at this age a bi l i ty to solve simple de s i gn probl em s . should have clearly defined purposes and be Children in grades K-4 understand and related with the other content standards. can carry out design activities earlier than Tasks should be conducted within immedi- they can inquiry activities, but they cannot ately familiar contexts of the home and easily tell the difference between the two, school. They should be straightforward; nor is it important whether they can. In there should be only one or two well- grades K-4, children should have a variety of defined ways to solve the problem,and there educational experiences that involve science should be a single, well-defined criterion for and technology, sometimes in the same success. Any construction of objects should

ASSESSMENT PURPOSE: When used in We ather In s t ru m e nt s conjunction with other data,this assessment activity provides information to be used in Titles in this example emphasize some impor- assigning a grade. tant components of the assessment process. Superficially, this assessment task is a simple CO N T E X T: This assessment activity is matching task, but the teacher’s professional appropriate at the end of a unit on the judgment is still key. For example, is the term weather in grades 3 or 4. “wind gauge” most appropriate or should the more technical term “anemometer” be used? ASSESSMENT EXERC I S E : The teacher needs to decide if the use of either Match pictures of the following weather term places some students at a disadvantage. instruments with the weather condition Teacher planning includes collecting pictures they measure: of weather instruments and ensuring that all students have equal opportunity to study 1. Thermometers of various types, includ- them. A teacher who uses this assessment task ing liquid-expansion thermometers, recognizes that all assessments have strengths metal-expansion thermometers and digi- and weaknesses; this task is appropriate for tal-electronic thermometers—used to one purpose, and other modes of assessment measure temperature. are appropriate for other purposes. This 2. Barometers of various types, including assessment task presupposes that students aneroid and mercury types—used to have developed some understanding of weath- measure air pressure. er, technology, changing patterns in the envi- 3. Weather vanes—used to measure wind ronment, and the roles science and technology direction. have in society. The teacher examines the pat- 4. Wind gauges of various sorts—instru- terns in the responses to evaluate the individ- ments to measure windspeed or velocity. ual student responses. 5. Hygrometers of various sorts—to mea- [This example highlights some elements of sure moisture in the air. Teaching Standards A, C, and D; Assessment 6. Rain gauges of various sorts—used to Standards A, B, and D; and K-4 Content measure depth of precipitation. Standards D, E, and F.] EVA LUATING STUDENT PE R F O R M A N C E : SCIENCE CO N T E N T: The K-4 content EXEMPLARY PERFORMANCE: Student matches standard for earth science is supported by all instruments with their use. the fundamental concept that weather can be described in measurable quantities. AVERAGE PERFORMANCE: Student matches familiar forms of measuring instruments ASSESSMENT AC T I V I T Y: Students match with their uses.A student might mistakenly pictures of instruments used to measure say that the thermometer measures heat or weather conditions with the condition the might not understand the concepts of air instrument measures. pressure or humidity. Students at this age ASSESSMENT TY PE : Individual, short- cannot be expected to develop sophisticated answer responses to matching item format. understanding of the concepts of air pressure, humidity, heat, temperature, speed, or D ATA : Students’ responses. velocity.

require developmentally appropriate manip- and communicating the problem, design, ulative skills used in elementary school and and solution—provides a framework for should not require time-consuming prepa- planning and for specifying learning out- ration and assembly. comes. However, not every activity will Over the course of grades K-4, student involve all of those stages, nor must any par- investigations and design problems should ticular sequence of stages be followed. For incorporate more than one material and example,some activities might begin by several contexts in science and technology. identifying a need and progressing through A suitable collection of tasks might include the stages; other activities might involve making a device to shade eyes from the sun, only evaluating existing products. making yogurt and discussing how it is GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STA N D A R D made, comparing two types of string to see Fundamental abilities and concepts which is best for lifting different objects, that underlie this standard include exploring how small potted plants can be made to grow as quickly as possible, design- ABILITIES OF T E C H N O LO G I CA L ing a simple system to hold two objects D E S I G N together, testing the strength of different IDENTIFY A SIMPLE PRO B L E M . In See Content materials, using simple tools, testing differ- problem identification, children should Standard A ent designs, and constructing a simple develop the ability to explain a problem in (grades K-4) structure. It is important also to include their own words and identify a specific task design problems that require application of and solution related to the problem. ideas, use of communications, and implementation of procedures—for instance, P ROPOSE A SOLU T I O N . Students should improving hall traffic at lunch and cleaning make proposals to build something or get the classroom after scientific investigations. something to work better; they should be Experiences should be complemented by able to describe and communicate their study of familiar and simple objects through ideas. Students should recognize that which students can develop observation and designing a solution might have constraints, analysis skills. By comparing one or two such as cost, materials, time, space, or safety. obvious properties, such as cost and IMPLEMENTING PROPOSED SOLUTIONS. strength of two types of adhesive tape, for Ch i l d ren should devel op abi l i ties to work example, students can develop the abilities i n d ivi du a lly and co ll a bora tively and to use to judge a product’s worth against its ability su i t a ble too l s , tech n i qu e s , and qu a n ti t a tive to solve a problem. During the K-4 years, an m e a su rem ents wh en appropri a te .S tu den t s appropriate balance of products could come should dem on s tra te the abi l i ty to balance sim- from the categories of clothing, food, and ple con s traints in probl em solvi n g. common domestic and school hardware. A sequence of five stages—stating the EVA LUATE A PRODUCT OR DESIGN. problem, designing an approach, imple- Students should evaluate their own results menting a solution, evaluating the solution, or solutions to problems, as well as those of

other children, by considering how well a measure, and do things that they could product or design met the challenge to solve not otherwise see, measure, and do. a problem. When possible, students should ABILITIES TO DISTINGUISH use measurements and include constraints B E T WEEN NAT U RAL OBJECTS AND and other criteria in their evaluations. They O B J E C TS MADE BY HUMANS should modify designs based on the results ■ Some objects occur in nature; others of evaluations. have been designed and made by people CO M M U N I C ATE A PRO B L E M , D E S I G N , to solve human problems and enhance AND SOLU T I O N . Student abilities should the quality of life.

include oral, written, and pictorial commu- ■ Objects can be categorized into two nication of the design process and product. groups, natural and designed. The communication might be show and tell, group discussions, short written reports, or pictures, depending on the students’ abilities S c i e n ce in Pe r s o n a l and the design project. and Soc i a l U N D E R S TANDING ABOUT SCIENCE AND T E C H N O LO G Y Pe r s pe ct i ve s ■ People have always had questions about their world. Science is one way of CONTENT STANDARD F: answering questions and explaining the As a result of activities in gra d e s natural world. K - 4 , all students should deve l o p ■ People have alw ays had probl ems and understanding of

i nven ted tools and tech n i ques (ways of ■ Personal health

doing som ething) to solve probl em s . ■ Characteristics and changes Trying to determine the ef fects of s o luti on s in populations

h elps people avoid some new probl em s . ■ Types of resources

■ Scientists and engineers often work in ■ Changes in environments

teams with different individuals doing ■ Science and technology in different things that contribute to the local challenges results. This understanding focuses primarily on teams working together and D EV E LO PING STUDENT secondarily, on the combination of scien- U N D E R S TA N D I N G tist and engineer teams. S tu dents in el em en t a ry sch o ol should have

■ Women and men of all ages, back- a va ri ety of ex peri en ces that provi de initi a l grounds, and groups engage in a variety u n ders t a n d i n gs for va rious scien ce - rel a ted of scientific and technological work. pers onal and soc i etal ch a ll en ge s . Cen t ra l

■ Tools help scientists make better observa- i deas rel a ted to health, pop u l a ti on s , tions,measurements, and equipment for re s o u rce s , and envi ron m ents provi de the investigations. They help scientists see, fo u n d a ti ons for stu den t s’ even tual under-

s t a n d i n gs and acti ons as citi zen s . Al t h o u gh probl ems as isolated issues that can be solved the em p hasis in grades K-4 should be on ini- by dealing with them indivi du a lly. For ex a m- tial unders t a n d i n gs , s tu dents can en ga ge in p l e , po lluti on can be solved by cleaning up s ome pers onal acti ons in local ch a ll en ge s the envi ron m ent and producing less waste , rel a ted to scien ce and tech n o l ogy. s c a rc i ty can be solved by using less, a n d Te ach ers should be aw a re of the con cept s that el em en t a ry sch ool stu dents have abo ut Central ideas related to health, h e a l t h . Most ch i l d ren use the word “germ s” populations, resources, and for all microbe s ; t h ey do not gen era lly use the words “ vi ru s” or “b acteri a ,” and wh en they envi ro n m ents provide the fou n d a ti o n s do, t h ey do not understand the differen ce for stu d en t s’ even tual unders t a n d i n gs bet ween the two. Ch i l d ren gen era lly attri bute and actions as citizens. a ll illnesses to germs wi t h o ut disti n cti on bet ween con t a gious and non con t a gious dis- c rowding can be solved by having fewer stu- eases and wi t h o ut understanding of or ga n i c , dents in class or sch oo l . However, u n der- f u n cti on a l , or diet a ry diseases. Te ach ers can standing the interrel a ti onships is not the pri- ex pect stu dents to ex h i bit little unders t a n d- ori ty in el em en t a r y sch oo l . ing of i de a s , su ch as different ori gins of d i s- As stu dents expand their con ceptual hori- e a s e , re s i s t a n ce to infecti on , and preven ti on zons ac ross grades K-12, t h ey wi ll even tu a lly and cure of d i s e a s e . devel op a vi ew that is not cen tered exclu s ive- Ch i l d ren link eating with growt h , h e a l t h , ly on humans and begin to recogn i ze that s tren g t h , and en er gy, but they do not under- i n d ivi dual acti ons acc u mu l a te into soc i et a l stand these ideas in det a i l . Th e y unders t a n d acti on s . Even tu a lly, s tu dents must recogn i ze con n ecti ons bet ween diet and health and that that soc i ety cannot afford to deal on ly wi t h s ome foods are nutri ti on a lly bet ter than oth- s ym ptom s : The causes of the probl ems mu s t ers , but they do not nece s s a ri ly know the re a- be the focus of pers onal and soc i etal acti on s . s ons for these con clu s i on s . By grades 3 and 4, s tu dents rega rd po llu- GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STA N D A R D Fundamental concepts and principles ti on as som ething sen s ed by people and know that underlie this standard include that it might have bad ef fects on people and a n i m a l s . Ch i l d ren at this age usu a lly do not PERSONAL HEALT H

con s i der harm to plants as part of envi ron- ■ Safety and security are basic needs of See Content m ental probl em s ;h owever, recent med i a humans. Safety involves freedom from Standard C a t ten ti on might have incre a s ed stu den t s danger, risk, or injury. Security involves (grades K-4) aw a reness of the import a n ce of trees in the feelings of confidence and lack of anxiety envi ron m en t . In most cases, s tu dents recog- and fear. Student understandings include n i ze po lluti on as an envi ron m ental issu e , following safety rules for home and s c a rc i t y as a re s o u rce issu e , and crowded school, preventing abuse and neglect, cl a s s rooms or sch ools as pop u l a ti on prob- avoiding injury, knowing whom to ask l em s . Most young stu dents con ceive of t h e s e for help, and when and how to say no.

■ Individuals have some responsibility for ■ Some re s o u rces are basic materi a l s , su ch See Content their own health.Students should engage as air, w a ter, and soi l ; s ome are produ ced Standard D in personal care—dental hygiene, cleanli- f rom basic re s o u rce s , su ch as food , f u el , (grades K-4) ness, and exercise—that will maintain and building materi a l s ; and som e and improve health. Understandings re s o u rces are non m a teri a l , su ch as qu i e t include how communicable diseases, p l ace s , be a uty, s ec u ri ty, and safety.

such as colds, are transmitted and some ■ The supply of many resources is limited. of the body’s defense mechanisms that If used, resources can be extended prevent or overcome illness. through recycling and decreased use.

■ Nutri ti on is essen tial to health. S tu den t s CHANGES IN ENVIRO N M E N TS should understand how the body uses ■ E nvi ron m ents are the space , con d i ti on s , See Content food and how va rious foods con tri bute to and factors that affect an indivi du a l ’s Standard C h e a l t h . Recom m en d a ti ons for good nutri- and a pop u l a ti on’s abi l i t y to su r vive and (grades K-4) ti on inclu de eating a va ri ety of food s , e a t- t h e ir qu a l i ty of l i fe . ing less su ga r, and eating less fat. ■ Ch a n ges in envi ron m ents can be natu r - ■ Different substances can damage the al or influ en ced by hu m a n s . Som e body and how it functions. Such sub- ch a n ges are good , s o me are bad , a n d stances include tobacco, alcohol, over- s o me are nei t h er good nor bad . the-counter medicines, and illicit drugs. Po l luti on is a ch a n ge in the envi ron- Students should understand that some m ent that can influ en ce the health, substances, such as prescription drugs, su r viva l , or activi t ies of or ga n i s m s , can be beneficial, but that any substance i n cluding hu m a n s . can be harmful if used inappropriately. ■ Some envi ron m ental ch a n ges occur C H A R ACTERISTICS AND CHANGES s l owly, and others occur ra p i dly. IN POPULAT I O N S Students should understand the different

■ Human pop u l a ti ons inclu de groups of i n d i- consequences of changing environments vi duals living in a particular loc a ti on .O n e in small increments over long periods as i m portant ch a racteri s tic of a human pop u- compared with changing environments l a ti on is the pop u l a ti on den s i ty—the nu m- in large increments over short periods. ber of i n d ivi duals of a particular pop u l a ti on SCIENCE AND T E C H N O LOGY IN that lives in a given amount of s p ace . LO C AL CHALLENGES ■ The size of a human population can ■ People continue inventing new ways of See Content increase or decrease. Populations will doing things, solving problems, and get- Standard E increase unless other factors such as dis- ting work done. New ideas and inven- (grades K-4) ease or famine decrease the population. tions often affect other people; some- TY PES OF RESOURC E S times the effects are good and sometimes

■ Re s o u rces are things that we get from the they are bad. It is helpful to try to deter- l iving and non l iving envi ron m ent to meet mine in advance how ideas and inven- the needs and wants of a pop u l a ti on . tions will affect other people.

■ Science and technology have greatly women and men (including minorities and improved food quality and quantity, people with disabilities) who have made transportation,health, sanitation, and contributions to science. The stories can communication. These benefits of sci- highlight how these scientists worked—that ence and technology are not available to is, the questions, procedures,and contribu- all of the people in the world. tions of diverse individuals to science and technology. In upper elementary grades, students can read and share stories that Hi s to ry and express the theme of this standard—science Nat u re of Science is a human endeavor. GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STA N D A R D CONTENT STANDARD G: Fu n d a m e ntal co n cepts and pri n c i p l e s As a result of activities in gra d e s t h at underlie this standard include K - 4 , all students should deve l o p understanding of SCIENCE AS A HUMAN ENDEAVO R ■ Science and technology have been prac- ■ Science as a human endeavor ticed by people for a long time. D EV E LO PING STUDENT ■ Men and women have made a variety of U N D E R S TA N D I N G contributions throughout the history of Beginning in grades K-4, teachers should science and technology.

build on students’ natural inclinations to ■ Although men and women using scien- ask questions and investigate their world. tific inquiry have learned much about Groups of students can conduct investiga- the objects, events, and phenomena in tions that begin with a question and nature, much more remains to be under- progress toward communicating an answer stood.Science will never be finished.

to the question. For students in the early ■ Many people choose science as a career grades, teachers should emphasize the expe- and devote their entire lives to studying riences of investigating and thinking about it. Many people derive great pleasure explanations and not overemphasize memo- from doing science. rization of scientific terms and information. Students can learn some things about scientific inquiry and significant people from history, which will provide a foundation for the development of sophisticated ideas related to the history and nature of science that will be developed in later years. Through the use of short stories, films, videos, and other examples, elementary teachers can introduce interesting historical examples of

Deve l o p i n g kn owledge to ex p l a i n and pre d i ct the wo rl d re q u i res many ex pe ri e n ces over a long pe ri od.

Content Standards:5-8

S c i e n ce as In q u i ry

CONTENT STANDARD A: As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students should deve l o p

■ Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry

■ Understandings about scientific inquiry D EV E LO PING STUDENT ABILITIES AND U N D E R S TA N D I N G Students in grades 5-8 should be provided opportunities to engage in full and in partial inquiries. In a full inquiry students begin with a question, design an investigation, gather evidence, formulate an answer to the original question,and communicate the investigative process and results. In partial inquiries, they develop abilities and understanding of selected aspects of the inquiry process.Students might, for instance, describe how they would design an investigation, develop explanations based on scientific information and evidence provided through a classroom activity, or recognize and analyze several alternative explanations for a natural phenomenon presented in a teacher-led demonstration. Students in grades 5-8 can begin to recognize the relationship between explanation and evidence. They can understand that background knowledge and theories guide the design of investigations, the types of observations made, and the interpretations of data. In turn,the experiments and investigations students conduct become experiences that shape and modify their background knowledge. With an appropriate curriculum and adequate instruction, middle-school students can develop the skills of investigation and the understanding that scientific inquiry is guided by knowledge, observations, ideas, and questions. Middle-school students might have trouble identifying variables and controlling more than one variable in an experiment.Students also might have difficulties understanding the influence of different variables in an experiment—

for example, variables that have no effect, should consider questions such as “What marginal effect, or opposite effects on an data will answer the question?”and “What outcome. are the best observations or measurements Te a ch ers of s c i en ce for middl e - s ch o ol stu- to make?” Students should be encouraged to dents should note that stu dents tend to cen- repeat data-collection procedures and to ter on evi den ce that con f i rms their curren t share data among groups. bel i efs and con cepts (i.e., pers onal ex p l a n a- In middle sch oo l s , s tu dents produ ce ora l ti on s ) , and ign ore or fail to perceive evi den ce or wri t t en reports that pre s ent the re s ults of that does not agree with their current con- t h eir inqu i ri e s . Su ch reports and discussion s cept s . It is important for te ach e rs of s c i en ce should be a frequ ent occ u rren ce in scien ce to ch a ll en ge current bel i efs and con cepts and progra m s . S tu den t s’ d i s c u s s i ons should cen- provi de scien t ific ex p l a n a ti ons as altern a tive s . ter on qu e s ti on s , su ch as “ How should we Several factors of this standard should be or ga n i ze the data to pre s ent the cl e a re s t highlighted. The instructional activities of a a n s wer to our qu e s ti on ? ” or “ How should we scientific inquiry should engage students in or ga n i ze the evi den ce to pre s ent the identifying and shaping an understanding of s tron gest ex p l a n a ti on ? ”O ut of the discus- the question under inquiry. Students should s i ons abo ut the ra n ge of i de a s , the back- know what the question is asking, what ground knowl ed ge cl a i m s , and the data, t h e opportu n i ty arises for learn ers to shape thei r Students in grades 5-8 can ex p eri en ces abo ut the practi ce of s c i en ce and begin to recognize the relationship the rules of s c i en tific thinking and knowi n g. The language and practi ces evi dent in the between explanation and evidence. cl a s s room are an important el em ent of doi n g i n qu i ri e s .S tu dents need opportu n i ties to background knowledge is being used to pre s ent their abi l i ties and understanding and frame the question, and what they will have to use the knowl ed ge and language of s c i en ce to do to answer the question. The students’ to com mu n i c a te scien tific ex p l a n a ti ons and questions should be relevant and meaning- i de a s . Wri ti n g , l a beling drawi n gs , com p l eti n g ful for them. To help focus investigations, con cept maps, devel oping spre ad s h eet s , a n d students should frame questions, such as de s i gning com p uter gra phics should be a “What do we want to find out about . . .?”, p a r t of the scien ce edu c a ti on . These should “How can we make the most accurate be pre s en ted in a way that all ows stu dents to observations?”, “Is this the best way to receive con s tru ctive feed b ack on the qu a l i ty answer our questions?”and “If we do this, of t h o u ght and ex pre s s i on and the acc u r ac y then what do we expect will happen?” of s c i en tific ex p l a n a ti on s . The instructional activities of a scientific This standard should not be interpreted as inquiry should involve students in establish- advoc a ting a “s c i en tific met h od .” The con- ing and refining the methods, materials, and ceptual and procedu ral abi l i ties su ggest a log- data they will collect. As students conduct ical progre s s i on , but they do not imply a investigations and make observations,they ri gid approach to scien tific inqu i r y. On the

con tra r y, t h ey imply codevel opm ent of t h e i n terpret data, use evi den ce to gen era te ex p l a- s k i lls of s tu dents in acqu i ring scien ce knowl- n a ti on s , propose altern a tive ex p l a n a ti on s ,a n d ed ge , in using high - l e vel re a s on i n g, in app ly- c ri ti que ex p l a n a ti ons and procedu re s . ing their ex i s ting understanding of s c i en ti f i c USE APPRO P R I ATE TOOLS AND T E C H - i de a s , and in com mu n i c a ting scien tific infor- N I QUES TO GAT H E R ,A N A LY Z E, A N D m a ti on . This standard cannot be met by hav- INTERPRET DATA . The use of tools and ing the stu dents mem ori ze the abi l i ties and tech n i qu e s , i n cluding mathem a ti c s , wi l l be u n ders t a n d i n gs . It can be met on ly wh en stu- g u i ded by the qu e s ti on asked and the inve s ti- dents frequ en t ly en ga ge in active inqu i ri e s . ga ti ons stu dents de s i gn . The use of com p ut- GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STA N D A R D ers for the co ll ecti on , su m m a r y, and display of evi den ce is part of this standard . S tu den t s Fundamental abilities and concepts should be able to acce s s , ga t h er, s tore , that underlie this standard include retri eve , and or ga n i z e data, using hardw a re ABILITIES NECESSARY TO DO and sof t w a re de s i gn ed for these purpo s e s . SCIENTIFIC INQU I RY D EV E LOP DESCRIPTIONS, E X P LA N A- IDENTIFY QUESTIONS T H AT CAN BE T I O N S ,P R E D I C T I O N S , AND MODELS ANSWERED T H ROUGH SCIENTIFIC USING EV I D E N C E. S tu dents should base I N V E S T I G AT I O N S . S tu dents should devel- t h eir ex p l a n a ti on on what they ob s erved , op the abi l i ty to refine and refocus broad and and as they devel op cogn i tive skill s , t h ey i ll - def i n ed qu e s ti on s . An important aspect of should be able to differen ti a te ex p l a n a ti on this abi l i ty consists of s tu den t s’ a bi l i ty to cl a r- f rom de s c ri pti on — providing causes for ify qu e s ti ons and inqu i ries and direct them ef fects and establishing rel a ti onships based tow a rd obj ects and ph en om ena that can be on evi d en ce and logical argumen t . This stan- de s c ri bed , ex p l a i n ed , or pred i cted by scien ti f- d a rd requ i res a su bj ect matter knowl ed ge ic inve s ti ga ti on s .S tu dents should devel op the base so the stu dents can ef fectively con du ct a bi l i ty to iden tify their qu e s ti ons with scien- i nve s ti ga ti on s , because devel oping ex p l a n a- tific ide a s , con cept s , and qu a n ti t a tive rel a- ti ons establishes con n ecti ons bet ween the ti o nships that guide inve s ti ga ti on . con tent of s c i en ce and the con texts wi t h i n wh i ch stu dents devel op new knowl ed ge . DESIGN AND CONDUCT A SCIENTIFIC I N V E S T I G AT I O N . S tu dents should devel op THINK CRITICA L LY AND LO G I CA L LY TO gen eral abi l i ti e s , su ch as sys tem a tic ob s erva- MAKE THE RELATIONSHIPS BETW E E N ti on , making acc u ra te measu rem en t s ,a n d EVIDENCE AND EXPLA N AT I O N S . i den ti f ying and con tro lling va ri a bl e s . Th ey Thinking cri ti c a lly abo ut evi den ce inclu de s should also devel op the abi l i ty to cl a rify thei r deciding what evi den ce should be used and i deas that are influ encing and guiding the acco u n t ing for anomalous data. S pec i f i c a lly, i n qu i r y, and to understand how those ide a s s tu dents should be able to revi ew data from com p a re with current scien tific knowl ed ge . a simple ex peri m en t , su m m a ri ze the data, S tu dents can learn to formu l a te qu e s ti on s , and form a logical argument abo ut the cause- de s i gn inve s ti ga ti on s , exec ute inve s ti ga ti on s , a n d -effect relationships in the experiment.

Pe n d u l u m s The students in Ms. D.’s fifth grade class are studying motion,direction,and speed. Ms. D. wants to focus on inquiry. She wants One experiment in this study is designed to students to develop an understanding of vari- enable the students to understand how and ables in inquiry and how and why to change why to change one variable at a time. Ms. D. one variable at a time. This inquiry process has the students form groups of four; each skill is imparted in the context of physical sci- student has an assigned role. One student— ence subject matter. The activity is purposeful, the materials manager—goes to the supply planned, and requires teacher guidance. Ms. table to pick up a length of string, scissors, D. does not tell students that the number of tape, and washers of various sizes and swings depends on the length of the pendulum, but creates an activity that awakens stu- weights.Each group is directed to use these dents’ interest and encourages them to ask materials to 1) construct a pendulum, questions and seek answers. Ms. D. encour- 2) hang the pendulum so that it swings ages students to look for applications of the freely from a pencil taped to the surface of science knowledge beyond the classroom. the desk, and 3) count the number of Students keep records of the science activities, swings of the pendulum in 15 seconds. and Ms. D. helps them understand that there The notetaker in each group records the are different ways to keep records of events. The activity requires mathematical knowledge result in a class chart. Ms. D. asks the stu- and skills.. The assessment, constructing a dents to examine the class data. Because the pendulum that swings at six swings per sec- number of swings recorded by each group is ond, is embedded in the activity. different, a lively discussion begins about [This example highlights some elements of why this happened. The students decide to Teaching Standards B, C, and D; Assessment repeat the experiment to make sure that Standard B; 5-8 Content Standards A and B; they have measured the time and counted and Program Standard C.] the swings correctly. When the second set of

data are entered on the class data table, the The notetaker from each group is directed results make it clear that the differences are to hang the group’s original pendulum on not because students did not count swings the peg corresponding to its number of or measure time correctly. Again the class swings in a fixed time. When all of the pen- discusses why the results are different. Some dulums are hung on the peg board,the class of the suggestions include the length of the is asked to interpret the results. After con- string, the weight of the washer, the diame- siderable discussion, the students conclude ter of the washer, and how high the student that the number of swings in a fixed time starting the pendulum held the washer to increases in a regular manner as the length begin the swing. of the string gets shorter. As each su gge s ti on is made , M s . D. wri te s M s . D. n o tes that pen du lums were con- it on the boa rd . The class is then asked to s tru cted with five and seven swi n gs per 15 de s i gn ex peri m ents that could determ i n e s econds on the peg boa rd , but no pen du lu m wh i ch su gge s ti on is correct .E ach gro u p with six; she asks each group to con s tru ct a ch ooses to do an ex p eri m ent to test one of pen du lum with six swi n gs per 15 secon d s . the su gge s ti on s , but before the group work Af ter mu ch measu ring and co u n ting and con ti nu e s , M s . D. co ll ects the pen du lu m s m e a su ring aga i n , and serious discussion on that were used to gen era te the first and sec- what counts as a “s wi n g,”every gro u p ond sets of d a t a . As the groups re sume work , decl a res su cce s s .M s . D. t h en asks how they one group keeps the string the same len g t h can keep the inform a ti on on the rel a ti on s h i p but attaches washers of d i f ferent diameters bet ween the length of the string and the and tries to start the swing at ex act ly the nu m ber of s wi n gs in a form that is more same place . An o t h er group uses one piece of conven i ent than the peg boa rd and direct s s tring and one washer, but starts the swing at the stu dents to make a drawing in their sci- h i gh er and high er places on an arc . A third en ce journals to keep that data. Most stu- group cuts pieces of s tring of d i f feren t dents draw the peg boa rd with the pen du lu m s l en g t h s , but uses one washer and starts the of d i f ferent len g t h s , but some stu dents draw s w ing at the same place each ti m e . ch a rts and a few make gra ph s . M s . D. ch a l- Di s c u s s i on is animated as stu dents set up l en ges stu dents to find examples of pen du- t h eir pen du lums and the class qu i e ts as they lums at home and in their nei gh borh ood s . count the swi n gs . F i n a lly, e ach group share s The next science class is spent discussing with the rest of the class what they did and graphing as students move from their pic- the data they co ll ected . The class con clu de s tures of the string lengths, to lines, to points that the differen ce in the nu m b er of s wi n gs on a graph, and to a complete graph. that the pen du lum makes is due to the dif- Finally, each student is asked to use his or ferent lengths of s tri n g. her graph to make a pendulum that will The next day, students notice that Ms. D. swing an exact number of times. has constructed a board for the pendulums S tu dents have de s c ri bed , ex p l a i n ed ,a n d at the front of the room. Across the top are pred i cted a natu ral ph en om en on and learn ed pegs from which to hang pendulums, and a bo ut po s i ti on and moti on and abo ut ga t h- across the bottom are consecutive numbers. eri n g, a n a ly z i n g, and pre s en ting data.

Students should begin to state some expla- phenomena; and some involve making nations in terms of the relationship between models.

two or more variables. ■ Current scientific knowledge and understanding guide scientific investigations. R E COGNIZE AND ANALYZE ALT E R N A- Different scientific domains employ dif- TIVE EXPLA N ATIONS AND PREDIC- ferent methods, core theories, and stan- T I O N S . Students should develop the ability dards to advance scientific knowledge to listen to and respect the explanations and understanding. proposed by other students. They should ■ Mathematics is important in all aspects remain open to and acknowledge different of scientific inquiry. ideas and explanations, be able to accept the ■ Tech n o l o gy used to ga t h e r data en h a n ce s skepticism of others, and consider alterna- acc u racy and all ows scien tists to analy ze tive explanations. and qu a n tify re s ults of i nve s ti ga ti on s . See Teaching CO M M U N I C ATE SCIENTIFIC PRO C E- ■ Scientific explanations emphasize evi- Standard B DURES AND EXPLA N AT I O N S . With dence, have logically consistent argu- practice, students should become competent ments, and use scientific principles, at communicating experimental methods, models,and theories. The scientific com- following instructions, describing observa- munity accepts and uses such explanations, summarizing the results of other tions until displaced by better scientific groups, and telling other students about ones. When such displacement occurs, investigations and explanations. science advances. ■ S c i en ce adva n ces thro u gh legi ti m a te See Program USE MAT H E M ATICS IN ALL ASPE C TS s kepti c i s m . Asking qu e s ti ons and qu ery- Standard C OF SCIENTIFIC INQU I RY. Ma t h em a ti c s ing other scien ti s t s’ ex p l a n a ti ons is part is essen tial to asking and answering qu e s- of s c i en tific inqu i r y. S c i en tists eva lu a te ti ons abo ut the natu ral worl d . Ma t h em a ti c s the ex p l a n a ti ons propo s e d by other sci- can be used to ask qu e s ti on s ; to ga t h er, en t ists by examining evi den ce , com p a r- or ga n i ze , and pre s e nt data; and to stru c tu re ing evi den ce , i den ti f ying faulty re a s on- convincing ex p l a n a ti on s . i n g , poi n ting out statem ents that go U N D E R S TANDINGS ABOUT beyond the evi den ce , and su g ge s ti n g SCIENTIFIC INQU I RY a l tern a tive ex p l a n a ti ons for the same

■ Different kinds of questions suggest dif- ob s erva ti on s .

ferent kinds of scientific investigations. ■ Scientific investigations sometimes result Some investigations involve observing in new ideas and phenomena for study, and describing objects, organisms, or generate new methods or procedures for events; some involve collecting speci- an investigation, or develop new tech- mens; some involve experiments; some nologies to improve the collection of involve seeking more information; some data. All of these results can lead to new involve discovery of new objects and investigations.

the same properties as the parent material; Phys i cal Science that is, they are a tiny piece of the substance. It can be tempting to introduce atoms and CONTENT STANDARD B: molecules or improve students’ understand- As a result of their activities in ing of them so that particles can be used as g rades 5-8 , all students should an explanation for the properties of ele- d evelop an understanding of ments and compounds. However, use of ■ Properties and changes of properties such terminology is premature for these stu- in matter ■ Motions and forces In grades 5-8, students observe and ■ Transfer of energy measure characteristic properties, such as boiling and melting points, D EV E LO PING STUDENT solubility, and simple chemical changes U N D E R S TANDING of pure substances, and use those In grades 5-8, the focus on student understanding shifts from properties of properties to distinguish and separate objects and materials to the characteristic one substance from another. properties of the substances from which the materials are made. In the K-4 years, students and can distract from the understand- dents learned that objects and materials can ing that can be gained from focusing on the be sorted and ordered in terms of their observation and description of macroscopic properties. During that process, they learned features of substances and of physical and that some properties, such as size, weight, chemical reactions. At this level, elements and shape, can be assigned only to the and compounds can be defined operational- object while other properties, such as color, ly from their chemical characteristics, but texture, and hardness, describe the materials few students can comprehend the idea of from which objects are made. In grades 5-8, atomic and molecular particles. students observe and measure characteristic The study of motions and the forces caus- properties, such as boiling points, melting ing motion provide concrete experiences on points,solubility, and simple chemical which a more comprehensive understanding changes of pure substances and use those of force can be based in grades 9-12. By properties to distinguish and separate one using simple objects, such as rolling balls substance from another. and mechanical toys, students can move Students usually bring some vocabulary from qualitative to quantitative descriptions and primitive notions of atomicity to the of moving objects and begin to describe the science class but often lack understanding of forces acting on the objects. Students’ every- the evidence and the logical arguments that day experience is that friction causes all support the particulate model of matter. moving objects to slow down and stop. Their early ideas are that the particles have Through experiences in which friction is

understanding of the evidence of the partic- Fu n ny Wate r ulate nature of matter or arguments that support that understanding. Mr. B. started In this example, Mr. B makes his plans using the unit with a study of density because the his knowledge and understanding of science, students, teaching, and the district science concept is important and because this study program. His understanding and ability are allowed him to gather data on the students’ the results of years of studying and reflection current understandings about matter. on his own teaching. He usually introduces As he had done the year before , he bega n new topics with a demonstration to catch the the stu dy with the den s i ty of l i qu i d s . He knew students’ attention. He asks questions that that the stu dents who had been in the distri ct encourage students to develop understanding el em en t a r y sch ools had alre ady done som e and designs activities that require students to confirm their ideas and extend them to situa- work with liquids and that all stu den t s tions within and beyond the science class- bro u ght ex peri en ce and knowl ed ge from thei r room. Mr. B encourages students to observe, d a i ly live s . To cl a rify the knowl ed ge , u n der- test, discuss, and write by promoting individ- s t a n d i n g , and con f u s i on stu dents might have , ual effort as well as by forming different-sized M r. B. prep a red a set of s h ort exercises for the groups of students for various activities. opening week of the unit of s tu dy. Immense understanding, skill, creativity, and energy are required to organize and orches- For the first day, he prep a red two den s i ty trate ideas, students, materials, and events the co lu m n s : using two 1-foo t - h i gh , clear plasti c way Mr. B. does with apparent ease. And Mr. c yl i n ders , he po u red in layers of corn syru p, B. might repeat an activity five times a day, l i quid deter gen t , co l ored water, veget a ble oi l , adapting it to the needs of different classes of b a by oi l , and met h a n o l . As the stu den t s students, or he might teach four other school a rrived ,t h ey were directed into two groups to subjects. examine the co lumns and discuss what they [This exa m ple high l i ghts some co m po n ents s aw. Af ter 10 minutes of convers a ti on ,M r. B. of Te a ching St a n d a rds A ,B , D, and E; a s ked the stu dents to take out their noteboo k s Professional Devel opm ent St a n d a rd C; 5-8 and jot down ob s erva ti ons and though t s Co n tent St a n d a rd A and B; Pro gram St a n d a rd s A , B , and D; and Sys tem St a n d a rds D. ] a bo ut why the different liquids sep a ra ted . When the writing ceased,Mr. B. asked, Mr. B. was beginning a unit that would “What did you observe? Do you have any include the development of students’ under- explanations for what you see? What do you standing of the characteristic properties of think is happening?” He took care to substances such as boiling points, melting explain, “There are no right answers, and points,solubility, and density. He wanted silence is OK. You need to think.”Silence students to consolidate their experiences was followed by a few comments, and final- and think about the properties of substances ly, a lively discussion ensued. as a foundation for the atomic theories they It’s pretty would gradually come to understand in high school. He knew that the students had How do you get the colors to stay apart? some vocabulary and some notions of Like the ones on top are lighter or something like atomicity but were likely not to have any that.

The top looks like water. students to clean up and gather to share I think the bottom liquids are heavier; they their observations. sink to the bottom . Every group identified some of the liquids. The water was easy, as was the veg- It separated into different layers because each has different densities and they sit on top of etable oil. Some students knew corn syrup, each other. others recognized the detergent. Several groups combined two and three liquids and “What do you mean by den s i ty ? ” a s ked Mr. B. found that some of them mixed together, It’s how packed the particles are. and others stayed separate. Some disagree- This one is thick so it’s on the bottom. This ments arose about which liquid floated on one is thinnest. which. Mr. B. suggested that interested stu- Doesn’t oil have lighter density than water? dents come back during their lunch time to If we put a thicker liquid in, it would go try to resolve these disagreements. One to the bottom. group replicated the large cylinder, shook it vigorously, and was waiting to see whether There’s more of this one that’s on the bottom. the liquids would separate. Mr. B. asked that The atoms in some are heavier than the group to draw what the cylinder contents ones in others. looked like now, put it on the windowsill, M r. B. re a l i zed how many different ways and check it the next day. the stu dents ex p l a i n ed what they saw, for Mr. B. began the third day with a large ex a m p l e ,t h i ckness and thinness, h e avi n e s s density column again. This time he gave a and ligh tn e s s ,m ore and less, d i f ferent den s i- small object to each of four students—a ties and atom s . The discussion gave him a piece of wood,aluminum, plastic, or iron. s ense for what the stu dents were thinking. It He asked the class to predict what would was clear to him that the inve s ti ga ti ons he happen when each of the four objects was h ad planned for the fo ll owing weeks to foc u s released into the column. The students pre- m ore cl o s ely on den s i ty would be wort hwh i l e . dicted and watched as some objects sank to Mr. B. divided the class into seven groups the bottom, and others stopped somewhere of four the next day. On each of the group’s in the columns. tables were small cylinders.Mr. B warned “What do you think is going on?”asked the students not to drink the liquid. Each Mr. B. “How can you explain the way these group was to choose one person to be the objects behaved? I don’t want answers now,” materials manager and one to be the he went on,“I want you to try out some recorder as they proceeded to find out what more things yourselves and then we’ll talk.” they could about the same liquids used the He then divided the class into four groups day before (all of which were available on and gave each a large density column with the supply table). Only the materials man- the liquid layers. The students worked in ager was to come to the supply table for the their groups for 30 minutes. The discussion liquids, and the recorders kept track of what was animated as different objects were tried: they did. Forty minutes later, Mr. B. asked rubber bands, a penny, a nickel, a pencil,

and paper clips. Mr. B. circulated from When enough time had passed, Mr. B. group to group taking note of many inter- called the groups together and asked for esting comments. With 10 minutes left in some volunteers to read from their note- the class, he gathered the groups together books. Some students were struggling with and asked for some of their observations. what they had seen: When we dropped something lighter in, it They stuck in the middle of the column. stopped near the top. The pieces are not the same weight. The big- The rubber band is lighter than the paper clip. ger ones are heavier. I don’t know why they all The paper clip is heavy so it drops down. stopped in the middle. The rubber band has buoyancy, if you know Others seemed to understand. One what that means. student read, The nickel went all the way to the bottom If you have a block of wood and cut it into because it’s heavier, but the pencil wouldn’t go millions of pieces, each piece would have the into the last layer because it was too thick. density of the original block. If that block of The pencil is wood and it’s lighter; the nickel wood weighed one gram and you cut it into a is silver and it’s heavier. million pieces the weight would change. But The nickel is denser than the pencil. no matter how many times you cut something, the density will not change. M r. B. l i s ten ed to these ob s erva ti ons and When this statement was read Mr. B. en co u ra ged the stu dents to re s pond to on e asked how many people agreed with it. Most a n o t h er. O cc a s i on a lly he asked for a cl a ri f i- students quickly asserted “yes.” But how sure c a ti on — “What do you mean by that?”“ How were they? Mr. B. pulled out a piece of wood did you do that?” His pri m a r y purpose was larger than any of those that the students to hear the stu den t s’ i deas and en co u ra ge had tried. “What would happen if this piece t h em to explain them to one another. of wood were dropped into the column?” The next day he began the last of the Some students said immediately that it introductory experiences. When the stu- would stop where the smaller pieces had. dents came in,Mr. B. asked them to divide Others were not quite so sure. This piece into their four groups and go to the tables was quite a bit bigger. One student asked for with the density columns. Beside each col- a show of hands. Twelve students thought umn were several pieces of wood of differ- this big piece of wood would sink farther ent sizes. Students were to think and talk and 16 thought it would sink to the same about what the pieces might do in the col- level as the others. Mr. B. dropped it in. It umn, try them out, have more discussion, stopped sinking where the others had. There and write down some of their ideas in their were a few “yeahs,” a few “what’s,” and some science notebooks. puzzled looks.

As a final te a s er and ch e ck on stu den t s’ Mr. B. had used water and isopropyl alco- u n ders t a n d i n g, M r. B. bro u ght out two hol. But he noticed several students were tra n s p a rent con t a i n ers of co l orless liqu i d s . willing to explain the sinking of the larger He asked the class to ga t h e r aro u n d , took a piece of candle and not the smaller by the c a n d le and cut two qu i te differen t - s i zed difference in the size of the piece. p i eces from it. The stu dents were asked to Mr. B. closed the lesson by summing up. pred i ct what would happen wh en the They had seen the density column and c a n dle pieces were put in the liqu i d s . M r. B. worked with the liquids themselves; they dropped the pieces into the columns: In one had tried floating objects in liquids; they container the big piece sank to the bottom; had seen the pieces of wax in the liquids. in the other, the small one floated on the What was the explanation for all these phe- top. Some students had predicted this result, nomena? For homework that night he asked saying that the bigger one was heavier and them to do two things. They were to think therefore would sink. Others were per- about and write down any ideas they had plexed. The two pieces were made of the about what was happening in all these expe- same wax so they shouldn’t be different. riences. He also asked them to think about Something was wrong. Were the two liquids and write about examples of these phenom- really the same? Mr. B. removed the pieces ena in their daily lives. After the students of wax from the containers and reversed shared some of their observations from out- them. This time the little one sank and the side the classroom, Mr. B. would have the big one floated.“Unfair,” came a chorus of students observe as he boiled water to initi- voices. “The liquids aren’t the same.” ate discussion of boiling points.

reduced,students can begin to see that a and solu bi l i ty, a ll of wh i ch are indepen- moving object with no friction would con- dent of the amount of the sample. A tinue to move indefinitely, but most stu- m i x tu re of su b s t a n ces of ten can be sep- dents believe that the force is still acting if a ra ted into the ori g inal su b s t a n ce s the object is moving or that it is “used up” if using one or more of the ch a racteri s ti c the motion stops. Students also think that properti e s .

friction,not inertia, is the principle reason ■ Su b s t a n ces re a ct ch em i c a lly in ch a r ac- objects remain at rest or require a force to teri s tic ways with other su b s t a n ces to move.Students in grades 5-8 associate force form new su b s t a n ces (com pounds) wi t h with motion and have difficulty under- d i f ferent ch a r acteri s tic properti e s . In standing balanced forces in equilibrium, ch e mical re a cti on s , the total mass is especially if the force is associated with stat- con s erved . Su b s t a n ces of t en are placed ic, inanimate objects, such as a book resting in categories or groups if t h ey re act in on the desk. similar ways ; m e tals is an example of The understanding of en er gy in grades 5- su ch a gro u p.

8 wi l l build on the K-4 ex peri en ces wi t h ■ Ch emical el em ents do not break down l i gh t ,h e a t , s o u n d , el ectri c i t y, m a gn eti s m , du r ing normal labora tory re a cti on s and the moti on of obj ect s . In 5-8, s tu den t s i nvo lving su ch tre a tm ents as heati n g , begin to see the con n ecti ons among those ex po su re to el ectric curren t , or re a cti on ph en om ena and to become familiar with the with ac i d s . Th e re are more than 100 i dea that en er gy is an important property of k n own el em ents that com bine in a mu l- su b s t a n ces and that most ch a n ge invo lve s ti tu de of w ays to produ ce com po u n d s , en er gy tra n s fer. S tu dents might have some of wh i ch account for the living and non l iv- the same vi ews of en er gy as they do of ing su b s t a n ces that we en co u n ter. force—that it is assoc i a ted with animate M OTIONS AND FORC E S obj ects and is linked to moti on . In ad d i ti on , ■ The moti on of an obj e ct can be See Content s tu dents vi ew en er gy as a fuel or som et h i n g de s c ri bed by its po s i ti on , d i recti on of Standard D that is stored , re ady to use, and gets used up. m o ti on , and speed . That moti o n can be (grades 5-8) The intent at this level is for stu dents to m e a su red and repre s en ted on a gra ph . i m prove their understanding of en er gy by ■ An object that is not being subjected to a ex peri encing many kinds of en er gy tra n s fer. force will continue to move at a constant GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STA N D A R D speed and in a straight line. ■ If m ore than one force acts on an obj ect Fundamental concepts and principles a l o ng a stra i ght line, t h en the forces wi l l that underlie this standard include rei n f orce or cancel one another, P RO PE RTIES AND CHANGES OF depending on their directi o n and mag- P RO PE RTIES IN MATT E R n i tu de . Un b a l a n ced forces wi l l cause

■ A su b s t a n ce has ch a r acteri s tic proper- ch a n g es in the speed or directi on of a n ti e s , su ch as den s i t y, a boiling poi n t , obj e ct’s moti on .

T R ANSFER OF ENERG Y

■ Energy is a property of many substances Li fe Science and is associated with heat, light, electricity, mechanical motion, sound, nuclei, CONTENT STANDARD C: and the nature of a chemical.Energy is As a result of their activities in transferred in many ways. g rades 5-8, all students should

■ Heat moves in predictable ways,flowing d evelop understanding of from warmer objects to cooler ones,until ■ Structure and function in both reach the same temperature. living systems

■ Light interacts with matter by transmis- ■ Reproduction and heredity sion (including refraction), absorption, ■ Regulation and behavior or scattering (including reflection). To ■ Populations and ecosystems see an object, light from that object— ■ Di ve r s i ty and adaptations of org a n i s m s emitted by or scattered from it—must enter the eye. D EV E LO PING STUDENT U N D E R S TA N D I N G ■ E l e ctrical circuits provi d e a means of tra n s ferring el e ctrical en er gy wh e n In the middle-school years, students h e a t , l i gh t , s o u n d , and ch e mical ch a n ge s should progress from studying life science a re produ ced . from the point of view of individual organisms to recognizing patterns in ecosystems See Unifying ■ In most ch emical and nu clear re acti on s , and developing understandings about the Concepts and en er g y is tra n s ferred into or out of a cellular dimensions of living systems. For Processes s ys tem . He a t , l i gh t , m e chanical moti on , or el ectri c i t y might all be invo lved in example,students should broaden their su c h tra n s fers . understanding from the way one species lives in its environment to populations and ■ The sun is a major source of en er gy for ch a n ges on the eart h’s su rf ace . The su n communities of species and the ways they loses en er gy by em i t t ing ligh t . A ti ny interact with each other and with their envi- f r acti on of that light re a ches the eart h , ronment. Students also should expand their tra n s ferring en er gy from the sun to the investigations of living systems to include e a rt h . The su n’s en er gy arrives as ligh t the study of cells. Observations and investi- with a ra n ge of w avel en g t h s , con s i s ti n g gations should become increasingly quanti- of vi s i ble ligh t , i n f ra red , and ultravi o l et tative,incorporating the use of computers rad i a ti on . and conceptual and mathematical models. Students in grades 5-8 also have the fine- motor skills to work with a light microscope and can interpret accurately what they see, enhancing their introduction to cells and microorganisms and establishing a foundation for developing understanding of molecular biology at the high school level.

Some aspects of m i d dl e - s ch ool stu den t ronment changes, individual organisms u n derstanding should be noted . This peri od deliberately adapt). of devel opm ent in yo uth lends itsel f to human bi o l ogy. Mi d dl e - s ch ool stu dents can GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STA N D A R D Fundamental concepts and principles devel op the understanding that the body has that underlie this standard include or gans that functi on toget h er to maintain l i fe . Te ach ers should introdu ce the gen era l S T RUCTURE AND FUNCTION IN i dea of s tru ctu re - f u n cti on in the con text of LIVING SYS T E M S

human or gan sys tems working toget h er. ■ Living systems at all levels of organiza- See Unifying Ot h er, m ore specific and con c rete ex a m p l e s , tion demonstrate the complementary Concepts and su ch as the hand, can be used to devel op a nature of structure and function. Processes s pecific understanding of s tru ctu re - f u n cti on Important levels of organization for in living sys tem s . By middl e - s ch oo l , m o s t structure and function include cells, s tu dents know abo ut the basic process of organs, tissues, organ systems, whole s exual reprodu cti on in hu m a n s . However, organisms, and ecosystems.

the stu dent might have miscon cepti on s ■ All organisms are composed of cells—the a bo ut the role of s perm and eggs and abo ut fundamental unit of life. Most organisms the sexual reprodu cti on of f l owering plants. are single cells; other organisms, includ- Con cerning hered i ty, yo u n ger middl e - s ch oo l ing humans,are multicellular.

s tu dents tend to focus on ob s erva b le tra i t s , ■ Cells carry on the many functi ons need- and older stu dents have some unders t a n d i n g ed to sustain life . Th ey grow and divi de , that gen etic material carries inform a ti on . t h ereby producing more cell s . Th i s Students understand ecosystems and the requ i res that they take in nutri en t s , interactions between organisms and envi- wh i ch they use to provi de en er g y for ronments well enough by this stage to intro- the work that cells do and to make the duce ideas about nutrition and energy flow, m a t erials that a cell or an or ga n i s m although some students might be confused n eed s .

by charts and flow diagrams. If asked about ■ S pec i a l i zed cells perform spec i a l i zed func- common ecological concepts, such as com- ti ons in mu l ti cellular or ga n i s m s . Gro u p s munity and competition between organ- of s pec i a l i zed cells coopera te to form a ti s- isms, teachers are likely to hear responses su e , su ch as a mu s cl e . Di f ferent ti s sues are based on everyday experiences rather than in tu rn gro u ped toget h er to form larger scientific explanations. Teachers should use f u n cti onal units, c a ll ed or ga n s .E ach type the students’ understanding as a basis to of cell , ti s su e , and or gan has a disti n c t develop the scientific understanding. s tru ctu re and set of f u n cti ons that serve Understanding adaptation can be particu- the or ganism as a wh o l e .

larly troublesome at this level. Many stu- ■ The human organism has systems for dents think adaptation means that individu- digestion, respiration, reproduction, cir- als change in major ways in response to culation, excretion,movement, control, environmental changes (that is, if the envi- and coordination,and for protection

from disease. These systems interact with of traits. Some traits are inherited one another. and others result from interactions with

■ Disease is a breakdown in structures or the environment. functions of an organism. Some diseases R E G U L ATION AND BEHAV I O R are the result of intrinsic failures of the ■ system. Others are the result of damage All or ganisms must be able to obt a i n by infection by other organisms. and use re s o u rce s , grow, reprodu ce , a n d maintain stable internal con d i ti on s R E P R ODUCTION AND HEREDITY while living in a con s t a n t ly ch a n gi n g ■ Reprodu c ti on is a ch a racteri s t ic of a ll liv- ex ternal envi ron m en t .

ing sys tem s ; because no indivi d ual or ga n- ■ Regulation of an organism’s internal ism lives forever, reprodu cti on is essen ti a l environment involves sensing the inter- to the con ti nu a ti on of every spec i e s . nal environment and changing physio- Some or g anisms reprodu ce asex u a lly. logical activities to keep conditions with- Ot h er or g anisms reprodu ce sex u a lly. in the range required to survive.

■ In many spec i e s , i n cluding hu m a n s , ■ Behavior is one kind of response an females produ ce eggs and males produ ce organism can make to an internal or s perm . Plants also reprodu ce sex u a lly — environmental stimulus. A behavioral the egg and sperm are produ ced in the response requires coordination and com- f l owers of f l owering plants. An egg and munication at many levels, including s perm unite to begin devel opm ent of a cells, organ systems, and whole organ- n ew indivi du a l . That new indivi du a l isms. Behavioral response is a set of receives gen etic inform a ti on from its actions determined in part by heredity m o t h er (via the egg) and its father (via the and in part from experience.

s perm ) . Sex u a l ly produ ced of fs pring never ■ An organism’s behavior evolves through a re iden tical to ei t h er of t h eir paren t s . adaptation to its environment. How a ■ Every organism requires a set of instruc- species moves, obtains food, reproduces, tions for specifying its traits. Heredity is and responds to danger are based in the the passage of these instructions from species’ evolutionary history. one generation to another.

■ Hered i t a ry inform a ti on is con t a i n ed in P O P U L ATIONS AND ECO S YS T E M S

gen e s ,l oc a ted in the ch rom o s omes of e ach ■ A pop u l a ti on consists of a ll indivi duals of a cell .E ach gene carries a single unit of i n for- s pecies that occur toget h er at a given place m a ti on . An inheri ted trait of an indivi du a l and ti m e . All pop u l a ti ons living toget h er can be determ i n ed by one or by many and the physical factors with wh i ch they gen e s , and a single gene can influ en ce more i n teract com pose an eco s ys tem .

than one tra i t . A human cell contains many ■ Populations of organisms can be catego- thousands of d i f ferent gen e s . rized by the function they serve in an

■ The characteristics of an organism can ecosystem. Plants and some microbe described in terms of a combination organisms are producers—they make

their own food. All animals, including S pecies acqu i re many of t h eir uniqu e humans, are consumers, which obtain ch a racteri s tics thro u g h bi o l o gical ad a pt a- food by eating other organisms. ti on , wh i ch invo lves the sel ecti on of n a tu- Decomposers, primarily bacteria and ra lly occ u rring va ri a ti ons in pop u l a ti on s . fungi, are consumers that use waste Bi o l ogical ad a pt a ti ons inclu d e ch a n ges in materials and dead organisms for food. s tru ctu re s , beh avi ors , or phys i o l ogy that Food webs identify the relationships en h a n ce su rvival and reprodu ctive su c- among producers, consumers, and cess in a particular envi ron m en t .

decomposers in an ecosystem. ■ Extinction of a species occurs when the

■ For eco s ys tem s , the major source of en er- environment changes and the adaptive gy is su n l i gh t .E n er gy en tering eco s ys tem s characteristics of a species are insuffi- as su n l i ght is tra n s ferred by produ cers cient to allow its survival. Fossils indicate i n to ch emical en er gy thro u gh ph o to s y n- that many organisms that lived long ago t h e s i s . That en er gy then passes from are extinct. Extinction of species is com- or ganism to or ganism in food web s . mon; most of the species that have lived

■ The number of organisms an ecosystem on the earth no longer exist. can support depends on the resources available and abiotic factors, such as quantity of light and water, range of tem- Ea rth and Sp a ce peratures,and soil composition. Given adequate biotic and abiotic resources and S c i e n ce no disease or predators, populations (including humans) increase at rapid CONTENT STANDARD D: rates. Lack of resources and other factors, As a result of their activities in such as predation and climate,limit the g rades 5-8, all students should growth of populations in specific niches d evelop an understanding of

in the ecosystem. ■ Structure of the earth system

■ Earth’s history D I V E R S I T Y AND ADAPTATIONS OF ■ Earth in the solar system O RG A N I S M S

■ Millions of species of animals, plants, and microorganisms are alive today. Although different species might look D EV E LO PING STUDENT dissimilar, the unity among organisms U N D E R S TA N D I N G becomes apparent from an analysis of A major goal of science in the middle internal structures, the similarity of their grades is for students to develop an under- chemical processes, and the evidence of standing of earth and the solar system as a common ancestry. set of closely coupled systems. The idea of

■ Bi o l ogical evo luti on accounts for the systems provides a framework in which stu- d ivers i ty of s pecies devel oped thro u g h dents can investigate the four major inter- gradual processes over many gen era ti on s . acting components of the earth system—

geosphere (crust, mantle, and core), hydro- and the idea that air is real. Condensation is sphere (water), atmosphere (air), and the less well understood and requires extensive biosphere (the realm of all living things). In observation and instruction to complete an this holistic approach to studying the plan- understanding of the water cycle. et, physical, chemical, and biological The understanding that students gain processes act within and among the four from their observations in grades K-4 pro- components on a wide range of time scales vides the motivation and the basis from to change continuously earth’s crust, oceans, which they can begin to construct a model atmosphere, and living organisms.Students that explains the visual and physical rela- can investigate the water and rock cycles as tionships among earth, sun, moon, and the introductory examples of geophysical and solar system. Direct observation and satellite geochemical cycles. Their study of earth’s data allow students to conclude that earth is history provides some evidence about co- a moving, spherical planet, having unique evolution of the planet’s main features—the features that distinguish it from other plan- distribution of land and sea, features of the ets in the solar system. From activities with crust,the composition of the atmosphere, trajectories and orbits and using the earth- global climate, and populations of living sun-moon system as an example, students organisms in the biosphere. can develop the understanding that gravity By plotting the loc a ti ons of vo l c a n oes and is a ubiquitous force that holds all parts of e a rt h qu a ke s ,s tu dents can see a pattern of the solar system together. Energy from the geo l ogical activi ty. E a rth has an outerm o s t sun transferred by light and other radiation ri gid shell call ed the lithosph ere . It is made is the primary energy source for processes up of the crust and part of the upper mantle. on earth’s surface and in its hydrosphere, It is bro ken into abo ut a dozen ri gid plate s atmosphere,and biosphere. that move wi t h o ut deform i n g , except at By grades 5-8, students have a clear bo u n d a r ies wh ere they co ll i de . Those plate s notion about gravity, the shape of the earth, ra n ge in thickness from a few to more than and the relative positions of the earth, sun, 100 kilom eters .O cean floors are the tops of and moon. Nevertheless, more than half of thin oceanic plates that spre ad out w a rd from the students will not be able to use these m i docean rift zon e s ; land su rf aces are the models to explain the phases of the moon, tops of t h i cker, l e s s - dense con ti n ental plate s . and correct explanations for the seasons will Because students do not have direct con- be even more difficult to achieve. tact with most of these phenomena and the GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STA N D A R D long-term nature of the processes,some Fundamental concepts and principles explanations of moving plates and the evo- that underlie this standard include lution of life must be reserved for late in grades 5-8. As students mature, the concept S T RUCTURE OF THE EARTH SYS T E M

of evaporation can be reasonably well ■ The solid earth is layered with a litho- understood as the conservation of matter s ph ere ; h o t , convecting mantle; and den s e , combined with a primitive idea of particles m et a llic core .

See Content ■ Lithospheric plates on the scales of conti- ■ The atmosphere is a mixture of nitrogen, Standard F nents and oceans constantly move at oxygen, and trace gases that include (grades 5-8) rates of centimeters per year in response water vapor. The atmosphere has differ- to movements in the mantle. Major geo- ent properties at different elevations.

logical events, such as earthquakes, vol- ■ Clouds, formed by the condensation of canic eruptions, and mountain building, water vapor, affect weather and climate.

result from these plate motions. ■ G l obal patterns of a tm o s ph eric movem en t

■ Land forms are the re s ult of a com bi n a- i n f lu en ce local we a t h er. O ceans have a ti on of con s tru ctive and de s t ru c tive m a j or ef fect on cl i m a te , because water in force s . Con s tru c tive forces inclu de the oceans holds a large amount of h e a t .

c rustal deform a ti on , volcanic eru pti on , ■ Living organisms have played many roles and depo s i ti on of s ed i m en t , wh i l e in the earth system, including affecting de s t ru ctive forces inclu de we a t h eri n g the composition of the atmosphere, pro- and ero s i on . ducing some types of rocks, and con-

■ Some ch a n ges in the solid earth can be tributing to the weathering of rocks. de s c ri bed as the “rock cycl e .” Old rock s E A RT H’S HISTO RY at the eart h’s su rf ace we a t h e r, form i n g ■ The earth processes we see tod ay, i n clu d- s ed i m ents that are bu ri ed , t h en coming ero s i on ,m ovem ent of l i t h o s ph eri c p acted , h e a ted , and of ten rec r ys t a ll i zed p l a te s , and ch a n ges in atm o s ph eric com- i n to new rock . Even tu a lly, those new po s i ti on ,a re similar to those that occ u rred rocks may be bro u g ht to the su rf ace by in the past. e a rth history is also influ en ced the forces that drive plate moti on s , a n d by occ a s i onal catastroph e s , su ch as the the rock cycle con ti nu e s . i m p act of an asteroid or com et . ■ Soil consists of we a t h ered rocks and ■ Fossils provide important evidence of See Content decom po s ed or ganic material from de ad how life and environmental conditions Standard C p l a n t s ,a n i m a l s , and bacteri a . Soils are of ten have changed. (grades 5-8) found in layers , with each having a differen t ch emical com po s i ti on and tex tu re . E A R TH IN THE SOLAR SYS T E M ■ Wa ter, wh i ch covers the majori ty of t h e ■ The earth is the third planet from the See Unifying e a rt h’s su rf ace , c i rc u l a tes thro u g h the sun in a system that includes the moon, Concepts and c ru s t , oce a n s , and atm o s ph ere in what is the sun, eight other planets and their Processes k n own as the “ w a ter cycl e .”Wa ter eva p o- moons, and smaller objects, such as ra tes from the eart h’s su rf ace , rises and asteroids and comets. The sun, an aver- cools as it moves to high er el e va ti on s , age star, is the central and largest body in con denses as rain or snow, and falls to the solar system.

the su rf ace wh e re it co ll ects in lake s , ■ Most obj e cts in the solar sys tem are in oce a n s , s oi l , and in rocks under g ro u n d . regular and pred i ct a ble moti on . Th o s e

■ Water is a solvent. As it passes through m o ti ons explain su c h ph en om ena as the water cycle it dissolves minerals and the day, the ye a r, phases of the moon , gases and carries them to the oceans. and ecl i p s e s .

■ Gravi t y is the force that keeps planets in and also by studying technological products orbit around the sun and governs the re s t and systems. of the moti on in the solar sys tem . Gravi ty In the middle-school years, students’ a l one holds us to the eart h’s su rf ace and work with scientific investigations can be explains the ph en om ena of the ti de s . complemented by activities in which the

■ The sun is the major source of energy for purpose is to meet a human need, solve a phenomena on the earth’s surface, such as growth of plants, winds, ocean cur- In the middle-school years, students’ rents, and the water cycle. Seasons result from variations in the amount of the work with scientific investigations can sun’s energy hitting the surface, due to be complemented by activities that are the tilt of the earth’s rotation on its axis meant to meet a human need, solve a and the length of the day. human problem, or develop a product . . .

S c i e n ce and human problem, or develop a product rather than to explore ideas about the nat- Te c h n o l ogy ural world. The tasks chosen should involve the use of science concepts already familiar

CONTENT STANDARD E: to students or should motivate them to As a result of activities in gra d e s learn new concepts needed to use or under- 5 - 8 , all students should deve l o p stand the technology. Students should also, through the experience of trying to meet a ■ Abilities of technological design need in the best possible way, begin to ■ Understandings about science and technology appreciate that technological design and problem solving involve many other factors D EV E LO PING STUDENT ABILITIES besides the scientific issues. AND UNDERSTANDING Suitable design tasks for students at these Students in grades 5-8 can begin to dif- grades should be well-defined,so that the ferentiate between science and technology, purposes of the tasks are not confusing. although the distinction is not easy to make Tasks should be based on contexts that are early in this level.One basis for understand- immediately familiar in the homes, school, ing the similarities,differences, and relation- and immediate community of the students. ships between science and technology The activities should be straightforward should be experiences with design and with only a few well-defined ways to solve problem solving in which students can fur- the problems involved. The criteria for suc- ther develop some of the abilities intro- cess and the constraints for design should duced in grades K-4. The understanding of be limited. Only one or two science ideas technology can be developed by tasks in should be involved in any particular task. which students have to design something Any construction involved should be readily

t a i n er that could be dropped from the secon d The Egg Dro p f l oor balcony wi t h o ut breaking the egg. Some va ri a ti on of the egg drop activi t y This ri ch exa m ple includes both a descri ption of was found in just abo ut every middle sch oo l te a ching and an asse s s m ent task. M r. S . has stu- d ents en ga ge in a full design activi ty, d e s i gn i n g s c i en ce book that Mr. S .h ad ever seen . But and te s ting a co n t a i n er that can prevent an egg over the ye a rs he had come to know wh a t f rom breaking wh en dropped . The te ch n ol o gy worked and what didn’t , wh ere to anti c i p a te a ctivi ty was pre ced ed by a sci en ce unit on fo rce the stu dents would have difficulti e s , and ju s t and motion so that stu d ents were able to use h ow to ph rase qu e s ti ons and ch a ll en ges the t h eir understanding of sci en ce in the design s tu dents could re s pond to wi t h o ut bei n g pro ce s s . He has caref u lly co n s i d ered co m m erci a lly overwh el m ed . He had devel oped som e prepa red versions of this activi ty but mod i f i ed t h em to cre a te one ba sed on his experi en ces and a s pects of the unit that were special to him the needs of the stu d en t s . He has co n s i d ered the and to the stu dents in Belle Vue Mi d dl e s a fety of the stu d en t s . The use of the vi d e ot a pe of S ch oo l . He knew wh en he introdu ced the fo rm er stu d ents not only provides a local co n text i dea that at least one stu d ent would have a for the activi ty, but provides stu d ents with ideas tale to tell abo ut dropping a carton of eggs a b out the designs that wo rk and do not wo rk . wh en carrying groceries home from the Af ter the en joya ble day, M r. S . re q u i res stu d en t s to ref l e ct on what they have learn ed and apply it s tore or wh en rem oving the carton from the to a new, but similar probl em . ref ri gera tor. While dropping eggs from the b a l cony was not part of the every day ex peri- [This exa m ple high l i g hts some el em ents of a ll of the Te a ching St a n d a rds; As se s s m ent St a n d a rd en ce of the stu den t s , d ropping things and A; 5-8 Co n tent St a n d a rds B and E; Pro gra m h aving them break was. St a n d a rd D; and Sys tem St a n d a rd D. ] On Mon d ay, he would set the ch a ll en ge , the con s tra i n t s , and the sch edu l e . Th ey wo u l d As Mr. S . revi ewed his syll a bus for the ye a r, begin with a whole class revi ew of what the he saw the next unit and smiled . On Mon d ay s tu dents knew abo ut force , accel era ti on ,a n d t h ey would begin the “ Egg Drop”—the stu- gravi ty and the de s i gn pri n c i p l e s . He wo u l d den t s , working in te a m s , would de s i gn a con- h ave som eone wri te these on a ch a r t that they t a i n er for an uncoo ked egg. The time was could hang on the wall du r ing the unit. Nex t ri gh t . Du ring the peri od bet ween the wi n ter t h ey would iden tify things they had seen fall break and the new sem e s ter, the stu dents had gen t ly wi t h o ut breaking and abo ut the size , foc u s ed on the similari ties and differen ce s s h a pe ,m a teri a l , and con s tru cti on of t h e s e bet ween scien ce and tech n o l ogy. At the begi n- i tem s .F i n a lly he would tell the stu dents the ning of the second sem e s ter the stu dents had con s tra i n t s : teams would be made up of t h ree com p l eted activi ties and en ga ged in discus- s tu dents each ;m a terials would be limited to s i ons until they dem on s tra ted an adequ a te the ‘s tu f f ’ ava i l a b le on the work tabl e ; te a m s u n derstanding of force ,m o ti on , gravi ty and would have to show him a sketch before they accel era ti on . Now it was time to bring the began building their con t a i n er; t h ey wo u l d k n owl ed ge of s c i en ce principles to a de s i gn h ave to con du ct at least two trials with thei r probl em . The probl em was to de s i gn a con- con t a i n er — one with a plastic egg and on e

with a hard - coo ked egg. For ye a rs , he had b a rtered with other teams for materi a l s ,a n d co ll ected odds and en d s — s t ring and plasti c , tri ed to build a pro to type of t h eir con t a i n er. p a per towel ro lls end egg carton s ,S tyrofoa m Thu rs d ay they would begin class with a pe a nut s , co t ton and other packing materi a l . d i s c u s s i on of why they needed to build a In the world out s i de of s ch oo l , l i m i ted ava i l - pro to type and why they needed to do som e a bi l i ty of m a terials was a real con s tra i n t . He trial runs with plastic and hard coo ked eggs . was gra teful that he taught in Florida wh ere He would ask them the adva n t a ges and dis- he could open the door and watch the stu- adva n t a ges of using the plastic and hard dents out s i de as they cl i m bed to the secon d coo ked eggs in the trial ru n s . This wo u l d f l oor balcony to con du ct their trial ru n s . He give them an opportu n i ty to con s i der co s t k n ew that if he taught up Nort h , wh ere they and the ch a racteri s tics of m odel s . Th ere would have to do this activi ty from the gym would be time in class to work and som e b a l cony, he would have to plan differen t ly as groups would be re ady to begin the field tri- the class would have to move to and from a l s . He would need a su pp ly of trash bags to the gym . use as drop cl o t h s . On Tu e s d ay, he would have a few raw eggs Fri d ay ’s class would begin by rem i n d i n g for each cl a s s . He would have several stu- the stu dents that the assessment for the egg dents try to crush them by exerting force d rop would not be wh et h er the egg bro ke , with their hands. He would need lab apron s , but ra t h er how they would be able to share goggl e s , and plastic gl oves for that. Th en he what they con s i dered as they tri ed to solve would show the egg drop vi d eo. Af ter the the probl em of de s i gning a con t a i n er for an f i rst few ye a rs , he learn e d to vi deo t a pe the egg so that the egg would drop 15 feet and class on the day of the egg drop. He had not bre a k . He would also remind them that ed i ted a short vi deo of s o me of the more the egg drop was sch edu l ed for Wed n e s d ay, s pect acular egg drop s — both su ccessful and re ady or not. u n su cce s s f u l . The stu dents en j oyed watch i n g Mon d ay would be an uninterru pted work o l der bro t h ers and sisters , and famous and d ay. On Tu e s d ay they would by work in thei r infamous stu den t s . The stu dents would then groups to determine what would be needed get into their groups and discuss the fe a tu re s to make their egg drop event a su cce s s . In his of the con t a i n e rs in wh i ch the eggs bro ke plans Mr. S .n o ted that he would need a set - and those in wh i ch the eggs did not bre a k . up team that would cover the ground bel ow He would ch a ll en ge them to con s i der how the balcony with trash bags . A clean up crew, t h ey might improve the su ccessful egg drop a gain we a ring plastic gl ove s , would ga t h er the con t a i n ers . Tow a rd the end of the peri od , b a gs and get them into the dispo s a l . He anti c- e ach group would have som e one report to i p a ted that they would want two class mate s the class one thing the group had learn ed to have stopw a tches to measu re the time it f rom the vi deo and discussion . took for the egg to drop. The stu dents wo u l d Wed n e s d ay would be an intense day as stu- want to determine wh ere the egg should be dents argued and sketch ed ,s ketch ed and h eld for the start of the egg drop. Th ere were a r g u ed ,h ad plans approved , co ll ected materi a l s , a lw ays heated arguments abo ut wh et h er the

s t a rting line was from the arm of the dropper D ATA : A report , wri t ten , s ketch ed , or bo t h , or from some point on the con t a i n er. Th e y in wh i ch stu dents de s c ri be an improvem en t would need som eone to call “ D rop ! ” to the con t a i n er, the anti c i p a ted gains and Wed n e s d ay would be the day of the egg losses from the improvem en t , and how they d rop. Thu rs d ay, the class would begin by meet- would propose to test the new con t a i n e r. ing in their small groups to discuss wh a t CO N T E X T: The egg drop activi ty all ows worked , what didn’t , why, and what they wo u l d s tu dents the opportu n i ty to bring scien ti f i c do differen t ly if t h ey were to do the egg drop principles and cre a tivi ty to a probl em , wh i l e de s i gn ex peri m ent aga i n . Th en they would dis- devel oping the skills of tech n o l ogy and hav- cuss these same ideas as a whole cl a s s . ing a good ti m e . However, the exc i tem ent of Fri d ay, the stu dents would fill the boa rd the activi ty can overs h a dow the inten d ed with ch a r acteri s tics of good de s i gn proce- o utcome of devel oping understanding and du re s . Th en they would wri te and sketch in a bi l i ties of tech n o l ogical de s i gn . This assess- t h eir notebooks these ch a racteri s tics and m ent activi ty provi des the opportu n i ty for what each had learn ed from the egg drop s tu dents to ref l ect on what they have ex peri- activi ty. He knew from ex peri en ce that the en ced and arti c u l a te what they have come to egg drop would be an en ga ging activi ty. u n ders t a n d . The activi ty comes after the The “h e ader ti t l e s” em ph a s i ze some impor- de s i gn of an ori ginal con t a i n er, the te s ting of tant com pon ents of the assessment proce s s . that con t a i n er, a class discussion on wh a t SCIENCE CO N T E N T: The Con ten t worked and why, what didn’t work and why, S t a n d a rds for Scien ce and Tech n o l ogy for what they would do differen t ly next ti m e , s tu dents in Grades 5-8 call for them to and an opportu n i t y to make notes in a per- u n derstand and be able to solve a probl em s onal journal for scien ce cl a s s . by using de s i gn pri n c i p l e s . These inclu de the EVA LUATING STUDENT PE R F O R M A N C E : a bi l i ty to de s i gn a produ ct ; eva lu a te tech n o- S tu dent progress in understanding and doi n g l ogical produ ct s ; and com mu n i c a te the de s i gn can be eva lu a ted by com p a ring the process of tech n o l ogical de s i gn . s tu dent re s ponses in the reports with the list ASSESSMENT AC T I V I T Y: Fo ll owing the egg gen era ted by previous cl a s s e s . The astute d rop activi ty, s tu dents each prep a re a report on te ach er wi ll have made su re that the list one thing they propose in order to improve i n clu ded con s t raints su ch as co s t , ti m e , m a te- t h eir te a m’s con t a i n er and how they would te s t ri a l s , and trade - of fs . Cri teria for a qu a l i ty the ef fectiveness of t h eir improvem en t . report might also inclu de how well the student has differen ti a ted bet ween the de s i gn ASSESSMENT TY PE : In d ivi du a l . em bed- and its eva lu a ti on . The te ach er might also ded in te ach i n g . con s i der the cl a ri ty of ex pre s s i on , as well as ASSESSMENT PURPOSE: The te ach e r wi ll a l tern a te ways used to pre s ent the inform a- use the inform a ti on to assess stu dent under- ti on , su ch as drawi n gs . standing of the process of de s i gn and for a s s i gning a grade .

accomplished by the students and should GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STA N D A R D not involve lengthy learning of new physical Fundamental abilities and concepts skills or time-consuming preparation and that underlie this standard include assembly operations. During the middle-school years,the ABILITIES OF T E C H N O LO G I CA L design tasks should cover a range of needs, D E S I G N

materials, and aspects of science. Suitable IDENTIFY APPRO P R I ATE PRO B L E M S See Content experiences could include making electrical FOR T E C H N O LO G I CAL DESIGN. Students Standard A circuits for a warning device, designing a should develop their abilities by identifying (grades 5-8) meal to meet nutritional criteria, choosing a a specified need, considering its various material to combine strength with insula- aspects, and talking to different potential tion,selecting plants for an area of a school, users or beneficiaries. They should appreci- or designing a system to move dishes in a ate that for some needs, the cultural back- restaurant or in a production line. grounds and beliefs of different groups can Su ch work should be com p l em en ted by affect the criteria for a suitable product. the stu dy of tech n o l ogy in the stu den t s’ everyd ay worl d . This could be ach i eved by DESIGN A SOLUTION OR PRO D U C T. i nve s ti ga ting simple, familiar obj ects thro u gh Students should make and compare differ- wh i ch stu dents can devel op powers of ob s erent proposals in the light of the criteria they va ti on and analys i s — for ex a m p l e , by com- have selected. They must consider con- p a ring the va r ious ch a racteri s tics of com pet- straints—such as cost, time, trade-offs, and ing con su m er produ ct s , i n cluding co s t , con- materials needed—and communicate ideas ven i en ce , du ra bi l i ty, and su i t a bi l i t y for dif- with drawings and simple models.

ferent modes of u s e . Rega rdless of the prod- IMPLEMENT A PROPOSED DESIGN. u ct used , s tu dents need to understand the Students should organize materials and s c i en ce behind it. Th ere should be a balance other resources,plan their work, make good over the ye a rs , with the produ cts stu d i e d use of group collaboration where appropri- coming from the areas of cl o t h i n g, food , ate, choose suitable tools and techniques, s tru ctu re s , and simple mechanical and el ec- and work with appropriate measurement trical devi ce s . The inclu s i on of s ome non- methods to ensure adequate accuracy. produ ct - ori en ted probl e ms is important to h elp stu dents understand that tech n o l ogi c a l EVA LUATE COMPLETED T E C H N O LO G I CA L s o luti ons inclu de the de s i gn of s ys tems and DESIGNS OR PRO D U C TS . S tu dents should can invo lve com mu n i c a ti on ,i de a s , and ru l e s . use cri teria rel e vant to the ori g inal purpo s e The principles of de s i g n for grades 5-8 or need , con s i der a va ri ety of f a ctors that do not ch a n ge from grades K-4. But the m i g ht affect accept a bi l i ty and su i t a bi l i ty for com p l ex i ty of the probl ems ad d re s s ed i n ten ded users or ben ef i c i a ri e s , and devel op and the ex t en ded ways the principles are m e a su res of qu a l i ty with re s p ect to su ch a pp l i ed do ch a n ge . c r iteria and factors ; t h ey should also su gge s t

i m provem ents and, for their own produ ct s , ■ Perfect ly de s i gn ed soluti ons do not ex i s t . try propo s ed mod i f i c a ti on s . All tech n o l ogical soluti ons have trade - of fs , su ch as safety, co s t , ef f i c i en c y, a n d CO M M U N I C ATE THE PROCESS OF See Teaching a ppe a ra n ce . E n gi n eers of ten build in T E C H N O LO G I C AL DESIGN. Students Standard B b ack-up sys tems to provi de safety. Ri s k should review and describe any completed is part of l iving in a high ly tech n o l ogi c a l piece of work and identify the stages of worl d . Reducing risk of ten re sults in new problem identification,solution design, tech n o l ogy. implementation, and evaluation. ■ Technological designs have constraints. U N D E R S TANDINGS ABOUT SCIENCE Some constraints are unavoidable, for AND T E C H N O LO G Y example, properties of materials, or See Content ■ S c i en tific inqu i r y and tech n o l ogi c a l effects of weather and friction; other Standards A, F, & G de s i g n have similari ties and differen ce s . constraints limit choices in the design, (grades 5-8) S c i en tists propose ex p l a n a ti ons for qu e s- for example, environmental protection, ti ons abo ut the natu ral worl d , and en g i- human safety, and aesthetics. n eers propose soluti ons rel a ting to ■ Technological solutions have intended human probl em s , n eed s , and aspira ti on s . benefits and unintended consequences. Tech n o l o gical soluti ons are tem pora r y; Some consequences can be predicted, tech n o l ogies exist within natu re and so others cannot. t h e y cannot con t ravene physical or bi o- l ogical pri n c i p l e s ; tech n o l ogical soluti ons have side ef fect s ; and tech n o l o gi e s S c i e n ce in Pe r s o n a l co s t , c a rry ri s k s , and provi de ben ef i t s . ■ Ma n y different people in different cul- and Soc i a l tu res have made and con ti nue to make con t ri buti o ns to scien ce and tech n o l ogy. Pe r s pe ct i ve s ■ S c i en ce and tech n o l ogy are rec i p roc a l . S c i en ce helps drive tech n o l ogy, as it CONTENT STANDARD F: ad d resses qu e s ti ons that demand more As a result of activities in gra d e s s oph i s ti c a ted instru m ents and provi de s 5 - 8 , all students should deve l o p principles for bet t er instru m en t a ti on understanding of

and tech n i qu e . Tech n o l ogy is essen ti a l ■ Personal health

to scien ce , because it provi d es instru- ■ Populations, resources, and m ents and tech n i q ues that en a ble ob s e r- environments

va ti ons of obj ects and ph en om ena that ■ Natural hazards

a re otherwise unob s e rva b le due to fac- ■ Risks and benefits

tors su ch as qu a n ti t y, d i s t a n ce , l oc a ti on , ■ Science and technology in society s i ze , and speed . Tech n o l o gy also provi des tools for inve s ti ga ti on s , i n qu i ry, and analys i s .

D EV E LO PING STUDENT He a l t hy beh avi ors and other aspects of U N D E R S TA N D I N G health edu c a ti on are introdu ced in other Due to their devel opm ental levels and p a rts of s ch ool progra m s . ex p a n ded unders t a n d i n g, s tu dents in grade s By grades 5-8, students begin to develop a 5-8 can undert a ke soph i s ti c a ted stu dy of per- more conceptual understanding of ecologi- s onal and soc i etal ch a ll en ge s . Building on the cal crises. For example, they begin to realize fo u n d a ti on establ i s h ed in grades K-4, s t u- the cumulative ecological effects of pollu- dents can expand their stu dy of health and tion. By this age, students can study envi- e s t a blish linkages among pop u l a ti on s , ronmental issues of a large and abstract re s o u rce s , and envi ron m en t s ; t h ey can develop an understanding of n a tu ral hazard s ,t h e Although students in grades 5-8 have role of tech n o l ogy in rel a ti on to pers onal and some awareness of global issues, teachers s oc i etal issu e s , and learn abo ut risks and per- s onal dec i s i on s . Ch a ll en ges em er ge from the should challenge misconceptions, such as k n owl ed ge that the produ ct s , proce s s e s , tech- anything natural is not a pollutant, n o l ogies and inven ti ons of a soc i ety can re su l t in po lluti on and envi ron m ental degrad a ti on oceans are limitless resources, and and can invo lve some level of risk to hu m a n humans are indestructible as a species. health or to the su rvival of o t h er spec i e s . The stu dy of s c i en ce - rel a ted pers onal and nature, for example, acid rain or global s oc i etal ch a ll en ges is an important en de avor ozone depletion. However, teachers should for scien ce edu c a ti on at the middle level . By challenge several important misconceptions, m i d dle sch oo l ,s tu dents begin to re a l i ze that such as anything natural is not a pollutant, i llness can be caused by va r ious factors , su ch oceans are limitless resources, and humans as microor ga n i s m s , gen etic pred i s po s i ti on s , are indestructible as a species. m a l f u n cti oning of or gans and or ga n - s ys tem s , Little research is available on students’ health habi t s , and envi ron m ental con d i ti on s . perceptions of risk and benefit in the con- S tu dents in grades 5-8 tend to focus on phys- text of science and technology. Students ical more than mental health. Th ey assoc i a te sometimes view social harm from techno- health with food and fitness more than wi t h logical failure as unacceptable. On the other o t h er factors su ch as safety and su b s t a n ce hand, some believe if the risk is personal u s e . One very important issue for te ach ers in and voluntary, then it is part of life and grades 5-8 is overcoming stu den t s’ percep- should not be the concern of others (or ti ons that most factors rel a ted to health are society). Helping students develop an beyond their con tro l . understanding of risks and benefits in the S tu dents of ten have the voc a bu l a ry for areas of health, natural hazards—and sci- m a ny aspects of h e a l t h , but they of ten do ence and technology in general—presents a not understand the scien ce rel a ted to the ter- challenge to middle-school teachers. m i n o l ogy. Devel oping a scien tific under- Mi d dl e - s ch ool stu dents are gen era lly standing of health is a focus of this standard . aw a re of s c i en ce - tech n o l ogy - s oc i ety issu e s

f rom the med i a , but their aw a reness is ■ Sex drive is a natural human function f ra u ght with misu n ders t a n d i n gs . Te ach ers that requires understanding. Sex is also a should begin devel oping stu dent unders t a n d- prominent means of transmitting dis- ing with con c rete and pers onal examples that eases. The diseases can be prevented avoid an exclu s ive focus on probl em s . through a variety of precautions.

■ Na tu ral envi ron m ents may contain su b- GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STA N D A R D s t a n ces (for ex a m p l e , radon and lead ) Fundamental concepts and principles that are harmful to human bei n gs . that underlie this standard include Maintaining envi ron m ental health PERSONAL HEALT H i nvo lves establishing or mon i tori n g

■ Regular exercise is important to the qu a l i ty standards rel a ted to use of s oi l , maintenance and improvement of health. w a ter, and air. The benefits of physical fitness include P O P U L AT I O N S , R E S O U RC E S , maintaining healthy weight, having ener- AND ENVIRO N M E N TS gy and strength for routine activities, ■ When an area becomes overpopulated, good muscle tone, bone strength, strong the environment will become degraded heart/lung systems,and improved mental due to the increased use of resources. health. Personal exercise, especially devel- ■ Causes of environmental degradation oping cardiovascular endurance, is the and resource depletion vary from region foundation of physical fitness. to region and from country to country. ■ The potential for accidents and the exis- tence of hazards imposes the need for N AT U R AL HAZA R D S

injury prevention. Safe living involves the ■ Internal and external processes of the See Content development and use of safety precau- earth system cause natural hazards, Standard D tions and the recognition of risk in per- events that change or destroy human and (grades 5-8) sonal decisions. Injury prevention has wildlife habitats, damage property, and personal and social dimensions. harm or kill humans. Natural hazards

■ The use of tob acco increases the risk of include earthquakes,landslides, wildfires, i ll n e s s .S tu dents should understand the volcanic eruptions, floods, storms, and i n f lu en ce of s h ort - term social and psych o- even possible impacts of asteroids.

l ogical factors that lead to tob acco use, ■ Human activities also can induce hazards and the po s s i ble lon g - term detri m en t a l through resource acquisition,urban ef fects of smoking and ch ewing tob acco. growth,land-use decisions, and waste

■ Al cohol and other dru gs are of ten abu s ed disposal. Such activities can accelerate su b s t a n ce s . Su ch dru g s ch a n ge how the many natural changes.

body functi ons and can lead to ad d i cti on . ■ Natural hazards can present personal and

■ Food provides energy and nutrients for societal challenges because misidentify- growth and development. Nutrition ing the change or incorrectly estimating requirements vary with body weight,age, the rate and scale of change may result in sex, activity, and body functioning. either too little attention and significant

human costs or too much cost for ■ Societal challenges often inspire ques- unneeded preventive measures. tions for scientific research, and social priorities often influence research priori- RISKS AND BENEFITS ties through the availability of funding ■ Risk analysis considers the type of hazard for research. and estimates the number of people that ■ Technology influences society through its might be exposed and the number likely products and processes. Technology to suffer consequences. The results are influences the quality of life and the ways used to determine the options for reduc- people act and interact. Technological ing or eliminating risks. changes are often accompanied by social, ■ S tu dents should understand the ri s k s political, and economic changes that can a s s oc i a ted with natu ral hazards (fire s , be beneficial or detrimental to individu- f l ood s , torn adoe s , hu rri c a n e s ,e a rt h- als and to society. Social needs,attitudes, qu a ke s , and volcanic eru p ti on s ) , wi t h and values influence the direction of ch emical hazards (po llutants in air, w a ter, technological development. s oi l , and food ) , with bi o l o gical hazard s ■ Science and technology have advanced ( po ll en , vi ru s e s , b acteri a l , and para s i te s ) , through contributions of many different s ocial hazards (occ u p a ti onal safety and people,in different cultures, at different tra n s port a ti on ) , and with pers onal haz- times in history. Science and technology a rds (smoking, d i eti n g, and dri n k i n g ) . have contributed enormously to eco- ■ Individuals can use a systematic nomic growth and productivity among approach to thinking critically about societies and groups within societies. risks and benefits. Examples include ■ Scientists and engineers work in many applying probability estimates to risks different settings, including colleges and and comparing them to estimated per- universities, businesses and industries, sonal and social benefits. specific research institutes,and govern- ■ Important personal and social decisions ment agencies. are made based on perceptions of bene- ■ S c i en tists and en gi n eers have ethical code s fits and risks. requ i ring that human su bj ects invo lved See Content SCIENCE AND T E C H N O LOGY IN with re s e a rch be fully inform ed abo ut ri s k s Standard E S O C I E T Y and ben efits assoc i a ted with the re s e a rch (grades 5-8) ■ S c i en ce influ en ces soc i ety thro u gh its before the indivi duals ch oose to parti c i- k n owl ed ge and world vi ew. S c i en ti f i c p a te . This ethic ex tends to po ten tial ri s k s k n owl ed ge and the procedu r es used by to com mu n i ties and property. In short , s c i en tists influ en ce the way many indi- pri or knowl ed ge and con s ent are requ i red vi d uals in soc i e ty think abo u t them- for re s e a rch invo lving human su bj ects or s e lve s , o t h e rs , and the envi ron m en t . po ten tial damage to property.

The ef fect of s c i en ce on soc i ety is nei- ■ Science cannot answer all questions and t h er en ti rely ben e ficial nor en ti rely technology cannot solve all human prob- detri m en t a l . lems or meet all human needs. Students

should understand the difference Mi d dl e - s ch ool stu dents can thereby devel op between scientific and other questions. a bet ter understanding of s c i en tific inqu i ry They should appreciate what science and and the interacti ons bet ween scien ce and s oc i ety. In gen era l , te ach ers of s c i en ce should Science and technology have advanced not assume that stu dents have an acc u ra te con cepti on of the natu re of s c i en ce in ei t h er through the contributions of many con tem pora r y or historical con tex t s . different people in different cultures To devel op understanding of the history and natu re of s c i en ce , te ach ers of s c i en ce can at different times in history. use the actual ex peri en ces of s tu dent inve s ti- ga ti on s , case stu d i e s , and historical vi gn et te s . technology can reasonably contribute to The inten ti on of this standard is not to devel- society and what they cannot do. For op an overvi ew of the com p l ete history of s c i- example, new technologies often will en ce . Ra t h er, h i s torical examples are used to decrease some risks and increase others. h elp stu dents understand scien tific inqu i ry, the natu re of s c i en tific knowl ed ge , and the i n teracti ons bet ween scien ce and soc i ety. Hi s to ry and GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STA N D A R D Fundamental concepts and principles Nat u re of Science that underlie this standard include

SCIENCE AS A HUMAN ENDEAVO R CONTENT STANDARD G: ■ Women and men of various social and As a result of activities in gra d e s ethnic backgrounds—and with diverse 5 - 8 , all students should deve l o p interests, talents, qualities, and motiva- understanding of tions—engage in the activities of science, ■ Science as a human endeavor engineering, and related fields such as the ■ Nature of science health professions. Some scientists work ■ History of science in teams, and some work alone, but all D EV E LO PING STUDENT communicate extensively with others. U N D E R S TA N D I N G ■ Science requires different abilities, Ex peri en ces in wh i ch stu dents actu a lly depending on such factors as the field of en ga ge in scien tific inve s ti ga ti ons provi de the study and type of inquiry. Science is very b ack ground for devel oping an unders t a n d i n g much a human endeavor, and the work of the natu re of s c i en tific inqu i ry, and wi ll of science relies on basic human quali- also provi de a fo u n d a ti on for apprec i a ting the ties, such as reasoning, insight, energy, h i s tory of s c i en ce de s c ri bed in this standard . skill, and creativity—as well as on scien- The introdu cti on of h i s torical ex a m p l e s tific habits of mind, such as intellectual wi ll help stu dents see the scien tific en terpri s e honesty, tolerance of ambiguity, skepti- as more ph i l o s oph i c a l ,s oc i a l , and hu m a n . cism, and openness to new ideas.

N ATURE OF SCIENCE ph en om en a , a bo ut interpret a ti ons of ■ Scientists formulate and test their expla- d a t a , or abo ut the va lue of rival theo- nations of nature using observation, ri e s , t h e y do agree that qu e s ti on i n g, experiments, and theoretical and mathe- re s ponse to cri ti c i s m , and open com mu- matical models. Although all scientific n i c a ti on are integral to the process of ideas are tentative and subject to change and improvement in principle, for most Students should understand the major ideas in science,there is much experimental and observational confir- difference between scientific and mation. Those ideas are not likely to other questions and what science and change greatly in the future.Scientists do technology can and cannot and have changed their ideas about nature when they encounter new experi- reasonably contribute to society. mental evidence that does not match their existing explanations. s c i en ce . As scien tific knowl ed ge evo lve s , ■ In areas where active research is being m a j o r disagreem e nts are even tu a lly pursued and in which there is not a great re s o lved thro u gh su ch interacti on s deal of experimental or observational bet ween scien ti s t s . evidence and understanding, it is normal for scientists to differ with one another H I S TO RY OF SCIENCE

about the interpretation of the evidence ■ Many individuals have contributed to the or theory being considered. Different sci- traditions of science.Studying some of entists might publish conflicting experi- these individuals provides further under- mental results or might draw different standing of scientific inquiry, science as a conclusions from the same data. Ideally, human endeavor, the nature of science, scientists acknowledge such conflict and and the relationships between science work towards finding evidence that will and society.

resolve their disagreement. ■ In historical perspective,science has been ■ It is part of s c i en tific inqu i r y to eva lu a te practiced by different individuals in dif- the re sults of s c i en tific inve s ti ga ti on s , ferent cultures. In looking at the history ex peri m en t s , ob s erva ti on s , t h eoreti c a l of many peoples, one finds that scientists m o del s , and the ex p l a n a ti ons propo s e d and engineers of high achievement are by other scien ti s t s . Eva lu a ti on inclu de s considered to be among the most valued revi ewing the ex peri m e ntal procedu re s , contributors to their culture.

examining the evi den ce , i d en ti f yi n g ■ Tracing the history of science can show f a u l t y re a s on i n g, poi n t ing out state- how difficult it was for scientific innova- m ents that go beyond the evi d en ce , a n d tors to break through the accepted ideas su g ge s ting altern a t ive ex p l a n a ti ons for of their time to reach the conclusions the same ob s erva ti on s . Al t h o u g h scien- that we currently take for granted. tists may disagree abo u t ex p l a n a ti ons of

St u d e nt ex p l a n at i o n s be come a baseline for instru ction as teachers help s t u d e nts co n s t ru ct ex p l a n ations aligned with scient i f i c kn ow l e d g e.

Content Standards:9-12

S c i e n ce as In q u i ry

CONTENT STANDARD A: As a result of activities in grades 9 - 1 2 , all students should deve l o p

■ Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry

■ Understandings about scientific inquiry D EV E LO PING STUDENT ABILITIES AND U N D E R S TA N D I N G For students to develop the abilities that characterize science as inquiry, they must actively participate in scientific investigations, and they must actually use the cognitive and manipulative skills associated with the formulation of scientific explanations. This standard describes the fundamental abilities and understandings of inquiry, as well as a larger framework for conducting scientific investigations of natural phenomena. In grades 9-12, students should develop sophistication in their abilities and understanding of scientific inquiry. Students can understand that experiments are guided by concepts and are performed to test ideas. Some students still have trouble with variables and controlled experiments. Further, students often have trouble dealing with data that seem anomalous and in proposing explanations based on evidence and logic rather than on their prior beliefs about the natural world. One ch a ll en ge to te ach ers of s c i en ce and to curri c u lum devel opers is making scien ce inve s ti- ga ti ons meaningf u l . Inve s ti ga ti ons should derive from qu e s ti ons and issues that have meaning for stu d en t s . S c i en tific topics that have been high l i gh ted by current events provi de one source , wh ereas actual scien ce- and tech n o l ogy - rel a ted probl ems provi d e another source of m e a n i n g - ful inve s ti ga ti on s . F i n a lly, te ach ers of s c i en ce should rem em ber that some ex p eri en ces begi n with little meaning for stu dents but devel op meaning thro u g h active invo lvement, continued

exposure, and growing skill and under- of science can ask questions, such as “What standing. explanation did you expect to develop from A cri t ical com pon ent of su ccessful scien- the data?” “Were there any surprises in the tific inqu i ry in grades 9-12 inclu d es havi n g data?”“How confident do you feel about the s tu dents ref l e ct on the con cepts that guide accuracy of the data?”Students should the inqu i ry. Also important is the pri or answer questions such as these during full e s t a bl i s h m ent of an adequ a te knowl ed ge and partial inquiries. base to su pport the inve s ti ga ti on and hel p Public discussions of the explanations devel op scien tific ex p l a n a ti on s . The con- proposed by students is a form of peer cepts of the world that stu dents bring to review of investigations, and peer review is s ch ool wi ll shape the way they en ga ge in an important aspect of science. Talking with s c i en ce inve s ti ga ti on s , and serve as filters peers about science experiences helps stu- for their ex p l a n a ti ons of s c i en tific ph en om- dents develop meaning and understanding. en a . Left unex a m i n ed , the limited natu re of Their conversations clarify the concepts and s tu den t s’ bel i e fs wi l l interfere with thei r processes of science, helping students make a bi l i ty to devel op a deep understanding of sense of the content of science. Teachers of s c i en ce . Thu s , in a full inqu i r y, i n s tru c ti on a l science should engage students in conversa- s t ra tegies su ch as small - g roup discussion s , tions that focus on questions, such as “How l a bel ed drawi n gs , wri ti n gs , and con cept do we know?”“How certain are you of those m a pping should be used by the te ach er of results?”“Is there a better way to do the s c i en ce to gain inform a ti on abo ut stu den t s’ investigation?”“If you had to explain this to c u r rent ex p l a n a ti on s . Those stu dent ex p l a- someone who knew nothing about the pro- n a ti ons then become a baseline for instru c- ject, how would you do it?”“Is there an ti on as te a ch e rs help stu dents con s tru c t alternative scientific explanation for the one ex p l a n a ti ons align ed with scien tific knowl- we proposed?” “Should we do the investiga- ed ge ; te ach ers also help stu dents eva lu a te tion over?”“Do we need more evidence?” t h eir own ex p l a n a ti ons and those made by “What are our sources of experimental s c i en ti s t s . error?”“How do you account for an expla- Students also need to learn how to ana- nation that is different from ours?” lyze evidence and data. The evidence they Q u e s ti ons like these make it po s s i ble for analyze may be from their investigations, s tu dents to analy ze data, devel op a ri ch er other students’ investigations, or databases. k n owl ed ge base, re a s on using scien ce con- Data manipulation and analysis strategies cept s , m a ke con n ecti ons bet ween evi den ce need to be modeled by teachers of science and ex p l a n a ti on s , and recogn i ze altern a tive and practiced by students. Determining the ex p l a n a ti on s . Ideas should be ex a m i n ed and range of the data, the mean and mode val- d i s c u s s ed in class so that other stu dents can ues of the data, plotting the data, developing ben e fit from the feed b a ck . Te a ch e rs of s c i - mathematical functions from the data,and en ce can use the ideas of s tu dents in thei r looking for anomalous data are all examples cl a s s ,i deas from other cl a s s e s , and ide a s of analyses students can perform. Teachers f rom tex t s , d a t a b a s e s , or other source s — but

s c i en tific ideas and met h o ds should be USE T E C H N O LOGY AND MAT H E M AT- d i scussed in the fashion just described. ICS TO IMPROVE INVESTIGAT I O N S AND CO M M U N I C AT I O N S . A variety of GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STANDARD technologies, such as hand tools, measuring Fundamental abilities and concepts instruments, and calculators, should be an that underlie this standard include integral component of scientific investiga- ABILITIES NECESSARY TO DO tions. The use of computers for the collec- SCIENTIFIC INQU I RY tion, analysis, and display of data is also a part of this standard. Mathematics plays an IDENTIFY QUESTIONS AND CO N C E P TS essential role in all aspects of an inquiry. For T H AT GUIDE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGA- example,measurement is used for posing T I O N S . Students should formulate a questions, formulas are used for developing testable hypothesis and demonstrate the explanations,and charts and graphs are logical connections between the scientific used for communicating results. concepts guiding a hypothesis and the design of an experiment. They should F O R M U LATE AND REVISE SCIENTIFIC demonstrate appropriate procedures, a E X P LA N ATIONS AND MODELS USING knowledge base, and conceptual under- LOGIC AND EV I D E N C E. Student inquiries standing of scientific investigations. should culminate in formulating an explanation or model. Models should be physical, DESIGN AND CONDUCT SCIENTIFIC conceptual, and mathematical. In the I N V E S T I G AT I O N S . De s i gning and con- process of answering the questions, the stu- du cting a scien tific inve s ti ga ti on requ i re s dents should engage in discussions and i n trodu cti on to the major con cepts in the arguments that result in the revision of their a rea being inve s ti ga ted , proper equ i pm en t , explanations. These discussions should be s a fety prec a uti on s , a s s i s t a n ce with met h od- based on scientific knowledge, the use of o l ogical probl em s , recom m en d a ti ons for use logic,and evidence from their investigation. of tech n o l ogi e s , cl a ri f i c a ti on of i deas that g u i de the inqu i r y, and scien tific knowl ed ge R E COGNIZE AND ANALYZE ALT E R N A - obt a i n ed from sources other than the actu a l TIVE EXPLA N ATIONS AND MODELS. i nve s ti ga ti on . The inve s ti ga ti on may also This aspect of the standard emphasizes the requ i re stu dent cl a ri f i c a ti on of the qu e s ti on , critical abilities of analyzing an argument by m et h od , con tro l s , and va ri a bl e s ; s tu den t reviewing current scientific understanding, or ga n i z a ti o n and display of d a t a ; s tu den t weighing the evidence, and examining the revi s i on of m et h ods and ex p l a n a ti on s ; and a logic so as to decide which explanations and p u blic pre s en t a ti on of the re sults with a cri ti- models are best. In other words, although cal re s ponse from peers . Rega rdless of t h e there may be several plausible explanations, s c i en tific inve s ti ga ti on perform ed , s tu den t s they do not all have equal weight. Students must use evi den ce ,a pp ly logi c , and con s tru ct should be able to use scientific criteria to an argument for their propo s ed ex p l a n a ti on s . find the preferred explanations.

See Teaching CO M M U N I CATE AND DEFEND A SCIEN- ■ Mathematics is essential in scientific See Program Standard B in TIFIC ARG U M E N T. S tu dents in sch ool sci- inquiry. Mathematical tools and models Standard C Chapter 3 en ce programs should devel op the abi l i ti e s guide and improve the posing of ques- a s s oc i a ted with acc u ra te and ef f ective com- tions, gathering data, constructing expla- mu n i c a ti on . These inclu de wri ting and fo l- nations and communicating results.

l owing procedu re s , ex pressing con cept s , ■ Scientific explanations must adhere to revi ewing inform a ti on , su m m a rizing data, criteria such as: a proposed explanation using language appropri a tely, devel op i n g must be logically consistent; it must d i a g rams and ch a rt s , explaining stati s ti c a l abide by the rules of evidence; it must be a n a lys i s , s peaking cl e a rly and logi c a lly, con- open to questions and possible modifica- s tru cting a re a s on ed argumen t , and re s p on d- tion; and it must be based on historical ing appropri a tely to cri t ical com m en t s . and current scientific knowledge.

■ Re sults of s c i en t ific inqu i ry — n ew knowl- UNDERSTANDINGS ABOUT SCIENTIFIC ed ge and met h od s — em er ge from differ- INQUIRY ent types of i nve s ti ga ti ons and publ i c See Unifying ■ S c i en t ists usu a lly inqu i re abo ut how phys- com mu n i c a ti on among scien ti s t s . In com- Concepts and i c a l ,l ivi n g, or de s i gn ed sys tems functi on . mu n i c a t ing and defending the re sults of Processes Con ceptual principles and knowl ed ge s c i en tific inqu i r y, a r g u m ents must be logi- g u i de scien tific inqu i ri e s . Hi s torical and cal and dem on s tra te con n ecti ons bet ween c u rrent scien tific knowl ed ge influ en ce the n a tu ral ph en om en a ,i nve s ti ga ti on s ,a n d de s i gn and interpret a ti on of i nve s ti ga ti on s the historical body of s c i en t ific knowl- and the eva lu a ti on of propo s ed ex p l a n a- ed ge . In ad d i ti on , the met h ods and proce- ti ons made by other scien ti s t s . du res that scien tists used to obtain evi- ■ Scientists conduct investigations for a den ce must be cl e a rly reported to en h a n ce wide variety of reasons. For example, opportu n i ties for furt h er inve s ti ga ti on . they may wish to discover new aspects of the natural world, explain recently observed phenomena, or test the conclusions of prior investigations or the pre- Phys i cal Science dictions of current theories. CONTENT STANDARD B: See Content ■ Scientists rely on technology to enhance As a result of their activities in Standard E the gathering and manipulation of data. g rades 9-1 2 , all students should (grades 9-12) New techniques and tools provide new d evelop an understanding of evidence to guide inquiry and new meth- ■ Structure of atoms ods to gather data, thereby contributing ■ Structure and properties of matter to the advance of science. The accuracy ■ Chemical reactions and precision of the data, and therefore ■ Motions and forces the quality of the exploration, depends ■ Conservation of energy and increase on the technology used. in disorder

■ Interactions of energy and matter

D EV E LO PING STUDENT the ch emical formulas that repre s ent them is U N D E R S TA N D I N G also of ten not cl e a r. Hi gh - s ch ool stu dents devel op the abi l i t y It is logical for stu dents to begin asking to rel a te the mac ro s copic properties of su b- a bo ut the internal stru c tu re of a tom s , and it s t a n ces that they stu dy in grades K-8 to the wi ll be difficult, but import a n t , for them to m i c ro s copic stru ctu re of su b s t a n ce s . Th i s k n ow “h ow we know.” Q u a l i ty learning and devel opm ent in understanding requ i res stu- the spirit and practi ce of s c i en tific inqu i ry dents to move among three domains of a re lost wh en the evi den ce and argument for t h o u g ht—the mac ro s copic world of ob s erv- a tomic stru ctu re are rep l aced by direct asser- a ble ph en om en a , the micro s copic world of ti ons by the te ach er and tex t . Al t h o u g h many m o l ec u l e s ,a tom s , and su b a tomic parti cl e s , ex p eri m ents are difficult to rep l i c a te in and the sym bolic and mathem a tical world of s ch oo l ,s tu dents can re ad some of the actu a l ch emical formu l a s , equ a ti on s , and sym bo l s . reports and examine the chain of evi den ce The rel a ti onship bet ween properties of that led to the devel opm ent of the curren t m a t ter and its stru ctu re con ti nues as a major con cept of the atom . The natu re of the atom com pon ent of s tu dy in 9-12 physical scien ce . is far from to t a lly unders tood ; s c i en tists con- In the el em en t a ry grade s , s tu dents stu d i ed ti nue to inve s ti ga te atoms and have discov- the properties of m a t ter and the cl a s s i f i c a- ered even small er con s ti tu ents of wh i ch neu- ti on of su b s t a n ces using easily ob s erva bl e trons and pro tons are made . properti e s . In the middle grade s ,t h ey ex a m- Laboratory investigation of the properties i n ed ch a n ge of s t a te ,s o luti on s , and simple of substances and their changes through a ch emical re acti on s , and devel oped en o u gh range of chemical interactions provide a k n owl ed ge and ex peri en ce to define the basis for the high school graduate to under- properties of el em ents and com po u n d s . stand a variety of reaction types and their Wh en stu dents ob s erve and integra te a wi de applications, such as the capability to liber- va ri ety of evi den ce , su ch as seeing copper ate elements from ore, create new drugs, “d i s s o lved ” by an acid into a soluti on and manipulate the structure of genes, and syn- t h en retri e ved as pure copper wh en it is dis- thesize polymers. p l aced by zinc, the idea that copper atom s Understanding of the microstructure of a re the same for any copper obj ect begins to matter can be supported by laboratory m a ke sen s e . In each of these re acti on s , t h e experiences with the macroscopic and k n owl ed ge that the mass of the su b s t a n ce microscopic world of forces, motion does not ch a n ge can be interpreted by (including vibrations and waves), light,and a s suming that the nu m ber of p a rti cles doe s electricity. These experiences expand upon not ch a n ge du ring their re a rra n gem ent in the ones that the students had in the middle the re acti on .S tudies of s tu dent unders t a n d- school and provide new ways of under- ing of m o l ecules indicate that it wi ll be diffi- standing the movement of muscles, the cult for them to com p reh end the very small transport of materials across cell mem- s i ze and large nu m ber of p a rti cles invo lved . branes, the behavior of atoms and mole- The con n ecti on bet ween the parti cles and cules, communication technologies, and the

movement of planets and galaxies. By this has atoms that differ in the number of age, the concept of a force is better under- neutrons, these atoms are called different stood, but static forces in equilibrium and isotopes of the element.

students’ intuitive ideas about forces on pro- ■ The nuclear forces that hold the nucleus jectiles and satellites still resist change of an atom together, at nuclear distances, through instruction for a large percentage of are usually stronger than the electric the students. forces that would make it fly apart. On the basis of their experiences with Nuclear reactions convert a fraction of energy transfers in the middle grades,high- the mass of interacting particles into school students can investigate energy trans- energy, and they can release much greater fers quantitatively by measuring variables amounts of energy than atomic interac- such as temperature change and kinetic tions. Fission is the splitting of a large energy. Laboratory investigations and nucleus into smaller pieces. Fusion is the descriptions of other experiments can help joining of two nuclei at extremely high students understand the evidence that leads temperature and pressure, and is the to the conclusion that energy is conserved. process responsible for the energy of the Although the operational distinction sun and other stars.

between temperature and heat can be fairly ■ Radioactive isotopes are unstable and well understood after careful instruction, undergo spontaneous nuclear reactions, research with high-school students indicates emitting particles and/or wavelike radia- that the idea that heat is the energy of ran- tion. The decay of any one nucleus can- dom motion and vibrating molecules is dif- not be predicted, but a large group of ficult for students to understand. identical nuclei decay at a predictable rate. This predictability can be used to GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STA N D A R D estimate the age of materials that contain Fundamental concepts and principles radioactive isotopes. that underlie this standard include S T RUCTURE OF ATO M S S T RUCTURE AND PRO PE RTIES

■ Matter is made of minute particles called OF MATT E R atoms, and atoms are composed of even ■ Atoms interact with one another by smaller components. These components transferring or sharing electrons that are have measurable properties, such as mass furthest from the nucleus. These outer and electrical charge.Each atom has a electrons govern the chemical properties positively charged nucleus surrounded by of the element.

negatively charged electrons. The electric ■ An element is composed of a single type force between the nucleus and electrons of atom. When elements are listed in holds the atom together. order according to the number of pro-

■ The atom’s nucleus is composed of pro- tons (called the atomic number), repeat- tons and neutrons, which are much more ing patterns of physical and chemical massive than electrons. When an element properties identify families of elements

with similar properties. This “Periodic ■ Chemical reactions may release or con- Table” is a consequence of the repeating sume energy. Some reactions such as the pattern of outermost electrons and their burning of fossil fuels release large permitted energies. amounts of energy by losing heat and by

■ Bonds between atoms are created when emitting light. Light can initiate many electrons are paired up by being trans- chemical reactions such as photosynthe- ferred or shared.A substance composed sis and the evolution of urban smog.

of a single kind of atom is called an ele- ■ A large number of important reactions ment. The atoms may be bonded togeth- involve the transfer of either electrons er into molecules or crystalline solids. A (oxidation/reduction reactions) or compound is formed when two or more hydrogen ions (acid/base reactions) kinds of atoms bind together chemically. between reacting ions, molecules, or

■ The physical properties of compounds atoms. In other reactions, chemical reflect the nature of the interactions bonds are broken by heat or light to form among its molecules. These interactions very reactive radicals with electrons ready are determined by the structure of the to form new bonds. Radical reactions molecule,including the constituent control many processes such as the pres- atoms and the distances and angles ence of ozone and greenhouse gases in between them. the atmosphere, burning and processing

■ Solids, liquids, and gases differ in the dis- of fossil fuels,the formation of polymers, tances and angles between molecules or and explosions.

atoms and therefore the energy that ■ Chemical reactions can take place in time binds them together. In solids the struc- periods ranging from the few femtosec- ture is nearly rigid; in liquids molecules onds (10-15 seconds) required for an or atoms move around each other but do atom to move a fraction of a chemical not move apart; and in gases molecules bond distance to geologic time scales of or atoms move almost independently of billions of years. Reaction rates depend each other and are mostly far apart. on how often the reacting atoms and

■ Carbon atoms can bond to one another molecules encounter one another, on the in chains, rings, and branching networks temperature,and on the properties— to form a variety of structures, including including shape—of the reacting species.

synthetic polymers, oils, and the large ■ Ca t a lys t s , su ch as metal su rf ace s , accel er- molecules essential to life. a te ch emical re acti on s . Ch emical re a cti on s in living sys tems are cataly zed by pro tei n C H E M I CAL REAC T I O N S m o l ecules call ed en z ym e s . See Content ■ Chemical reactions occur all around us, Standard C for example in health care, cooking, cos- M OTIONS AND FORC E S

(Grades 9-12) metics, and automobiles. Complex chem- ■ Objects change their motion only when a ical reactions involving carbon-based net force is applied. Laws of motion are molecules take place constantly in every used to calculate precisely the effects of cell in our bodies. forces on the motion of objects. The

magnitude of the change in motion can never be destroyed. As these transfers be calculated using the relationship occur, the matter involved becomes F = ma, which is independent of the steadily less ordered.

nature of the force. Whenever one object ■ All energy can be considered to be either exerts force on another, a force equal in kinetic energy, which is the energy of magnitude and opposite in direction is motion; potential energy, which depends exerted on the first object. on relative position; or energy contained

■ Gravi t a ti on is a universal force that each by a field, such as electromagnetic waves.

mass exerts on any other mass. Th e ■ Heat consists of random motion and the s trength of the gravi t a ti onal attractive vibrations of atoms, molecules, and ions. force bet ween two masses is proporti on a l The higher the temperature,the greater to the masses and invers ely proporti onal to the atomic or molecular motion.

the squ a re of the distance bet ween them . ■ Everything tends to become less or ga-

■ The electric force is a universal force that n i zed and less orderly over ti m e . Thu s , i n exists between any two charged objects. a ll en er gy tra n s fers , the overa ll ef fect is Opposite charges attract while like that the en er gy is spre ad out uniform ly. charges repel. The strength of the force is Examples are the tra n s f er of en er g y from proportional to the charges, and, as with h o t ter to coo l er obj ects by con du cti on , gravitation, inversely proportional to the rad i a ti on , or convecti on and the warm i n g square of the distance between them. of our su r ro u n d i n gs wh en we bu rn fuel s .

■ Bet ween any two ch a r ged parti cl e s , el ec- I N T E R ACTIONS OF ENERGY tric force is va s t ly gre a ter than the gravi- AND MATTER t a ti onal force . Most ob s erva ble force s ■ Waves, including sound and seismic See Content su ch as those exerted by a coi l ed spring or waves,waves on water, and light waves, Standard D f ri cti on may be traced to el ectric force s have energy and can transfer energy (grades 9-12) acting bet ween atoms and molec u l e s . when they interact with matter. ■ E l ectri c i ty and magn etism are two aspect s ■ Electromagnetic waves result when a of a single el ectrom a gn etic force . Movi n g charged object is accelerated or decelerat- el ectric ch a r ges produ ce magn etic force s , ed. Electromagnetic waves include radio and moving magn ets produ ce el ectri c waves (the longest wavelength), force s . These ef fects help stu dents to microwaves, infrared radiation (radiant u n derstand el ectric motors and gen era tors . heat), visible light, ultraviolet radiation, CO N S E RVATION OF ENERGY AND x-rays, and gamma rays. The energy of THE INCREASE IN DISORDER electromagnetic waves is carried in pack-

■ The total energy of the universe is con- ets whose magnitude is inversely propor- See Content stant. Energy can be transferred by colli- tional to the wavelength.

Standard C sions in chemical and nuclear reactions, ■ Each kind of atom or molecule can gain (grades 9-12) by light waves and other radiations, and or lose energy only in particular discrete in many other ways. However, it can amounts and thus can absorb and emit

light only at wavelengths corresponding Teachers of science will have to make to these amounts. These wavelengths can choices about what to teach that will most be used to identify the substance. productively develop student understanding

■ In some materials, such as metals, elec- of the life sciences. All too often, the criteria trons flow easily, whereas in insulating for selection are not clear, resulting in an materials such as glass they can hardly overemphasis on information and an under- flow at all. Semiconducting materials emphasis on conceptual understanding. In have intermediate behavior. At low tem- describing the content for life sciences, the peratures some materials become super- national standards focus on a small number conductors and offer no resistance to the of general principles that can serve as the flow of electrons. basis for teachers and students to develop further understanding of biology. Because molecular biology will continue Li fe Science into the twenty-first century as a major frontier of science, students should understand the chemical basis of life not only for CONTENT STANDARD C: its own sake, but because of the need to take As a result of their activities in informed positions on some of the practical g rades 9-12, all students should and ethical implications of humankind’s d evelop understanding of capacity to manipulate living organisms. ■ The cell In general, students recognize the idea of ■ Molecular basis of heredity species as a basis for classifying organisms, ■ Biological evolution but few students will refer to the genetic ■ Interdependence of organisms basis of species. Students may exhibit a gen- ■ Matter,energy, and organization in living systems eral understanding of classification. However, when presented with unique ■ Behavior of organisms organisms, students sometimes appeal to D EV E LO PING STUDENT “everyday” classifications, such as viewing U N D E R S TA N D I N G jellyfish as fish because of the term “fish,” S tu dents in grades K-8 should have devel- and penguins as amphibians because they oped a fo u n d a ti onal understanding of l i fe sci- live on land and in water. en ce s . In grades 9-12, s tu den t s’ u n ders t a n d i n g Although students may indicate that they of bi o l ogy wi ll expand by incorpora ting more know about cells, they may say that living a b s tract knowl ed ge , su ch as the stru ctu re and systems are made of cells but not molecules, f u n cti on of D NA , and more com preh en s ive because students often associate molecules t h eori e s , su ch as evo luti on .S tu den t s’ u n der- only with physical science. s t a n d i n gs should en compass scales that are Students have difficulty with the funda- both small er, for ex a m p l e ,m o l ec u l e s ,a n d mental concepts of evolution. For example, l a r ger, for ex a m p l e , the bi o s ph ere . students often do not understand natural

need? What if these fossils were from the Fo s s i l s same rock formation? How do you know that the differences are not normal varia- The investigation in this example centers on tions in this species? What if the two fossils the use of fossils to develop concepts about variation of characteristics in a population, were from rock formations deposited 10 evolution—including indicators of past envi- millions years apart? Can you tell if evolu- ronments and changes in those environments, tion has or has not occurred by examining the role of climate in biological adaptation, only two samples?” and use of geological data. High-school stu- M r. D. s h ows stu dents two trays ,e ach wi t h dents generally exhibit interest in fossils and a bo ut 100 caref u lly sel ected fossil brach i o - what the fossils indicate about organisms and their habitats. Fossils can be purchased from pod s . He asks the stu d ents to de s c ri be the scientific supply houses, as well as collected fo s s i l s . Af ter they have had time to ex a m i n e locally in some places. In the investigation the fo s s i l s , he hears de s c ri pti ons su ch as described here, the students conduct an “Th ey look like but terf l i e s ,” and “Th ey are inquiry to answer an apparently simple ques- kind of triangular with a big middle secti on tion: Do two slightly different fossils represent and ri b s .”Th en he asks if t h ere are any dif- an evolutionary trend? In doing the activity, feren ces bet ween the fossils in the two trays . students rely on prior knowledge from life science. They use mathematical knowledge and The stu dents qu i ck ly con clu de that they can- skill. The focus of the discussion is to explain not re a lly tell any differen ces based on the organized data. gen e ral de s c ri pti on , so Mr. D. asks how they [This example highlights some elements of could tell if the fossil pop u l a ti ons were dif- Teaching Standards A, B, D, and E; 9-12 feren t . From the en suing discussion ,s tu den t s Content Standards A, C, D and the Unifying determine that qu a n ti t a tive de s c ri pti on of Concepts and Processes; and Program s pecific ch a r acteri s ti c s , su ch as len g t h , wi d t h , Standards A and C.] and nu m ber of ribs are most hel pf u l . The investigation begins with a task that M r. D. p l aces the stu dents in groups of students originally perceive as easy— four and pre s ents them with two trays of describing the characteristics of two bra- brach i opod s . Th ey are told to measu re , chiopods to see if change has occurred. The record , and gra ph some ch a racteri s tics of t h e student inquiries begin when the teacher, brach i opod pop u l a ti on s . The stu dents dec i de Mr.D., gives each student two similar but what they want to measu re and how to do it. slightly different fossils and asks the stu- Th ey work for a class peri od measu ring and dents if they think an evolutionary trend en tering their data on length and width of can be discerned. The openness and ambi- the brach i opods in the pop u l a ti ons in a com- guity of the question results in mixed p uter database. Wh en all data are en tered , responses. Mr. D. asks for a justification of su m m a ri zed , and gra ph ed , the class re su l t s each answer and gently challenges the stu- re s em ble those displayed in the figure . dents’ responses by posing questions such The students begin examining the graphs as:“How do you know? How could you sup- showing frequency distribution of the port your answer? What evidence would you length and width of fossils. As the figure

envi ron m ent re sult in sel ecti on for those or ganisms best fit for the new envi ron m en t . He con ti nues with a few qu e s ti ons that aga i n ch a ll en ge the stu den t s’ t h i n k i n g : Did the geo l ogical evi den ce indicate the envi ron- m ent ch a n ged? How can you be su re that the fossils were not from different envi ron m en t s and depo s i ted within a scale of time that would not explain the degree of evo luti on a r y ch a n ge? Why would natu ral sel ecti on for differen ces in length and width of brach i opod s occur? What differen ces in stru c tu re and f u n cti on are repre s en ted in the length and width of brach i opod s ? The students must use the evidence from their investigations and other reviews of scientific literature to develop scientific explanations for the aforementioned general Figure 1. Graph showing characteristics of branchiopod explanations. They take the next class peri- populations. od to complete this assignment. indicates, the results for either dimension After a day’s work by the students on show a continuous variation for the two background research and preparation, Mr. populations. Students observe that regard- D. holds a small conference at which the less of the dimension measured, the mean students’ papers are presented and dis- for the two populations differs. cussed. He focuses students on their ability Af ter the gra phs are drawn , M r. D. a s k s to ask skeptical questions, evaluate the use the stu dents to explain the differen ces in the of evidence, assess the understanding of pop u l a ti on s . The stu dents su ggest severa l geological and biological concepts, and gen eral ex p l a n a ti on s : evo luti on has not review aspects of scientific inquiries. During occ u rred—these are simply different kinds the discussions, students are directed to of brach i opod s ; evo luti on has occ u rred — t h e address the following questions: What evi- d i f feren ces in the means for length and dence would you look for that might indi- width dem on s tra te evo luti on a ry ch a n ge in cate these brachiopods were the same or dif- the pop u l a ti on s ; evo luti on has not ferent species? What constitutes the same or occ u rred—the differen ces are a re sult of different species? Were the rocks in which n ormal va ri a ti ons in the pop u l a ti on s . the fossils were deposited formed at the M r. D. t a kes time to provi d e some back- same or different times? How similar or dif- ground inform a ti on that the stu dents should ferent were the environments of deposition con s i der. He notes that evo luti on occ u rs in of the rocks? What is the effect of sample pop u l a ti on s , and ch a n ges in a pop u l a ti on’s size on reliability of conclusions?

s el ecti on because they fail to make a con- synthesis of new molecules,and the stor- ceptual con n ecti on bet ween the occ u rren ce age of genetic material.

of n ew va ri a ti ons in a pop u l a ti on and the ■ Most cell functions involve chemical po ten tial ef fect of those va ri a ti ons on the reactions. Food molecules taken into cells l on g - term su r vival of the spec i e s . One mis- react to provide the chemical con- con cepti on that te a ch e rs may en co u n ter stituents needed to synthesize other mol- i nvo lves stu d ents attri b uting new va ri a ti on s ecules. Both breakdown and synthesis are made possible by a large set of protein Many misconceptions about the catalysts, called enzymes. The breakdown process of natural selection can be of some of the food molecules enables the cell to store energy in specific chemi- changed through instruction. cals that are used to carry out the many to an or ga n i s m’s need , envi ron m ental con- functions of the cell.

d i ti on s , or use. With some hel p, s tu den t s ■ Cells store and use information to guide can understand that, in gen era l , mut a ti on s their functions. The genetic information occur ra n d om ly and are sel ected bec a u s e stored in DNA is used to direct the syn- t h ey help some or ganisms su r vive and pro- thesis of the thousands of proteins that du ce more of fs pri n g .Ot h er miscon cepti on s each cell requires.

cen ter on a lack of u n derstanding of h ow a ■ Cell functi ons are reg u l a ted . Reg u l a ti on pop u l a ti on ch a n g es as a re sult of d i f feren- occ u r s both thro u g h ch a n g es in the tial reprodu c ti o n (some indivi duals pro- activi t y of the functi o ns perform ed by ducing more of fs pri n g ) , as oppo s ed to all pro teins and thro u g h the sel ective i n d ivi duals in a pop u l a ti on ch a n gi n g.Ma ny ex pre s s i o n of i n d ivi dual gen e s . This reg- m i s con cepti o ns abo ut the process of n a tu r- u l a ti on all ows cells to re s pond to thei r al sel ecti on can be ch a n ged thro u gh envi ron m ent and to con t rol and coord i- i n s tru c ti on . n a te cell growth and divi s i on .

■ Plant cells contain ch l o rop l a s t s , the site GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STA N D A R D of ph o to s y n t h e s i s . Plants and many Fundamental concepts and principles m i c roor ganisms use solar en er gy to that underlie this standard include com bine molecules of c a r bon diox i de THE CELL and water into com p l ex , en er gy ri ch

See Unifying ■ Cells have particular structures that or ganic com p ounds and release ox ygen Concepts and underlie their functions. Every cell is sur- to the envi ron m en t . This process of ph o- Processes rounded by a membrane that separates it tosynthesis provi des a vital con n e cti on from the outside world. Inside the cell is bet ween the sun and the en er gy needs of a concentrated mixture of thousands of l iving sys tem s .

different molecules which form a variety ■ Cells can differen ti a te , and com p l e x of specialized structures that carry out mu l ti cellular or ganisms are form e d as a such cell functions as energy production, h i gh ly or ga n i zed arra n g em ent of d i f fer- transport of molecules, waste disposal, en ti a ted cell s . In the devel opm ent of

these mu l ti cellular or ga n i s m s , the proge- ■ Changes in DNA (mutations) occur ny from a single cell form an em bryo in spontaneously at low rates. Some of these wh i ch the cells mu l ti p ly and differen ti a te changes make no difference to the organ- to form the many spec i a l i zed cell s , ti s su e s ism, whereas others can change cells and and or gans that com prise the final or ga n- organisms.Only mutations in germ cells i s m . This differen ti a ti on is reg u l a ted can create the variation that changes an t h ro u g h the ex pre s s i o n of d i f ferent gen e s . organism’s offspring.

THE MOLECULAR BASIS OF B I O LO G I CAL EVO LU T I O N H E R E D I T Y ■ Species evolve over time. Evolution is See Unifying ■ In all or ga n i s m s , the instru cti ons for the consequence of the interactions of Concepts and s pec i f ying the ch a racteri s tics of t h e (1) the potential for a species to increase Processes or ganism are carri ed in DNA , a large its numbers, (2) the genetic variability of po lym er form ed from su bunits of fo u r offspring due to mutation and recombi- See Content kinds (A, G , C , and T) . The ch em i c a l nation of genes, (3) a finite supply of the Standard B and stru ctu ral properties of D NA resources required for life, and (4) the (grades 9-12) explain how the gen etic inform a ti on that ensuing selection by the environment of u n derlies hered i ty is both en coded in those offspring better able to survive and genes (as a string of m o l e cular “l et ters” ) leave offspring.

and rep l i c a ted (by a tem p l a ting mech a - ■ The great diversity of organisms is the n i s m ) . E ach DNA molecule in a cell result of more than 3.5 billion years of forms a single ch rom o s om e . evolution that has filled every available

■ Most of the cells in a human contain two niche with life forms.

copies of e ach of 22 different ch rom o- ■ Na tu ral sel e cti on and its evo luti on a r y s om e s . In ad d i ti on , t h ere is a pair of ch ro- con s e qu en ces provi d e a scien tific ex p l a - m o s omes that determines sex : a fem a l e n a ti on for the fossil record of a n c i ent contains two X ch rom o s omes and a male l i fe form s , as well as for the striking mol- contains one X and one Y ch rom o s om e . ecular similari t ies ob s erved among the Tra n s m i s s i on of gen etic inform a ti on to d iverse species of l iving or ga n i s m s .

of fs pring occ u rs thro u gh egg and sperm ■ The millions of different species of cells that contain on ly one repre s en t a tive plants, animals,and microorganisms that f rom each ch rom o s ome pair. An egg and live on earth today are related by descent a sperm unite to form a new indivi du a l . from common ancestors.

The fact that the human body is form e d ■ Biological classifications are based on f rom cells that contain two copies of e ach how organisms are related.Organisms ch rom o s ome—and therefore two cop i e s are classified into a hierarchy of groups of e ach gen e — explains many fe a tu res of and subgroups based on similarities human hered i ty, su ch as how va ri a ti on s which reflect their evolutionary relation- that are hidden in one gen era ti on can be ships. Species is the most fundamental ex p re s s ed in the nex t . unit of classification.

THE INTERDEPENDENCE OF ■ The en er g y for life pri m a ri ly derive s O RG A N I S M S f r om the su n . Plants captu re en er gy by ■ The atoms and molecules on the earth a b s orbing light and using it to form cycle among the living and nonliving s t rong (cova l e nt) ch e mical bon d s components of the biosphere. bet ween the atoms of c a rbon - con t a i n i n g ■ E n er gy flows thro u gh eco s ys tems in ( or ganic) molec u l e s . These molec u l e s one directi on , f rom ph o to s y n t h e ti c can be used to assem ble larger mole- or g anisms to herbivores to carn i vore s cules with bi o l ogical activi t y (inclu d i n g and decom po s ers . pro tei n s , D NA , su ga rs , and fats). In ■ O r ganisms both coopera te and com p ete ad d i ti on , the en er gy stored in bon d s in eco s ys tem s . The interrel a ti on s h i p s bet ween the atoms (ch emical en er gy ) and interdepen dencies of these or ga n- can be used as sources of en er g y for life isms may gen era te eco s ys tems that are proce s s e s .

s t a ble for hu n d reds or thousands of ■ The ch emical bonds of food molec u l e s ye a rs . contain en er g y. E n er gy is rel e a s ed wh en ■ L iving or g anisms have the capac i t y to the bonds of food molecules are bro ken produ ce pop u l a ti ons of i n f i n i te size , but and new com p ounds with lower en er gy envi ron m ents and re s o u rces are finite . bonds are form ed . Cells usu a l ly store This fundamental ten s i on has profo u n d this en er gy tem pora ri ly in ph o s ph a te ef fects on the interacti ons bet ween bonds of a small high - en er g y com- or ga n i s m s . pound call e d AT P.

■ Human bei n g s live within the worl d ’s ■ The com p l ex i ty and or ga n i z a ti on of eco s ys tem s . In c re a s i n gly, humans mod i- or g anisms accom m od a tes the need fy eco s ys tems as a re sult of pop u l a ti on for obt a i n i n g , tra n s f orm i n g , tra n s p ort- growt h , tech n o l o gy, and con su m pti on . i n g , rel e a s i n g , and el i m i n a t ing the mat- Human de s t ru cti on of h a bitats thro u g h ter and en er gy used to sustain the d i rect harve s ti n g, po l luti on , a tm o s ph er- or ga n i s m .

ic ch a n ge s , and other factors is thre a ten- ■ The distri buti o n and abu n d a n ce of ing current gl o bal stabi l i t y, and if n o t or g anisms and pop u l a ti ons in eco s y s- ad d re s s ed , eco s ys tems wi l l be irre- tems are limited by the ava i l a bi l i ty of vers i b ly affected . m a t ter and en er g y and the abi l i t y of t h e eco s ys tem to rec ycle materi a l s .

M ATT E R , E N E RG Y, AND ORG A N I- ■ As matter and en er g y flows thro u g h dif- ZATION IN LIVING SYS T E M S ferent levels of or ga n i z a ti on of l ivi n g

■ All matter tends tow a rd more disor g a- s ys tem s — cell s , or ga n s , or ga n i s m s , com- See Unifying n i zed state s .L iving sys tems requ i re a con- mu n i t ies—and bet ween living sys tem s Concepts and ti nuous input of en er gy to maintain thei r and the physical envi ron m en t , ch em i c a l Processes ch emical and physical or ga n i z a ti on s . el em ents are recom bi n ed in differen t With de a t h , and the ce s s a ti on of en er gy w ays . E ach recom bi n a ti on re sults in i n p ut , l iving sys tems ra p i dly disintegra te . s tora g e and dissipati o n of en er gy into

the envi ron m e nt as heat. Ma t ter and en er g y are con s e rved in each ch a n ge . Ea rth and Sp a ce THE BEHAVIOR OF ORG A N I S M S S c i e n ce ■ Multicellular animals have nervous systems that generate behavior. Nervous sys- CONTENT STANDARD D: tems are formed from specialized cells As a result of their activities in that conduct signals rapidly through the g rades 9-12, all students should long cell extensions that make up nerves. d evelop an understanding of

The nerve cells communicate with each ■ Energy in the earth system

other by secreting specific excitatory and ■ Geochemical cycles

inhibitory molecules. In sense organs, ■ Origin and evolution of the specialized cells detect light, sound, and earth system

specific chemicals and enable animals to ■ Origin and evolution of the universe monitor what is going on in the world around them. D EV E LO PING STUDENT ■ Organisms have behavioral responses to U N D E R S TA N D I N G internal changes and to external stimuli. Du ring the high sch ool ye a rs ,s tu den t s Responses to external stimuli can result con ti nue stu dying the earth sys tem intro- from interactions with the organism’s du ced in grades 5-8. At grades 9-12, s tu den t s own species and others,as well as envi- focus on matter, en er gy, c rustal dy n a m i c s , ronmental changes; these responses c ycl e s , geoch emical proce s s e s , and the either can be innate or learned. The ex p a n d ed time scales nece s s a ry to under- broad patterns of behavior exhibited by stand events in the earth sys tem .D riven by animals have evolved to ensure reproduc- su n l i g ht and eart h’s internal heat, a va ri ety tive success. Animals often live in unpre- of c ycles con n ect and con ti nu a lly circ u l a te dictable environments, and so their en er gy and material thro u g h the com po- behavior must be flexible enough to deal n ents of the earth sys tem . Toget h er, t h e s e with uncertainty and change. Plants also c ycles establish the stru ctu re of the earth sys- respond to stimuli. tem and reg u l a te eart h’s cl i m a te . In grades 9- ■ Like other aspects of an organism’s biolo- 1 2 ,s tu dents revi ew the water cycle as a carri- gy, behaviors have evolved through nat- er of m a teri a l , and deepen their unders t a n d- ural selection. Behaviors often have an ing of this key cycle to see that it is also an adaptive logic when viewed in terms of i m portant agent for en er gy tra n s fer. Bec a u s e evolutionary principles. it plays a cen tral role in establishing and ■ Behavioral biology has implications for maintaining eart h’s cl i m a te and the produ c- humans, as it provides links to psycholo- ti on of m a ny mineral and fossil fuel gy, sociology, and anthropology. re s o u rce s , the stu den t s’ ex p l ora ti ons are also d i rected tow a rd the carbon cycl e .S tu den t s use and ex tend their understanding of h ow

the processes of rad i a ti on , convection,and live in a vast and ancient universe. Scientists conduction transfer energy through the assume that the laws of matter are the same earth system. in all parts of the universe and over billions In studying the evolution of the earth system over geologic time, students develop a . . . as many as half of the students in deeper understanding of the evidence, first this age group will need many concrete introduced in grades 5-8, of earth’s past and unravel the interconnected story of earth’s examples and considerable help in dynamic crust, fluctuating climate,and following the multistep logic necessary evolving life forms. The students’ studies develop the concept of the earth system to develop the understandings existing in a state of dynamic equilibrium. described here. They will discover that while certain properties of the earth system may fluctuate on of years. It is thus possible to understand short or long time scales, the earth system the structure and evolution of the universe will generally stay within a certain narrow through laboratory experiments and current range for millions of years. This long-term observations of events and phenomena in stability can be understood through the the universe. working of planetary geochemical cycles Until this grade level, astronomy has been and the feedback processes that help to largely restricted to the behavior of objects maintain or modify those cycles. in the solar system. In grades 9-12, the study As an example of this long-term stability, of the universe becomes more abstract as students find that the geologic record sug- students expand their ability to comprehend gests that the global temperature has fluctu- large distances, long time scales, and the ated within a relatively narrow range, one nature of nuclear reactions. The age of the that has been narrow enough to enable life universe and its evolution into galaxies, to survive and evolve for over three billion stars, and planets—and eventually life on years. They come to understand that some earth—fascinates and challenges students. of the small temperature fluctuations have The ch a ll en ge of h elping stu dents learn produced what we perceive as dramatic the con tent of this standard wi ll be to pre- effects in the earth system, such as the ice s ent unders t a n d a ble evi den ce from source s ages and the extinction of entire species. that ra n ge over immense ti m e s c a l e s — a n d They explore the regulation of earth’s global f rom studies of the eart h’s interi or to ob s er- temperature by the water and carbon cycles. va ti ons from outer space . Ma ny stu dents are Using this background, students can exam- c a p a ble of doing this kind of t h i n k i n g, but as ine environmental changes occurring today m a ny as half wi l l need con c rete ex a m p l e s and make predictions about future tempera- and con s i dera ble help in fo ll owing the mu l- ture fluctuations in the earth system. ti s tep logic nece s s a r y to devel op the under- Looking outward into deep space and s t a n d i n gs de s c ri bed in this standard . Bec a u s e deep time, astronomers have shown that we d i rect ex p eri m en t a ti on is usu a lly not po s s i-

ble for many con cepts assoc i a ted with eart h oceans, atmosphere,and organisms as and space scien ce , it is important to main- part of geochemical cycles.

tain the spirit of i n qu i r y by focusing the ■ Movem ent of m a t t er bet ween re s ervoi rs te aching on qu e s ti ons that can be answered is driven by the eart h’s internal and by using ob s erva ti onal data, the knowl ed ge ex ternal sources of en er gy. These move- base of s c i en ce , and processes of re a s on i n g. m ents are of t en accom p a n i e d by a ch a n ge in the physical and ch em i c a l GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STA N D A R D properties of the matter. Ca r bon , for Fundamental concepts and principles that underlie this standard include It is impo rtant to maintain the spirit E N E R GY IN THE EARTH SYS T E M of i n q u i ry by focusing the te a ching on ■ Earth systems have internal and external sources of energy, both of which create q u e s tions that can be answered by using heat. The sun is the major external ob serva tional data, the knowl ed ge ba se source of energy. Two primary sources of internal energy are the decay of radioac- of sci en ce , and pro ce s ses of re a so n i n g . tive isotopes and the gravitational energy from the earth’s original formation. ex a m p l e , occ u r s in carbon a te rocks su ch See content ■ The out w a rd tra n s fer of e a rt h’s intern a l as limeston e , in the atm o s ph ere as car- Standard B heat drives convecti on circ u l a ti on in the bon diox i de ga s , in water as dissolved (grades 9-12) mantle that propels the plates com pri s i n g c a r bon diox i de , and in all or g anisms as e a rt h’s su rf ace ac ross the face of the gl obe . com p l e x molecules that con trol the

■ Heating of earth’s surface and atmos- ch em i s try of l i fe . phere by the sun drives convection with- THE ORIGIN AND EVO LUTION OF in the atmosphere and oceans, producing THE EARTH SYSTEM winds and ocean currents. ■ The su n , the eart h , and the rest of t h e ■ Global climate is determined by energy solar sys tem form e d from a nebu l a r transfer from the sun at and near the cloud of dust and gas 4.6 bi ll i on ye a rs earth’s surface. This energy transfer is a go. The early earth was very differen t influenced by dynamic processes such as f rom the planet we live on tod ay. cloud cover and the earth’s rotation, and ■ G eo l ogic time can be esti m a ted by static conditions such as the position of ob s erving rock sequ en ces and using fo s- mountain ranges and oceans. sils to correl a te the sequ en ces at va ri o u s G E O C H E M I CAL CYC L E S l oc a ti on s . Cu r rent met h o ds inclu de

■ The earth is a system containing essen- using the known dec ay ra tes of rad i oac- tially a fixed amount of each stable tive isotopes pre s ent in rocks to measu re chemical atom or element. Each element the time since the rock was form ed . can exist in several different chemical ■ Interactions among the solid earth, the reservoirs. Each element on earth moves oceans, the atmosphere, and organisms among reservoirs in the solid earth, have resulted in the ongoing evolution of

the earth sys tem . We can ob s erve som e ch a n ges su ch as eart h qu a kes and vo l- S c i e n ce and canic eru pti ons on a human time scale, but many processes su ch as mountain Te c h n o l ogy building and plate movem ents take place over hu n d reds of m i ll i ons of ye a rs . CONTENT STANDARD E: As a result of activities in gra d e s ■ Evi den ce for on e - c ell e d forms of l i fe — the bacteri a — ex tends back more than 9 - 1 2 , all students should deve l o p 3.5 bi ll i on ye a rs . The evo luti on of l i fe ■ Abilities of technological design c a u s e d dra m a t ic ch a n ges in the com p o- ■ Understandings about science s i ti on of the eart h’s atm o s ph ere , wh i ch and technology did not ori gi n a lly contain ox ygen . D EV E LO PING STUDENT ABILITIES THE ORIGIN AND EVO LUTION OF AND UNDERSTA N D I N G THE UNIVERSE This standard has two equally important

See Content ■ The ori g in of the universe remains on e parts—developing students’ abilities of tech- Standard A of the gre a test qu e s ti ons in scien ce . Th e nological design and developing students’ (grades 9-12) “big bang” t h eory places the ori gi n understanding about science and technolo- bet ween 10 and 20 bi ll i on ye a rs ago, gy. Although these are science education wh en the universe began in a hot den s e standards,the relationship between science s t a te ; according to this theory, the uni- and technology is so close that any presenta- verse has been expanding ever since . tion of science without developing an

■ E a r ly in the history of the univers e , m a t- understanding of technology would portray ter, pri m a ri ly the light atoms hyd rogen an inaccurate picture of science. and hel iu m , clu m p ed toget h er by gravi- In the co u rse of s o lving any probl em t a ti onal attracti on to form countless tri l- wh ere stu dents try to meet certain cri teri a l i ons of s t a rs . Bi ll i ons of ga l a x i e s , e ach of within con s tra i n t s ,t h ey wi ll find that the wh i ch is a gravi t a ti on a lly bound clu s ter i deas and met h ods of s c i en ce that they know, of bi ll i ons of s t a rs , n ow form most of or can learn , can be powerful aids. S tu den t s the vi s i b le mass in the univers e . also find that they need to call on other

■ S t a rs produ ce en er gy from nu clear re ac- s o u rces of k n owl ed ge and skill , su ch as co s t , ti on s , pri m a ri ly the fusion of hyd rogen ri s k , and ben efit analys i s , and aspects of c ri ti- to form hel iu m . These and other cal thinking and cre a tivi t y. Le a rning ex peri- processes in stars have led to the form a- en ces assoc i a ted with this standard should ti on of a ll the other el em en t s . i n clu de examples of tech n o l ogical ach i eve- m ent in wh i ch scien ce has played a part and examples wh ere tech n o l ogical adva n ces con- tri buted direct ly to scien tific progre s s . Students can understand and use the design model outlined in this standard. Students respond positively to the concrete,

practical,outcome orientation of design and tech n o l ogy interact , providing a basis for problems before they are able to engage in ref l ecti on on the natu re of tech n o l ogy wh i l e the abstract, theoretical nature of many sci- l e a rning the scien ce con cepts invo lved . entific inquiries. In general, high school stu- In grades 9-12, design tasks should dents do not distinguish between the roles explore a range of contexts including both of science and technology. Helping them do those immediately familiar in the homes, so is implied by this standard. This lack of school, and community of the students and distinction between science and technology those from wider regional, national, or glob- is further confused by students’ positive per- al contexts. The tasks should promote dif- ceptions of science, as when they associate it ferent ways to tackle the problems so that with medical research and use the common different design solutions can be imple- phrase “scientific progress.” However, their mented by different students. Successful association of technology is often with envi- completion of design problems requires that ronmental problems and another common the students meet criteria while addressing phrase, “technological problems.”With conflicting constraints. Where constructions regard to the connection between science are involved, these might draw on technical and technology, students as well as many skills and understandings developed within adults and teachers of science indicate a the science program, technical and craft belief that science influences technology. skills developed in other school work, or This belief is captured by the common and require developing new skills. only partially accurate definition “technolo- Over the high school years, the tasks gy is applied science.” Few students under- should cover a range of needs, of materials, stand that technology influences science. and of different aspects of science. For Unraveling these misconceptions of science example,a suitable design problem could and technology and developing accurate include assembling electronic components concepts of the role, place, limits, possibili- to control a sequence of operations or ana- ties and relationships of science and tech- lyzing the features of different athletic shoes nology is the challenge of this standard. to see the criteria and constraints imposed The ch oi ce of de s i gn tasks and rel a ted by the sport, human anatomy, and materi- l e a rning activi ties is an important and diffi- als. Some tasks should involve science ideas cult part of ad d ressing this standard . In drawn from more than one field of science. ch oosing tech n o l ogical learning activi ti e s , These can be complex, for example, a te ach ers of s c i en ce wi ll have to bear in mind machine that incorporates both mechanical s ome important issu e s . For ex a m p l e , wh et h er and electrical control systems. to invo lve stu dents in a full or partial de s i gn Although some experiences in science probl em ; or wh et h er to en ga ge them in and technology will emphasize solving m eeting a need thro u gh tech n o l ogy or in problems and meeting needs by focusing on s tu dying the tech n o l ogical work of o t h ers . products, experience also should include An o t h er issue is how to sel ect a task that problems about system design, cost, risk, bri n gs out the va rious ways in wh i ch scien ce benefit, and very importantly, tradeoffs.

Because this stu dy of tech n o l o gy occ u rs de s i gn ed to meet . At this stage , n ew cri teri a within scien ce co u rs e s , the nu m ber of t h e s e not ori gi n a lly con s i dered may be revi ewed . activi ties must be limited . Details spec i f i ed CO M M U N I CATE THE PRO B L E M , See Teaching in this standard are cri teria to en su re qu a l i- P RO C E S S , AND SOLU T I O N . S tu den t s Standard B ty and balance in a small nu m ber of t a s k s should pre s ent their re sults to stu den t s , te ach- and are not meant to requ i re a large nu m - ers , and others in a va ri ety of w ays , su ch as ber of su ch activi ti e s . Ma ny abi l i t ies and ora lly, in wri ti n g, and in other form s — i n clu d- u n d ers t a n d i n gs of this standard can be ing model s ,d i a gra m s , and dem on s tra ti on s . devel oped as part of activi t ies de s i gn ed for o t h e r con tent standard s . U N D E R S TANDINGS ABOUT SCI- ENCE AND T E C H N O LO G Y GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STA N D A R D ■ S c i en tists in different disciplines ask dif- Fundamental abilities and concepts ferent qu e s ti on s , use different met h ods of that underlie this standard include i nve s ti ga ti on , and accept different type s ABILITIES OF T E C H N O LO G I CA L of evi den ce to su pport their ex p l a n a ti on s . D E S I G N Ma ny scien tific inve s ti ga ti ons requ i re the con tri buti ons of i n d ivi duals from differ- See Content IDENTIFY A PROBLEM OR DESIGN AN ent disciplines, i n cluding en gi n eeri n g. Standard A O P P O RT U N I T Y. S tu dents should be able to New disciplines of s c i en ce , su ch as geo- (grades 9-12) i den tify new probl ems or needs and to ch a n ge physics and bi o ch em i s t ry of ten em er ge at and improve current tech n o l ogical de s i gn s . the interf ace of t wo older disciplines.

P ROPOSE DESIGNS AND CHOOSE ■ Science often advances with the intro- B E T WEEN ALT E R N ATIVE SOLU T I O N S . duction of new technologies. Solving S tu dents should dem on s tra te though tful plan- technological problems often results in ning for a piece of tech n o l ogy or tech n i qu e . new scientific knowledge. New technolo- S tu dents should be introdu ced to the roles of gies often extend the current levels of sci- m odels and simu l a ti ons in these proce s s e s . entific understanding and introduce new areas of research. IMPLEMENT A PROPOSED SOLU T I O N . ■ Creativity, imagination, and a good A variety of skills can be needed in propos- knowledge base are all required in the ing a solution depending on the type of work of science and engineering. technology that is involved. The construc- ■ S c i en ce and tech n o l ogy are pursu e d for tion of artifacts can require the skills of cut- d i f ferent purpo s e s . S c i en tific inqu i ry is ting, shaping, treating, and joining common d r iven by the de s i re to understand the materials—such as wood, metal, plastics, n a tu ral worl d , and tech n o l ogical de s i g n is and textiles. Solutions can also be imple- d r iven by the need to meet human need s mented using computer software. and solve human probl em s . Tech n o l ogy, EVA LUATE THE SOLUTION AND ITS by its natu re , has a more direct ef fect on CO N S E QU E N C E S . S tu dents should test any s oc i ety than scien ce because its purpose is s o luti on against the needs and cri teria it was to solve human probl em s , h elp hu m a n s

ad a pt , and fulfill human aspira ti on s . s t a n d i n gs , and implied acti ons for most con- Tech n o l ogical soluti ons may cre a te new tem pora r y issu e s . The or ganizing pri n c i p l e s probl em s . S c i en ce , by its natu re , a n s wers a pp ly to local as well as gl obal ph en om en a qu e s ti ons that may or may not direct ly and repre s ent ch a ll en ges that occur on scales i n f lu en ce hu m a n s . Som etimes scien ti f i c that va r y from qu i te short — for ex a m p l e , adva n ces ch a ll en ge peop l e’s bel i efs and n a tu ral hazard s — to very lon g — for ex a m p l e , practical ex p l a n a ti ons con cerning va ri o u s the po ten tial re sult of gl obal ch a n ge s . a s pects of the worl d . By grades 9-12, many students have a

■ Tech n o l ogical knowl ed ge is of ten not made fairly sound understanding of the overall p u blic because of p a tents and the financial functioning of some human systems, such po ten tial of the idea or inven ti on .S c i en ti f i c k n owl ed ge is made public thro u gh pre s en- The organizing principles apply to t a ti ons at profe s s i onal meeti n gs and publ i- c a ti ons in scien tific journ a l s . local as well as global phenomena.

as the digestive, respiratory, and circulatory S c i e n ce in Pe r s o n a l systems. They might not have a clear understanding of others, such as the human ner- and Soc i a l vous, endocrine,and immune systems. Therefore,students may have difficulty with Pe r s pe ct i ve s specific mechanisms and processes related to health issues. CONTENT STANDARD F: Most high school students have a concept As a result of activities in gra d e s of populations of organisms, but they have a 9 - 1 2 , all students should deve l o p poorly developed understanding of the rela- understanding of tionships among populations within a com-

■ Personal and community health munity and connections between popula-

■ Population growth tions and other ideas such as competition

■ Natural resources for resources. Few students understand and

■ Environmental quality apply the idea of interdependence when

■ Natural and human-induced hazards considering interactions among popula-

■ Science and technology in local, tions, environments, and resources. If, for national,and global challenges example, students are asked about the size of populations and why some populations D EV E LO PING STUDENT would be larger, they often simply describe U N D E R S TA N D I N G rather than reason about interdependence The or g anizing principles for this stan- or energy flow. d a rd do not iden tify specific pers onal and Students may exhibit a general idea of s oc i etal ch a ll en ge s , ra t h er they form a set of cycling matter in ecosystems, but they may con ceptual or ga n i z ers , f u n d a m ental under- center on short chains of the cyclical process

not to lay out the details of the ph o to s y n- Ph o to s y nt h e s i s t h etic proce s s , but to illu s t ra te how the scien tific com mu n i ty ’s knowl ed ge of ph o to s y n- In this exa m pl e , M s . M . bel i e ves that her thesis had ch a n ged over ti m e . u n d erstanding of the histo r y of sci en ti f i c ideas en ri ches her understanding of t h e She would begin the lectu re by put ting a n a tu re of sci en tific inquiry. She also wa n t s tra n s p a rency on the overh e ad proj e ctor of the stu d ents to understand how ideas in sci- that det a i l ed diagram of ph o to s y n t h e s i s en c e devel op, ch a n ge , and are influen ced by wh i ch had been sent to her free from one of va l u e s , i d e a s , and re sou rces preva l ent in so c i- the ph a rm aceutical com p a n i e s . One of t h e ety at any given ti m e . She uses an histo ri c a l h i gh - s ch ool tex tbooks that she kept as a a p proa c h to introdu ce an impo r tant co n c ept in life sci en ce . She provokes an interest in the referen c e said that scien t ists now had topic by pu r po s ely showing an overh e a d de s c ri bed 80 sep a ra te but interdepen den t beyond what is devel opm en t a lly appropri a te re acti ons that made up ph o to s y n t h e s i s . Th e for high - s ch ool stu d en t s . Her lectu re is inter- h i gh - s ch ool stu dents would not stu dy these ru p ted with questions that en cou ra ge disc u s - re a cti on s . Ra t h er, she wanted the stu den t s sion among stu d en t s . The re se a rch activi ty, to ob s erve the com p l ex i ty of the curren t pri m a ri ly using print material wh i c h she has k n owl ed ge abo ut ph o to s y n t h e s i s , and this be e n coll e cting for a long ti m e , i n c ludes dis- c u s s i o n . The questions about facto rs that d i a g ram was a useful introdu cti on to her m i g ht influen ce co n tem po ra ry re se a rch l ectu re . She would ask the stu dents how retu rn the stu d ents to issues that are of l ong the scien t ific com mu n i ty had known i m m ed i a te co n cern to them . a bo ut these many com p l ex re a cti on s ; why [This example highlights some elements of this knowl ed ge was import a n t ; h ow they Teaching Standards A and B; 9-12 Content h ad come to know so mu ch ; was there sti ll Standards A, C, F and G; and Program m ore detail to be de s c ri bed ? Standard B.] Next she would ask the students to tell M s .M . was beginning the second ro u n d her what they already knew about photo- of planning for the high - s ch ool bi o l ogy synthesis. She expected most would recall cl a s s . She had set aside three weeks for a unit that carbon dioxide,water, sugar, oxygen on green plants. Now it was time to dec i de and sunlight were important and many what would happen du ring those three would recall growing plants in dark cup- wee k s . S tu dents came to the class with som e boards and under boxes in middle school. k n owl ed ge and understanding abo ut green The next two questions would have to be p l a n t s , but they sti ll had many qu e s ti on s . As worded carefully: Why is photosynthesis so a way to get stu d ents to focus some of t h ei r important or, put another way, what is the qu e s ti on s , and to high l i ght the interdepen- fundamental question that photosynthesis den ce of s c i en ce and civi l i z a ti on , she was answers? And how long have scientists going to begin the unit with a lectu re on known about photosynthesis? ph o to s y n t h e s i s . Lectu ring was som ething she With this introdu cti on , she would lectu re s el dom did. However, the purpose here was a bo ut the seven teenth cen tu ry ex p eri m ent of

van Hel m ont and his tree and his con clu s i on She would then continue her historical that the wei g ht of the plants came from lecture using similar details from several w a ter. M s .M . would pause. “Was va n other episodes. She would describe how Hel m ont wron g ? ”, she would ask the stu- chemists had learned to collect gases from den t s . She ex p ected them to have difficulty chemical reactions, how Priestley used these con ceiving that van Hel m ont had con du cted new techniques, and how he then observed an ex peri m en t , wh i ch they knew was essen- the effect that gases from plants produced tial to scien ce , but that he had not obt a i n ed on burning candles. She would note that the answer they knew was correct . M s .M . Priestley did not know about oxygen, but would help them analy ze the ex peri m en t viewed it as a purer form of air. She would and the con clu s i ons that could legi ti m a tely mention how Ingenhousz expanded be drawn from it. She would then introdu ce Priestley’s finding by showing that the air m ore of the con text of van Hel m on t’s inve s- was changed only when the plants were kept ti ga ti on : the prevailing bel i ef a bo ut plants as in sunlight,and how de Saussure confirmed a com bi n a ti on of f i re and earth and how va n that carbon dioxide was a gas needed for the Hel m on t’s stu dy was de s i gn ed to ref ute this same effect. She would detail how James bel i ef . She would com m ent that many Hutton had been involved in industrial re s e a rch ers chose to repeat the tree stu dy, debates about the quality of coal and was and then she would all ow stu dents to discuss interested in why coal burned. He had inter- h ow (or wh et h er) van Hel m on t’s stu dy had preted plant imprints in coal as a clue that con tri buted to the scien ce of ph o to s y n t h e s i s . something from the sun was being stored in

plants and then fossilized as coal. The Through this activity, students would “something” would later be released again as come to realize that scientific understanding light and heat as the coal burned. But does not emerge all at once or fully formed. Hutton had no concept of chemical or light Further, the students recognized that each energy—concepts introduced only decades new concept reflected the personal back- later by Julius Mayer. Ms. M. would stop her grounds, time, and place of its discoverers. history here. Students would review how At the very end of the period Ms.M would various factors had shaped the development ask the students to speculate on what scien- of early knowledge about photosynthesis. tists might ask about photosynthesis today She would record and organize their views or in the future, and what factors might on the chalkboard. From this they would shape their research. develop a set of questions for continuing the history on their own. Ms. M. had collected a number of textbooks from different periods in the century. She would introduce them as a resource for sketching the changing status of knowledge about photosynthesis.She would have the students work in groups of five.Each group would prepare a brief presentation on ideas of photosynthesis during a particular historical period. After two days to gather information,each group would share the result of their research and together they would identify or infer what discoveries had been made in each period. Then, using the questions they had formulated earlier, the students would return to their groups to determine how each discovery had occurred. They would identify factors such as new technologies that were relevant to conducting investigations, the sources of funding for various research projects, the personal interests of researchers, occasions of luck or chance, and the theories that had guided research. Finally, each group would share two patterns that they had uncovered and how they had reached their conclusion.

and express the misconception that matter result from specific body dysfunctions is created and destroyed at each step of the and cannot be transmitted.

cycle rather than undergoing continuous ■ Personal choice concerning fitness and transformation. Instruction using charts of health involves multiple factors. Personal the flow of matter through an ecosystem goals, peer and social pressures, ethnic and emphasizing the reasoning involved and religious beliefs, and understanding with the entire process may enable students of biological consequences can all influ- to develop more accurate conceptions. ence decisions about health practices.

Ma ny high - s ch ool stu dents hold the vi ew ■ An individual’s mood and behavior may that scien c e should inform soc i ety abo ut be modified by substances. The modifi- va rious issues and soc i ety should set po l i c y cation may be beneficial or detrimental a bo ut what re s e a rch is import a n t . In gen e r- depending on the motives, type of sub- a l , s tu dents have ra t h er simple and naive stance, duration of use, pattern of use, i deas abo ut the interacti o ns bet ween sci- level of influence, and short- and long- en ce and soc i ety. Th e re is some re s e a rch term effects. Students should understand su pporting the idea that S-T-S (scien ce , that drugs can result in physical depen- tech n o l ogy, and soc i e ty) curri c u lum hel p s dence and can increase the risk of injury, i m prove stu dent understanding of va ri o u s accidents, and death.

a s p ects of s c i en ce- and tech n o l ogy - rel a ted ■ Selection of foods and eating patterns s oc i etal ch a ll en ge s . determine nutritional balance. Nutritional balance has a direct effect on GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STA N D A R D growth and development and personal Fundamental concepts and principles well-being. Personal and social factors— that underlie this standard include such as habits, family income, ethnic her- PERSONAL AND CO M M U N I T Y itage, body size, advertising, and peer H E A LT H pressure—influence nutritional choices.

■ Hazards and the potential for accidents ■ Families serve basic health needs, espe- exist. Regardless of the environment, the cially for young children. Regardless of possibility of injury, illness, disability, or the family structure, individuals have See Content death may be present. Humans have a families that involve a variety of physical, Standard C variety of mechanisms—sensory, motor, mental,and social relationships that (grades 9-12) emotional, social, and technological— influence the maintenance and improve- that can reduce and modify hazards. ment of health.

■ The severity of disease symptoms is ■ Sex u a l i ty is basic to the phys i c a l , m en t a l , dependent on many factors, such as and social devel opm ent of hu m a n s . human resistance and the virulence of S tu dents should understand that hu m a n the disease-producing organism. Many s ex u a l i ty invo lves bi o l ogical functi on s ,p s y- diseases can be prevented, controlled, or ch o l ogical motive s , and cultu ra l , et h n i c , cured. Some diseases, such as cancer, rel i gi o u s , and tech n o l ogical influ en ce s . Sex

is a basic and powerful force that has con- re s o u rces have been and wi ll con ti nue to s equ en ces to indivi du a l s’ health and to be used to maintain human pop u l a ti on s .

s oc i ety. S tu dents should understand va ri- ■ The earth does not have infinite re s o u rce s ; ous met h ods of con tro lling the reprodu c- i n c reasing human con su m pti on place s ti on process and that each met h od has a s evere stress on the natu ral processes that d i f ferent type of ef fectiveness and differen t ren ew some re s o u rce s , and it dep l ete s health and social con s equ en ce s . those re s o u rces that cannot be ren ewed .

■ Humans use many natural systems as P O P U LATION GROWT H resources. Natural systems have the ■ Pop u l a ti ons grow or decline thro u gh the capacity to reuse waste, but that capacity com bi n ed ef fects of bi r ths and de a t h s ,a n d is limited. Natural systems can change to t h ro u gh em i gra ti on and immigra ti on . an extent that exceeds the limits of Pop u l a ti ons can increase thro u g h linear or organisms to adapt naturally or humans ex pon en tial growt h , with ef fects on to adapt technologically. re s o u rce use and envi ron m ental po lluti on .

■ Va r ious factors influ en ce bi rth ra tes and E N V I RO N M E N TAL QUA L I T Y

ferti l i t y ra te s , su ch as avera ge levels of ■ Natural ecosystems provide an array of See Content a f f lu en ce and edu c a ti on ,i m port a n ce of basic processes that affect humans. Those Standard C ch i l d ren in the labor force , edu c a ti on and processes include maintenance of the (grades 9-12) em p l oym ent of wom en , infant mort a l i ty quality of the atmosphere, generation of ra te s , costs of raising ch i l d ren , ava i l a bi l i t y soils, control of the hydrologic cycle,dis- and rel i a bi l i t y of bi rth con trol met h od s , posal of wastes, and recycling of nutri- and rel i gious bel i efs and cultu ral norm s ents. Humans are changing many of that influ en ce pers onal dec i s i ons abo ut these basic processes, and the changes f a m i ly size . may be detrimental to humans.

■ Pop u l a ti ons can re ach limits to growt h . ■ Ma terials from human soc i eties affect bo t h Ca r rying capac i t y is the maximum nu m- physical and ch emical cycles of the eart h .

ber of i n d ivi duals that can be su pported ■ Ma ny factors influ en ce envi ron m en t a l in a given envi ron m en t . The limitati on is qu a l i ty. Factors that stu dents might inve s- not the ava i l a bi l i ty of s p a ce , but the ti ga te inclu de pop u l a ti on growt h , re s o u rce nu m ber of people in rel a ti on to u s e , pop u l a ti on distri buti on , overcon- re s o u r ces and the capac i t y of e a r th sys- su m pti on , the capac i t y of tech n o l ogy to tems to su pport human bei n gs . Ch a n ge s s o lve probl em s , poverty, the role of eco- in tech n o l o gy can cause sign i f i c a n t n om i c , po l i ti c a l , and rel i gious vi ews ,a n d ch a n ge s , ei t h er po s i tive or nega tive , i n d i f ferent ways humans vi ew the eart h . c a rrying capac i t y. N AT U RAL AND HUMAN-INDUCED N AT U RAL RESOURC E S H A ZA R D S

■ Human pop u l a ti ons use re s o u rces in the ■ Normal ad ju s tm ents of e a r th may be haz- See Content envi ron m ent in order to maintain and a rdous for hu m a n s . Humans live at the Standard D i m prove their ex i s ten ce . Na tu ra l i n terf ace bet ween the atm o s ph ere driven (grades 9-12)

by solar en er gy and the upper mantle h a ppen . The latter invo lves human dec i- wh ere convecti on cre a tes ch a n ges in the s i ons abo ut the use of k n owl ed ge .

e a rt h’s solid cru s t . As soc i e ties have grown , ■ Un derstanding basic con cepts and pri n- become stabl e , and come to va lue aspect s ciples of s c i en ce and tech n o l ogy should of the envi ron m en t , vu l n era bi l i ty to natu r- precede active deb a te abo u t the eco- al processes of ch a n ge has incre a s ed . n om i c s , po l i c i e s , po l i ti c s , and ethics of

■ Human activities can enhance potential va r ious scien ce- and tech n o l ogy - rel a t ed for hazards. Acquisition of resources, ch a ll en ge s . However, u n derstanding sci- urban growth,and waste disposal can en ce alone wi l l not re s o lve loc a l , n a ti on- accelerate rates of natural change. a l , or gl o bal ch a ll en ge s .

■ Some hazards, such as earthquakes, vol- ■ Progress in science and technology can canic eruptions, and severe weather, are be affected by social issues and chal- rapid and spectacular. But there are slow lenges. Funding priorities for specific and progressive changes that also result health problems serve as examples of in problems for individuals and societies. ways that social issues influence science For example, change in stream channel and technology.

position, erosion of bridge foundations, ■ In d i vi duals and soc i ety must dec i d e on sedimentation in lakes and harbors, proposals invo lving new re s e a r ch and coastal erosions,and continuing erosion the introdu c ti on of n ew tech n o l ogi e s and wasting of soil and landscapes can all i n to soc i ety. Dec i s i o ns invo lve assess- negatively affect society. m ent of a l tern a t ive s , ri s k s , co s t s , a n d

■ Na tu ral and hu m a n - i n du ced hazards pre- ben efits and con s i dera ti on of who ben e- s ent the need for humans to assess po ten- fits and who su f f ers , who pays and tial danger and ri s k . Ma ny ch a n ges in the ga i n s , and what the risks are and wh o envi ron m ent de s i gn ed by humans bri n g be a rs them . S tu dents should unders t a n d ben efits to soc i e ty, as well as cause ri s k s . the appropri a teness and va lue of b a s i c S tu dents should understand the costs and qu e s ti on s — “What can happen ? ” — trade - of fs of va rious hazard s — ra n gi n g “What are the odds?”—and “ How do f rom those with minor risk to a few peo- s c i en tists and en gi n eers know what wi ll ple to major catastrophes with major ri s k h a p pen ? ”

to many peop l e . The scale of events and ■ Humans have a major ef f ect on other the acc u racy with wh i ch scien tists and s pec i e s . For ex a m p l e , the influ en ce of en gi n eers can (and cannot) pred i ct even t s humans on other or g anisms occ u rs a re important con s i dera ti on s . t h ro u gh land use—wh i ch dec re a s e s s p a ce ava i l a b le to other spec i e s — a n d SCIENCE AND T E C H N O LOGY IN po lluti on — wh i ch ch a n ges the ch em i c a l LO CA L , N AT I O N A L , AND GLO BA L com po s i ti on of a i r, s oi l , and water. C H A L L E N G E S

See Content ■ S c i en ce and tech n o l ogy are essen tial soc i a l Standard E en terpri s e s , but alone they can on ly indi- (grades 9-12) c a te what can happen , not what should

k n owl ed ge , and the en terprise of s c i en ce in Hi s to ry and s oc i ety—and not to devel op a com preh e n- s ive understanding of h i s tory. Nat u re of Science Little re s e a rch has been reported on the use of h i s tory in te a ching abo ut the natu re CONTENT STANDARD G: of s c i en ce . But learning abo ut the history of As a result of activities in gra d e s s c i en ce might help stu dents to improve 9 - 1 2 , all students should deve l o p t h eir gen eral understanding of s c i en ce . understanding of Te ach ers should be sen s i t ive to the stu d en t s’ ■ Science as a human endeavor l ack of k n owl ed ge and pers p ective on ti m e , ■ Nature of scientific knowledge du ra ti on , and su cce s s i on wh e n it comes to ■ Historical perspectives h i s torical stu dy. Hi g h sch ool stu dents may D EV E LO PING STUDENT h ave difficulties understanding the vi ews of U N D E R S TA N D I N G h i s torical figure s . For ex a m p l e , s tu den t s m ay think of h i s torical figures as inferi or The Na tional Sci en ce Edu c a t ion St a n d a rd s because they did not understand what we use history to el a b ora te va r ious aspects of do tod ay. This “Wh i g gish pers p ective” s c i en tific inqu i r y, the natu r e of s c i en ce , a n d s eems to hold for some stu d ents wi t h s c i en ce in different historical and cultu ra l rega rd to scien t ists whose theories have pers pective s . The standards on the history been displaced . and natu r e of s c i en ce are cl o s ely align ed with the natu re of s c i en ce and histori c a l GUIDE TO THE CONTENT STA N D A R D ep i s odes de s c ri bed in the Am eri c a n Fundamental concepts and principles As s oc i a ti on for the Adva n cem ent of S c i en ce that underlie this standard include Ben ch m a rks for Sci en t ific Li tera c y.Te ach ers SCIENCE AS A HUMAN ENDEAVO R Scientists have ethical traditions. ■ In d ivi duals and teams have con tri buted and wi l l con ti nue to con t ri bute to the Scientists value peer review, truthful s c i en tific en terpri s e . Doing scien c e or reporting about the methods and en gi n eering can be as simple as an indivi dual con du cting field studies or as outcomes of investigations, and com p l ex as hu n d reds of people work i n g making public the results of work. on a major scien t ific qu e s ti on or tech n o- l ogical probl em . Pu rsuing scien c e as a of s c i en ce can incorpora te other histori c a l c a reer or as a hobby can be both fasci- examples that may accom m od a te differen t n a ting and intell ectu a l ly rew a rd i n g. i n tere s t s , top i c s , d i s c i p l i n e s , and cultu re s — ■ S c i en tists have ethical trad i ti on s . as the inten ti on of the standard is to devel- S c i en tists va lue peer revi ew, trut h f u l op an understanding of the human dimen- reporting abo ut the met h o ds and out- s i ons of s c i en ce , the natu re of s c i en ti f i c comes of i nve s ti ga ti on s , and making

p u blic the re sults of work . Vi o l a ti ons of su bj ected to a wi de va ri ety of con f i rm a- su c h norms do occ u r, but scien ti s t s ti ons and are therefore unlikely to ch a n ge re s pon s i b le for su ch vi o l a ti ons are cen- in the areas in wh i ch they have been te s t- su red by their peers . ed . In areas wh ere data or unders t a n d i n g

■ S c i en tists are influ en ced by soc i et a l , c u l - tu ra l , and pers onal bel i efs and ways of S ci en ce distinguishes itsel f f rom vi e wing the worl d . S c i en ce is not sep a- ra te from soc i ety but ra t h er scien ce is a ot h er ways of k n owing and from ot h er p a r t of s oc i ety. b odies of k n owl ed ge throu gh the use N ATURE OF SCIENTIFIC of em p i rical standard s , l o gi c a l K N OW L E D G E a rg u m en t s , and skepti ci s m . ■ S c i en ce distinguishes itsel f f rom other w ays of k n owing and from other bodies of a re incom p l ete , su ch as the details of k n owl ed ge thro u g h the use of em p i ri c a l human evo luti on or qu e s ti ons su rro u n d- s t a n d a rd s ,l ogical argumen t s , and skepti- ing gl obal warm i n g , n ew data may well c i s m , as scien tists strive for the best po s s i- l e ad to ch a n ges in current ideas or re s o lve ble ex p l a n a ti ons abo ut the natu ral worl d . c u r rent con f l i ct s . In situ a ti ons wh ere ■ S c i en tific ex p l a n a ti ons must meet cert a i n i n form a ti on is sti ll fra gm en t a ry, it is nor- c ri teri a .F i rst and forem o s t ,t h ey must be mal for scien tific ideas to be incom p l ete , con s i s tent with ex peri m ental and ob s erva- but this is also wh ere the opportu n i ty for ti onal evi den ce abo ut natu re , and mu s t making adva n ces may be gre a te s t . m a ke acc u ra te pred i cti on s , wh en appropri a te ,a bo ut sys tems being stu d i ed . Th e y H I S TO R I CAL PE R S PE C T I V E S

should also be logi c a l , re s pect the rules of ■ In history, diverse cultures have con- evi den ce , be open to cri ti c i s m , report tributed scientific knowledge and tech- m et h ods and procedu re s , and make nologic inventions. Modern science k n owl ed ge publ i c . Ex p l a n a ti ons on how began to evolve rapidly in Europe several the natu r al world ch a n ges based on myt h s , hundred years ago. During the past two pers onal bel i efs , rel i gious va lu e s , mys ti c a l centuries, it has contributed significantly i n s p i ra ti on , su pers ti ti on , or aut h ori t y may to the industrialization of Western and be pers on a lly useful and soc i a lly rel eva n t , non-Western cultures. However, other, but they are not scien ti f i c . non-European cultures have developed

■ Because all scien tific ideas depend on scientific ideas and solved human prob- ex p eri m ental and ob s erva ti onal con f i r- lems through technology.

m a ti on , a ll scien tific knowl ed ge is, i n ■ Usu a lly, ch a n ges in scien ce occur as pri n c i p l e , su bj ect to ch a n ge as new evi- s m a l l mod i f i c a ti ons in extant knowl ed ge . den ce becomes ava i l a bl e . The core ide a s The daily work of s c i en ce and en gi n eer- of s c i en ce su ch as the con s erva ti on of ing re sults in increm ental adva n ces in en er gy or the laws of m o ti on have been our understanding of the world and our

ty for assigning grades and for planning fur- An An a lysis of a ther activities involving analysis or inquiry.

S c i e ntific In q u i ry D ATA : Students’ individual reports; student reviews of their peers’ work; and By the “h e a d er ti t l e s” this exa m ple em p h a s i ze s teacher’s observations. some impo rtant co m po n ents of the asse s s m en t pro ce s s . Any bou n d a ry betwe en asse s s m ent and CO N T E X T: This assessment activity is te a ching is lost in this exa m pl e . Stu d ents en ga ge appropriate at the end of 12th grade. in an analytic activi ty that re q u i res them to use Throughout the high school science pro- t h eir understanding of a ll the sci en ce co n ten t gram, students have read accounts of scien- s t a n d a rd s . The activi ty assumes that they have m a i n t a i n ed jou rnals throu gh out their high tific studies and the social context in which sch o ol care er and have had mu ch previ ou s the studies were conducted. Students some- experi en ce with analyzing sci en tific inquiry. It times read the scientist’s own account of the would be unre a so n a ble to expe ct them to su c- investigation and sometimes an account of ce s sf u lly co m pl ete su ch an analysis wi t h ou t the investigation written by another person. prior experi en ce . The asse s s m ent task re q u i re s The earlier the investigation, the more likely the use of cri teria devel oped by the class and the that the high school students are able to te a ch er to get h er for sel f a s se s s m ent and pe er a s se s s m en t . Stu d ents may el e ct to improve the read and understand the scientist’s original a n a lysis or do anot h er. The te a ch er uses the account. Reports by scientists on contempo- data to decide what furt h er inquiri e s ,a n a lyse s , rary studies are likely to be too technical for or eva l u a tions stu d ents might do. students to understand, but accounts in [This example highlights Teaching Standards popular science books or magazines should A, C, and E; Assessments Standards A, B, and be accessible to high school students. E; and 9-12 Content Standard G.] Examples of contemporary and historical accounts appropriate to this activity include SCIENCE CO N T E N T: This activity focuses Goodfield’s An Imagined World on all aspects of the Content Standard on Weiner’s The Beak of the Finch the History and Nature of Science: Science as a human endeavor, nature of scientific Watson’s The Double Helix knowledge,and historical perspectives on Darwin’s Voyage of the Beagle science. Project Physics Readers ASSESSMENT AC T I V I T Y: Students read In each stu den t’s scien ce journal are note s an account of an historical or contemporary on his or her own inqu i ries and the inqu i ri e s scientific study and report on it. re ad abo ut thro u gh o ut the sch ool scien ce c a reer, i n cluding an analysis of h i s torical con- ASSESSMENT TY PE : Performance, indi- text in wh i ch the stu dy was con du cted . Af ter vidual, group, public. com p l eting each analys i s , the scien ce te ach er ASSESSMENT PURPOSE: The teacher h ad revi ewed and com m en ted on the analys i s uses the information gathered in this activi- as well as on the stu den t’s devel oping soph i s-

ti c a ti on in doing analys i s .Q u e s ti ons that ASSESSMENT EXERC I S E g u i ded each stu den t’s analysis inclu de Each student in the class selects an What factors—personal, technological, account of one scientific investigation and cultural, and/or scientific—led this person analyzes it using the questions above. When to the investigation? the analyses are completed,they are handed How was the investigation designed and why in to the teacher who passes them out to was it designed as it was? other members of the class for peer review. What data did the investigator collect? Prior to the peer reviews, the teacher and the class have reviewed the framework for How did the investigator interpret the data? analysis and established criteria for evaluat- How were the investigator’s conclusions related ing the quality of the analyses. The teacher to the design of the investigation and to major reviews the peer reviews and, if appropriate, theoretical or cultural assumptions, if any? returns them to the author. The author will How did the investigator try to persuade others? have the opportunity to revise the analysis Were the ideas accepted by contemporaries? Are on the basis of the peer review before sub- they accepted today? Why or why not? mitting it to the teacher for a grade. How did the results of this investigation influence the investigator, fellow investigators, and society more broadly? EVA LUATION OF STUDENT RESPONSES Were there ethical dimensions to this investiga- The teacher’s grade will be based both on tion? If so, how were they resolved? the student’s progress in conducting such analyses and on how well the analysis meets What element of this episode seems to you most characteristic or most revealing about the process the criteria set by the teacher in consultation of science? Why? with the class.

a bi l i ty to meet human needs and aspira- ti on s . Mu ch can be learn e d abo u t the Re fe re n ces fo r i n ternal work i n gs of s c i en ce and the n a tu re of s c i en ce from stu dy of i n d ivi d- Fu rther Re a d i n g ual scien ti s t s , t h e ir daily work , and thei r SCIENCE AS INQU I RY ef forts to adva n ce scien t ific knowl ed ge AAAS (American Association for the in their area of s tu dy. Advancement of Science).1993. Benchmarks ■ Occasionally, there are advances in sci- for Science Literacy. New York: Oxford ence and technology that have important University Press. and long-lasting effects on science and AAAS (American Association for the Advancement of Science). 1 9 8 9 .S c i en ce for All society. Examples of such advances Am eri c a n s : A Proj ect 2061 Report on Literac y include the following G oals in Scien ce , Ma t h em a ti c s , and Tech n o l ogy. Copernican revolution Wa s h i n g ton DC . :A A A S . Bechtel, W. 1988.Philosophy of Science: An Newtonian mechanics Overview for Cognitive Science. Hillsdale,NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum. Relativity Bingman, R.1969. Inquiry Objectives in the Geologic time scale Teaching of Biology. Boulder, CO and Kansas City, MO: Biological Sciences Curriculum Plate tectonics Study and Mid-Continent Regional Atomic theory Educational Laboratory. Carey, S.,R. Evans,M. Honda,E. Jay, and C. Nuclear physics Unger. 1989. An experiment is when you try it and see if it works:A study of grade 7 Biological evolution students’ understanding of the construction of Germ theory scientific knowledge. International Journal of Science Education, 11(5): 514-529. Industrial revolution Chinn,C.A.,and W.F. Brewer. 1993. The role of Molecular biology anomalous data in knowledge acquisition: A theoretical framework and implications for Information and communication science instruction. Review of Educational Research,63(1): 1-49. Quantum theory Connelly, F.M.,M.W.Wahlstrom, M.Finegold, Galactic universe and F. Elbaz.1977.Enquiry Teaching in Science:A Handbook for Secondary School Medical and health technology Teachers. Toronto, Ontario: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. ■ The historical pers p ective of s c i en ti f i c D river, R .1 9 8 9 .S tu den t s’ con cepti ons and the ex p l a n a ti ons dem on s tra tes how scien- l e a r ning of s c i en ce : In trodu cti on . In tern a ti on a l tific knowl ed ge ch a n g es by evo l vi n g Jo u rnal of S c i en ce Edu c a ti on ,1 1 ( 5 ) :4 8 1 - 4 9 0 . over ti m e , almost alw ays building on Duschl, R.A.1990. Restructuring Science e a rl i er knowl ed ge . Education: The Importance of Theories and Their Development. New York: Teachers College Press.

Duschl,R.A.,and R.J.Hamilton, eds.1992. NSRC (National Science Resources Center). Philosophy of Science, Cognitive Psychology, 1996. Resources for Teaching Elementary and Educational Theory and Practice. Albany, School Science. Washington, DC: National NY: State University of New York Press. Academy Press. Glaser, R.1984.Education and thinking: The role Ohlsson,S. 1992. The cognitive skill of theory of knowledge. American Psychologist, articulation:A neglected aspect of science 39(2): 93-104. education.Science & Education, Grosslight,L., C. Unger, E. Jay, and C.L. Smith. 1(2): 181-192. 1991. Understanding models and their use in Roth, K.J. 1989.Science education: It’s not science: Conceptions of middle and high enough to ‘do’ or ‘relate.’The American school students and experts. [Special issue] Educator, 13(4): 16-22; 46-48. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Rutherford, F.J. 1964. The role of inquiry in 28(9): 799-822. science teaching.Journal of Research in Hewson, P.W.,and N.R. Thorley. 1989. The Science Teaching, 2: 80-84. conditions of conceptual change in the Schauble,L.,L.E. Klopfer, and K. Raghavan. classroom. International Journal of Science 1991.Students’ transition from an engineering Education, 11(5):541-553. model to a science model of experimentation. Hodson, D. 1992. Assessment of practical work: [Special issue] Journal of Research in Science Some considerations in philosophy of science. Teaching, 28(9): 859-882. Science & Education,1(2): 115-134. Schwab,J.J. 1958. The teaching of science as Hodson, D. 1985.Philosophy of science, science inquiry. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 14: and science education.Studies in Science 374-379. Education,12: 25-57. Schwab,J.J. 1964. The teaching of science as Kyle, W. C. Jr. 1980. The distinction between enquiry. In The Teaching of Science, J.J. inquiry and scientific inquiry and why high Schwab and P.F. Brandwein, eds.:3-103. school students should be cognizant of the Cambridge,MA: Harvard University Press. distinction. Journal of Research in Science Welch, W.W.,L.E. Klopfer, G.S. Aikenhead,and Teaching, 17(2): 123-130. J.T. Robinson.1981. The role of inquiry in Longino, H.E.1990.Science as Social Knowledge: science education: Analysis and Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry. recommendations.Science Education, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 65(1): 33-50. Mayer, W.V., ed.1978.BSCS Biology Teachers’ Handbook,third edition. New York: John PH YS I CAL SCIENCE, LIFE SCIENCE, Wiley and Sons. AND EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE Metz,K.E.1991. Development of explanation: AAAS (American Association for the Incremental and fundamental change in Advancement of Science). 1993. Benchmarks children’s physics knowledge.[Special issue] for Science Literacy. New York: Oxford Journal of Research in Science Teaching, University Press. 28(9): 785-797. AAAS (American Association for the NRC (National Research Council).1988. Advancement of Science).1989.Science for All Improving Indicators of the Quality of Science Americans:A Project 2061 Report on Literacy and Mathematics Education in Grades K-12. Goals in Science, Mathematics,and R.J.Murnane,and S.A. Raizen, eds. Technology. Washington, DC:AAAS. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Driver, R.,A. Squires, P. Rushworth,and V. Medawar,P.B.,and J.S. Medawar. 1977. The Life Wood-Robinson. 1994. Making Sense of Science: Current Ideas of Biology. New York: Secondary Science: Research into Children’s Harper and Row. Ideas. London: Routledge. Moore, J.A.1993.Science as a Way of Knowing: Driver, R.,E. Guesne,and A. Tiberghien, eds. The Foundations of Modern Biology. 1985. Children’s Ideas in Science.Philadelphia, Cambridge,MA: Harvard University Press. PA.: Open University Press. Morowitz,H.J. 1979. Biological Generalizations Fensham, P. J., R. F. Gunstone,and R. T. White, and Equilibrium Organic Chemistry. In eds.1994. The Content of Science: A Energy Flow in Biology: Biological Constructivist Approach to Its Teaching and Organization as a Problem in Thermal Learning. Bristol, PA: Falmer Press. Physics. Woodbridge,CT:Oxbow Press. Harlen, W. 1988. The Teaching of Science. NRC (National Research Council).1990. London: Fulton. Fulfilling the Promise: Biology Education in NSTA (National Science Teachers Association). Our Nation’s Schools. Washington, DC: 1992. Scope, Sequence, Coordination. The National Academy Press. Content Core:A Guide for Curriculum NRC (National Research Council).1989. High- Designers. Washington, DC:NSTA. School Biology Today and Tomorrow. Osborne,R.J., and P. Freyberg. 1985. Learning in Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Science: The Implications of ‘Children’s Science.’ New Zealand: Heinemann. E A RTH AND SPACE SCIENCE AGI (American Geological Institute).1991.Earth PH YS I CAL SCIENCE Science Content Guidelines Grades K-12. AAPT (American Association of Physics Alexandria, VA: AGI. Teachers).1988. Course Content in High AGI (American Geological Institute).1991.Earth School Physics. High School Physics: Views Science Education for the 21st Century: A from AAPT.College Park,MD:AAPT. Planning Guide. Alexandria, VA: AGI. AAPT (American Association of Physics NRC (National Research Council).1993. Solid- Teachers).1986. Guidelines for High School Earth Sciences and Society: A Critical Physics Programs. Washington, DC:AAPT. Assessment. Washington, DC: National ACS (American Chemical Society).1996. Academy Press. FACETS Foundations and Challenges to Encourage Technology-based Science. SCIENCE AND T E C H N O LO G Y Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt. AAAS (American Association for the ACS (American Chemical Society).1993. Advancement of Science). 1993. Benchmarks ChemCom: Chemistry in the Community, for Science Literacy. New York: Oxford second ed. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt. University Press. AAAS (American Association for the LIFE SCIENCE Advancement of Science). 1989.Science for All BSCS (Biological Sciences Curriculum Study). Americans: A Project 2061 Report on Literacy 1993. Developing Biological Literacy: A Guide Goals in Science, Mathematics, and to Developing Secondary and Post-Secondary Technology. New York: Oxford University Biology Curricula. Colorado Springs,CO: Press. BSCS. Jacob, F. 1982. The Possible and the Actual. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

Johnson, J. 1989. Technology: A Report of the Cohen,I.B. 1985. Revolution in Science. Project 2061 Phase I Technology Panel. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Washington, DC: American Association for Harvard University Press. the Advancement of Science. Hacking, I.1983. Representing and Intervening: Selby, C.C.1993. Technology: From myths to Introductory Topics in the Philosophy of realities. Phi Delta Kappan,74(9):684-689. Natural Science. New York: Cambridge University Press. SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND SOCIAL Hoyingen-Huene, P. 1987. Context of discovery PE R S PE C T I V E S and context of justification. Studies in History AAAS (American Association for the and Philosophy of Science,18(4): 501-515. Advancement of Science). 1993. Benchmarks Klopfer, L. 1992.A historical perspective on the for Science Literacy. New York: Oxford history and nature of science on school University Press. science programs. In Teaching About the Gore,A.1992.Earth in the Balance:Ecology and History and Nature of Science and the Human Spirit. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Technology: Background Papers, Biological Meadows, D.H., D.L. Meadows,and J.Randers. Sciences Curriculum Study and Social Science 1992. Beyond the Limits: Confronting Global Education Consortium: 105-129. Colorado Collapse, Envisioning a Sustainable Future. Springs, CO: Biological Sciences Curriculum Post Mills,VT:Chelsea Green. Study. Miller, G.T. 1992.Living in the Environment: An Machamer, P. 1992.Philosophy of science: An Introduction to Environmental Science,7th overview for educators. In Teaching About the ed. Belmont,CA: Wadsworth. History and Nature of Science and Moore, J. 1985. Science as a Way of Knowing II: Technology: Background Papers, Biological Human Ecology. Baltimore,MD: American Sciences Curriculum Study and Social Science Society of Zoologists. Education Consortium: 9-17. Colorado NRC (National Research Council).1993. Solid- Springs,CO: Biological Sciences Curriculum Earth Sciences and Society. Washington, DC: Study. National Academy Press. Ma ll ey, M .1 9 9 2 . The Na tu re and Hi s tory of Silver, C.S., and R.S. DeFries.1990.One Earth, S c i en ce . In Te a ching Abo ut the Hi s tory and One Future: Our Changing Global Na tu re of S c i en ce and Tech n o l ogy: Back gro u n d Enviroment. Washington, DC: National Pa p ers , Bi o l ogical Scien ces Cu r ri c u lum Stu dy Academy Press. and Social Scien ce Edu c a ti on Con s ortiu m :6 7 - 7 9 . Co l orado Spri n gs ,C O : Bi o l o gical Scien ce s H I S TO RY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE Cu rri c u lum Stu dy. In addition to references for Science as Inquiry, Moore, J.A.1993.Science as a Way of Knowing: the following references are suggested. The Foundations of Modern Biology. Cambridge,MA.: Harvard University Press. AAAS (American Association for the NRC (National Research Council).1995.On Advancement of Science). 1993. Benchmarks Being a Scientist: Responsible Conduct in for Science Literacy. New York: Oxford Research.2nd ed. Washington, DC: National University Press. Academy Press. Bakker, G., and L. Clark.1988. Explanation: An Russell, T.L. 1981. What history of science,how Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. much,and why? Science Education 65 (1): 51- Mountain View, CA: Mayfield. 64.

The alignment of a s s e s s m e nt with c u rriculum and teaching is one of the most cri t i ca l p i e ces of science e d u cation re fo rm .

Science Education Program Standards

The program standards are criteria

for the quality of and conditions

for school science programs. They

focus on issues at the school and

district levels that relate to oppor-

tunities for students to learn and

opportunities for teachers to teach science. ❚ The first three standards pro-

vide criteria to be used in making judgments about the quality of the K-12

science program. Those standards are directed at individuals and groups

responsible for the design, development, selection, and adaptation of sci-

ence programs. People involved include teachers, department chairs, cur-

riculum directors, administrators, publishers, and school committees. Each

school and district must translate the standards into programs that are con-

sistent with the content, teaching, and assessment standards, as well as

reflect the context and policies of the local district. Because the content

standards outline what students should know, understand, and be able to

do wi t h o ut de s c ri bing the or ga n i z a ti on of ■ In an effe ct i ve science prog ra m , a set of the program of s tu dy, program standards A , clear goals and ex pe ct ations for stu- B, and C focus on cri teria for the de s i g n of d e nts must be used to guide the design, the progra m , co u rse of s tu dy, and curri c u - i m p l e m e nt at i o n , and assessment of all lu m . In con tra s t ,s t a n d a rds D, E , and F e l e m e nts of the science prog ra m .

de s c ri be the con d i ti ons nece s s a ry to imple- ■ Curriculum frameworks should be m ent a com preh en s ive program that pro- used to guide the selection and devel- vi des appropri a te opportu n i ties for all stu- opment of units and courses of study.

dents to learn scien ce . ■ Teaching practices need to be consistent with the goals and curriculum frameworks. The St a n d a rd s ■ Assessment policies and practices should be aligned with the goals, stu- The program standards are roo ted in the dent expectations, and curriculum a s su m pti ons that though t ful de s i gn and frameworks.

i m p l em en t a ti on of s c i en ce programs at the ■ Support systems and formal and infor- s ch ool and distri c t levels are nece s s a r y to mal expectations of teachers must be provi de com p reh en s ive and coord i n a ted aligned with the goals, student expec- ex peri en ces for all stu dents ac ross grade tations and curriculum frameworks.

l e vel s , and that coord i n a ted ex peri en ce s ■ Responsibility needs to be clearly re s ult in more ef fective learn i n g . But a bal- defined for determining, supporting, a n ce must be maintained . To the ex t en t maintaining, and upgrading all ele- that distri ct and sch o ol policies and con s e - ments of the science program. qu ent dec i s i ons provi de guidance , su pport , IN AN EFFECTIVE SCIENCE PRO G RA M , and coord i n a ti on among te ach ers , t h e y can A SET OF CLEAR GOALS AND EXPE C TA- en h a n ce the scien c e progra m . However, i f TIONS FOR STUDENTS MUST BE USED policies become re s t ri ctive and pre s c ri ptive , TO GUIDE THE DESIGN, I M P L E M E N TA- t h ey make it difficult for te a ch ers to use T I O N , AND ASSESSMENT OF ALL ELE- t h eir profe s s i onal abi l i ty in the servi ce of M E N TS OF THE SCIENCE PRO G RA M . t h eir stu den t s . A scien ce program begins with the goals and P RO G RAM STANDARD A: ex pect a ti ons for stu dent ach i evem en t ; it also All elements of the K-12 science i n clu des the sel e cti on and or ga n i z a ti on of p rog r am must be co n s i s te nt with s c i en ce con tent into curri c u lum fra m ework s , the other National Science w ays of te ach i n g , and assessment stra tegi e s . See Teaching Ed u cation St a n d a rds and with The goals for a scien ce program provi de the Standard A one another and deve l o p ed with- s t a tem ents of ph i l o s ophy and the vi s i on that in and across grade levels to meet d rive the program and the statem ents of p u r- a clearly stated set of goals. pose that the program is de s i gn ed to ach i eve .

See Program C U R R I C U LUM FRA M EWORKS SHOULD f actual inform a ti on inevi t a bly leads to Standard B BE USED TO GUIDE THE SELECTION em phasis on factual te aching—a situ a ti on all AND DEV E LOPMENT OF UNITS AND too preva l ent in sch ools tod ay. Dec i s i on COURSES OF STUDY. The curriculum m a kers at the sch ool and distri ct level s , a s framework provides a guide for moving the well as com mu n i ty leaders and paren t s , mu s t vision presented in the goals closer to reali- re a l i ze the natu re of the scien ce that is bei n g ty. Teachers use the guide as they select and t a u ght and the stra tegies by wh i ch stu den t design specific school and classroom work. u n derstanding can be assessed . This wi ll By specifying the sequence of topics in the requ i re let ting go of s ome trad i ti onal met h- curriculum, the guide ensures articulation ods of acco u n t a bi l i t y and devel oping new and coherence across the curriculum. Using a s s e s s m ent policies and practi ces at the the framework, teachers design instruction cl a s s room and distri ct levels that are con s i s- that is based on the prior experiences of stu- tent with the program goals of the distri ct dents but avoids unnecessary repetition. The and the assessment standard s . framework guides the students as they move S U P P O RT SYSTEMS AND FORMAL AND through their schooling. INFORMAL EXPE C TATIONS OF T E AC H E R S T E ACHING PRACTICES NEED TO BE MUST BE ALIGNED WITH THE GOA L S , CONSISTENT WITH THE GOALS AND STUDENT EXPE C TAT I O N S , AND CURRICU- C U R R I C U LUM FRA M EWO R K S . The pro- LUM FRA M EWO R K S . An ef fective scien ce gram standards do not pre s c ri be spec i f i c program requ i res an adequ a te su pport sys- te aching beh avi ors ,n or should distri ct or tem , i n cluding re s o u rces of peop l e , ti m e , s ch ool po l i c i e s . Th ere are many ways to te ach m a terials and finance , opportu n i ties for staff s c i en ce ef fectively while ad h ering to the basic devel opm en t , and leadership that work s ten ets of the Na tional Sci en ce Edu c a ti o n tow a rd the goals of the progra m . It is en cod- St a n d a rd s, but they must be con s i s tent wi t h ed form a lly in policy doc u m ents su ch as a the goals and fra m ework of the distri ct . te ach er ’s handbook and inform a lly in the u nwri t ten norms that determine ro uti n e s . See Teaching ASSESSMENT POLICIES AND PRAC T I C E S The su pport sys tem must su pport cl a s s room Standard C SHOULD BE ALIGNED WITH THE GOA L S , te ach ers in te aching scien ce as de s c ri bed in STUDENT EXPE C TAT I O N S , AND CURRICU- the St a n d a rd s . LUM FRA M EWO R K S . Within the scien ce progra m , the align m ent of a s s e s s m ent wi t h R E S P O N S I B I L I T Y NEEDS TO BE CLEARLY See Teaching c u r ri c u lum and te aching is one of the most DEFINED FOR DETERMINING, S U P P O RT- Standard F c ri tical pieces of s c i en ce edu c a ti on reform . If I N G , M A I N TA I N I N G , AND UPGRA D I N G the assessment sys tem at the sch ool and dis- ALL ELEMENTS OF THE SCIENCE tri ct levels does not ref l ect the St a n d a rd s a n d P RO G RA M . Al t h o u g h all sch ool pers on n el m e a su re what is va lu ed , the likel i h ood of h ave re s p on s i bi l i ti e s , cl e a rly def i n ed leader- reform is gre a t ly diminished . Assessing on ly ship at the sch ool and distri ct levels is

requ i red for an ef f ective scien ce progra m . ■ The program of study must emphasize Le a dership can be ve s ted in a va ri ety of student understanding through peop l e , i n cluding te a ch e rs , s ch ool ad m i n i s- inquiry.

tra tors , and scien ce coord i n a tors . Who pro- ■ The prog ram of study in science should vi des su ch leadership is not as cri t ical as co n n e ct to other school subject s. en su ring that the re s pon s i bi l i ties for su p- This standard sets criteria for the work of port , m a i n ten a n ce , a s s e s s m en t , revi e w, revi- curriculum designers and developers, s i on , and improvem ent of the program are whether in school districts, research and ef f ectively carri ed out so that stu d ents have development institutions, or commercial opportu n i ties to learn and te ach ers have the publishing houses. It also sets criteria for opportu n i t y to te ach . those who select curricula. The align m ent needed in a scien ce program can be illu s tra ted by con s i dering scien- THE PRO G RAM OF STUDY SHOULD tific inqu i r y. The abi l i t y to understand and I N C LUDE ALL OF THE CONTENT con du ct scien tific inqu i r y is an import a n t S TA N D A R D S . S c i en ce con ten t , as def i n ed goal for stu dents in any scien ce progra m . To by the St a n d a rd s, i n c lu des ei g ht cate- accomplish this goa l , te ach ers must provi de gori e s — u n i f y ing con cepts and processes in s tu dents with many opportu n i ties to en ga ge s c i en ce , s c i en ce as inqu i r y, physical scien ce , in and ref l ect on inqu i r y abo ut natu ral ph e- l i fe scien ce , e a rth and space scien ce , s c i en ce n om en a . The distri ct and sch ool must pro- and tech n o l o gy, s c i en ce in pers o nal and vi de curri c u lum fra m eworks that high l i gh t s ocial pers p ective s , and history and natu r e i n qu i ry and the su pport of m a terials and of s c i en ce . An ef fective scien ce progra m time to make this type of te aching po s s i bl e . i n c lu des activi t ies for stu d ents to ach i eve And assessment tasks should requ i re stu- u n derstanding and abi l i ty in all categori e s . dents to dem on s tra te an understanding of SCIENCE CONTENT MUST BE EMBED- i n qu i r y and an abi l i t y to inqu i re . DED IN A VA R I E T Y OF CURRICULU M P RO G RAM STANDARD B: PATTERNS T H AT ARE DEV E LO P M E N - The prog ram of study in science TA L LY APPRO P R I AT E, I N T E R E S T I N G , for all students should be deve l- AND RELEVANT TO STUDENTS’ L I V E S . o p m e nt a l ly appro p ri ate, i nte re s t- Curriculum includes not only the content, i n g, and re l eva nt to student s’ l i ve s ; but also the structure, organization, balance, e m p h a s i ze student understanding and means of presentation of the content in t h rough inquiry; and be co n n e ct- the classroom. Designing curricula consid- ed with other school subject s. ers the teaching and assessment standards,

■ The program of study should include as well as the program standards and the all of the content standards. content standards.

■ S c i e n ce co nte nt must be embedded in The translation of content into curricula a va ri e ty of curriculum pat te rns that can and should take many forms. The a re deve l o p m e nt a l ly appro p ri ate,i nte r- Standards do not prescribe a single curricu- e s t i n g, and re l eva nt to student s’l i ve s. lum for students to achieve the content

stand a rd s . On the con tra r y, for stu dents to eva lu a ti on , and revi s i on . Because this ex peri en ce scien ce fully and to meet the re s e a r ch and devel opm ent process is labor goals of s c i en ce edu c a ti on , a va ri ety of c u r- i n ten s ive and requ i res con s i dera b le scien ti f- ri c u lum pattern s ,s tru ctu re s , and em ph a s e s i c , tech n i c a l , and ped a gogical ex perti s e , should be inclu ded in the activi ti e s ,u n i t s , te ach e rs and sch ool distri ct pers on n el usu- and co u rses that make up a total scien ce a lly begin the de s i gn and devel opm ent of a progra m . c u r ri c u l um that meets local goals and Rega rdless of or ga n i z a ti on , the scien ce f ra m eworks with a careful ex a m i n a ti on of program should em ph a s i ze unders t a n d i n g ex tern a lly produ ced scien c e materi a l s . n a tu ral ph en om ena and scien ce - rel a ted These materials are mod i f i ed and ad a p ted s o cial issues that stu dents en co u n ter in to meet the goals of the distri c t and of everyd ay life . Because inqu i ries into most te ach ers in that distri ct , and to use the n a tu ral ph en om ena and the process of re s o u rces of the local com mu n i ty. However, re s o lving social issues that are scien ce rel a ted c a re should be taken that in the ad a pt a ti on i nvo lve understanding and abi l i t y from more of ex tern a lly produ c ed materials to loc a l than one con tent standard , s c i en ce progra m s n e ed s , the ori g inal inten ded purpose and wi ll contain activi ti e s ,u n i t s , and co u rses that de s i gn are not underm i n ed . a re de s i gn ed to requ i re knowl ed ge and skill Districtwide goals and expectations for f rom more than one con tent standard . As an student achievement, as well as the curricu- ex a m p l e , a unit on the qu a l i t y of a river lum frameworks, serve to ensure coherence m i g ht em ph a s i ze the outcomes spec i f i ed in and articulation across grades, but they the con tent standard on scien ce as inqu i ry. must not constrain the creativity and At the same ti m e , the unit might incre a s e responsiveness of teachers in schools. While s tu den t s’ u n derstanding of s c i en ce in per- high-quality curriculum materials provide a s onal and social pers pective s ,l i fe scien ce , critical base for teaching science, especially physical scien ce , and earth and space scien ce . for new teachers and others new to teaching If te ach ers are to te ach for unders t a n d i n g science as described in the Standards, teach- as de s c ri bed in the con tent standard s , t h en ers must have the flexibility to meet the sci- covera ge of great amounts of trivi a l ,u n con- ence program goals in a variety of ways by n ected inform a ti on must be el i m i n a ted from adjusting and adapting curriculum materi- the curri c u lu m . In tegra ted and them a ti c als to match their own and their students’ a pproaches to curri c u lum can be powerf u l ; strengths and interests. h owever they requ i re skill and unders t a n d- The content standards are designed to be ing in their de s i gn and implem en t a ti on . developmentally appropriate and to build See Teaching E f fective scien ce curri c u lum materials understanding of basic ideas across the Standard A a re devel oped by teams of ex p eri en ced grade levels. In designing curricula, care te ach ers , s c i en ti s t s , and scien ce curri c u lu m should be taken to return to concepts in s p ecialists using a sys tem a tic re s e a r ch and successive years so that students have the devel opm ent process that invo lves repe a ted opportunity to increase and deepen their cycles of design, trial teaching with child ren , understanding and ability as they mature.

This gradual development of understanding s ch ool sch edu l e . As an ex a m p l e , the Na ti on a l and ability will be realized only if the con- S t a n d a rds for Geogra phy inclu de knowl ed ge cepts and capabilities designated for each a bo ut land form s , as does the earth and grade level are congruent with the students’ s p ace scien ce standard . A com bi n ed geogra- mental, affective, and physical abilities. phy and scien ce unit is natu ra l .O ral and Providing a range of student activities pro- wri t ten com mu n i c a ti on skills are devel oped motes learning, and some activities can be in scien ce wh en stu dents record , su m m a ri ze , slightly beyond the students’ developmental and com mu n i c a te the re sults of i n qu i ry to level. However, it is inappropriate to require t h eir cl a s s ,s ch oo l , or com mu n i ty. students to learn terms and perform activi- Coord i n a ti on su ggests that these skill s ties that are far beyond their cognitive and receive atten ti on in the language arts pro- physical developmental level. gram as well as in the scien ce progra m .

See Content THE PRO G RAM OF STUDY MUST P RO G RAM STANDARD C: Standard A E M PHASIZE STUDENT UNDERSTA N D- The science prog ram should be (all grade levels) ING T H ROUGH INQU I RY. Inquiry is a set coo rd i n ated with the mat h e m at- of interrelated processes by which scientists ics prog ram to enhance student and students pose questions about the nat- use and understanding of mat h e - ural world and investigate phenomena; in m atics in the study of science and doing so, students acquire knowledge and to improve student understand- develop a rich understanding of concepts, ing of mat h e m at i c s. principles, models, and theories. Inquiry is a S c i en ce requ i res the use of m a t h em a t ics in critical component of a science program at the co ll ecti on and tre a tm ent of data and in all grade levels and in every domain of sci- the re a s oning used to devel op con cept s , l aws , ence, and designers of curricula and pro- and theori e s .S ch ool scien ce and mathem a t- grams must be sure that the approach to ics programs should be coord i n a ted so that content, as well as the teaching and assess- s tu dents learn the nece s s a ry mathem a tical ment strategies, reflect the acquisition of skills and concepts before and during their scientific understanding through inquiry. use in the science program. Students then will learn science in a way Coordination of science and mathematics that reflects how science actually works. programs provides an opportunity to THE PRO G RAM OF STUDY IN SCIENCE advance instruction in science beyond the SHOULD CONNECT TO OTHER SCHOOL purely descriptive.Students gathering data S U B J E C TS . S tu dent ach i evem ent in scien ce in a science investigation should use tools of and in other sch ool su bj ects su ch as soc i a l data analysis to organize these data and to s tu d i e s , l a n g u a ge art s , and tech n o l ogy is formulate hypotheses for further testing. en h a n ced by coord i n a ti on bet ween and Using data from actual investigations from a m ong the scien ce program and other pro- science in mathematics courses, students gra m s . Fu rt h erm ore , su ch coord i n a ti on can encounter all the anomalies of authentic m a ke maximal use of time in a crowded problems—inconsistencies, outliers, and

The Solar Sys te m ing models and determined that to make a scale model they would have to know how big each object in the solar system was and In this example, students engage in an inquiry activity that includes both science and mathe- also the distances between them.Ms. B. matics providing prerequisite knowledge for asked whether they knew these facts about constructing physical models. Ms. B. begins by the sun, moon and earth. Someone said asking students what they already know about they could look it up. But Ms. B. said that the solar system and maintains their interest although they could get the answer this way, by pointing out that some science and tech- instead they were going to try to find out for nology that they accept as ordinary have not always existed. In a careful sequence, each les- themselves, similar to the way astronomers son in the inquiry builds on previous lessons. learned new things. Students observe stars for a period of time, She asked the stu dents how they though t discuss patterns they observe, and seek confir- the circ u m feren ce of the earth was measu red . mation of the patterns through additional Som eone said by measu ring on a map. observations. Students use manipulatives such Som eone else said by flying around it keep- as globes, rulers, and protractors to develop understanding. Mathematics is integral to this ing track of the distance .M s . B. told them , inquiry, so Ms. B has worked with the mathe- h owever, that Co lu m bus had an approx i- matics instructor to ensure coordination. m a te , but limited ,i dea of h ow big the eart h [This example highlights some elements of was before anyone had gone around it. S h e Teaching Standards A, B, D and E; 5-8 said they were going to determine the cir- Content Standards A, B, F, and G, as well as c u m feren ce of the earth using the North Star. Unifying Concepts and Processes; and M s . B. gave each stu dent a diagram of t h e Program Standards A, B, C, and D.] North Star and the stars of the Big and Little M s . B. was beginning the stu dy of the solar Di pper, d rawn to scale. The stars were ori en t- s ys tem with the ei ghth grade cl a s s . In prep a- ed the way they would be looking due nort h ra ti on for building models of the solar sys- at abo ut 8:00 p. m . in their town . She directed tem , she wanted the stu dents to esti m a te the the stu dents to ob s erve and make sketches of c i rc u m feren ce of the eart h . The activi ty was the po s i ti ons of the Big Di pper, the Little de s i gn ed to all ow stu dents to think and act Di pper, and the North Star at dark and at l i ke astron om ers 500 ye a rs ago. She had spen t least two hours later. s ome time with the mathem a tics te ach er in Several days later students compared order to coord i n a te part of the stu dy wi t h notes on the stars. Almost everyone had h i m . In fact ,s ome of the scien ce work wo u l d found them, many for the first time. When actu a lly take place in the math cl a s s . they compared their observations, everyone Ms. B. set the stage by reviewing what the had seen the stars move, but most students students already knew about the solar sys- noticed that the North Star seemed to stay tem, especially about the earth, sun,and in the same place. They agreed that every- moon. Then they talked briefly about build- one should observe one more time that

night to confirm their observations. But for Each group was directed to reach a con- the moment it was agreed to assume—with sensus of where to draw the arrow from the the majority—that the North Star didn’t Gilbert and Ellis Islands on the sketch, but seem to move at all. some could not. Each group, and the hold- With these ob s erva ti on s ,M s . B. s a i d , t h ey outs, put an arrow on the board to illustrate were re ady to try to find the circ u m feren ce their answer. One arrow pointed straight up, of the eart h . She ch a ll en ged each group of and the rest pointed at a range of angles, four to use their gl o bes to answer the qu e s- most toward a point near the top of the ti on : “Si n ce the North Star didn’t appear to blackboard. How could they find out who m ove , what directi on would it be if you were was accurate? Ms. B. suggested that they use standing at the North Po l e ? ” Af ter some ti m e what they knew to try to decide who among for thinking, discussing and moving the the groups might be right. To help the stu- gl obe aro u n d , the class shared their answers . dents get started on this task,she asked each Several groups said it would be ri ght over- group how high up they thought the North h e ad . As ked to explain why, t h ey used thei r Star was. According to where their arrows gl obes to illu s tra te that if it were not, i t pointed, most had assumed that the North wo u l d n’t stay due north as the earth tu rn ed . Star was only a few earth diameters above M s . B. t h en drew a sketch of the eart h , the North Pole. Ms. B. then asked what the with the familiar We s tern Hem i s ph ere fac i n g students thought the distance to the North h er, on the bl ack boa rd . She drew an arrow Star really was compared with the size of the s tra i ght up from the North Po l e , poi n t ing to earth. Now many students said that it must the North Star, and she also made a dot on be very far away because it’s a star and stars the equ a tor at the ed ge of h er sketch on the are very far away. In the end consensus was G i l bert and Ellis Islands in the Pac i f i c .S h e reached that if the North Star were very far a s ked : “Wh i ch way is the North Star for away—a great many earth diameters—the s om eone in the Gilbert and Ellis Is l a n d s ? ” straight up arrow in the sketch would point to this star, no matter where one was on the drawing of the earth. Th en Ms. B. d rew a line stra i ght ac ross the top of the earth in her sketch to indicate the h ori zon at the North Po l e , poi n ting out that on the bl ack boa rd the angle from the horizon to the North Star was 90 degree s . If yo u were standing on the North Pole you wo u l d l ook stra i ght up to see the North Star. S h e a s ked the stu dents wh ere the inhabitants of the Gilbert and Ellis Islands on the equ a tor, 1/4 of the way around the earth aw ay, wo u l d Figure 1. Ms.B.’s Sketch of the earth l oo k . She also made a mark on her diagra m

1/8 of the eart h’s circ u m feren ce south from the North Pole and asked at what angl e a bove the hori zon the inhabitants there would have to look to find the North Star. Di s c u s s i on fo ll owed , with a va ri ety of d i f f erent qu i ck answers .M s . B. ch a ll en ged the groups to use their compasses and pro trac- tors to make a drawing that would give them the answers . Wh en the groups had come up with some ide a s , she led them in a discus- s i on on how the angle ch a n ged as the dis- Figure 2. Ms.B.’s Graph t a n ce around the earth from the po l e ch a n ged . Th ey agreed that it got small er and The result of their graphic investigation s m a ll er, going from 90 degrees at the pole to confirmed that a straight line seemed to be 45 degrees 1/8 of the way aro u n d , and 0 a good graph for the relationship between degrees at the equ a tor. the angle formed by the North Star and the The next day, Ms. B. put a graph with the horizon and distance around the earth. three points the students had found so far Ms. B. then told them that in Columbus’ on the board. She asked how they could pre- day it was known from ground travel that dict the angle of the North Star for two the distance between a town in Scandinavia points, A and B, which she added to the where the North Star angle was 67 degrees graph, one halfway between the 45 degree and another in Italy where the North Star point and the pole and the other halfway angle was 43 degrees was about 3,000 miles. between the 45 degree point and the equa- People who knew what the students now tor? The students suggested a straight line knew could figure out the circumference of on the graph which fitted their three points the earth. The groups were to take their data would represent the relationship between to math class where they would have time to the angle and distance around the earth. figure out the earth’s circumference and The students also agreed that this was just a then proceed to look in the library for the guess. Ms. B. asked how they could be more best modern value. certain and they decided they could go back The next day, the class discussed how well to their drawing, use their protractors to put they had done in getting a value for the A and B on it, and measure what the angle earth’s size. In succeeding days they calculat- of the North Star would be. ed the distance to the moon and its circumference and looked up the same information for the sun. They also learned how modern astronomers calculate distances and size. Finally, using the data, each group designed a scale model of the sun, moon, and earth.

errors—which they might not encounter ■ Collaborative inquiry requires ade- with contrived textbook data. quate and safe space. If te ach ers of m a t h em a tics use scien ti f i c ■ Good science programs require access examples and met h od s ,u n derstanding in to the world beyond the classroom.

both disciplines wi ll be en h a n ced . For math- Learning science requires active inquiry See System em a ti c s , coord i n a ti on rei n forces the pers pec- into the phenomena of the natural world. Standard D tive of i nve s ti ga ti on and ex peri m en t a ti on Such inquiry requires rich and varied that is em ph a s i zed in the Na ti onal Co u n c i l resources in an adequate and safe environ- of Te ach ers of Ma t h em a tics (NCTM) stan- ment. The specific criteria for a science d a rd s . The mathem a tics that stu dents should learning environment will depend on many u n derstand and use in the stu dy of s c i en ce factors such as the needs of the students and as arti c u l a ted in the NCTM mathem a ti c s the characteristics of the science program. A s t a n d a rds are listed in Ta ble 7.1. student with rich experience in a topic Con n ecting the scien ce and mathem a ti c s might need access to additional resources programs requ i res coord i n a ti on at the sch oo l within or outside the school; a student with and distri ct level s . Those who devel op guid- a different language background might need ing fra m eworks must work toget h er to en su re supporting materials in that language; a stu- that the po ten tial for con n ecti on is in place at dent with a physical disability might need the distri ct level . At the sch ool level , te ach ers specially designed equipment; and a student of m a t h em a tics and scien ce must devel op and with little experience using computer tech- i m p l em ent a coord i n a ted progra m . nology might need a tutor or a tutorial program. District policy makers and those in P RO G RAM STANDARD D: charge of budget allocations must provide The K-12 science prog ram must the resources, and then school-level admin- g i ve students access to appro p ri ate istrators and teachers must make sure that, and sufficient re s o u rce s, i n c l u d i n g once allocated, the resources are well used. q u a l i ty te a c h e r s, t i m e, m ate ri a l s and equipment, a d e q u ate and safe THE MOST IMPORTANT RESOURCE IS s p a ce, and the co m m u n i ty. P ROFESSIONAL T E AC H E R S . Needless to

■ The most important resource is pro- s ay, s tu dents must have access to skill ed , professional teachers. fe s s i onal te ach ers . Te ach ers must be prep a red

■ Time is a major resource in a science to te ach scien ce to stu dents with divers e program. s tren g t h s ,n eed s , ex peri en ce s , and approach-

■ Co n d u cting scientific inquiry re q u i re s es to learn i n g.Te ach e rs must know the con- t h at students have easy, e q u i t a b l e, tent they wi l l te ach ,u n derstand the natu re of and fre q u e nt oppo rtunities to use a l e a rn i n g , and use a ra n ge of te aching stra te- wide range of equipment, m ate ri a l s, gies for scien ce . Hi ring practi ces must en su re s u p p l i e s, and other re s o u rces fo r that te ach ers are prep a red to te ach scien ce ex pe ri m e nt ation and dire ct inve s t i g a- and should inclu de su ccessful te ach ers of s c i- tion of phenomena. en ce in the sel ecti on of t h eir new colleagues.

TAB L E 7 . 1 . E XAMPLES OF MAT H E M AT I C S T H AT STUDENTS SHOULD USE AND UNDERSTA N D

G RADES K-4 G RADES 5-8 G RADES 9-12 Me a su re , co ll ect , and orga n i ze Rep re s ent situati ons verb a lly, D e vel op abi l i t y to use re a l i s ti c d a t a nu m eri c a lly, gra ph i c a lly, a pp l i c a ti ons and modeling in geom etri c a lly, or sym bo l i c a lly tri gon om etry E x p l ore ch a n ce Use esti m a ti on s Un derstand con n ecti ons within a Recogn i ze and de s c ri be pattern s p robl em situati on , its model as a Iden tify and use functi on a l Use vari a bles to expre s s f u n cti on in sym bolic form ,a n d rel a ti on s h i p s rel a ti on s h i p s the gra ph of that functi on D e vel op and use tabl e s , gra ph s , D evel op skills of e s ti m a ti on and Use functi ons that are and rules to de s c ri be situati on s ju d gm en t con s tru cted as models of re a l - Use stati s tical met h ods to world probl em s de s c ri be ,a n a ly ze , ev a lu a te ,a n d Kn ow how to use stati s tics and m a ke dec i s i on s p rob a bi l i t y Use geom e try in solvi n g p robl em s Cre a te experi m ental and t h eoretical models of s i t u a ti on s i nvo lving prob a bi l i ti e s

Source: NCTM,1989

Districts should use the professional every week, and every year.The content development standards to provide teachers standards define scientific literacy; the with opportunities to develop and enhance amount of time required to achieve scientif- the needed capabilities for effective science ic literacy for all students depends on the teaching.Funding and professional time for particular program. The time devoted to such development is an essential part of dis- science education must be allocated to meet trict budgets. the needs of an inquiry-based science pro- The emphasis on the need for profession- gram. No matter what the scheduling al teachers of science does not diminish the model,a school schedule needs to provide need for other school personnel who sufficient and flexible use of time to accom- enhance the science program. In addition to modate the needs of the students and what an administrative team and teaching col- is being learned. In addition to time with leagues, other support personnel might students and with colleagues, teachers of include the resource librarian, a laboratory science also spend considerable time prepar- technician, or maintenance staff. ing materials, setting up activities, creating TIME IS A MAJOR RESOURCE IN A SCIENCE the learning environment,and organizing PROGRAM. Science must be allocated suffi- student experiences. This time must be built cient time in the school program every day, into the daily teaching schedule.

CONDUCTING SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY The te aching standards con s i s ten t ly make REQUIRES THAT STUDENTS HAVE EASY, referen ce to the re s pon s iveness and flex i bi l i t y EQUITABLE, AND FREQUENT OPPORTU- to stu dent interests that must be evi den ced in NITIES TO USE A WIDE RANGE OF EQUIP- cl a s s rooms that ref l ect ef fective scien ce te ach- MENT, MATERIALS,SUPPLIES,AND i n g. The con tent standard on inqu i ry sets the OTHER RESOURCES FOR EXPERIMENTA- ex pect a ti on that stu dents wi ll devel op the TION AND DIRECT INVESTIGATION OF a bi l i ty to perform a full inqu i r y. For su ch PHENOMENA. Some equ i pm ent is gen era l i n qu i ry - b a s e d te aching to become a re a l i ty, i n p u rpose and should be part of every sch oo l ’s ad d i ti on to what is reg u l a rly maintained in s c i en ce inven tory, su ch as magn i f i ers or micro- the sch ool and distri ct , every te ach er of s c i- s copes of a ppropri a te soph i s ti c a ti on ,m e a su re- en ce needs an easily acce s s i ble bu d get for m ent too l s , tools for data analys i s , and com p ut- m a terials and equ i pm ent as well as for unan- ers with sof t w a re for su pporting inve s ti ga ti on s . ti c i p a ted ex p enses that arise as stu dents and Other materials are topic specific, such as a te ach ers pursue their work . water table for first graders or a reduced- CO L LA B O RATIVE INQU I RY REQU I R E S resistance air table for physics investigations; A D E QUATE AND SAFE SPAC E. Th ere su ch spec i a l i zed materials also need to be must be space for stu dents to work toget h er m ade ava i l a bl e . Ma ny materials are con su m- in gro u p s , to en ga ge safely in inve s ti ga ti on a ble and need to be rep l en i s h ed reg u l a rly. with materi a l s , and to display both work in Fu rt h erm ore , policy makers need to bear in progress and finished work . Th ere also mu s t mind that equ i pm ent needs to be upgraded fre- be space for the safe and conven i ent stora ge qu en t ly and requ i res preven tive mainten a n ce . of the materials needed for scien ce . At the Given that materials appropriate for l ower grade level s , s ch ools do not need sep a- inquiry-based science teaching are central to ra te rooms for labora tori e s . In fact , it is an achieving the educational goals set forth in adva n t a ge in terms of l on g - term studies and the Standards, it is critical that an effective making con n ecti ons bet ween sch ool su bj ect infrastructure for material support be a part a reas to have scien ce as an integral part of t h e of any science program. School systems cl a s s room envi ron m en t . At the upper grade need to develop mechanisms to identify l evel s ,l a bora tories become cri tical to provi de exemplary materials, store and maintain the space ,f ac i l i ti e s , and equ i pm ent needed for them, and make them accessible to teachers i n qu i ry and to en su re that the te ach er and in a timely fashion. Providing an appropri- s tu dents can con du ct inve s ti ga ti ons wi t h o ut ate infrastructure frees teachers’ time for ri s k . All spaces wh ere stu dents do inqu i r y more appropriate tasks and ensures that the must meet appropri a te safety reg u l a ti on s . necessary materials are available when needed. Because science inquiry is broader than GOOD SCIENCE PRO G RAMS REQU I R E first-hand investigation, print, video, and ACCESS TO THE WORLD BEYOND T H E technology sources of information and sim- C LA S S RO O M . District and school leaders ulation are also required. These are included must allocate financial support to provide in the materials-support infrastructure. opportunities for students to investigate the

world outside the classroom. This may P RO G RAM STANDARD E: mean budgeting for trips to nearby points All students in the K-12 science of interest, such as a river, archaeological p r og ram must have equitable site, or nature preserve; it could include a c cess to oppo r tunities to contracting with local science centers, muse- a c h i eve the National Science ums, zoos, and horticultural centers for vis- Ed u cation St a n d a rd s. its and programs. Relationships should be All stu den t s , rega rdless of s ex ,c u l tu ral or See System developed with local businesses and indus- ethnic back gro u n d , physical or learning dis- Standard E try to allow students and teachers access to a bi l i ti e s ,f utu re aspira ti on s , or interest in sci- people and the institutions, and students en ce , should have the opportu n i ty to attain must be given access to scientists and other h i gh levels of s c i en tific literac y. By adopti n g professionals in higher education and the this principle of equ i ty and excell en ce , t h e medical establishment to gain access to their St a n d a rds pre s c ri be the inclu s i on of a ll stu- expertise and the laboratory settings in dents in ch a ll en ging scien ce learning oppor- which they work. Communication technol- tu n i ties and define a high level of u n der- ogy has made it possible for anyone to standing that all stu dents should ach i eve . In access readily people throughout the world. p a rti c u l a r, the com m i tm ent to scien ce for all This communication technology should be implies inclu s i on of those who trad i ti on a lly easily accessible to students. h ave not received en co u ra gem ent and Much of this standard is acknowledged as opportu n i ty to pursue scien ce — wom en and critical, even if unavailable, for students in gi rl s ,s tu dents of co l or, s tu dents with disabi l- secondary schools. It must be emphasized, i ti e s , and stu dents with limited English pro- however, that this standard applies to the f i c i en c y. It implies atten ti on to va r ious styl e s entire science program and all students in of l e a rn i n g, ad a pt a ti ons to meet the needs of all grades. In addition, this standard s pecial stu dents and differing sources of demands quality resources that often are m o t iva ti on . And it also implies provi d i n g lacking and seem unattainable in some opportu n i t ies for those stu dents intere s ted schools or districts. Missing resources must in and capable of m oving beyond the basic not be an excuse for not teaching science. progra m .G iven this divers i ty of s tu den t Many teachers and schools “make do” or n eed s , ex peri en ce s , and back gro u n d s , a n d improvise under difficult circumstances the goal that all stu d ents wi l l ach i e ve a com- (e.g.,crowded classrooms, time borrowed m on set of s t a n d a rd s ,s ch ools must su pport from other subjects, and materials pur- h i gh - qu a l i ty, d ivers e , and va ri ed opportu n i- chased with personal funds). A science ties to learn scien ce . program based on the National Science The unders t a n d i n gs and abi l i ti e s Education Standards is a program constantly de s c ri bed in the con tent standards are out- moving toward replacing such improvisa- comes for all stu den t s ; t h ey do not repre s en t tion with necessary resources. d i f ferent ex pect a ti ons for different groups of

s tu den t s . Cu rri c u lum devel opers ,l ocal po l icy P RO G RAM STANDARD F: makers,and teachers of science must make S c h ools must wo rk as co m m u n i t i e s decisions about and provide the resources t h at enco u ra g e, s u p po rt, and sus- required to accommodate the different rates tain teachers as they implement of learning. an effe ct i ve science prog ra m . The principles of equ i t y and excell en ce ■ S c h ools must ex p l i c i t ly suppo rt h ave implicati ons for the grouping of s ture fo rm effo rts in an at m o s p h e re of den t s . Th ere are scien ce activi t ies for wh i ch o penness and trust that enco u ra g e s grouping is appropri a te and activi ties for co l l e g i a l i ty. wh i ch grouping is not appropri a te . ■ Regular time needs to be provided Dec i s i o ns abo u t grouping are made by con- and teachers encouraged to discuss, s i dering the purpose and demands of t h e reflect, and conduct research around activi t y and the need s , a bi l i ti e s , and inter- science education reform. ests of s tu den t s . A St a n d a rd s- b a s ed scien ce ■ Teachers must be supported in creat- program en su res that all stu dents parti c i- ing and being members of networks p a te in ch a ll en ging activi t ies ad a pted to of reform. d iverse need s . ■ An effective leadership structure that The principles of equ i t y and excell en ce includes teachers must be in place. also bear on Program Standard A — co h er- Ma ny previous reform ef forts have failed See Teaching en ce and con s i s tency—and Progra m because little atten ti on was paid to the con- Standard F S t a n d a rd B—curri c u lu m . All dimen s i ons of n e cti on bet ween te ach er en h a n cem en t , c u r- a scien ce program ad h e re to the pri n c i p l e ri c u l um devel opm en t , and the sch ool as a of s c i en ce for all . Th emes and topics ch o s en s ocial and intell ectual com mu n i ty. Te ach e rs for curricula should su p port the prem i s e with new ide a s , s k i ll s , and exem p l a r y mate- that men and wom en of d iverse back- rials of t en worked in an envi ron m ent wh ere grounds en ga ge in and parti c i p a te in sci- reform was not va lu ed or su pported . en ce and have done so thro u gh o ut history. Te aching practi ce is re s p on s ive to divers e SCHOOLS MUST EXPLICITLY SUPPORT l e a rn ers , and the com mu n i ty of the cl a s s - REFORM EFFORTS IN AN ATM O S PH E R E room is one in wh i ch re s p ect for divers i t y is OF OPENNESS AND T RUST T H AT practi ced . As s e s s m e nt practi c es ad h e re to E N CO U RAGES CO L L E G I A L I T Y. All too the standard of f a i r ness and do not unfairly f requ en t ly tod ay the norms of rel a ti on s h i p s a s sume the pers p ective or ex peri en ce of a in sch o ols prom o te isolati on , con form i ty, p a rticular gro u p.As s e s s m ent practi ces also com peti ti on , and distrust—and te ach ers a re mod i f i ed appropri a tely to accom m od a te are treated as technicians. Significant change the needs of s tu dents with disabi l i ties or is called for in the vision of science educa- o t h er special con d i ti on s . tion reform described by the Standards. Collegiality, openness, and trust must be valued; teachers must be acknowledged and

treated as professionals whose work requires with their co ll e a g u e s , t h e y need tangi ble and understanding and ability. This change can- m oral su pport . Co ll a bora ti on must be devel- not happen within the science program oped with out s i de insti tuti ons su ch as co l- alone; it demands the transformation of l e ges and univers i ti e s , profe s s i onal soc i eti e s , entire schools into communities of adult s c i en ce - ri ch cen ters , mu s eu m s , and bu s i n e s s learners focused on the study and improve- and indu s try to en su re that the ex perti s e ment of teaching and learning.Without n eeded for growth and ch a n ge is ava i l a bl e movement toward the school as a commu- f rom within and out s i de the sch oo l . Te ach ers nity of learners engaged in reflective prac- n eed the opportu n i t y to become part of t h e tice, the vision of science teaching and l a r ger world of profe s s i onal te ach ers of s c i- learning promoted by the Standards is en ce thro u gh parti c i p a ting in net work s , unlikely to flourish. a t tending con feren ce s , and other means. Teachers of science also need material See Professional R E G U LAR TIME NEEDS TO BE PROV I D- support. As communities of learners, Development ED AND T E ACHERS ENCO U R AGED TO schools should make available to teachers Standard C D I S C U S S ,R E F L E C T, AND CO N D U C T professional journals, books, and technolo- R E S E A RCH AROUND SCIENCE EDUCA- gies that will help them advance their TION REFORM. The transformation of knowledge. These same materials support schools into centers of inquiry requires teachers as they use research and reflection explicit action to remove destructive practi- to improve their teaching. cal and policy constraints to reform. Schedules must be realigned, time provided, AN EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP STRU C- and human resources deployed such that TURE T H AT INCLUDES T E ACHERS MUST teachers can come together regularly to dis- BE IN PLAC E. Devel oping a com mu n i ty of cuss individual student learning needs and l e a rn e rs requ i res strong leaders h i p, but that to reflect and conduct research on practice. l e adership must ch a n ge dra m a ti c a lly from In a community of learners, teachers work the hiera rchical and aut h ori t a r ian leaders h i p together to design the curriculum and of ten in place in sch ools and in sch ool dis- assessment. They also design and take part tri cts tod ay. Le adership should em er ge from in other professional growth activities. Time a shared vi s i on of s c i en ce edu c a ti on and must be available for teachers to observe f rom an understanding of the profe s s i on a l , other classrooms, team teach, use external s oc i a l , and cultu r al norms of a sch ool that is resources,attend conferences, and hold a com mu n i ty of l e a rn ers . meetings during the school day. The leadership structure might take many forms, but it inevitably requires that teach- T E ACHERS MUST BE SUPPORTED IN ers and administrators rethink traditional C R E ATING AND BEING MEMBERS OF roles and responsibilities and take on new N E T WORKS OF REFORM. For te ach ers to ones. School leaders must structure and sus- s tu dy their own te aching and their stu den t s’ tain suitable support systems for the work l e a rning ef fectively and work con s tru ctively that teachers do. They are responsible for

en su ring that agreed - u p on plans for ti m e , There are many possible ways to structure a s p ace , and re s o u r ces are carri e d out . Th ey community of learners that reflect the must model the beh avi ors they seek by norms and demands described in this stan- becoming learn ers them s e lves with the dard. However, regardless of the structure, te aching staff. Th ey are advoc a tes for the roles and responsibilities must be explicit s ch ool program in the distri ct and com mu- and accountability clearly assigned. n i t y. Th e y mon i tor the work of the sch oo l and the staff and provi de corrective feed- b ack that en h a n ces ef fective functi on i n g.

CHANGING EMP H A S E S

The Na t ional Sci en ce Edu c a t ion St a n d a rds envi s i on ch a n ge thro u gh o ut the sys tem . The progra m s t a n d a rds en compass the fo ll owing ch a n ges in em ph a s e s :

LESS EMPHASIS ON MORE EMPHASIS ON Developing science programs at different grade Coordinating the development of the K-12 science levels independently of one another program across grade levels Using assessments unrel a ted to curri c u lum and Aligning curriculum, teaching,and assessment te ach i n g Maintaining current re s o u rce all oc a ti ons for boo k s Allocating resources necessary for hands-on inquiry teaching aligned with the Standards Textbook- and lecture-driven curriculum Curriculum that supports the Standards and includes a variety of components, such as laboratories emphasizing inquiry and field trips

Broad covera ge of u n con n ected factual inform a ti on Curriculum that includes natural phenomena and science-related social issues that students encounter in everyday life Treating science as a subject isolated from other Connecting science to other school subjects, such as school subjects mathematics and social studies S c i en ce learning opport u n i ties that favor one gro u p Providing challenging opportunities for all students of students to learn science Limiting hiring decisions to the administration Involving successful teachers of science in the hiring process Maintaining the isolation of teachers Treating teachers as professionals whose work requires opportunities for continual learning and networking Supporting competition Promoting collegiality among teachers as a team to improve the school Teachers as followers Teachers as decision makers

Porter, A.1993.School delivery standards. Re fe re n ces fo r Educational Researcher 22(5):24-30. Stevenson,H.W.,and J.W. Stigler. 1992. The Fu rther Re a d i n g Learning Gap: Why Our Schools Are Failing and What We Can Learn from Japanese and Anderson, R.,and H. Pratt.1995. Local Chinese Education. New York: Summit Books. Leadership for Science Education Reform. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt. Clewell, B.C., B.T.Anderson, and M.E. Thorpe. 1992. Breaking the Barriers: Helping Female and Minority Students Succeed in Mathematics and Science. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Cole, M.,and P. Griffin, eds.1987. Contextual Factors in Education: Improving Science and Mathematics for Minorities and Women. Madison,WI: Committee on Research on Mathematics,Science,and Technology Education, Wisconsin Center for Education Research. Darling-Hammond,L.1993. Reframing the school reform agenda: Developing capacity for school transformation. Phi Beta Kappan, June, 1993. Fullan,M.,and S.Stiegelbauer. 1991. The New Meaning of Educational Change,2nd ed. New York: Teachers College Press. Geography Education Standards Project.1994. Geography for Life. Washington, DC: National Geographic Research and Exploration. Lieberman,A., ed.1988. Building a Professional Culture in Schools. New York: Teachers College Press. NCTM (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics). 1989. Curriculum Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics. Reston, VA:NCTM. Oakes, J. 1990. Multiplying Inequalities: The Effect of Race, Social Class,and Tracking on Opportunities to Learn Mathematics and Science. Santa Monica,CA: RAND Corporation.

Changing the pe d a g og i cal pra ct i ce s of higher education is a nece s s a ry co n d i t i o n for changing pe d a g og i cal pra ct i ce s in schoo l s

Science Education System Standards

The science education system stan-

dards provide criteria for judging

the performance of the components

of the science education system

responsible for providing schools

with necessary financial and intel-

lectual resources. ❚ Despite the frequent use of the term “educational sys-

tem,” the meaning often is unclear. Systems in nature are composed of sub-

systems, and are themselves subsystems of some larger system. The educa-

tional system may be viewed as a similar hierarchy. ❚ A view of a system

requires understanding the whole in terms of interacting component sub-

systems, boundaries, inputs and outputs, feedback, and relationships. In the

education system, the school is the central institution for public education.

The school includes many components that interact, for example, teaching,

administration, and finance. The school is a component subsystem of a

local district, which is a subsystem of a state educational system.

States are part of a national education sys- d ay - to - d ay activi t ies of s c i en ce cl a s s room s tem. Schools are also components of a local a re influ en ced direct ly and indirect ly by community that can include colleges and m a ny or ga n i z a ti ons wh i ch are them s e lve s universities, nature centers, parks and muse- s ys tem s .G overn m ent agen c i e s ,n a ti on a l ums, businesses, laboratories, community or ga n i z a ti ons and soc i e ti e s , and priva te sec- organizations, and various media. tor spec i a l - i n t erest groups at the loc a l , The primary function of the science edu- regi on a l , s t a te , and nati onal levels are three cation system is to supply society with sci- a m ong many. E ach or ga n i z a ti on has an exec- entifically literate citizens. Information and utive of f i cer and governing body that ulti- resources (typically financial) energize the m a tely are re s pon s i ble for the or ga n i z a ti on’s system. The nature of the information,the magnitude of resources,and the paths along State education agencies generally which they flow are directed by policies that are contained in instruments such as legisla- have more direct influence on tion, judicial rulings, and budgets. science classroom activities than Sys tems can be repre s en ted in a va ri ety of w ays , depending on the purpose and the federal agencies. i n form a ti on to be conveyed . For ex a m p l e , F i g u re 8.1 dep i cts the overlap among three activi ties and influ en ce on scien ce edu c a ti on . s ys tems that influ en ce the practi ce of s c i en ce A brief discussion of one aspect of one edu c a ti on . This type of repre s en t a ti on is a organization—government—contributes to rem i n der that acti ons taken in one sys tem the understanding of science education as a h ave implicati ons not on ly for scien ce edu- system. The power of government organiza- c a ti on but for other sys tems as well . tions to influence classroom science derives Coord i n a ti on of acti on among the sys tem s from two sources: (1) constitutional, legisla- can serve as a powerful force for ch a n ge . But tive, or judicial authority and (2) political i f acti ons are at cross purpo s e s ,t h eir ef fect s and economic action. Because education is can be nega ted and cre a te waste and con f l i ct . not specifically mentioned as a federal The overlap in Figure 8.1 illu stra tes that the power in the U.S. Constitution,authority for education resides in states or localities. Federal dollars may be targeted for specific uses, but because the dollars flow through state agencies to local districts, their use is subject to modification to meet state objectives. State education agencies generally have more direct influence on science classroom activities than federal agencies. We can also con s i der the scien ce edu c a ti on Figure 8-1.The overlap of three systems that s ys tem as a net work to fac i l i t a te thinking influence science education. a bo ut the sys tem’s many interacting com po-

Figure 8.2. Some organizations that affect the preparation, certification, and employment of teachers.

n en t s . Com pon ents of the scien ce edu c a ti on Science Teachers Association, American s ys tem serve a va ri ety of f u n c ti ons that influ- Association of Physics Teachers, National en ce the cl a s s room practi ce of s c i en ce edu c a- Association of Biology Teachers, American ti on . Fu n cti ons gen era lly dec i ded at the state Geological Institute, American Chemical ( but som etimes the local) level inclu de the Society), (2) program-accrediting agencies con tent of the sch ool scien ce curri c u lu m , t h e (such as the National Board for Professional ch a r acteri s tics of the scien ce progra m ,t h e Teaching Standards, which certifies teachers, n a tu re of s c i en ce te ach i n g, and assessmen t and the National Council for Accreditation practi ce s . For any of these functi on s ,m a ny of Teacher Education, which certifies d i f ferent or ga n i z a ti ons and re s pon s i ble indi- teacher education programs), (3) govern- vi duals interact .F i g u re 8.2 dep i cts how indi- ment agencies, and (4) institutions of higher vi duals and agencies from different sys tem s education operating within and across i n teract in the prep a ra ti on , certi f i c a ti on ,a n d national, state, and local levels. em p l oym ent of te ach ers of s c i en ce . Professional societies usually are not Components of the science education sys- thought of as accrediting agencies, but their tem that have a major influence on teacher membership standards describe what it certification fit into four categories: (1) pro- means to be a professional teacher of sci- fessional societies (such as the National ence. Teacher accrediting agencies certify the

quality of certain aspects of teaching, such whole, the regulations reflect the program as teacher education programs. The greatest standards. For example, state regulations for authority and interaction around matters of class size, for time in the school day devoted teacher certification occur at the state level to science, and for science laboratory facili- and involves state departments of educa- ties, equipment,and safety should meet the tion, state credentialing agencies, institu- program standards. Also, requirements of tions of higher education, and state-level national organizations that accredit schools professional organizations. However, state should be based on the program standards. policies are influenced by the federal gov- S t a te and nati onal policies are con s i s ten t ernment and national organizations, as well with the te aching and profe s s i onal devel op- as by local districts. And ultimately, state m ent standards wh en te ach er em p l oym en t policies are put into practice at the local practi ces are con s i s tent with them .S t a te po l i - level in the form of local school board cies and practi ces that influ en ce the prep a ra- employment policies and practices. When thinking about the science educa- If the pra cti ce of sci en ce edu c a tion tion system, it is important to remember that organizations and agencies are com- is to undergo radical improvem en t , posed of individuals who implement poli- pol i cies must su ppo rt the vi s i o n cies and practices. co n t a i n ed in the St a n d a rd s .

The St a n d a rd s ti on , certi f i c a ti on , and con ti nuing profe s s i onal devel opm ent of te a ch ers should be congru ent with the te aching and profe s s i on a l S YSTEM STANDARD A: devel opm ent standard s . The ped a gogi c a l Policies that influence the pra c- m et h ods em p l oyed at insti tuti o ns of h i gh er t i ce of science education must be edu c a ti on and the requ i rem ents of n a ti on a l co n g ru e nt with the prog ra m , or ga n i z a ti ons for the certi f i c a ti on of te ach e rs te a c h i n g, p ro fessional deve l o p- and acc red i t a ti on of te ach er edu c a ti on pro- m e nt, a s s e s s m e nt, and co nte nt grams also must ref l ect the St a n d a rd s. s t a n d a rds while allowing fo r State and federal assessment practices a d a p t ation to local circ u m s t a n ce s. should reflect the content and assessment This standard places con s i s tency in the standards, whether to describe student foreground of s c i en ce edu c a ti on po l i c y achievement, to determine if a school or and practi ce . If the practi ce of s c i en ce district is providing the opportunities for all edu c a ti on is to under g o radical improve- students to learn science, to monitor the m en t , policies must su p port the vi s i o n system, or to certify teachers. con t a i n ed in the St a n d a rd s . State and national policies are consistent See Program State and national policies are consistent with the content standards when state cur- Standard A with the program standards when, as a riculum frameworks reflect the content

stand a rds ad a pted to state and local need s . At co ll eges and univers i ti e s , the scien ce and For ex a m p l e ,s tu dents in grades K-4 are edu c a ti on fac u l ties need to en ga ge in coopera- ex pected to understand the ch a racteri s tics of tive planning of co u rses and programs for or ga n i s m s . The con tent standards do not pro s pective te ach ers . In a broader con tex t ,s c i- s pecify wh i ch or ganisms should be used as en tific and te aching soc i ety policies should ex a m p l e s ; s t a tes and local distri cts should su pport the integra ti on of s c i en ce con tent and ch oose or ganisms in the ch i l d ren’s loc a l ped a gogy call ed for in the St a n d a rd s . envi ron m en t . S ch ools in de s ert envi ron- One example of the need for coord i n a ti on m ents might ach i eve this outcome using on e is the va rious state - l evel requ i rem ents for type of or ga n i s m , while sch ools in coa s t a l k n owing and understanding scien ce con ten t . regi ons might use another. This kind of f l ex- Because different agencies are invo lved , t h e i bi l i ty should be a part of s t a te policy instru- con tent of s c i en ce co u rses in insti t uti ons of m ents su ch as curri c u lum fra m ework s . h i gh er edu c a ti on for pro s p ective te ach ers could be different from the su bj ect - m a t ter S YSTEM STANDARD B: com peten ce requ i red for te ach er licen su re , Policies that influence science and both could be different from the scien ce e d u cation should be coo rd i n ate d con tent requ i rem ents of the state curri c u lu m within and across agencies, i n s t i- f ra m ework . Ot h er examples inclu de coord i- t u t i o n s, and org a n i z at i o n s. n a ti on bet ween those who set requ i rem en t s This standard em ph a s i zes coord i n a ti on of for gradu a ti on from high sch ool and those policies and the practi ces def i n ed in them . Th e who set ad m i s s i ons requ i rem ents for co ll ege s s ep a ra ti on of re s pon s i bi l i ties for edu c a ti on and univers i ti e s . L i kewi s e , coord i n a ti on is and poor com mu n i c a ti on among or ga n i z a- n eeded bet ween those who determine cur- ti ons re s pon s i ble for scien ce edu c a ti on are ricula and the needs and demands of bu s i- b a rri ers to ach i eving coord i n a ti on . In d ivi du a l s ness and indu s t ry. and or ga n i z a ti ons must understand the vi s i on con t a i n ed in the St a n d a rd s, as well as how S YSTEM STANDARD C: t h eir practi ces and policies influ en ce progre s s Policies need to be sustained tow a rd attaining that vi s i on . over sufficient time to prov i d e Wh en indivi d uals and or ga n i z a ti ons share the co nt i n u i ty nece s s a r y to bri n g a com m on vi s i on , t h ere are many ways to a b out the changes re q u i red by i m prove coord i n a ti on . For ex a m p l e , i n tra - the St a n d a rd s. and inter- or ga n i z a ti onal policies should be Ach i eving the vi s i on con t a i n ed in the revi ewed reg u l a rly to el i m i n a te con f l i cti n g St a n d a rds wi ll take more than a few ye a rs to reg u l a ti ons and redundancy of i n i ti a tive s . accom p l i s h .S t a n d a rd C has particular impli- Si gnificant inform a ti on needs to flow freely c a ti ons for or ga n i z a ti ons whose policies are within and ac ross or ga n i z a ti on s . That com- s et by el ected or po l i ti c a l ly appoi n ted leaders . mu n i c a ti on should be clear and re ad i ly New ad m i n i s t ra ti ons of ten make rad i c a l u n ders t a n d a ble by indivi duals in other or ga- ch a n ges in policy and initi a tives and this n i z a ti on s , as well as by the gen eral publ i c . practi ce is detri m ental to edu c a ti on ch a n ge ,

wh i ch takes lon ger than the typical 2- or 4- p l i e s , s c i en tific app a ra tu s , tech n o l ogy, a n d year term of el e cted of f i ce . Ch a n ges that wi ll time in the sch ool day with re a s on a ble cl a s s bring con tem pora ry scien ce edu c a ti on prac- s i ze requ i red by this approach . Policies call- ti ces to the level of qu a l i t y spec i f i ed in the ing for improved scien ce ach i evem ent should St a n d a rds wi ll requ i re a su s t a i n ed ef fort . Policies calling for changes in practice For schools to meet the Standards, need to provide sufficient time for achieving the change, for the changes in practice to student learning must be viewed as affect student learning, and for changes in the pri m a r y pu rpo se of sch ool i n g , a n d student learning to affect the scientific literacy of the general public. Further, policies policies must support that purpose. should include plans and resources for assessing their affects over time. If school- contain provi s i ons for stu dents with spec i a l based educators are to work enthusiastically n eed s . Policies requ i ring new te aching skill s toward achieving the Standards, they need n eed to contain provi s i ons for profe s s i on a l reassurance that organizations and individ- devel opm ent opportu n i ties and the time for uals in the larger system are committed for te ach ers to meet the demands of the po l i c y. the long term. Resources are in short supply, and decisions about their allocation are difficult to S YSTEM STANDARD D: make. Some resource-allocation questions Policies must be suppo r ted that are regularly faced by local and state with re s o u rce s. school boards include the proportion of See Program S t a n d a rd D focuses on the re s o u rces nece s- hours in the school day to be allocated to Standard D s a r y to fuel scien ce edu c a ti on reform . Su ch science; the proportion of the school budget re s o u rces inclu de time in the sch ool day devo t- to be allocated to science education for ed to scien ce , exem p l a ry te ach ers ,t h o u gh tf u lly underachieving, special-needs, or talented c ra f ted curri c u lum fra m ework s ,s c i en ce fac i l i- science students; and the assignments of the ti e s , and app a ra tus and su pp l i e s . If policies are most experienced and talented teachers. The en acted wi t h o ut con s i dera ti on for the mandates contained in policies are far too re s o u rces needed to implem ent them ,s ch oo l s , often more ambitious in vision than realistic te ach ers , and stu dents are placed in the unten- in providing the required resources. a ble po s i ti on of m eeting demands wi t h o ut the ava i l a bi l i t y of the requ i s i te re s o u rce s . S YSTEM STANDARD E: For ex a m p l e ,s t a te re s o u rce all oc a ti ons for S c i e n ce education policies must s c i en ce edu c a ti on must be su f f i c i ent to meet be equitable.

program standards for cl a s s room practi ce s . Equity principles repeated in the intro- See Program Policies mandating inqu i r y approaches to duction and in the program, teaching, pro- Standard E te aching scien ce need to contain provi s i on s fessional development, assessment,and for su pp lying the nece s s a ry print and med i a content standards follow from the well- m a teri a l s , l a bora tories and labora tory su p- documented barriers to learning science for

students who are economically deprived, constantly involved in the review of those female, have disabilities, or from popula- policies. Only in this way can the policies be tions underrepresented in the sciences. continuously improved. These equ i ty principles must be incorpora ted S YSTEM STANDARD G: into science education policies if the vision Re s ponsible individuals must take of the standards is to be achieved. Policies the oppo rt u n i ty affo rded by the must reflect the principle that all students s t a n d a rds-based re fo rm move- are challenged and have the opportunity to m e n t to achieve the new vision of achieve the high expectations of the content s c i e n ce education po rt rayed in standards. The challenge to the larger sys- the St a n d a rd s. tem is to support these policies with necessary resources. This standard acknowledges the role that individuals play in making changes in social S YSTEM STANDARD F: systems, such as the science education sys- All po l i c y instru m e nts must be tem. Ultimately, individuals working within rev i ewed for possible uninte n d e d and across organizations are responsible for e f fe cts on the classroom pra ct i ce progress. The primary responsibility for of science educat i o n . standards-based reform in science education Even wh en as many implicati ons as po s s i- resides with individuals in the science edu- ble have been caref u lly con s i dered , well - i n ten- cation and science communities. ti on ed policies can have uninten ded ef fect s . Teachers play an active role in the formu- For sch ools to meet the St a n d a rd s, s tu den t lation of science education policy, especially l e a rning must be vi ewed as the pri m a r y pur- those policies for which they will be held pose of s ch oo l i n g , and policies must su pport accountable. They should be provided with that purpo s e . The po ten tial ben efits of a ny the time to exercise this responsibility, as policy that diverts te a ch ers and stu dents from well as the opportunity to develop the t h eir essen tial work must be wei gh ed aga i n s t knowledge and skill to discharge it. Teachers the po ten tial for lowered ach i evem en t . also work within their professional organi- Unless care is taken, policies intended to zations to influence policy. improve science education might actually All mem bers of the scien ce edu c a ti on com- have detrimental effects on learning. For mu n i t y have re s pon s i bi l i ty for com mu n i c a t- instance, policies intended to monitor the ing and moving tow a rd the vi s i on of s ch oo l quality of science teaching can require s c i en ce set forth in the St a n d a rd s. In wh a tever extensive student time to take tests. And w ays po s s i bl e ,t h ey need to take an active ro l e teacher time to correct them and file reports in formu l a ting scien ce edu c a ti on po l i c y. on scores can take valuable time away from S c i en t ists must understand the vi s i on of learning and teaching science. To reduce s c i en ce edu c a ti on in the St a n d a rds and thei r unintended effects, those who actually role in ach i eving the vi s i on . Th e y need to implement science education policies, such recogn i ze the important con t ri buti ons of s c i- as teachers and other educators, should be en ce edu c a ti o n to the vi t a l i t y of the scien ti f i c

The example illustrates the system standards Im p l e m e nting St a n d a rd s - by focusing on the coordinated performance of several components of the science education Based Re fo rm : system—namely, the role of school district administration within the district, personnel A Di s t ri ct Adv i s o ry from a regional education laboratory, scien- Co m m i t tee for Science tists, and science educators. The committee Ed u cat i o n understands that its mission is to work with school personnel to bring together the financial, intellectual, and material resources nec- This exa m p le cen t ers on a distri ct - l e vel advi- essary to achieve the vision expressed in the so r y co m m i t tee that has be en assign ed the science education standards. The committee task of i m pl em en ting sci en ce edu c a t ion is aware that several components of the sys- s t a n d a rd s . The co m m i t tee has co m pl eted tem will need to change. Members of the com- a thorou g h revi e w of the Na ti onal Scien ce mittee have attended several leadership insti- E du c a ti on Standard s and mod e l standard s tutes that helped them realize the role of poli- f rom the state depa r tm ent of edu c a tion and cies (formal and informal) and familiarized has overse en the devel opm e nt of sci en ce stan- them with curriculum materials, staff devel- d a rds by the distri ct . The co m m i t tee co m- opment, and assessment examples that were pri s es the sci en ce su pervi sor (ch a i r ) , six ou t- aligned with the Standards. standing sci en ce te a ch ers (two el em en t a ry, two middle sch ool , and two high sch ool ) , a In the example, the committee has divided pri n ci pa l , a pa ren t , two sci en tists (one from a into several subcommittees that have the tasks local univers i t y and one from a local indu s- of working with different groups within and try ) , and two sci en ce edu c a to rs from a nearby outside the district to coordinate resources and u n ivers i ty. The co m m i t tee is well into the individual efforts to improve science educa- pro cess of i m pl em en ting a standard s - ba sed tion in the district. One subcommittee con- sci en ce edu c a t ion pro gram co n s i s t ing of a dis- tacted the university concerning the alignment tri ct curri c u l u m , a professional devel opm en t of courses with standards. Many district per- pl a n , and a distri c t- and sch o ol - l e vel asse s s - sonnel received their initial undergraduate m e nt pro ce s s . T h e y alre a dy have co m pl eted a preservice preparation at the university and revi e w of the current sci en ce edu c a tion pro- take courses there for continuing education gram (K-12), en ga ged in an ex erci se wh ere units, and, in some cases, for advanced t h e y cre a ted a “d e s i r ed ” pro g ram ba s ed on degrees. A second subcommittee talked with s t a n d a rd s , and cl a ri f i ed the discrepa n ci e s the new district superintendent. A third sub- betwe e n the desired and actual pro g ra m s . committee periodically was assigned the task This ex erci se iden ti f i ed spe c ific aspe cts of of determining teachers’ needs for professional t h e ir pro g ram that need ed improvem en t . development and met with three separate The co m m i t t ee had devel oped a shared vi s i o n teachers’ groups representing elementary, as it co m pl eted the ex e rci se of cre a t ing a pro- middle, and high schools. gram for the distri ct , one ba s ed on sci en ce [This example illustrates System Standards A, edu c a t ion standard s . Now the co m m i t te e’s B, C, D, F, and G; Professional Development task was to iden t ify activi ties and re sou rce s Standards A and B; and Program Standards that would en a ble the distri ct to begin to A, D, and F.] en a ct the vi s i o n .

CO M M I T TEE MEETING 1 s t a n d a rd s . The su peri n ten dent was relu ct a n t The agenda for this meeting consisted of to shift funds because some sch ool pers on- reports from the three subcommittees. n el and parents would think that scien ce was get ting too mu ch su pport , she had heard S C H O O L / U N I V E R S I T Y SUBCO M M I TT E E : that some te ach ers preferred tex tbooks and The report was not encouraging.Subcom- not inqu i ry - ori en ted materi a l s , and she had mittee members reported that university qu e s ti ons abo ut the new assessment prac- s c i en tists and scien c e edu c a tors were ti ce s . The su bcom m i t tee was disappoi n ted “relu ct a n t” to modify their co u rses for the but en co u ra ged that the su peri n ten dent had d i s tri c t because they had degree progra m s n e vert h eless approved its request to pre s en t that had been approved , t h e y had incorpo- the plan to the boa rd of edu c a ti on . ra ted what they thought would be the most u p - to - d a te scien ce , and they met te ach er T E ACHER SUBCO M M I TT E E : This sub- certi f i c a ti on requ i rem en t s . The su b com- committee presented a positive and encour- m i t tee mem b ers poi n ted out the distri c t aging report. Most of the teachers under- n eed to stress scien ce as inqu i r y, i n t rodu c e stood the importance of science education a ut h en tic assessmen t s , and otherwise su p- standards and appreciated their proposed port the standard s - b a s ed distri ct progra m s roles in designing their own professional for pre s e rvi ce te a ch e rs and in profe s s i on a l development and the science program. The devel opm en t . teachers felt involved and that their posi- After the report, committee discussion tions were understood because they had focused on what the subcommittee might engaged in a “year of dialogue” on the say at their next meeting at the university. National Science Education Standards and The committee decided to suggest that it had participated in development of the dis- would seek help with their professional trict standards. development from another college in the The meeting concluded with preparation state if the university would not change. for the presentation to the board of educa- The subcommittee decided to present its tion. The presentation would include an plan to the Eisenhower Consortium at the overview of the National Science Education nearby regional laboratory. Standards and the district standards, a summary of the committee’s work over the past DISTRICT SUPE R I N T E N D E N T’ S year, and a discussion of specific requests. S U B CO M M I TT E E : This su bcom m i t tee reported gen eral su pport from the new CO M M I T TEE MEETING 2 AT THE BOA R D su peri n ten dent until requests were revi ewed OF EDUCATION that inclu ded (1) re a ll oc a ti on of funds to The com m i t tee began with introdu cti on s i n c rease su pport for profe s s i onal devel o p- and a bri ef su m m a r y of its work . Mu ch to m en t , (2) su pport for the materials to imple- the su rprise of the su peri n ten den t , the pre- m ent an inqu i ry - b a s e d progra m , and (3) s en t a ti on su d den ly shifted to a hands-on sci- adopti on of n ew assessments align ed wi t h en ce activi t y in wh i ch all parti c i p a ted . Th e

activity was inqu i r y ori en ted and introduced the curri c u lum materials being revi ewed ,a s the nature of science and technology. Two well as to dem on s t ra te that the plan to move middle-school teachers conducted the work- tow a rd align m ent with the standards wi ll shop. After the activity, other teachers i m prove distri ct progra m s . The su bcom m i t- joined the discussion to point out how the tee sti ll has a way to go to obtain the su peri n- activity aligned with standards, how it pro- ten den t’s unqu a l i f i e d su pport , but it is mak- vided ample opportunities to learn concepts ing progre s s . “ It would have been so easy and skills, and how an assessment was with the form er su peri n ten dent and before incorporated in the instructional sequence. the last boa rd el ecti on . This whole proce s s The su peri n ten den t ,s c i en ti s t s ,s c i en ce edu- t a kes ti m e , and we need con ti nu i ty as we c a tors , and sch oo l - boa rd mem bers pre s en t m ove thro u gh the implem en t a ti on . Re su l t s were all impre s s ed . The su peri n ten dent and don’t come qu i ck ly,”ob s erved one of t h e the boa rd said they would revi ew the com- te ach ers on the su bcom m i t tee . m i t tee requests at their next stu dy session s . S C H O O L / U N I V E R S I T Y SUBCO M M I TT E E : CO M M I T TEE MEETING 3 Several events had occ u rred since the su b - By the time of this meeti n g, everyone had com m i t tee’s last report , and the su bcom m i t- l e a rn ed the outcome of the boa rd meeti n g tee also had some good news . The univers i t y and the fo ll ow up from the sch oo l / u n ivers i ty could not see any major ch a n ges in its su bcom m i t tee . u n der gradu a te pre s ervi ce program in the near futu re because of bu d get cuts and lack S U PERINTENDENT SUBCO M M I TT E E : of f a m i l i a ri t y with the standards by the pro- The board had been impressed with the fe s s ors in the scien ce disciplines. But the nature of the presentation and the thor- u n ivers i t y had been persu aded by the direc- oughness of the committee’s work. tor of the Ei s en h ower Con s ortium at the Although the board and the superintendent regi onal edu c a ti onal labora tory to of fer an remained hesitant to provide the full profes- i n s ervi ce program in several of the distri c t sional development funds requested, they s ch oo l s ; the program would be co - l ed by a approved a pilot program in seven schools. te ach e r and a univers i ty profe s s or. The con- In each of those schools, the staff had s ortium director had played a part in the expressed strong interest in participating in revi ew of the Na tional Sci en ce Edu c a ti o n the professional development program St a n d a rd s , and as a re su l t , he was em p a t h eti c designed to support their desire to move to the su bcom m i t tee’s con cern s . He also was their curriculum and instruction into align- a ble to assist in iden ti f ying outstanding sci- ment with the new standards. en ce curri c u lum materials for the te ach ers in The su bcom m i t tee dec i ded that this was the distri ct to revi ew. an almost ideal soluti on and one it should The com m i t tee wra pped up the meeti n g h ave pre s en ted to the boa rd . The pilot wi ll with sati s f acti on that they had made som e a ll ow time to improve the profe s s i onal devel- s h ort - term gains but sti ll had several major opm ent opportu n i ties and align them wi t h hu rdles to clear in the ye a r s ahead .

S U M M A RY and time is not wasted trying to recon c i l e The import a n ce of a l l indivi duals and d i f feren ce s . The ulti m a te indicator of coor- groups having a com m on vi s i on should be d i n a ti on is the all oc a ti on of re s o u rces in a pp a rent from this ex a m p l e . The com m on su pport of a com m on vi s i on . Con s i der how vi s i on made it po s s i ble for the com m i t tee , the ef fectiveness of the profe s s i onal devel op- the director of the regi onal labora tory, a n d m ent of te ach ers in the distri ct could have the receptive te ach e rs and principals in the been improved if the fac u l t y at the local uni- d i s tri ct to arrive at com m on soluti ons wi t h vers i ty had shared the vi s i on of the out- rel a tive ease. Con trast this with the new standing te ach ers on the com m i t tee . su peri n ten den t , who has not had the time to None of the events in this scen a rio co u l d re ach the same vi s i on or goals as the others h ave occ u r red if the indivi d uals invo lved had ( or might have a very different vi s i on ) . Wi t h not taken pers onal re s pon s i bi l i ty for work- com m on vi s i on , coord i n a ti on among peo- ing pati en t ly tow a rd standard s - b a s ed reform . p l e , i n s ti tuti on s , and gro u p s — su ch as that Coord i n a ti on and the all oc a ti on of re s o u rce s bet ween the com m i t tee and the regi on a l do not happen on their own ;i n d ivi duals act- edu c a ti onal labora tory — becomes po s s i bl e . ing in a distri buted leadership capac i t y mu s t Wh en coord i n a ti on occ u rs , the re s o u rces of t a ke re s pon s i bi l i ty to work toget h er to fulfill both or ga n i z a ti ons are most ef f ectively used , the vi s i o n of the St a n d a rd s .

en terprise and wel come te ach ers of s c i en ce as teachers to foster their children’s science l egi ti m a te mem bers of the scien tific com mu- education and participate in the formula- n i ty. S c i en t ists must take the time to becom e tion of science education policy. i n form ed abo ut what is ex p ected in scien ce Taxpayers need to understand the benefits edu c a ti on in sch ools and then take active to larger society of a scientifically literate roles in su pport of policies to stren g t h en sci- citizenry. They need to understand the goals en ce edu c a ti on in their local com mu n i ti e s . of school science and the need for science In high er edu c a ti on , 2- and 4-year co ll ege facilities and apparatus to support science profe s s ors need to model exem p l a r y scien ce learning.They need to be active in schools ped a gogy and scien ce curri c u lum practi ce s . and on school boards. Te ach ers need to be taught scien ce in co ll ege Managers in the private sector should in the same way they them s elves wi ll te ach understand the benefits to their businesses s c i en ce in sch oo l . Ch a n g ing the ped a gogi c a l of a scientifically literate work force and practi ces of h i gh er edu c a ti on is a nece s s a ry bring their resources to bear on improving con d i ti on for ch a n ging ped a gogical practi ce s science education. They and their employees in sch oo l s . The cultu re of h i gh er edu c a ti on is should promote science education in su ch that the requ i s i te ch a n ges wi ll occ u r schools in whatever ways possible. on ly if i n d ivi dual profe s s ors take the initi a- Ma n a g ers and em p l oyees of i n du s tri a l - tive . Con cern ed ad m i n i s tra tors must en co u r- and univers i ty - re s e a rch labora tori e s , mu s e- a ge and su pport su ch ch a n ge . In ad d i ti on , u m s , n a tu re park s , and other scien ce - ri ch co ll ege and univers i t y ad m i n i s t ra tors mu s t i n s ti tuti ons need to understand their ro l e s coord i n a te the ef forts of s c i en ce and edu c a- and re s pon s i bi l i ties for the re a l i z a ti on of ti o n fac u l t y in the planning of co u rses and the vi s i on of s c i en ce edu c a ti on portrayed in programs for pro s pective te ach ers . the St a n d a rd s. Helping the ord i n a r y citi zen unders t a n d Last, but most important, students need the new vi s i on of s ch ool scien ce is a parti c u- to understand the importance of science in l a rly ch a ll en ging re s p on s i bi l i ty for the mem- their present and future lives. They need to bers of the scien ce edu c a ti on and scien ti f i c take responsiblity for developing their com mu n i ti e s . Because the new vi s i on of understanding and ability in science. s ch ool scien ce may be a dep a r tu re from thei r own scien ce ex peri en ce , people out s i de of s c i en ce edu c a ti on might find the new vi s i on difficult to accept . However, t h eir understanding and su pport is essen ti a l . Wi t h o ut it, s c i en ce edu c a ti on wi ll not have the con s i s- tent po l i tical and lon g - term econ omic su p- port nece s s a ry to re a l i ze the vi s i on . Parents should understand the goals of school science and the resources necessary to achieve them. They must work with

CHANGING EMP H A S E S

The emphasis charts for system standards are organized around shifting the emphases at three levels of organization within the education system—district, state, and federal. The three levels of the system selected for these charts are only representative of the many components of the science education system that need to change to promote the vision of science education described in the National Science Education Standards.

F E D E R A L SYS T E M

LESS EMPHASIS ON MORE EMPHASIS ON Financial support for developing new curriculum Financial support for developing new curriculum materials not aligned with the Standards materials aligned with the Standards Support by federal agencies for professional Support for professional development activities that development activities that affect only a few are aligned with the Standards and promote teachers systemwide changes Agencies working independently on various Coordination among agencies responsible for components of science education science education Support for activities and programs that are Support for activities and programs that unrelated to Standards-based reform successfully implement the Standards at state and district levels Federal efforts that are independent of state and Coordination of reform efforts at federal,state,and local levels local levels Short-term projects Long-term commitment of resources to improving science education

S TAT E SYS T E M

LESS EMPHASIS ON MORE EMPHASIS ON Independent initiatives to reform components of Partnerships and coordination of reform efforts science education Funds for workshops and programs having little Funds to improve curriculum and instruction based connection to the Standards on the Standards Frameworks, textbooks,and materials based on Frameworks, textbooks, and materials adoption activities only marginally related to the Standards criteria aligned with national and state standards Assessments aligned with the traditional content Assessments aligned with the Standards and the of science education expanded view of science content Current approaches to teacher education University/college reform of teacher education to include science-specific pedagogy aligned with the Standards Teacher certification based on formal,historically Teacher certification that is based on understanding based requirements and abilities in science and science teaching

CHANGING EMP H A S E S , c o nt i n u e d

DISTRICT SYS T E M

LESS EMPHASIS ON MORE EMPHASIS ON Technical,short-term,in-service workshops Ongoing professional development to support teachers Policies unrelated to Standards-based reform Policies designed to support changes called for in the Standards Purchase of textbooks based on traditional topics Purchase or adoption of curriculum aligned with the Standards and on a conceptual approach to science teaching,including support for hands-on science materials Standardized tests and assessments unrelated to Assessments aligned with the Standards Standards-based program and practices Administration determining what will be involved Teacher leadership in improvement of science in improving science education education Authority at upper levels of educational system Authority for decisions at level of implementation School board ignorance of science education School board support of improvements aligned with program the Standards Local union contracts that ignore changes in Local union contracts that support improvements curriculum,instruction,and assessment indicated by the Standards

Blank, R.K.,and M.Dalkilic.1992.State Policies Re fe re n ces fo r on Science and Mathematics Education 1992. Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Fu rther Re a d i n g Officers,State Education Assessment Center. The Business Roundtable.1992.Essential AAAS (American Association for the Advancement Components of a Successful Education System: of Science).1990. The Liberal Art of Science: Putting Policy into Practice. New York: The Agenda for Action. Washington, DC:AAAS. Business Roundtable. ASCD (Association for Supervision and The Business Roundtable.1989.Essential Curriculum Development).1992. Using Components of a Successful Education System: Curriculum Frameworks for Systemic Reform. The Business Roundtable Education Public Alexandria, VA:ASCD. Policy Agenda. New York: The Business Berryman,S.E.,and T.R. Bailey. 1992. The Double Roundtable. Helix of Education & the Economy. New York: Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology, and The Institute on Education and the Economy, Government.1991. In the National Interest: Teachers College, Columbia University. The Federal Government in the Reform of K-12 Math and Science Education. New York: Carnegie Corporation.

Cohen, D.K.,and D.L. Ball.1990. Policy and NGA (National Governors’ Association, Task Force practice: An overview. Educational Evaluation on School Leadership).1986. Time for Results: and Policy Analysis,12 (3):347-353. The Governors’ 1991 Report on Education. Cohen, D.K.,and D.L. Ball.1990. Relations Washington, DC:NGA. between policy and practice:A commentary. NRC (National Research Council).1993. A Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis,12 Nationwide Education Support System for (3):249-256. Teachers and Schools. Washington, DC: The Commission on Chapter 1.1992. Making National Academy Press. Schools Work for Children in Poverty: A New NSTA (National Science Teachers Association). Framework. Washington, DC: The 1992.NSTA Standards for Science Teacher Commission on Chapter 1. Certification. Washington, DC:NSTA. Consortium for Policy Research in Education. NSTA (National Science Teachers Association). 1991. Putting the Pieces Together: Systemic 1983.NSTA Standards for Science Teacher School Reform.CPRE Policy Brief R8-06-4/91. Preparation. Washington, DC:NSTA. New Brunswick,NJ: Consortium for Policy Oakes, J. 1987. Improving Inner-City Schools: Research in Education. Current Directions in Urban District Reform. Darling-Hammond,L.,and A. Wise.1985. Beyond Santa Monica,CA: RAND Corporation. standardization: State standards and school O’Day, J.A.,and M.S. Smith.1993. Systemic reform improvement.Elementary School Journal,85 and educational opportunities. In Designing (3):315-336. Coherent Education Policy:Improving the ECS (Education Commission of the States).1991. System,S.H. Fuhrman, ed.,1-34. San Francisco: Restructuring the Education System: A Jossey-Bass Publishers. Consumer’s Guide,Vol.1. Denver, CO:ECS. Rigden, D. 1992. Business and the Schools: A Fuhrman,S.H.1993. The politics of coherence. In Guide to Effective Programs.2nd edition. New Designing Coherent Education Policy: York: Council for Aid to Education. Improving the System,S.H. Fuhrman, ed., Sarason,S.B. 1990. The Predictable Failure of 1-34. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Educational Reform: Can We Change Course Fu h rm a n ,S . H . , and D. Ma s s ell .1 9 9 2 . Is sues and Before It’s Too Late? San Francisco: Jossey-Bass S tra tegies in Sys temic Reform . New Bru n s wi ck , Publishers. N J : Con s ortium for Policy Re s e a rch in Edu c a ti on . Shavelson,R.J.,L.M. McDonnell,and J. Oakes, eds. Fullan,M. 1982. The Meaning of Educational 1989. Indicators for Monitoring Mathematics Change. New York: Teachers College Press. and Science Education:A Sourcebook. Santa Madaus,G.1985. Test scores as administrative Monica,CA: RAND Corporation. mechanisms in educational policy. Phi Delta Sigma Xi.1994.Scientists,Educators and National Kappan,66 (9):611-617. Standards: Action at the Local Level. Research Marshall,R.,and M. Tucker. 1992. Thinking for a Triangle Park,NC: Sigma Xi. Living:Education and the Wealth of Nations. Tyson-Bernstein,H.1988. America’s Textbook New York: Basic Books. Fiasco:A Conspiracy of Good Intentions. N B P TS (Na ti onal Boa rd for Profe s s i onal Te ach i n g Washington, DC: Council for Basic Education. S t a n d a rd s ) .1 9 9 1 . Tow a rd Hi gh and Ri goro u s Wilson,K.G.,and B. Daviss.1994. Redesigning S t a n d a rds for the Te aching Profe s s i on : In i ti a l Education. New York: Henry Holt. Policies and Pers pectives of the Na ti onal Boa rd for Profe s s i onal Te aching Standard s ,3 rd ed i ti on . Wa s h i n g ton , DC : N B P TS .

Ac h i eving the high s t a n d a rds outlined fo r s c i e n ce educat i o n re q u i res and deserve s the combined and co ntinued suppo rt of all Am e ri ca n .

Epilogue

The National Science Education

Standards describe a vision and pro-

vide a first step on a journey of edu-

cational reform that might take a

decade or longer. At this point, the

easy portion of the journey is com-

plete; we have a map.The scientific and education communities have

labored to reach agreement on what students should understand and be able

to do, how students should be taught, and means for assessing students’

understandings, abilities, and dispositions in science. The Standards took an

insightful and innovative step by suggesting that the responsibility for

improving scientific literacy extends beyond those in classrooms and schools

to the entire educational system. ❚ The real journey of educational reform

and the consequent improvement of scientific literacy begins with the

implementation of these standards. The National Research Council now

passes the ch a ll en ge to all those who must assume the ulti m a te re s pon s i-

bi l i ty for reform . S c i en ti s t s , s c i en ce te ach er edu c a tors , s t a te dep a rtm ents of

edu c a ti on , l ocal sch ool boa rd s , business and indu s try, govern m ental and

n on govern m ental agen c i e s , s ch ool ad m i n i s tra tors , te ach ers , p a ren t s , and

s tu dents all have a role to play.

Science teachers have been involved in the development of the science

education standards, because they have a central role in implementing them.

But it would be a massive injustice and complete misunderstanding of the

Standards if science teachers were left with the full responsibility for imple-

mentation. All of the science education community—curriculum develop-

ers, superintendents, supervisors, policy makers, assessment specialists, sci-

entists, teacher educators—must act to make the vision of these standards a

reality. Anyone who has read all or part of the Standards has some responsi-

bility in the reform of science education. With distributed leadership and

coordinated changes in practice among all who have responsibility for sci-

ence education reform, advances in science education can rapidly accumu-

late and produce recognizable improvement in the scientific literacy of all

students and future citizens.

Recognizing the challenge these standards present, we encourage

■ Students to use the Standards to set personal learning goals and experi-

ence the satisfaction of understanding the natural world;

■ Teachers of science to use the Standards as the basis for improving science

content, teaching, and assessment;

■ Science supervisors to use the Standards to implement new, long-range

plans for improving science education at the state and local levels;

■ Science educators to change programs in colleges and universities and

develop exemplary materials based on the Standards;

■ School administrators to focus attention on the need for materials, equip-

ment, and staff development aligned with the Standards;

■ Those who work in museums, zoos, and science centers to use the

Standards as an opportunity to collaborate in providing rich science learn-

ing experiences for students;

■ Parents and community members to use the Standards to contribute to

their children’s science education and generate support for higher-quality

school science programs;

■ Scientists and engineers to use the Standards to work with school person-

nel to initiate and sustain the improvement of school science programs;

■ Business and industry to use the Standards to help schools and science

teachers with guidance and resources for developing high-quality pro-

grams; and

■ Legislators and public officials to strive for policies and funding priorities

aligned with the National Science Education Standards.

The challenge is large, significant, and achievable. It also is too much to

place on the shoulders of any one group. Achieving the high standards out-

lined for science education requires the combined and continued support of

all Americans.

Appendix

N ATIONAL CO M M I TTEE ON SCIENCE EDUCATION STANDARDS AND ASSESSMENT Klausner, Richard D. (Chair), Director, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland. Ebert*, James D. (Past Chair), Professor of Biology, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. Alberts*, Bruce, President, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, District of Columbia. Alexander*, Joseph K., Jr., Deputy Assistant Administrator for Science,Environmental Protection Agency,Washington, District of Columbia. Arceneaux, Janice M.H.,Specialist, Magnet Programs Department, Houston Independent School District, Houston, Texas. Atkin, Myron J., Professor of Education,Stanford University, Palo Alto, California. Barton*, Jacqueline K., Professor of Chemistry, Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California. Belter, Catherine A., Chair,National Parent Teacher Association Education Commission,Springfield, Virginia. Boyce, Joseph M., Mars Scientist, Solar System Exploration Division, NASA, Washington, District of Columbia Brown, Rexford G., Founding Executive Director, P.S. 1, Denver, Colorado. Brunkhorst, Bonnie J., Professor of Science Education,Geology, Institute for Science Education, California State University, San Bernadino,California. Bugliarello, George, President, Polytechnic University, Brooklyn, New York. Chamot*, Dennis, Associate Executive Director, Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems, National Research Council, Washington, District of Columbia. Delacote,Goery, Executive Director, The Exploratorium, San Francisco, California. Frye, Shirley M., Mathematics Educator, Scottsdale, Arizona. Glaser, Robert, Director, Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Goodlad, John I., Director, Center for Educational Renewal; Professor of Education, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington. Hernandez, Sonia C.,Special Assistant to the Superintendents of Public Instruction, California State Department of Education, Sacramento, California. Keller, Thomas E., President, Council of State Science Supervisors;Science Education Specialist, Maine Department of Education, Augusta, Maine. Lang*, Michael, Past President, Council of State Science Supervisors; Instructional Specialist for Science, Phoenix Urban Systemic Initiative,Phoenix, Arizona. Linder-Scholer, William, Executive Director, SCIMATH(MN),St. Paul, Minnesota. LongReed, William, Biology Teacher, Tuba City High School, Tuba City, Arizona. McLain, Sandra Stephens,Science Teacher, Joseph Keels Elementary School, Columbia, South Carolina.

Malcom*,Shirley M., Head, Directorate for Education and Human Resources Program, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, District of Columbia. Mills, Richard P., Commissioner of Education, Vermont State Department of Education, Montpelier, Vermont. Mohling, Wendell G., Associate Executive Director, National Science Teachers Association, Arlington, Virginia. Oakes, Jeannie, Professor of Education, University of California, Los Angeles, California. Oglesby, James R., Dissemination Director, Project 2061, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, District of Columbia. Ollie, C. Arthur,Assistant Minority Leader, Iowa State House of Representatives, Clinton, Iowa. Payzant*, Thomas W., Assistant Secretary for Elementary and Secondary Education, Department of Education, Washington, District of Columbia. Rowe, Mary Budd, Professor of Science Education,Stanford University, Palo Alto, California. Russell, Juanester Colbert, Principal,Daniel Boone Elementary School, University City, Missouri. Sanchez, Bobby J., Southern Regional Coordinator, New Mexico MESA,Las Cruces, New Mexico. Scott,Lana, Client Services, Epic Systems Corporation, Madison, Wisconsin. Stokes,Gerald M., Director, Global Studies Program, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington. Tinker, Robert F.,Physicist and Chief Science Officer, Technical Education Research Center, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Trimble, Virginia L., Professor of Physics, University of California at Irvine, Irvine, California; Astronomy Department, University of Maryland at College Park, College Park, Maryland. Wyatt, Terry L., Teacher, Physics and Chemistry, Roy C. Start High School, Toledo, Ohio. Zen,E-an, Professor, Department of Geology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland.

* past members CHAIR'S ADV I S O RY CO M M I TT E E Klausner, Richard D. (Chair), Director, National Cancer Institute,NIH, Bethesda, Maryland. Aldridge, Bill G., Director of Special Projects, Former Executive Director, National Science Teachers Association, Arlington, Virginia. Carley, Wayne, Executive Director, National Association of Biology Teachers, Reston, Virginia Gates*, James, Past Executive Director, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Reston, Virginia. Groat, Charles, Executive Director, Center for Coastal Energy and Environmental Resources, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. (Earth Sciences Coalition) Lapp, Douglas, Executive Director, National Science Resources Center, Washington, District of Columbia. McWethy*, Patricia, Executive Director, National Science Education Leadership Association, Arlington, Virginia. Rosen,Linda, Executive Director, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Reston, Virginia. Rutherford, James, Chief Education Officer and Director, Project 2061, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, District of Columbia. Speece, Susan P., Associate Dean of Instruction, Division of Mathematics,Science, and Engineering, Fresno City College, Fresno,California.(National Association of Biology Teachers)

Spooner, William, Director, High School Education, North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, Raleigh, North Carolina.(Council of State Science Supervisors) Stage,Elizabeth K., Co-Director, New Standards Project—Science,Oakland, California. Stith, James H., Professor of Physics,Ohio State University, Columbus,Ohio. (American Association of Physics Teachers) Ware, Sylvia, Director, Education Division, American Chemical Society, Washington, District of Columbia. Wheeler, Gerald F., Executive Director, National Science Teachers Association, Arlington, Virginia.

* past members EXECUTIVE EDITORIAL CO M M I TT E E Klausner, Richard D. (Chair), Director, National Cancer Institute,NIH, Bethesda, Maryland. Alberts, Bruce, President, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, District of Columbia. Black, Paul, Professor, Science Education, Center for Educational Studies, King’s College, London, United Kingdom. Brunkhorst, Bonnie J., Professor of Science Education,Geology, Institute for Science Education, California State University, San Bernadino,California. Ezell,Danine L., Teacher, Biology and General Science; Computer/Math/Science Magnet Coordinator, Bell Junior High School, San Diego, California. Kahle, Jane Butler, Condit Professor of Science Education, Miami University, Oxford,Ohio. Pine, Jerome, Professor of Biophysics, Physics Department, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California. Rutherford, James, Chief Education Officer and Director, Project 2061, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, District of Columbia. Spooner, William, Director, High School Education, North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, Raleigh, North Carolina. Stokes,Gerald, Director, Global Studies Program, Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington. WORKING GROUP ON SCIENCE CONTENT STA N D A R D S Bybee, Rodger W. (Chair), Executive Director, Center for Science, Mathematics,and Engineering Education, National Research Council, Washington, District of Columbia. Abella, Isaac D., Professor of Physics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. Borgford, Christie L., Project Director, The Role of the Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Portland State University, Portland,Oregon. Eisenkraft, Arthur, Science Coordinator, Bedford Public Schools, Bedford, New York. Elgin, Sarah C., Professor of Biology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri. Ezell,Danine L., Teacher, Biology and General Science; Computer/Math/Science Magnet Coordinator, Bell Junior High School, San Diego, California. Gray, JoAnne S., Assistant Principal,Staff Development, Lillian R. Nicholson Specialty School for Science and Math, Chicago, Illinois; formerly Science Department Chair, George Henry Corliss High School, Chicago, Illinois.

Heikkinen, Henry W., Co-Director, Mathematics and Science Teaching Center; Professor of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, Colorado. Jackson,Laura A.,Elementary and Middle Level Science Specialist, Columbia Public School District, Columbia, Missouri. Marinez, Diana I., Dean, Science and Technology College, Texas A&M University, Corpus Christie, Texas. Moore,C. Bradley, Professor, Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California. Pratt, Harold A., Senior Staff Associate, Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Colorado Springs, Colorado. Ridky, Robert W., Associate Professor, Department of Geology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland. Smith, Patricia J., Teacher and Chair (retired),Science Department, Air Academy High School, Colorado Springs, Colorado. Sneider, Cary, Director, Astronomy and Physics Education, Lawrence Hall of Science, University of California, Berkeley, California. Snow, John, Dean, College of Geosciences, University of Oklahoma, Norman,Oklahoma. Sydner-Gordon, Judith,TEAMS,Science Distance Learning Instructor, Los Angeles County Office of Education, Downey, California. Williams,David R., Earth Science Teacher, Caesar Rodney Junior High School, Camden, Delaware. WORKING GROUP ON SCIENCE T E ACHING STA N D A R D S Worth, Karen (Chair), Senior Associate,Education Development Center; Faculty Member, Wheelock College, Newton, Massachusetts. Altman, Lynn Talton.,Science Coordinator, Greenville County School District, Greenville, South Carolina. Bingman, Kenneth J., Biology Teacher, Shawnee Mission West High School,Shawnee Mission, Kansas. Brooks, Rhonda,Physical Science Teacher, Albuquerque Academy, Albuquerque, New Mexico. Dyasi, Hubert M., Director, The Workshop Center for Open Education, City College of New York, New York. Gallagher, James J., Professor of Science Education, College of Education, Michigan State University, East Lansing,Michigan. Kuerbis, Paul J., Professor, Education Department, The Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Colorado. Lopez-Freeman, Maria Alicia, Director, Center for Teacher Leadership,California Science Project, University of California,Office of the President,Oakland, California. Loucks-Horsley, Susan, Senior Associate, The National Center for Improving Science Education, Tucson, Arizona. Padilla, Michael J., Department of Science Education, University of Georgia, Athens,Georgia. Pine, Jerry, Professor of Biophysics,Physics Department, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California. Sink, Judy K., Instructor, Science Laboratory, Appalachian State University; Teacher, Hardin Park Elementary School, Boone, North Carolina. Sprague, Susan, Director, Science/Social Science Resource Center, Mesa Public Schools, Mesa, Arizona.

Van Burgh, Dana,Jr., Co-Director, Project FutureScience; Teacher (retired), Earth Science and Field Science Programs, Dean Morgan Junior High School, Casper, Wyoming. Walton,Edward D., Coordinator, Physical Science, Center for Science and Mathematics Education, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, California. Ward, Debra Susan L.,Science and Mathematics Teacher, Carlisle Public Schools, Carlisle, Arkansas. Zook, Douglas P., Assistant Professor of Science Education, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts. WORKING GROUP ON SCIENCE ASSESSMENT STA N D A R D S Champagne, Audrey B. (Chair), Professor of Chemistry, Department of Chemistry; Professor of Education, Department of Educational Theory and Practice,State University of New York at Albany, Albany, New York. Badders, William D.,Science Resource Teacher, Cleveland Public Schools, Cleveland,Ohio. Black, Paul J., Professor of Science Education, Center for Educational Studies, King's College, London, United Kingdom. Bond,Lloyd, Professor, Education Research Methodology, Center for Education Research and Evaluation, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, North Carolina. Clark, Richard C.,Science Specialist (retired), Minnesota Department of Education, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Comfort, Kathleen B., Senior Research Associate, Project 2061, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, District of Columbia. Greeno,James G., Professor of Education, School of Education,Stanford University, Stanford, California. Kimmel,Ernest W.,Jr., Executive Director, Academic Services, College Board Programs,Educational Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey. Kjeldsen, Barbara J.,School Counselor, Kokomo High School Downton Campus, Kokomo,Indiana. Lawrenz, Frances, Professor of Science Education, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Litman, Doris L., Director (retired), Division of Science Education, Pittsburgh Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Minstrell, James, Teacher (retired),Physics and Integrated Physics and Mathematics, Mercer Island High School, Mercer Island, Washington. Pane, Henrietta, Teacher, Westgate Elementary School; K-6 Science Facilitator, Westside Community Schools,Omaha, Nebraska. Sisk, Jane S., Mathematics and Science Teacher, Mayfield Boys’ Treatment Center, Calloway County Schools, Mayfield, Kentucky. St. John, Mark, President, Inverness Research Associates, Inverness, California. Weiss, Iris, President, Horizon Research, Inc., Chapel Hill, North Carolina. White,David J., Math/Science Coordinator, Barre Town School District, Barre Town, Vermont.

ADDITIONAL INDIVIDUALS WHO LENT SUPPORT TO THE PRO J E C T Alberts, Bruce, President, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, District of Columbia. Anderson, Don L., Professor of Geophysics, Seismological Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California. Ayala, Francisco J., Donald Bren Professor of Biological Sciences, University of California, Irvine, California. Billington,David T., Professor, Civil Engineering and Operations Research, School of Engineering and Applied Science, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey. Carlyon,Earl, Manchester High School, Manchester, Connecticut. Duschl, Richard A., Associate Professor of Science Education, University of Pittsburgh,Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Ebert, James D., Professor of Biology, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. English, Janet, Serrano Intermediate School, Lake Forest, California. Epstein, Samuel, Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California. Florio, David, Consultant, Washington, District of Columbia. Goldsmith, Timothy, Department of Biology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut. Goodstein,David, Professor of Physics, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California. Gray, Harry B., Beckman Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California. Hazen, Robert, Carnegie Institute of Washington, Washington, District of Columbia. Hoffman, Kenneth, Professor of Mathematics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Holton,Gerald, Professory of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Johnson,George B., Department of Biology, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri. Kahle, Jane Butler, Condit Professor of Science Education, Miami University, Oxford,Ohio. Kirschner, Marc W., Department of Cell Biology, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Labinger, Jay A., Beckman Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California. McInerney, Joseph D., Director, Biological Sciences Curriculum Center, Colorado Springs, Colorado. Moore, John A., Emeritus Professor of Biology, University of California, Riverside, California. Pister, Karl S., Chancellor, University of California, Santa Cruz, California. Pollard, Thomas D., Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland. Press, Frank, Cecil and Ida Green Senior Research Fellow, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, District of Columbia. Raven, Peter H., Director, Missouri Botanical Garden,St. Louis, Missouri. Rigden, John S., Professor of Physics, University of Missouri,St. Louis, Missouri. Rubin, Vera, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institute of Washington, District of Columbia. Silver, Leon Theodore, Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California. Singer, Maxine, President, Carnegie Institute of Washington, Washington, District of Columbia. Smith,Philip M., Executive Officer (former), National Research Council, Washington, District of Columbia Stolper, Edward M., Professor of Geology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California. Trefil, James, Robinson Professor, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia. Waldvogel, Jerry, Biology Program, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina.

S PECIAL THANKS TO FUNDERS Bither, Eve, Acting Director, Office of Reform, Assistance,and Dissemination, U.S. Department of Education, Washington, District of Columbia. Eckstrand, Irene, Acting Director, Office of Science Education, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland. Owens, Frank C., Director, Education Division,Office of Human Resources and Education, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, District of Columbia. Williams, Luther, Assistant Director, Education and Human Resources, National Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia.

Additional thanks for the many efforts o f the following people:

Erma Anderson, Cathy Chetney, Janet Coffey, Barbara Cozzens, Doug Disrud, Cynthia Doherty, Megan Fitch,Edith Gummer, Lolita Jackmon, Keith Lutman, Sue McCutchen, Tonya Miller, Darlene Scheib, Maureen Shiflett, Sam Spiegel,Ginny Van Horne, Judy Van Kirk, John Weigers, Yvonne Wise.

Index

A Standard C, 83-85 Active learning, 28, 62 Standard D, 85-86 characteristics of, 2, 20 Standard E, 86-87 in professional development of teachers, 56 stated purpose of, 79 American Association for the Advancement of Science, student evaluations of scientific inquiries and 14, 15, 200 results, 171, 202-203 American Association of Physics Teachers, 14 student goals and, 30 American Chemical Society, 14 student self-assessment, 42, 88 Assessment(s) of students with disabilities, 86, 222 of ability to inquire, 98-100 of student understanding of natural world, 91-98 achievement measures, 79-82 system standards and, 230-231 authentic approach, 78, 83-84 teacher collaborations for, 67 avoiding methodological bias in, 86 teacher self-assessment, 69 changes in emphases in standards, 76-78, 100 teaching standards, 37-43 conceptual development, 5-6 technical quality of, related to use, 83-85 conceptual trends, 76-78 validity issues, 78, 83 content standards and, 112 Atomicity, scientific concept of, 149, 150, 177, 178-179 criteria for evaluation of, 5 Authentic assessment, 78, 83-84 cross-test comparison, 78 curriculum planning and, 87 B data analysis, 38-42, 90 Benchmarks for Science Literacy, 15, 200 data collection, 38, 84, 85 Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, 14 design standards, 78-79 Biology. See Life science for development of self-directed learners, 88 Business and industry equity issues in, 222 consideration in curriculum planning, 231 examples of implementation, 39-41, 47-49, 80-81, in implementation of standards, 245 136, 146-147, 162-164, 202-203 importance of scientific literacy, 1-2, 12 fairness in, 85-86 to improve classroom practice, 87 C internal consistency, 79 Cell biology, 155, 156, 181, 184-185 large-scale, 89-90 Certification for teaching methods, 6, 37-38, 84 organizational participants, 229-230 with multiple variables, 76 role of professional development standards in, 56 opportunity for students to demonstrate Chemical reactions, 179 achievement, 84 Classification concepts and practice, 128, 181, 185 of opportunity to learn, 6, 76-78, 79, 82-83 Colleges and universities process components of, 76 admissions requirements, 231 professional development of teachers, 42-43, 63, 67, education of science teachers, 60-61, 63-67, 238 89, 97-98 Community contexts program standards, 211 curriculum design, 231 public perception and understanding, 89, 211 design of science program content, 231 regional and national application, 78, 89-90 development of science program in, 51 reliability, 84 educational resources outside the school, 45, reporting and interpreting results, 43, 86-87, 88-89 220-221 resource expenditures for, 79 educational system in, 227-228 role of, 5-6, 38, 76, 87-89 health concepts, 197-198 role of standards for, 5, 75-76 implementation of standards, 245 sample assessments of student science achievement, professional development of teachers in, 57, 67 91-100 social perspectives of science, 138-141 scoring rubrics, 93, 95, 97 Computers, 145, 175 stability of measures, 84-85 Content Core, The,14 Standard A, 78-79 Content standards, 6-7 Standard B, 79-83 changes in emphases in, 113

254 INDEX

criteria for selection of, 109-110 grades 9-12, 173-176 curriculum and, 20, 22-23, 103, 110, 111, 212-214 system standards and, 230-231 in development of student goals, 30 technology and science, 106-107 diversity of learning experiences and, 20, 221-222 grades K-4, 135-138 earth and space science, 106 grades 5-8, 161-166 grades K-4, 130-134 grades 9-12, 190-193 grades 5-8, 158-161 unifying concepts and processes, 104-105, 115-119 grades 9-12, 187-190 Council of State Science Supervisors, 14 examples of implementation, 34-35, 39, 47-49, Creative thinking, 46 64-66, 80-81, 124-125, 131-133, 136, 146-147, Critical thinking, 33, 145, 175 150-153, 162-164, 182-183, 194-196, 202-203, Curriculum 215-217 assessment practice and, 87, 211 grades K-4, 110 college/university preparation of science teachers, Standard A, 121-123 61, 238 Standard B, 123-127 components of, 22, 212 Standard C, 127-129 content standards and, 6-7, 20, 22-23, 103, 110, 111 Standard D, 130-134 coordination across subjects, 214 Standard E, 135-138 defined, 2-3, 22 Standard F, 138-141 developmentally appropriate, 212-214 Standard G, 141 development of student goals and, 30 grades 5-8, 110 equity issues in design of, 222 Standard A, 143-148 flexibility, 30, 213 Standard B, 149-155 framework, 211 Standard C, 155-158 mathematics-science coordination, 214-218 Standard D, 158-161 patterns in program design, 212-214 Standard E, 161-166 program standards, 7-8 Standard F, 166-170 research and development process, 213 Standard G, 170-171 selection of units and courses of study, 211 grades 9-12, 110 social considerations, 231 Standard A, 173-176 teaching practice consistent with, 211 Standard B, 176-181 teaching standards for planning of, 30-31 Standard C, 181-187 Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Standard D, 187-190 Mathematics,13 Standard E, 190-193 Standard F, 193-199 D Standard G, 200-202 Diet and nutrition, 139, 140, 168, 197 history and nature of science, 104, 107 Disabilities and handicaps, 37 grades K-4, 141 access to learning opportunities, 20, 221 grades 5-8, 170-171 assessment of students with, 86, 222 grades 9-12, 200-202 District level implementation, 7, 103, 110-112 assessment activities, 89-90 life science, 106 changes in emphases in system standards, 240 grades K-4, 127-129 in educational system, 227, 228 grades 5-8, 155-158 implementation of program standards, 8, 210 grades 9-12, 181-187 implementation of standards, example of, 234-237 local considerations, 231 science program planning, 51-52, 211-212 personal and social perspectives of science Duration of class, 37 grades K-4, 138-141 grades 5-8, 166-170 E grades 9-12, 193-199 Earth and space science physical science, 106 developing student understanding grades K-4, 123-127 grades K-4, 130-134 grades 5-8, 149-155 grades 5-8, 158-159 grades 9-12, 176-181 grades 9-12, 187-189 presentation format, 108-109 earth system, 159-160, 189 program standards and, 209-210, 212, 213 evolution of earth, 160, 189-190 rationale, 104 fundamental concepts underlying standards for scientific inquiry, 104, 105 grades K-4, 134 grades K-4, 121-123 grades 5-8, 159-161 grades 5-8, 143-148 grades 9-12, 189-190

INDEX 255

geochemical cycles, 189 of program standards, 34-35, 39, 47-49, 64-66, grades K-4, content standards for, 106, 130-134 80-81, 124-125, 131-133, 146-147, 150-153, grades 5-8, content standards for, 106, 158-161 162-164, 182-183, 194-196, 215-217, 234-237 grades 9-12, content standards for, 106, 187-190 student science achievement assessment, 91-99 nature of change, 134 of system standards, 34-35, 39, 64-66, 124-125, objects in space, 134 150-153, 162-164, 234-237 origin and evolution of universe, 190 of teaching standards, 34-35, 39, 47-49, 64-66, properties of earth materials, 134 80-81, 124-125, 131-133, 136, 146-147, solar system, 160-161, 215-217 150-153, 162-164, 182-183, 194-196, Earth Science Education Coalition, 14 202-203, 215-217 Earthworms, 34-35 Ecosystem studies, 157-158 F Education, Department of, 14 Federal government Educational system, 8 changes in emphases in system standards, 239 communication within, 231 in educational system, 228 components of, 8, 228-229 system standards, 230-231 coordination and cooperation in, 8, 51 in teacher certification, 229, 230 government functioning in, 228 Field experiences, 44, 220-221 reform of, 9, 21, 28, 52, 211 for development of pedagogical content knowledge, role of, 228 67 role of assessments in, 5, 76 Form and function, scientific concept of, 119 role of national standards in, 12 Fossils, 182-183 science program planning, 51-52 state functioning in, 227-228, 229 G structure and functioning, 8, 227-228 Gender issues, in assessment, 85-86 support for science teaching, 4, 27, 28, 37, 211, Genetics, 64-66, 157, 185 222-224 Goals of standards, 2, 10, 13, 21 See also System standards for professional development of teachers, 55-56 Education Development Center, 14 for science teaching, 27 Egg drop experiment, 162-164 for student assessment, 75, 76 English as second language, 37 for student inquiry skills, 105 Environmental studies, 139, 140, 167, 168 Grades K-4 ecosystems, 157-158, 193-197 content standards, 110 environmental quality issues, 198 earth and space science content standard, 130-134 interdependence of organisms, 186, 193 history and nature of science, content standard for natural and human-induced hazards, 168-169, understanding, 141 198-199 life science content standard, 127-129 natural resource management, 11, 198 personal and social perspectives of science, content Equity, 2 standard for, 138-141 fairness in assessment practice, 85-86 physical science content standard, 123-127 in science education policy-making, 232-233 science and technology content standard, 135-138 science teaching standards and, 4, 16, 20 scientific inquiry in, content standards for, 121-123 student access to opportunities, 221-222 teacher knowledge, 60 Evaporation, 124-125 unifying concepts and processes in, 104-105, Everybody Counts: A Report to the Nation on the Future 115-119 of Mathematics Education,13 Grades 5-8 Evolution, scientific concept of content standards, 110 adaptation, 156, 158 earth and space science content standard, 158-161 example of classroom activity, 182-183 history and nature of science, content standard for grades 9-12 content standards, 185 understanding, 170-171 natural selection, 181-184, 185 personal and social contexts of science, content as unifying concept, 119 standard for understanding, 166-170 Examples of implementation physical science content standard, 149-155 of assessment standards, 39-41, 47-49, 80-81, 136, science and technology content standard, 161-166 146-147, 162-164, 202-203 science as inquiry in, content standards for, 143-148 of content standards, 34-35, 39, 47-49, 64-66, 80-81, unifying concepts and processes in, 105, 115-119 124-125, 131-133, 136, 146-147, 150-153, Grades 9-12 162-164, 182-183, 194-196, 202-203, 215-217 content standards, 110 of professional development standards, 34-35, earth and space science content standards, 187-190 64-66, 131-133, 150-153, 234-237 graduation requirements, 231

256 INDEX

history and nature of science, content standards for, L 200-202 Laboratories, 220 life science content standards, 181-187 Lawrence Hall of Science, 14 personal and social perspectives of science, content Leadership standards for understanding, 193-199 continuity in policy and, 231-232 physical science content standards, 176-181 for reform of education of science teachers, 238 science and technology, content standards for science program, 211-212, 223-224 understanding, 190-193 Life science science as inquiry in, content standards for, 173-176 cellular studies, 184-185 unifying concepts and processes in, 104-105, characteristics of organisms, 129 115-119 developing student understanding Graduation requirements, 231 grades K-4, 127-129 grades 5-8, 155-156 H grades 9-12, 181-184 Health science, 138-141, 157, 167, 168, 197-198 diversity and adaptation of organisms, 158 History and nature of science, 104, 107 environmental studies, 129 culture and traditions of science, 21 evolutionary concepts, 185 developing student understanding fundamental concepts underlying standards for grades K-4, 141 grades K-4, 129 grades 5-8, 170 grades 5-8, 156-158 grades 9-12, 200 grades 9-12, 184-187 example of classroom activity, 194-196 grades K-4, content standards for, 106, 127-129 fundamental concepts underlying standards for grades 5-8, content standards for, 106, 155-158 grades K-4, 141 grades 9-12, content standards for, 106, 181-187 grades 5-8, 170-171 interdependence of organisms, 186 grades 9-12, 200-204 life cycles of organisms, 129 grades K-4, content standards for, 141 living systems studies, 156-157, 186-187 grades 5-8, content standards for, 170-171 populations and ecosystems, 157-158 grades 9-12, content standards for, 200-202 regulation and behavior, 157, 187 student evaluations of scientific inquiries, 202-203 reproduction and heredity, 157, 185 Human biology, 156-157, 186, 187 natural and human-induced hazards, 168-169, M 198-199 Mathematics, 116-117, 148, 175, 176 coordination with science program, 214-218 I Measurement, as science practice, 118 Implementation of standards, 243-245 skills in grades K-4, 126-127 activities in, 244-245 skills in grades 5-8, 149 challenges, 2, 9 Musical instruments, 47-49 changing emphases in assessment practice, 100 changing emphases in professional development, 72 N changing emphases in teaching practice, 52 National Association of Biology Teachers, 14 content standards, 103, 110, 111-112 National Committee on Science Education Standards equity in, 2, 16, 20 and Assessment (NCSESA), 14-15 example of system functioning in, 234-237 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), learning environment for, 13 13, 15, 218 local contexts and policies in, 8, 29 National Education Goals Panel, 13 long-term commitment, 13 National Governors Association, 13 as ongoing process, 9 National Research Council (NRC), 13, 14, 15 professional development standards, 219 National Science Education Standards program standards, 210 conceptual basis, 19-21 responsibility for, 244 guide to using, 15-16, 17 science content standards, 6-7 historical evolution, 13-15 science program standards, 7-8 role of, 12 science teaching standards, 29, 137 terminology, 22-24 system-wide participation in, 9, 12, 21 See also Goals of standards; Implementation of Inquiry. See Scientific inquiry standards; specific standard National Science Foundation, 14 National Science Resources Center, 14 National Science Teachers Association, 14 Nation at Risk, A,14

INDEX 257

O Population studies, 140, 157-158, 168, 193, 198 Opportunity to learn Prediction, as science practice, 116-117, 145, 148 assessment of, 76-78, 79, 82-83 Probability, mathematical, 116-117 in conceptual basis of standards, 20, 221-222 Professional development of teachers elements of, 2 in assessment practice, 67 program standards, 221-222 benefits of, 67-68 See also Equity college/university science education, 60-61, 238 design and evaluation of assessments, 97-98 P field experiences for, 67 Parents as lifelong process, 57, 68-70 in implementation of standards, 245 opportunities to reflect on practice, 69 student progress reports for, 88-89 participants in, 57-58 in system reform, 238 program planning and, 51-52 Peer review, student, 174 reform of, 56 Pendulums, 146-147 resources for, 70, 223 Personal and social perspectives of science settings for, 58, 67, 68, 69-70 challenges of science and technology, 140-141, 199 teacher responsibilities, 69 content standards, 104, 107 See also Professional development standards developing student understanding Professional development standards, 4-5 grades K-4, 138-139 changes in emphases in, 72 grades 5-8, 166-168 continuous activities in, 57, 68-70 grades 9-12, 193-197 examples of implementation, 34-35, 39, 64-66, environmental issues, 140, 198 131-133, 150-153, 234-237 fundamental concepts underlying standards for focus of, 58-59 grades K-4, 139-141 grade-specific science knowledge, 60 grades 5-8, 168-170 implementation, 219 grades 9-12, 197-199 for knowledge and understanding of science, 59-61 grades K-4, content standard for, 138-141 for knowledge of science teaching, 62-68 grades 5-8, content standard for, 166-170 for professional development programs, 70-71 grades 9-12, content standards for, 193-199 role of, 5, 55-56 importance of scientific literacy, 1 Standard A, 59-61 natural and human-induced hazards, 168-169, Standard B, 62-68 198-199 Standard C, 68-70 natural resource issues, 198 Standard D, 70-71 personal and community health, 139-140, 169, system standards and, 230-231 197-198 underlying assumptions, 56-58 population studies, 140, 168, 198 See also Professional development of teachers risk-benefit analysis, 169 Professional societies, 229 technology issues, 140-141, 167-168, 169-170, 197 Program standards, 7-8 Photosynthesis, 194-196 assessment practice in, 211 Physical science assumptions underlying, 210 chemical reactions, 179 changes in emphases in, 224 conservation of energy, 180 content standards and, 212, 213 developing student understanding coordination with mathematics program, 214-218 grades K-4, 123, 126-127 correspondence with other school subjects, 214 grades 5-8, 149-154 curriculum framework and, 211 grades 9-12, 176-178 curriculum patterns and, 212-214 fundamental concepts underlying standards for equity of student access to opportunities, 221-222 grades K-4, 127 examples of implementation, 34-35, 39, 47-49, grades 5-8, 154-155 64-66, 80-81, 124-125, 131-133, 146-147, grades 9-12, 178-181 150-153, 162-164, 182-183, 194-196, 215-217, grades K-4, content standards for, 106, 123, 126-127 234-237 grades 5-8, content standards for, 106, 149-155 field experiences, 220-221 grades 9-12, content standards for, 106, 176-181 goals and expectations of students, 210, 211 interactions of energy and matter, 180-181 implementation, 8, 210 motions and forces, 127, 154, 179-180 inquiry as component of, 214 properties of objects and materials, 127, 154, leadership and responsibility, 211-212, 223-224 178-180 physical space requirements, 220 structure of atoms, 178 professional development of teachers, 70-71, transfer of energy, 155 218-219

258 INDEX

relationship to student’s lives, 212-213 in development of teaching and learning models, 31 resources for teaching, 218-221 example of implementation in classroom, 34-35, role of, 209-210 146-147 school scheduling, 219 forms of, in classroom, 33 Standard A, 210-212 fundamental concepts underlying standards for Standard B, 212-214 grades K-4, 123 Standard C, 214-218 grades 5-8, 148 Standard D, 218-221 grades 9-12, 176 Standard E, 221-222 goals for students, 13, 105 Standard F, 222-224 grades K-4, content standard for, 105, 121-123 support for teachers and teaching, 211, 219, 222-224 grades 5-8, content standard for, 105, 143-148 system standards and, 230-231 grades 9-12, content standard for, 105, 173-176 teaching practice, 211 historical development of, standards for Public perception and understanding understanding, 104, 107 of assessment practice, 85, 89, 211 meaning of, to students, 173-174 of system reform, 238 peer review of, 174 personal and social development and, 104, 107 R professional development standards for teachers, 59 Race/ethnicity, assessment and, 85-86 as program component, 214 Research activities for professional development, 58 responsibilities of system personnel in teaching of, Resource management in teaching, 43-45, 168 212 adaptation of externally produced materials, 213 in science learning process, 2, 105 assessment standards, 79 scientific method and, 144-145 budget planning, 220 skills assessment, 6 materials-support infrastructure, 220 student collaboration in, 50 necessities for scientific inquiry, 220 student evaluation of scientific studies and results, physical space requirements, 220 171, 202-203 policy-making and, 232 teacher’s management of, 33, 36 for professional development of teachers, 70 technology as design and, 107, 166 program standard, 218-221 See also Scientific literacy resources outside the school, 45, 220-221 Scientific knowledge and understanding responsibility for, 218 assessment of, 82 science program planning, 51-52 of cause-and-effect, 145 to sustain and encourage reform, 223 of chemical reactions, 179 teachers as resource, 218-219 college/university education of teachers, 60-61, 238 time as resource, 219 of constancy and change, 117-118 Risk-benefit analysis, as scientific concept, 167, 169 cultural and traditional elements of, 21 curriculum design for, 213 S depth and breadth, 59, 110 Safety, 44 of earth and space, 130-134, 158-161, 187-190 Scheduling of classes, 44, 219 of energy, 154, 155, 157, 178, 180-181, 186-187, 189 Science for All Americans, 14, 15 of environmental and resource issues, 139, 140, Science Olympiad, 39-41 198-199 Scientific inquiry, 23-24 of evolution and equilibrium, 119 abilities for, 145, 148, 175-176 of form and function, 119 grades K-4, 122-123 goals of standards, 13 grades 5-8, 145-148 of health, 138-140, 141 grades 9-12, 175-176 as human endeavor, 141, 170, 200-201 adult models of, 37, 50-51 lifelong learning, 68-69 assessment of student achievement, 98-100 of living systems and organisms, 127-129, 155-158, characteristics of, 2 186-187 classroom environment for, 44 of measurement, 118, 126-127, 149 classroom resources for, 220 of motions and forces, 127, 154, 179-180 in college/university preparation of science of natural selection, 181-184, 185 teachers, 61 nature of, 23 defined, 214 pedagogical content knowledge, 62-68 developing student abilities and understanding of population issues, 140 grades K-4, 121-122 of prediction, 116-117, 145, 148 grades 5-8, 143-145 of probability, 116-117 grades 9-12, 173-175

INDEX 259

professional development standards for teachers, student-teacher relationship, 29 59-61 teacher’s respect for, 46 of properties of objects and materials, 123, 126-127, Substance abuse, 140, 168, 197 149-154, 178-179 Systems analysis, 116-117 of risk-benefit analysis, 167, 169 applied to educational systems, 227-228 of scientific description, 145, 148, 176 earth and space science, 158-161, 187-190 of scientific explanation, 117, 122-123, 145, 148, interdependence of organisms, 186 174, 175-176, 201 living systems, 156-158, 186-187 scientific inquiry and, 144-145 System standards, 8 sources of, 31 changes in emphases in, 239-240 of substance abuse, 140 congruence among standards, 230-231 of systems analysis, 116-117 continuity in policy-making, 231-232 teacher’s, 28 coordination of policies, 231 of technological design, 135-138, 161-166, 192-193 equity considerations, 232-233 unifying concepts and processes in, 104-105, examples of implementation, 34-35, 39, 64-66, 115-119 124-125, 150-153, 162-164, 234-237 use of evidence, 117, 145, 174, 201 ongoing evaluation of policy, 233 use of scientific models, 116, 117, 159, 175 resource considerations in policy-making, 232 See also Scientific inquiry responsibility for reform, 8, 233-238 Scientific literacy role of, 227 characteristics of, 21, 22 Standard A, 230-231 cultural and traditional elements of, 21 Standard B, 231 defined, 22 Standard C, 231-232 developmental approach, 18 Standard D, 232 goals of standards, 13 Standard E, 232-233 importance of, 1-2, 11-12 Standard F, 233 See also Scientific inquiry; Scientific knowledge and Standard G, 233-238 understanding Scientists, 233-238, 245 T Self-directed learning, 88 Teacher collaboration Sexual behavior and reproduction, 156, 158, 168, for assessment, 67 197-198 in college/university preparation of science Social issues, 138-141 teachers, 61 Solar system, 215-217 for design of professional development State government programs, 71 changes in emphases in system standards, 239 for development of pedagogical content in educational system, 227-228, 229 knowledge, 63-68 national standards and, 12 development of scoring rubrics for assessment, 93 resource allocation, 232 mathematics-science, 214-218 system standards, 230-231 new forms of, 67 in teacher certification, 229, 230 with outside institutions, 223 Students for professional development, 57-58 assessment reports, 43, 88-89 for research on practice, 223 classroom inquiry, 33, 36 school environment for, 222-223 classroom organization of, 31-32 for science program planning, 32, 51 classroom participation, 36-37 with scientists, 233-238 as community of science learners, 45-46 for self-assessment, 69 determinants of learning, 28, 29 Teaching practice development of goals for, 30 as active learning process, 2, 20, 28 encouraging classroom collaboration and discourse, assessment of, 6, 42-43 36, 50 assessment practice consistent with, 211 grouping of, 222 classroom organization of students, 31-32 in implementation of standards, 244 consistent with curriculum framework, 211 involvement in design of learning environment, 45, culture and traditions of science, 21 46-50 determinants of student learning, 28, 29 program considerations, 212-213 equitable access to opportunities for students, responsibility for learning, 27, 36 221-222 self-assessment, 42, 88 flexibility, 213 social and cultural considerations in teaching good qualities, 12, 218-219 strategies, 32, 37 grouping of students, 222

260 INDEX

implementation of content standards, 111-112 developing student abilities and understanding implementation of program standards, 210 grades K-4, 135-137 implementation of standards, 243-244 grades 5-8, 161-165 individual differences in, 2 grades 9-12, 190-192 learning environment, 13, 29, 43-45 fundamental concepts underlying standards for resource management, 43-45 grades K-4, 137-138 respect for students in, 46 grades 5-8, 165-166 school atmosphere for, 222-223 grades 9-12, 192-193 science knowledge necessary for, 28 grades K-4, content standards for, 106-107, 135-138 scientific inquiry and, 23-24 grades 5-8, content standards for, 106-107, 161-166 social and cultural considerations in, 32, 37 grades 9-12, content standard for, 106-107, 190-193 student-teacher relationship, 29 personal and social perspectives, 140-141, 167-168, system support for, 4, 12, 27, 28, 37, 211, 219, 169-170 222-224 risk-benefit analysis, 167, 169 teacher research on, 223 teachers as models of scientific inquiry, 37, 50-51 U teacher’s perceptions as factor in, 28 Unifying concepts and processes See also Professional development of teachers; conceptual basis, 116-119 Teacher collaboration development of student understanding, 115-116 Teaching standards, 4 role of, 104-105 assessment, 37-43 assumptions underlying, 28 W changes in emphases in, 52 Weather studies, 131-133, 136-137 curriculum planning, 30-31 developing community of science learners, 45-51 development of science program, 51-52 development of student goals, 30 encouraging student discourse, 36 equity considerations in, 4, 16, 20 Credits examples of implementation, 34-35, 39, 47-49, 64-66, 80-81, 124-125, 131-133, 136, 146-147, 150-153, 162-164, 182-183, 194-196, 202-203, Cover, title page, and p. 16. Students at Glebe 215-217 Elementary School, Arlington, VA, work on an focus areas, 4, 29 activity from Organisms, a first-grade unit in the implementation, 29 Science and Technology for Children (STC) cur- intra-/interdisciplinary relations, 32, 104 riculum program. Photographer: Eric Long, courtesy National Science Resources Center (NSRC). managing student inquiry, 33, 36 Cover and p. 18. Students at Bailey's Elementary role of, 27 School, Fairfax, VA, work on an activity from selection of teaching strategies, 31-32 Ecosystems, a fifth-grade STC unit. Photographer: Standard A, 30-32 Dane A. Penland, courtesy NSRC. Standard B, 32-37 Cover and p. 19. Student at Bailey's Elementary Standard C, 37-43 School, Fairfax, VA, works on an activity from Standard D, 43-45 Animal Studies, a fourth-grade STC unit. Standard E, 45-51 Photographer: Dane A. Penland, courtesy NSRC. Standard F, 51-52 Cover and p. 81. Student at Watkins Elementary student diversity issues, 37 School, Washington, DC, works on an activity from student participation, 36-37 Chemical Tests, a third-grade STC unit. student responsibilities for learning, 36 Photographer: Dane A. Penland, courtesy NSRC. system reform and, 4, 27 Cover and p. 102. Students at Watkins Elementary system standards and, 230-231 School, Washington, DC, work on an activity from techniques to facilitate learning, 32-33 Chemical Tests, a third-grade STC unit. Technical Education Resources Center, 14 Photographer: Jeff Tinsley, courtesy NSRC. Technology, science and, 24 Cover and p. 173. Fairfax County, VA, high-school abilities of technological design student. Photographer: Randy Wyant. grades K-4, 137-138 pages iv and 146. Teacher demonstrates pendulum. grades 5-8, 165-166 Photographer: David Powers, courtesy University grades 9-12, 192 of California, San Francisco. facing page 1. Children on statue of Albert Einstein in Washington, DC, at the National Academy of Sciences. Photographer: Barry A. Wilson.

INDEX/CREDITS 261

page 1. Students at Stuart-Hobson School, Washington, page 118. Student participates in activities during DC, work on an activity from Magnets and Motors,a “Take Your Child to Work Day” at the National sixth-grade STC unit. Photographer: Dane A. Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC. Penland, courtesy NSRC. Photographer: Linda Bellofatto. page 7. Students at Stuart-Hobson School, Washington, page 120. Pre- and post-tests show concept develop- DC, work on an activity from Magnets and Motors, a ment of the needs of living things of student Alicia sixth-grade STC unit. Photographer: Dane A. Incerpi at Montclair Elementary School in Los Altos, Penland, courtesy NSRC. CA. page 9. Students at Long Branch Elementary School, page 121. Students at Watkins Elementary School, Arlington, VA, work on an activity from Sounds, a Washington, DC, work on an activity from Chemical third-grade STC unit. Photographer: Dane A. Tests, a third-grade STC unit. Photographer: Dane Penland, courtesy NSRC. A. Penland, courtesy NSRC. page 10. First-grade students at North Frederick page 125. Child with hamster. Photographer: Jan Elementary School, Frederick, MD, examine quail Tuomi. hatched in the classroom. Photographer: John Woo. page 132. Elementary-school children. Courtesy Joyce page 11. Fairfax County, VA, high-school students in Weiskopf. astronomy lab. Photographer: Randy Wyant. page 142. Sixth-grade student's drawing of an page 26. Teacher and student at laboratory centrifuge in ecocolumn. Fairfax County, VA. Photographer: Randy Wyant. page 143. Student participates in activities during page 27. Students at Suitland High School, Forestville, “Take Your Child to Work Day” at the National MD, conduct ChemCom laboratory activities. Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC. Courtesy Photographer: Colette Mosley, courtesy American Linda Bellofatto and Nancy Dubiell. Chemical Society. page 153. Students participate in activities during page 41. Students dissect a cow's eye. Courtesy “Take Your Child to Work Day” at the National University of California, San Francisco. Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC. Courtesy page 54. Teachers participate in DNA fingerprinting Linda Bellofatto and Nancy Dubiell. science program. Photographer: Karen Preuss, cour- page 172. Drawings by Arlene Pinto, student at tesy University of California, San Francisco. Washington-Lee High School, Arlington, VA. page 55. Teachers participate in San Francisco City page 195. Student in Fairfax County, VA, works in Science Summer Institute. Photographer: Margaret school greenhouse. Photographer: Randy Wyant. R. Clark, courtesy University of California, San page 203. Students at Suitland High School, Francisco. Forestville, MD, work at ChemCom activity building page 65. Teachers participate in San Francisco City models of alkanes and alkenes. Photographer: Science Summer Institute. Photographer: Margaret Colette Mosely, courtesy American Chemical Society. R. Clark, courtesy University of California, San page 208. Participants in San Francisco City Science Francisco. Summer Institute. Photographer: Margaret R. page 74. First-grade student at Monocacy Elementary Clark, courtesy University of California, San School in Frederick, MD, holds duckling hatched in Francisco. classroom. Courtesy Ardith Newbold. page 209. Student and teacher at Watkins Elementary page 75. Students at Long Branch Elementary School, School, Washington, DC, work on an activity from Arlington, VA, work on an activity from Sounds, a Chemical Tests, a third-grade STC unit. third-grade STC unit. Photographer: Dane A. Photographer: Dane A. Penland, courtesy NSRC. Penland, courtesy NSRC. page 226. Participants in San Francisco City Science page 100. Students at Bailey's Elementary School, Summer Institute. Photographer: Margaret R. Fairfax, VA, work on an activity from Animal Clark, courtesy University of California, San Studies/Ecosystems, a fourth-grade STC unit. Francisco. Photographer: Rick Vargas, courtesy NSRC. page 227. Irene Chen, a participant in the 54th page 103. Student at Bailey's Elementary School, Westinghouse Science Talent Search. Photographer: Fairfax, VA, work on an activity from Animal Mark Portland, courtesy of the Science Talent Search. Studies/Ecosystems, a fourth-grade STC unit. page 237. Teachers' curriculum workshop. Courtesy Photographer: Rick Vargas, courtesy NSRC. Joyce Weiskopf. page 112. Students at Watkins Elementary School, page 242. Amil Menom, a participant in the 54th Washington, DC, work on an activity from Chemical Westinghouse Science Talent Search. Photographer: Tests, a third-grade STC unit. Photographer: Dane Mark Portland, courtesy Science Talent Search. A. Penland, courtesy NSRC. page 243. Student at Watkins Elementary School, page 114. Student in Fairfax County, VA. Washington, DC, works on an activity from Chemical Photographer: Tom Schudel. Tests, a third-grade STC unit. Photographer: Dane page. 115. Student at Stuart-Hobson School, A. Penland, courtesy NSRC. Washington, DC, works on an activity from Magnets and Motors, a sixth-grade STC unit. Photographer: Dane A. Penland, courtesy NSRC.

262 CREDITS