PRO. 178.'1' (N) )000
CENSUS OF INDIA 19S1
VOLUME II ANDHRA PRADESH
PART VI - VILLAGE SURVEY MONOGRAPHS
SERIAL NO. 43
A MONOGRAPH ON MALKf;PALLE
( LAKSHETTIPET TALUK, ADILABAD DISTRICT)
Editor A. CHANDRA SEKHAR
OF THE INDIAN ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICE Superintendent of Census Operations, Andhra Pradesh.
Price: Rs. 7·00 or 16 Sh. 4 d. or $ 2·52 c. CENSUS OF INDIA 1961-VOLUME JI-PART-VI-LlST OF VILLAGE SURVEY MONOGRAPHS-ANDHRA PRADESH
,------~--""'" SI. District Taluk No. Name of village Brief details of what the village represents (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Srikakulam Pathapatnam 1 Kallata Kapu Savaras-A Scheduled Tribe Parva thipuram 2 Kalliti t Savaras-A Scheduled Trib~ 3 Lakkaguda Jatapus-A Scheduled Tribe 4 Kannapudoravalasa A village in jute growing area 5 Gadabavalasa, ham- Gadabas- A Scheduled Tribe let of Gumma Bobbili 6 Karada A Bobbili Samsthanam village Srikakulam 7 Mofusbandar t A fishermen's village Visakhapatnam Srungavarapukota 8 Kondlba t Dombs-A Scheduled Caste Paderu 9 Gandlra t Konda Dhoras -A Scheduled Tribe 10 Lamthampadu t Kondhs-A Scheduled Tribe Chintapal1e 11 Annavaram t Samanthus-A Tribe 12 Makavaram Kammaras alias Ojas-A Scheduled Tribe 13 lerrela t Bagatas-A Scheduled Tribe East GOdavari Yellavaram 14 KondapalTe Koya Doras-A Trihe 15 Kovilapalem Konda Reddis-A Scheduled Trihe Razole 16 Pasarlapudi/anka t A typica I East Godavari delta village West God avari Kovvur 17 Unagatla'" t A tiry agricultural village surveyed in t917 & 1936 by the Depnrtment of Economics, University of Madras. A stuely of the progress made In the life or the people doring 1936-62 is done Polavaram 18 Puliramudu~udem Koyas-A Scheduled Tribe Eluru 19 Gudivakalanka A settled village in Kolleru lake bed area Krishna Vijayawada 20 Maredumoka A settled Krishna delta village Gootur Guntur 21 Malkapuram A typical tobacco growing village Nellore Kandukur 22 Avyavaripa1!{! A sheep and cattle rearin!! villa!!e Kovur 23 Yelamanchipadu A settled wet agricultural village Rapur 24 Devaravemuru Several workers in mica industry reside in this villalle Sullurpet 25 Rettamala t Noted for boat buildin~ industry. (t also represents Yenadls, a Scbeduled Tribe Chittoor Punganur 26 PalyampaTle Lamb'ldis-A Scheduled Tribe 27 Theffllpallt>, hamlet A village surveyed In 1916 by the Department of Econo~ of Nellimanda mics, University of Madras. A stu1y of the prOgress made in the tife of the peof'le during 1()16-62 is done Madanapalle 28 Panchalamarri A village depending on tank and well irrigation 29 Gangireddlpalle A sheep and cattle rearing vi11age Cuddapah J ammalamadugu 30 P. Sugamanchipalle Noted for Cuddapah slabs Anantapur Kalyandrug 31 Bhairavanitippa A dry vi1lalle changing to wet cultivation under the Bhairavanitippl project Kurnool Adoni 32 Montsala t A place or religious Importance (Mantralayam) Atmakur (Independent 33 Byrlutigudem t Chencbus-A Scheduled Tribe Sub-Tal uk) Hyderabad Chevella 34 Peddamangalaram Economy dependant on the supply of vegetables to Hyderabad city Medak Narsapur 35 Sivanagar Tanning' I~ustry Siddipet 36 Habshipur Handloom industry Nizamabad Banswada 37 Banjepalle An agricultural vi11age on the bank of Nizam Sagar lake Bodhan 38 Pocharam An agricultural village noted for sugarcane cultivation Armur 39 KOlka Armur "- An agricultural village partly irrigated by Nizam Sagar Cana). A comparative study of the progress made in the life of the people between 1929 & 1962 with reference to the economic investigations made by Sri S. Kesava Iyengar is done Adilabad Utnur 40 Bhurnur t Gonds & Pradhans-Scheduled Tribes 41 Vemayakunta Mathuras-A Tribe 42 Lailldiguda ! Kolams-A Scheduled Tribe Lakshettipet 43 Ma/kepalle t Thotis-A Scheduled Tribe Karimnagar Manthani 44 Kishtaraopet Naikpods-A Scheduled Tribe Warangal Narasampet 45 Mattewada t Koyas-A Scheduled Tribe Nalgonda Ramannapet 46 Tallasingaram A toddy tappers' village * Surveyed by the Indian Institute of Economics, Hyderabad-A.P. t Present Monograph t Monographs so far' publisbed 17 r ?to l ..0 l 12' I u' E
N N 2,' 21" ANDHRA PRADESH CENSUS 1961 - VILLAGE SURVEYS MAHARASHTRA STATE LOCATION OF VILLAGES SURVEYED (WESTERN ZONE) KJlO,..ETI\ES 31 o 31 . 64 128 160 191 N " :0' MILES32 o 128
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PttFI~ld .Jot "', 0fPi,. '!If ~'t SlIpof:f.nIlH"lirnt o~ ""'~ .., o,..II"t\~" Hyder ~1\.1l the Census Publications of this State will bear Vol. No. II) PART I-A General Report PART J-B Report on Vital Statistics RART J-C Subsidiary Tables PART II-A General Population Tables PART II-B (i) Economic Tables [B-1 to B-IVJ PAItT II-B (ii) Economic Tables [B-V to B-IXJ PART II-C Cultural and Migration Tables PART III Household Economic Tables PART IV-A Housing Report and Subsidiary Tables PART IV-B Housing and Establishment Tables PAllT V-A Special Tables for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes PART V-B Ethnographic Notes on Scheduled Castes and S'cheduled Tribes P~RT VI Village Survey Monographs (46) PART VII-A (I) 1 PART VII-A (2) j Handicraft Survey Reports (Selected Crafts) PART VII-B (1 to 20) Fairs and Festivals (Separate Book/or each District) PART VIII-A Administration Report-Enumeration "'\ (Not for ~ PART VIU... B Administration Report-Tabulation J Sale) PART IX State Atlas PART X Special Report on Hyderabad City District Census Handbooks(Separate Volume for each District) SUPERVISION AND GUIDANCE Sri K. V. N. GOWD, B.com. (Hons.), & Sri S. ASHOK KUMAR, B.se, L.L.B., Deputy Superintendents oj Census Operations First Draft Sri M. V. S. RAl, B.A., Economic Investigator Field Investigation Tabulation & Scrutiny 1. Sri M. V. S. RAI, B.A., 1. Sri P. PATTAYYA, B.SC., E·conomic Investigator Tabulation ()jJicer 2. Sri V. D. CHARY, 2. Sri V. RADHAKRlSHNA, B.A., B.com., Economic Investigator Research Assistant 3. Sri Ch. PURNACHANDRA RAO, M.A., 3. Kumari P. LALITHA, M.A., Economic Investigator Research Assistant 4. Sri A. CHANDRASEKHARA REDDY, M.A., Statistical Assistant Photographs Maps & Drawings Sri M. V. S. RAI, B.A., 1. Sri M. KRISHNA SWAMY, Economic Investigator Artist-Draughtsman 2. Kumari ARA VINDA CHAMAKUR, Tabulation Assistant-cum-Artist FOREWORD Apart from laying the foundations of demography in this subcontinent, a hundred years of the Indian Census has also produced 'elaborate and scholarly accounts of the variegated phenomena of Indian life - sometimes with no statistics attached, but usually with just enough statistics to give empirical underpinning to their conclusions.' In a country, largely illiterate, where statistical or numerical comprehension of even such a simple thing as age was liable to be inaccurate, an understanding of the social structure was essential. It was more necessary to attain a broad under standing of what was happening around oneself than to wrap oneself up in 'statistical ingenuity' or 'mathematical manipulation'. This explain3 why the Indian Census carne to be interested in 'many by paths' and 'nearly every branch of scholarship, from anthropology and sociology to geo graphy and religion'. In the last few decades the Census has increasingly turned its efforts to the presentation of village statistics. This suits the temper of the times as well as our political and economic structure. For even as we have a great deal of centralisation on the one hand and decentralisation on the other, my colleagues thought it would be a welcome continuation of the Census tradition to try to invest the dry bones of village statistics with flesh-and-blood accounts of social structure and social change. It was accordingly decided to select a few villages in every State for special study, where personal observation would be brought to bear on the interpretation of statistics to find out how much of a village was static and yet changing and how fast the winds of change were blowing and from where. Randomness of selection was, therefore, eschewed. There was no intent~on to build up a pic ture for the whole State in quantitative terms on the basis of villages selected statistically at ran dom. The selection was avowedly purposive: the object being as much to find out what was happen ing and how fast to those villages which had fewer reasons to choose change and more to remain lodged in the past as to discover how the more 'normal' types of villages were changing. They were to be primarily type studies which, by virtue of their number and distribution, would also give the reader a 'feel' of what was going on and some kind of a map of the country. A brief account of the tests of selection will help to explain. A minimum of thirty-five villages was to be chosen with great care ,to represent adequately geographical, occupational and even eth~ nic diversity. Of this minimum of thirty-five, the distribution was to be as follows: (a) At least eight villages were to be so selected that each of them would contain one domi nant community with one predominating occupation, e.g., fishermen, forest workers, jhum cultiva tors, potters, weavers, salt-makers, quarry workers, etc. A village should have a minimum population of 400, the optimum being between 500 and 700. (b) At least seven villages were to be of numerically prominent Scheduled Tribes of the S1ate. Each village could represent a particular tribe. The minimum population should be 400, the optimum being between 500 and 700. (c) The third group of villages should each be of fair size, of an old and settled character and contain variegated occupations and be, if possible, multi-ethnic in composition. By fair size was meant a population of 500-700 persons or more. The village should mainly depend on agriculture and be sufficiently away from the major sources of modern communication such as the district ad ministrative headquarters and business centres. It should be roughly a day's journey from the above places. The villages were to be selected with an eye to variation in terms of size, proximity to Iv city and other means of modern communication, nearness to hills, jungles and major rivers. Thus there was to be a regional distribution throughout the State of this/category of villages. If, however, a particular district contained significant ecological variations within its area, more than one vil lage in the district might be selected to study the special adjustments to them. It is a unique feature of these village surveys that they rapidly outgrew their original terms of reference, as my colleagues warmed up to their work. This proved for them an absorbing voyage of discovery and their infectious enthusiasm compelled me to enlarge the inquiry's scope again and again. It was just as well cautiously to feel one's way about at first and then venture further afield, and although it accounts to some extent for a certain unevenness illl the quality and coverage of the monographs, it served to compensate the purely honorary and extra-mural rigours of the task. For, the Survey, along with its many ancillaries like the survey of fairs and festivals, of small and rural industry and others, was an 'extra' over and above the crushing load of the 1961 Census. It might be of interest tO'recount briefly the stages by which the Survey enlarged its scope. At the first Census Conference in September 1959 the Survey set itself the task of what might be called a record in situ uf material traits, like settlement patterns of the village; house types, diet, dress, ornaments and foot-wear; furniture and storing vessels; common means of transport of goods and passengers; domestication of animals and birds; markets attended; worship of deities, festivals and fairs. There were to be recordings, of course, of cultural and social traits and occupational mo bility. This was followed up in March 1960 by two specimen schedules, one for each household, the other for the village as a whole, which, apart from spelling out the mode of inquiry suggested in the September 1959 conference, introduced groups of questions aimed at sensing changes in attitude and behaviour in such fields as marriage, inheritance, moveable and immovable property, industry, indebtedness, education, community life and collective activity, social disabilities, forums of appeal over disputes, village leadership, and organisation of cultural life. It was now plainly the intention to provide adequate statistical support to empirical 'feel', to approach qualitative change through sta tistical quantities. It had been difficult to give thought to the importance of 'just enough statistics to give empirical underpinning to conclusions', at a time when my colleagues were straining them selves to the utmost for the success of the main Census operations, but once the Census count it self was left behind in March 1961, a series of three regional seminars in Trivandrum (May 1961), Darjeeling and Srinagar (June 1961) restored their attention to this field and the importance of tracing social change through a number of well-devised statistical tables was once again recognis ed. This itself presupposed a fresh survey of villages already done; but it was worth the trouble in view of the possibilities that a close analysis of statistics offered, and also because the 'consangui nity' schedule remained to be canvassed. By November 1961, however, more was expected of these surveys than ever before. There was dissatisfadion on the one hand with too many general state ments and a growing desire on the other to draw conclusions from statistics, to regard social and economic data as interrelated processes, and finally to examine the social and economic processes set in motion through land reforms and other laws, legislative and administrative measures, tech nological and cultural change. Finally, a study camp was organised in the last week of December 1961, when the whole field was, carefully gone through over again and a programme worked out closely knitting the various aims of the Survey together. The Social Studies Section of the Census Commission rendered assistance to State Superint~ndents by way of scrutiny and technical com ment on the frame of Sl,lrvey and presentation of results. This gradual unfolding of the aims of the Survey prevented my colleagues from adopting as many villages as they had originally intended to. But I believe that what may have been: lost in quantity has been more than made up for in quality. This is, perhaps, for the first time that such a Survey has been conducted in any country, and that purely as a labour of love. It has succeeded in attaining what is set out to achieve: to construct a map of village India's social structure. One y hopes that the volumes of this Survey will help to retain for the Indian Census its title to 'the most fruitful single source of information about the country'. Apart from other features, it will perhaps be conceded that the Survey has set up a new Census standard in pictorial and graphic documentation. The schedules finally adopted for this monograph have been printed in Appendix III to Kotha Armur village monograph (S1. No. 39). NEW DELHI ASOK MITRA July 30, 1964. Reg~tTar General, India. PREFACE In the Foreword, the Registrar General, India has kindly explained the scope and philosophy of the Village surveys taken up as one of the important ancillary studies to the 1961 Census. In this State. 46 villages were selected for the survey, of which 9 villages fell under the category of villages each with one dominant community with one predominant occupation, 21 villages representing Sche duled Tribes and Scheduled castes (17 villages with Scheduled TTibes, 3 villages with Tribes not Scheduled 'l)iz, Samanthus, Koya Doras and Mathuras and 1 village with a Scheduled Caste, Dombs) and 16 villages were villages of fair size of an old and well settled character containing variegated occupations and multi ethnic in composition. The village Malkepalle (No. 43 in the State Map before the Inner Title page gives the location of the village) covered by the present monograph falls under the second category representing the Scheduled Tribe, Thotis. The selection of villages of the optimum population size of 500 and also satisfying all other criteria, such as to be at a distance of a day's travel from the taluk headquarters and so on, was none too easy. Several villages selected had to be of a much larger size than prescribed as otherwise it was difficult to choose a village to satisfy the main purpose for which the village was selected for survey. Similarly some interior tribal villages that were selected were necessarily smaller than the optimum population size pres cribed. The villages were selected carefully having un eye on regional distribution and ecological varia tion but it has not always been possible to select villages so remote as to be a day's journey from important ce~t~es of communication or administrative headquarters of a district. With the developed communications and the fast ineans or transport it was someWhat difficult to locate all villages uninfluenced by develop mental activities. There were, of course, some villages, particularly in the Agency tract which took not one day but several days to reach from the district head quarters. All the same, it is expected that the villages now selected truly represent a cross-section of the rural popUlation of the State. In this State, we started off with our Village Surveys according to the original scheme of things, under which it was expected that one Investigator should be able to cover a village in about a week or j 0 day's time. Naturally, a very simple skeleton schedule was adopted under which mainly the social and reli giolls customs and habits were studied in a general sort of way. We covered quite a few villages under this old scheme and the present village of MalkepaUe covered by this monograph was one such village sur veyed in 1961 itself canvassing this old skeleton sched ules, a set of which is given as Appendix II to the Monograph No. 45, Mattewada village. As explained in the Foreword, the scope of the survey went on expanding and ultimately on the basis of the conclusions arrived at the Study Camp held in New Delhi in December 1961, a very detailed set of Village Survey Schedules was drawn up. When we started canvassing this founidable set of schedules, we found that an Investigator was not able to cover more than one house hold per day. The progress was painfully slow. Even putting extra Investigators, it took several weeks to cover a village completely. As several villages had already been covered by the time the scope of Survey was enlarged, we were able to cover only a limited number of villages canvassing this set of larger sche dules which is given as Appendix III to the Monograph No. 39, Kotha Armur village. An attempt, however, was made to resurvey a few of the villages already coveted so as to bring them under the new method. Fortunately, Malkepalle is one such resurveyed village. But the iimitation of time made it difficult to resur vey all the rest as proposed. Therefore, the Village Survey Monographs presented for this State will show two distinct patterns - one as covered under the old method and the other under the new expanded method giving very much more detailed statistical information. Certain limitations to our efforts to achieve this Dmbitious task may have to be recognised. While the Investigators who were put on the job of canvassing the schedules were not specialists in any particular field, they were carefully chosen for their academic qlwlifications, experience in Community Development Organisation or their ability and aptitude to move closely with the rural and tribal folk, to find out facts and record truthfully the first hand information. It is open to the specialists in a particular field to scan the material presented here and formulate their own hypotheses for further refined investigation. The present monograph deals with Malkepalle, a tribal viliage in Lakshettipet Taluk of Adilabad Dis trict. It is a multi-ethnic village consisting of 17 communities, mainly depending upon agricultUre. Thotis also called Birdugonds, a Scheduled Tribe are predominant in this viiIage. A special study has been made about their socio-religious and economic liIe along with a general study of sodo-economic conditions of the other communities. viii The village was first surveyed by Sarvasri V. D. Chary and A. R. K. Murthy in August 1961. Later in April 1964 this village was resurveyed by canvassing the enlarged schedule by Sarvasri M. V. S. Rai, V. D. Chary and Ch. Purnachandra Rao, Economic Investigators. First draft of the report was prepared by Sri M. V. S. Rai. The scrutiny of the report and the preparation of the tables were attended to by a team led by Sri P. Pattayya, Tabulation Officer, assisted by Sri V. Radhakrishna, Kumari P. Lalitha, Research Assistants and Sri A. Chandrasekhara Reddy, Statistical Assistant, under the supervision and guidance of the Deputy Superintendents of Census Operations, Sri K. V. N. Gowd and 'Sri S. Ashok Kumar. The credit for the preparation of Maps and line drawings goes to Sri M. Krishna Swamy, Artist who is assisted by Kumari Aravinda Chamakur. The printing was supervised by Sri N. C. Hanumantha Reddy, Compiler. A. CHANDRA SEKHAR Superintendent of CenS1U Operations, Andhra Pradesh CONTENTS Pages Foreword iii- v Preface vii-viii Chapter I THE VILLAGE 1- 6 Introduction - ..{;ocation - Cultural life - Physical aspects - Rainfall and climate: Flora and fauna - Size - Residential pattern - Communications - Important public places - Welfare and administrative institutions - Vil lage industries - History of the village and settlement of diffetent sections of population - Mythical origin of Rajgonds and Thotis. Chapter II THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 7-19 Ethnic composition - Description of communities: Birdugonds; GaUa; Manne; Rajgonds; Goundla; Netkani; Komati; Padmasa!e; TeZaga; Munnurukapu.; Tenugu; Madiga; Chakali, Kummari, MangaZi and Viswabrahmin; Muslim House types - Selectioll of house site -House-warming ceremony - Housing material - Use and maintenance of houses - Hygiene - Dress and fOl}twear - Hair style - Ornaments: Ornaments of the feet; Ornaments of the hands and fingers; Ornaments of the neck; Ornaments of the nose and the ear - Tattooing - Household goods - Fuel and lighting - Bedding - Furniture - Toilet - Food - Tea and coffl:!e - Liquor - Smoking. Chapter III SOCIAL CUSTOMS 21-37 General - Medical facilities - Birth - Naming ceremony: Typical names - Tonsure ceremony - Child feeding - Use of contraceptives - Initiation to learning - Puberty - M.arriage - Types of marriages: Khaja khobra; Peshiwatwal; Case study - Marriage among Hindu castes - Expenditure on marriage - Consummation - Widow remarriage - Divorce - Adultery - Death - Beliefs and practices. Chapter IV ECONOMY 39-51 Economic resources Factors influencing the economic life in the village Workers and non-workers - Traditional occupation - Main occupation Combination of occupations - Occupational mobility - Agriculture - As ~essment of land revenue - Land values...... ,. Crop pattern - Agricultural prac tices - Seeds - Agricultural implements - Fertilisers - Improved methods of cultivation - Labour and wages - Agricultural finance - Case study 1; Case study 2; Case study 3; Case study 4 - Marketing of agricultural produce - Animal husbandry - Shoe-making - Pottery - Commerce - Main occu pation and per capita income - Place of occupation - Income and expendi ture: Case study Z; Case study 2; Case stUdy 3 - Indebtedness - Capital for mation. Chapter V CULTURAL LIFE AND VILLAGE ORGANISATION 53-64 Religion - Language - Educational facilities - Trends of changes in family type - Leisure and recreation - Religious institutions - Hindu festivals: Ugadi; Srirama Navamij Toli Ekadasi; Vinayaka Chaviti; Dasara; Deepavali; NaguZa Chaviti or Naga Panchami; Karthika festival; Vaikuntha Ekadasi; Sankrunti; Sivaratri; Holi - Muslim festivals - Worship of deities and obser vance of festivals among the tribes: Mahalashmi' Bheemana' Persapen' Mahatoorpen and Bhoodevara; Akadi; Nagula Cha~iti; Pochan:ma festival; Pora festival; Dasara and Dtwedi; Sattipen; Akipen - Fairs - Village organi- x Pages sation: Inter-viUage ret«tionshi-p; inter-c'aste relationship - Democratic Institu tions - Caste or Tribal Piinchayats - Voluntary organisations _ Stratifica tion of village community; Chapter VI SOCIAL REFORMS, AWARENESS AND ATTITUDE 65-66 Inheritance of property - Composition and functioning of the organs of Democratic Decentralisation _; Family planning - Dowry payments and Hindu Marriage Act - Untouchability - Public opinion about the survey. Chapter VII CONCLUSION 67 Appendix TABLES [1]-[48] Glossary [49]-[50J MAPS Andhra Pradesh State Map showing the Location of Villages Surveyed Before Inner Title page Location Map of Malkepalle Village xv Map of Malkepalle Village ; I xvi Layout Sketch of HQuseholds by Caste/Tribe/Community in Malkepalle Village xvii ILLUSTRA TrONS Figure No. 1 Approach to the village xix 2 A woman drawing water ~-cx 3 A .Birdugond , xxi 4 A Bird(igond belle xxii 5 An old Golla man in his traditional dress xxiii 6 Munnurukapu cou'ple xxiv 7 A Madiga niaiden xxv 8 A Viswabrahmin couple xxvi 9 A general view of housing pattern xx\,ii 10 Gadd.illu - A hut with grass roof -. xxviii 11 Old dress pattern xxix 12 New dress pattern xxx 13 Boys' dress xxxi 14 Shaving in progress xxxii 15 Ornaments of the ear, nose and hand xxxiii 16 Ornaments of the neck xxxiv 17 Tattooing xxxv 18 Household goods xxxvi 19 Arrangemen t of pots xxxvii 20 Winnowing the grain xxxviii 21 Agricultural implements xxxix 22 Blacksmith at work xl 23 Kachadam - The local cart . xli 24 Implements used in shoe-making Alii 25 Birdugonds playing on their musical instruments xliii 26 Dhols - Percussion instruments xliv 27 Pepri and other musical instruments xlv 28 Bheemana xlvi Z9 Akipen xlvii xi STATEMENTS STATEMENT NO. Pages I Particulars of Sagas 6 II Population of Surveyed Households • .. 7 III Land Revenue Demand and Collection Particulars 41 IV Crop Calendar • ., 42 V Particulars of Wages ., 14 VI Production Cost and Sale Proceeds, Case Study 1 45 VII Production Cost and Sale Proceeds, Case Study 2 45 VIII Production Cost :md Sale Proceeds, Case Study 3 45 IX Production Cost and Sale Proceeds, Case Study 4 46 X Wholesale and Retail Prices 43 XI Income and Expenditure, Case Study 1 49 XII Income and Expenditure, Case Study 2 49 XIII Income and Expenditure, Case Study 3 50 XIV Value of Capital Formation 51 XV Glossary of a Few Gondi Terms 53 XVI Strength of the Social Welfare School in April 1964 54 XVII Strength of Panchayat Samithi Primary School at GoUagudem in April 1964 54 XVIII Gondi Calender of Months 53 XIX Income of Village Panchayat, 1959-63 62 XX Expenditure of Village Panchayat, 1959-63 82 XXI Income and Expenditure of Villa,ge Panchayat, 1959-63 .62 TABLES TABLE NO. 1 Area, Houses and PopulatiQu OWl '[1] 2 Size and Composition :of -Households [1] 3 Households and PQPulation by Religion, Sect and Caste/Tribe/Community [1] 4 Population by Caste/Tribe/Community, Age Group and Sex [2] 5 Population by Age Group and Marital Status [21 6 Population by Caste/Tribe/Community, EdUcation, Age Group and Sex [4]-[5] 7 Population by Age Group, Education and Sex [4] 8 Household Heads by Caste/Tribe/Community, Se:x;, Age Group and Literacy [6]-[7] 9 Deaths by Caste/Tribe, Marital Status, Age Group and Sex during last Five Years, 1959 to 1964 • .. [61-[71 10 Death by Causes, Age Group and Caste/Tribe during last Five Years, 1959 to 1964 • [8] 11 Livelihood Classes [10]-[11] 12 1961 Primary Census Abstract ;[10]-[11] 13 Workers and Non-workers by Age Group and Sex [11] 14 Workers by Occupation, Age Group and Sex [12] 15 Workers engaged in Industry, Business and Cultivation belonging to the Household by Age Group and Sex [12] 16 Non-workers by Age Group, Sex and Nature of Activity [12] 17 Households engaged in cultivation, Industry or Business belonging to the Household [13] 18 Traditional Occupation by Households [13] 19 Place of Occupation [13] 20 Occupational Mobility, Cause of Change and Contentment during 1963-64 by Castel Tribe/Community [14] 21 Occupational 'Mobility - Nature of Aspiration :[14] 22 Distribution of Households by Main OccupatlOn and Caste/Tribe/Community [15] 23 Combination of Occupations [16] ·24 Main Occupation, per capita Annual Household Income and Family Type [16]-[17] -25 Nature of Interest on Land by Caste/Tribe and Households Ifiij xii TABLE NO. Pages 26 Change in Ownership of Land during one Generation by Caste/Tribe [18] 27 Agricultural Produce and Disposal during 1963-64 [18] 28 Reciprocal Aid and Improvement in Agricultural Practices [18] 29 Land Reclamation and Development by HOLlseholds and Caste [19] 30 Number of Pattadars by Size of Holdings. • [19] 31 Number of Pattadars by Size -of Holdings and Caste/Tribe/Community [19]-[20) 32- Area under Cultivation by Caste/Tribe and Households [20] 33 Effect of Land Reforms by Caste/Tribe and Households [20] 34 Livestock Statistics by Caste/Tribe [21) 35 Types of Industry run by Households . [21] 36 Traditional Industry by Households [21] 37 Trade or Business • [21] 38 Material Culture - Possession of Bedding Material and Furniture by Caste/Tribe/ Community and Households [22] 39 Material Culture - Furniture and Consumer Goods acquired in last Five Years (1959 to 1964) by Caste/Tribe/Community and Households [23] 40 Material Culture - Possession and Use of Consumer Goods and Services by Castel Tribe/Community and Households [23] 41 Material Culture - Consumption habits by Annual Household Income and House- holds by Caste/Tribe/Community [24J 42 Budgetary Position of Villagers by Main Occupation [25J 43 Indebtedness by AnnU~l Household Income and Households [25] 44 Indebtedness by Cause, Amount and Households [26J 45 Number of Money Lenders and Debtors by Caste/Tribe [26] 46 Credit Agency and Rate of Interest by Number of Households and Amount [27] 47 Sale and Purchase Value of Assets during last 30 Years, 1933-62 and 1962-63 [271 48 Capital formation by Caste/Tribe and Households [28] 49 Prosperity Index during the last 10 Years (HJ53-54 to 1964) [28] 50 Ca:ste/Tribe/Community :and Nature of Family [29] 51 . Mother Tongue and other Languages Spoken [29] 52 Cultural Life of the Vi-llage . [29J 53 Dietary Habit by Households and Caste/Tribe/Community [30] 54 Staple Food and Dietary Habits by Caste/Tribe/Community and Households [30] 55 Habit of taking Tea or Coffee by Household Income and Caste/Tribe/Community and Households [31] 56 Prohibited Foods and Drinks by Caste/Tribe/Community and Households [31] 57 Smoking and other Habits by Caste/Tribe/Community [32] 58 Periods of Pollution of Puberty and 'Menstruation among Caste/Tribe/Community [32] 59 Marriages by Caste/Tribe [33J 60 Marriages by Relationship and Caste/Tribe/Community [33] 61 Marriages by Spatial Distribution and Caste/Tribe/Community [34J 62 Persons by Age at First Marriage and Caste/Tribe/Commuhity [34]-[35] 63 Marriage Payments [35]-[36] 64 Separation/Divorce by Reasons, Agency, Conditions and Caste/Tribe [36] 65 Information and Attitude towards Family Planning by Caste/Tribe/Community [37] 66 Attitude towards Family Planning with· reference to Age of Head of Household by Caste/Tribe/Community [37]-[38] 67 Attitude towards Family Planning with reference to Age of Child bearing Woman by Caste/Tribe/Community [38]-[39] 68 Attitude towards Family Planning with reference to Duration of Marriage by Castel Tribe/Community [39] 69 Attitude towards Family Planning with reference to Annual Income by Caste/Tribe/ Community [40] 70 Share of Property for Sons by Caste/Tribe/Community [40] 71 Attitude _about Inheritance of Property by Daughters equally with Sons by Castel 'Tribe/Community [41] 72 Medical Care [41] 73 General Knowledge of Household Heads by Caste/Tribe/Community [42] 74 Period of Existence of Households Immigrated during the present Generation by Caste/Tribe/Community [42] xiii TABLE NO. Pages 75 Settlement History of Households by Caste/Tribe/Community [4J] 76 Place of Birth • • [431 77 Immigrant Households by Place and Reasons and Caste/Tribe/Community [44] 78 Emigration by Number of Members, Place and Reasons [45] 79 Houses by Number of Rooms and Number of Persons Occupying and Caste/Tribe/ Community • [45] 80 House Type by Roof Material and Caste/Tribe/Community [46] 81 House Type by Wall Material and Caste/Tribe/Community [46] 82 Houses and Use • • [47] 83 Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes by Households and Population . [47] 84 Awareness about the Existence of PanchaY3.t by Households and Caste/,Tribe/Com~ munity [47] 85 Caste/Tribal Community Panchayat - Existence and Attitude by Number of In~ formants [48] 88 Caste/Tribal Community Panchayat - Functions ,._ ," [48] xv· o () , z .... 0 z4> "" .' '" _ "" ,~ g « I.x: J:w ««Vll a:: ..... ~v> « L PDg DJiJp.(. '/-til/O,lJ Q o... .. «I- '" .. ::: IDU ;.. -,~ ""'" .." :::., «- ... ~" ~ La:: ;.. .g ~ ~ ~ :: .... .", ~ ~" «I- ~ "'".!:.<> ~. ",. '" .. N~ -'5 " ..... " ~ ~ " ... Q " ~ " "'".\:9 ~ ~ :.t:" § ZO ciS" cil <; :.t: ~ ,., ~ .~ .,., .. .~ -;:; .. ~ ·9 .. ~ :!~ ... ~'" " ~ ... ~ .::! - I I I I II~· ~ u o • z:;:' "_ , o N :; z.,.,"_ <> 0 z::: g z~ xvi MAP II tN MAP OF MALKEPALLE VILLAGE LAKSHETTIPET TALUK AOILABAD DISTRICT ~lIometre j \/.2 I , J I o 1/2 ROTTIPAllE VILLAGE DHARMARAOPE T VILLAGE --- "illag, Bqundary =---= "illage Rood elm Track __ Habllatlon Area c:;.c \.) l'aJture Land ....+ + ... .. + /hIrlal Ground Reserve Forest xvii ..... MAP III ~ ... 1ir~ ••• WEll ••lit 1jJ"@" o WELL OwnL "f--I" , , ~(:.:, ... ;~1" L_ " ·;--r_- . I.._..J L _ J ,-- WELL© ....'I'OUT SKETOi OF HOUSEHOLDS BY CASTE/TRIBE! COMMuNITY o IN WELL MAl.KEPALLE VIL.LAGE "f ::"':'~f: .~.,. NoT TO SCALE ~_... L- ... © WELL o WELL NAP-tf.OF NO. OF SYMBOL CASn/TRIBE !COMMUNI1Y HOusEHOLDS o ",;_----r... ·,.-:::-r", WElL , I • I '-_..I L._ ...... r:' -;-..."';- _-_,....,;"':"-)-. Blrdugonds (S.T.) 14 WILL ~_~ :"_J ~_~ Chak.11 Golla 3 Goundl. Kornatl Kumma.rl AAIP£N "fTf~]"'- l1adl,. (S.C.) 1.._-' L._ l1ang_1I o .. WILL Manne (S.C.) 2 Munnurukap-u T~POCHAHMA Muslim Netk_nl (S.C.) Padmasale Ralgond (S.T.) 3 Tel_,. "_r- -: -'"i-; :."·~r~ ... ;::-...... r --~ I • ' , I • 1 I o L _.J L. _.. 1.._" Viswabrahmln WELL o W(LI.. Un-surveyed X1X • Fig. 1 Approach to the vjllage. (Chapter 1- Para 2) Zigzag ways, silent streets, irregular growth of bushes and thatched huts hither and thither amidst the undisturbed surroundings await a stranger. xX • Fig. 2 A woman drawing water. (Chapter 1- Para 14) Drawing water by picotah (etharn) is purely indigenous in process but fairly good exercise in practice. xxi Fig. 3 A Birdugond. ( Chapter II - Para 5 ) Wrinkle shades under his thoughtful eyes reveal many legends to a patient listener! xxii Fig. 4 A Bjrdugond belle. (Chapter 11- Para 5) Simple and smart smile on her lips a!ld her healthy looks are unmistakable additions to her innocent rustic beauty. xxiii -~,~ ' . .~ Fig. 5 An old Golla man in his traditional dress. (Chapter 11 - Para 6) A man of age can forget anything but not his long stick in the hand - an ever ready weapon in the lonely fields - a warming puff between his pressing lips that can keep him alert even at tough task and a gongadi that protects his body from the vagaries of wind and sun. xxiv Fig. 6 Munnurukapu couple. (Chapter II - Para 14) -, This pair standing under one roof would walk as one in life too! xxv Fig.7 A Madiga maiden. (Chapter II - Para 16) Are they not 'Worshippers of work? A Madiga maiden re turning in the dusk from her day's work but with contented looks and basketful of fuel perhaps for her night preparation in the kitchen. XXVI Fig. 8 A Viswabrahmin couple. (Chapter II... Para 17) A polishing touch and refinement of urbanity can be seen from every aspect of their appearance. xxvji Fig. 9 A general view of housing pattern. (Chapter II-Para 19) The words 'hygienic principles' and 'regular planning' are rarely found in the dictionary of these villagers. The sentiment 'be nearer to your castemen' brings all the more contiguity in their housing pattern. xxviii Fig. 10 Gaddi/lu - A hut with grass roof. (Chapter II - Para 19) It is a hut but a palace of the poor - a cool abode under the flaming sun, <'\ warm resting place in the chill winter and a hide from the thundering clouds. xxix Fig. 11 Old dr;:ss pattern. (Chapter II-Para 30) Here the grand 'ma' and 'pa', the living books of varied experiences can speak better about .the traditions of past, habits of present and a picture of the future than any scholarly written book. xxx Fig.12 New dress pattern. (Chapter 11- Para 30) A young couple ' in a gay n'1ood! The young man is proudly looking while his woman is a bit shy perhaps to stand besides her man before the camera handled by a stranger. XX.X.1 Fig. 1.3 Boys' dress. (Chapter 11 - Para 31) _ "Oh ! I am a bit scared of this blazing sun !" sighs the middle one while his two dear friends make him reconcile. Really a fine co-operation from tiny kids of today the future administrators of the village. xxxii • Fig. 14 Shaving in progress. (Chapter II - Para 33) Who said that they are away from the wave of modernism ? A man in his sixties keeps his little tuft as a mark of his love for traditions but never discredits the services of Mangali (barber). xxxiii • • Fig.15 Ornaments of the ear. nose and hand (Chapter "11- Para 36) The personal property of woman makes her looks dignifrE~d and confident even in her old age! ... I .. • xxxiv • Fig. 16 Ornaments of the neck. (Chapter 11 - Para 37) Her ornarnents are not made of gold but of beads of course Beauty of these rnulti-coloured beads, art of arrangement and the charm of the final tolt.ches attracts not one but all women- folk. XXx.v Fig.17 Tattooing. (Chapter 11 - Para 41 ) Tattooing is not merely a decorative phenomenon but it is interwoven with many sentiments of their culture pattern. xx~vi Fig.18 Household goods. (Chapter 11 - Para 42) "Sir Do our vessels come so brightly in photo too ?" - A posing question from an old woman. xxxvii Fig. 19 Arrangement of pots. (Chapter II - Para 42) Is not this tree of pots a show case of Kummari's (potter's) shop? These ornaments of kitchen are taking a little rest at their producer's house under the sunshade on their way to different homes. xxxviii Fig. 20 Winnowing the grain. (Chapter IV - Para 18) A lovely scene! Here the maidens dressed in striking colours, standing on the green patches of land with joyful hearts are winnowing not the grain actually but their high reward to their hard task. What will be more pleasant and arrest ing than to see these women worKing with smiling faces, humming their folk- songs and retorting the rural jokes? xxxix . ' / " '. Fig. 21 Agricultural implements. (Chapter IV - Para 21) 'These implements are the ever lasting friends oi the farmers, the centre of their . activity and fond hopes. xl Fig. 11 Blacksmith at work. (Chapter W - Para 21) "Be master of one art" is their favourite motto. They never fail to exhibit their efficacy in their traditional art. xH Fig. 23 Kachadam - The local cart. (Chapter IV - Para 46) These sturdy bullocks show the speed of the vehicle and they carry the grain and guest with equal zeal and zest. xlii Fig.24 Implements used in shoe-making. (Chapter IV - Para 47) "My products though manufactured with this bare equipment can better serve our people in rocks and hills, and fields and furrows than the fashionable designs of town products" convincingly argues a Madiga. xliii Fig.2S Birdugonds playing on their musical instruments. (Chapter V -Para 7) The orchestra is sweet in its melody but original in its composition. For them their harmonious notes of their music is not only an expression of emotion but it is a source of inspiration both in their sorrow and joy. xliv Fig. 26 Dhols - Percussion instruments. (Chapter V -- Para 7) Though indigenous in character, they produce rhythmic sound. xlv Fig. 27 Pepri and other musical instruments. (Chapter V - Para 7) These traditional instruments produce intonations peculiar to themselves. xlvi Fig. 28 Bheemana. (Chapter V - Para 33) Years of their habitual devotion to this huge massive stone answers to their pangs of suffering, reconciles them to the complex phenomena of nature and gives solace in their perturbed state of mind. xlvii Fig. 29 Akipen. (Chapter V - Para 43) Servile humility to this Akipen is a natural instinct with them. Akipen situated in the serene atmosphere is a place . of peace and supreme power. Chapter I THE VILLAGE Introduction other ordinary letters but the nearest telegraph office is located at Bellampalle. The Primary Health Centre Malkepalle, a multi-ethnic village with varie at Kasipet is the nearest hospital which is at a distance gated occupations and depending mainly on agricul of six miles but the people of this village usually visit ture is situated in Lakshettipet Taluk of Adilabad Dis the Government Hospital at Bellampalle though this trict. It is selected for the present survey under the is more distant than Kasipet. The Veterinary HospitOlI category of villages representing Scheduled Tribes and is also situated at Bellampalle. Above all, Bellampalle Scheduled Castes. 'The main object in such selection is to make a comprehensive studt of social and econo is one of the biggest industrial centres, due to the loca tion of Singareni Collieries. Thus Bellampalle is the mic life of all the villagers irrespective of the caste nearest urban centre for this village. with a special reference to Birdugonds, otherwise known as pachabottollu or Thotis, a Scheduled Tribe in the Telangana area of Andhra Pradesh. A faithful Cultural life attempt is made to portray the social structure and 4. There is no cultural centre either in the village functioning of the old traditional institutions of dif or in the neighbourhood. All the caste Hindus conduct ferent castes on the one hand and the agrarian economy bhajans during Posa festival in the month of Sravana on the other which promote smooth running of the (July-August) and also occasionally to recreate them community life in the village. selves. The Harikathas are also arranged on Posa fes tival day by raising subscriptions either in cash or in Location kind. As regards Rajgonds and Birdugonds they play Gusadi and Dhandari - the traditional dances on 2. The village Malkepalle lies in between Diwali festival day. Another type of traditional dance 19°-04'.56" north latitude and 79°-23'-01" east longi known as Dhimsa is also played at any time for re tude surrounded by distant hillo..:ks on all the four creation and also on special occasions. The musical sides (Fig. 1). It is situated to the east of Adilabad, drums and pipes are played by Birdugonds. All caste It the district headquarters. is bounded by Dharma Hindus including the Scheduled Castes play kolatam raopet village in the east, Chintalagudem and Deva on Holi festive day otherwise known as Kamanna ruram villages in the south, Rottipalle village in the Panduga. Almost all the caste Hindus worship the west and Tirumalapuram village in the north. The Hanuman deity by performing bhajans in the month hill stream Yeggandi flowing from the hills in the wept of Sravana. towards north-east joins the sacred river, Godavari near Mancheriyal. It falls within the jurisdiction of Physical aspects the M.ancheriyal Panchayat Samithi and also the Man cheriyal Police Station which are at a distance of 2'3 5. The village site lies on a plain land but the miles to the south-east of this village. Lakshettipet, Golla and a few Rajgond households are situated or. the Taluk headquarters is at a distance of 52 miles to an elevated place in the southern part of the villacte the south of this village. Nirmal, the revenue divi site. The nature of the soil is sandy black cotton. The sional headquarters, is at a distance of about 120 miles hills at a distance of below five miles on all the three while the district headquarters, Adilabad is 160 miles sides except in the east provide a natural landscape away from this village. The nearest Railway StatLm to the village. The habitation area is surrounded with is Bellampalle on the Madras-Delhi line of the Central extensive agricultural fields. Railway which is at a distance of twelve miles across the hillocks to the west of Mancheriyal-Bellampalle Rainfall and climate Asifabad road. To reach this village from Hyderabad one has to proceed, by train or bus to Bellampalle and 6. The monsoon commences from the latter half of June and ends by the end of September registering from there walk up a distance of about 12 miles by country road. This cross-country fair weather road a maximum rainfall of 3.72 em. in the month of July. across hillocks and fields is the only approach to this Following immediately, the winter season extends from village and the distance is negotiated either by foot or October to February. The hottest months are from February to May and the maximum temperature would by double bullock cart locally known as kachadam. It is very difficult to reach this village during the rainy be 40.6° C. to 43.3° C. season. Maps I and II may be referred to. Flora and fauna 3. Dharmaraopet, half a mile away to the east of the village, is the nearest post office which accepts 7. The forest in the neighbourhood is mostly de ~nd delivers the registered letters, money orders and ciduous. The useful trees in this forest' are teak, chen- CHAPTER 1 angi, nalla maddi (terminalia glabra), kodisa and san are with two or three members each. Besides the soli dra. The bamboos are also available in most of the tary household with more than ten members, five hill tracts. The inhabitants Elf this village freely use househoids have got between seven to nine members the wood to construct the houses and all thatched each. The females outnumbered the males in the houses are roofed with tella grass which is abundantly households consisting of two or three members and ayailable in the forest. The village is surrounded by seven to nine members (Table 2). wide cultivable lands with little tree growt~. A few ~hade bearing trees like tamarind and neem are found Residential pattern here and there in the hab.itation area. 12. The beaten cart track in the south of the vil 8. Reliable enquiries reveal that elks, spotted lage, connecting Kasipet in the south-east and Rotti deer, yegolam, foxes, wild bears, kanusu, sambar and f.,aIle in the west, passes by the side of Golla habita rabbits are most commonly found in the nearby forest tion area through the centre of the village, touching locally known as Pochammaloddi. The cheetahs and Birdugond habitat. The central part of the habitation bears are seldom seen by them. The common birds are area locally known as Telagawada is occupied by vari peacock, multi-coloured sparrow, parrot, karu kodi ous Hindu castes. The western part is occupied by the (woodcock), etc. The usual domesticated animals like Rajgonds and Birdugonds, the original settlers of this cows, bullocks, buffaloes, sheep, goats and dogs are the village, while all the Gollas are residing in the south fauna of the village. The snakes of different colours east locally known as Gollagudem. The Raj-gond loca and variety are commonly found during the rainy sea lity is called as Nadimigudem. The Gollagudem in the son. The snake charmers visit this village during this south-east and Nadimigudem in the west are equidis season to catch them. It is quite fortunate that no tant (100 yards away) from Telagawada. The Manne snake bite is reported in this village. and Madiga are close to each other to the north of Telagawada and this portion of the habitat is locally Size known as Mannepuwada. Thus each portion of the habitat is named after the predominant caste or tribe 9. As per the village records, the total area of inhabiting it. Each wada (locality) is a separate Malkepalle is Ac. 2,087-14 guntas (40 guntas = 1 acre) cluster of houses. These clusters are the result of the of which Ac. 998-17 guntas (48%) is under patta land. caste affinity. Even among Madiga and Manne castes, Out of the remaining land of Ac. 1,088-37 guntas, the segregat-idIl is observed and each one has got its own registered village site is only Ac. 1-27 guntas whereas habitation area though close to one another. Mannes Ac. 836-11 {Juntas is under reserve forest. are considered to be superior to Madigas and as such both do not draw water from the same well. A couple 10. According to the 1951 Census, the village com of Komati, Muslim and Viswabrahmin houses are prised 112 households residing in 108 houses. The total found in Gollagudem and Nadimigudem. Suprisingly population was 529 with 262 males and 267 females enough the multi-ethnic composition is found only in and the density worked out to 162 per square mile. Telagawada. The residential pattern, in a way, pre The average size of the household was 4.7. During sents unity in diversity (Map III). the 1961 Census, there are 120 households with a popu lation of 576 consisting of 294 males and 282 females Communications and this shows an increase of 47 persons. Due to this 13. There are planned cart paths in the village increase the density of population has also increa1>ed connecting different habitation areas locally known 9S from 162 per square mile in 1951 to 176 in 1961 (Table Gudems. The nearest bus stop is Bellampalle which is 1). The interesting feature is that the females twelve miles away from this village across the hills. outnumbered the males during 1951 Census. The in The double bullock cart locally known as kachadam crease of 47 persons is the result of the immigration is the only means of transport to negotiate the dis of some of the households from various other tance and to transport agricultural produce to the places to eke out their livelihood. But at the time of market and manure to the fields. Bellampalle is further survey conducted in the month of August 1961, there connected by a net work of roads with the taluk, dis are 134 households with a total population of 589 per trict and state headquarters. The Government buses sons (301 males + 289 females) belonging to various provide direct communications to all the neighbouring castes. This village is again resurveyed, canvassing the urban centres. Bellampalle is also a railway station enlarged schedules in respect of all the Thoti house on the Madras-Delhi Central Railway line. The tele holds and in respect of other castes taking one house graph facilities are available at Bellampalle. hold each in a caste having 10 or less number of house holds, 2 households in a caste having 11-20 househOlds Important public places and 3 households for 21-30 households and so 'on by random sampling' method during April 1964. Accord 14. The 1mportant places of public interest are ingly 35 households, belonging to various communities the village deities and the nearest forest locally known of this village have been surveyed. as Pochammaloddi. A crude stone idol of Hanuman, the Monkey-God, who is worshipped as the care taker 11. As many as 22 households are found with and benefactor of livestock, is housed in a thatched four to six members each whereas seven househOlds shed in the Telagagudem. All the Hindu castes worship THE VILLAGE 3 this God in the month of Sravana (July-August) and Mandamarri. The students prosecute their collegiate (~ffer fruits like cocoanuts and plantains. The village education either at Nizamabad or at Hyderabad. deities, namely, Jangubai Pen under a neem tree, There are five kirana shops, including the one in Golla Mahalakshmi under velaga (feronia elephantum) £:udem, which supply the kerosene, tobacco and other tree, Pochamma under takkuLa tree are located near items of grocery. There is no co-operative society of Golla habitation area. The Rajgond deity, Aki Pen lS any type in the village. However, the nearest mark'3t situated in Rajgond habitation area in the south of the ing centre is Bellampalle but the villagers invariably village. Another deity, Pochamma located in the north vilOit the market at Mancheriyal either for selling the west corner under the neem tree, is also worshipped surplus agricultural produce or for purchasing the do by the villagers for protection against smallpox. Bhee mestic requirements as it is the wholesale market of .mana, the benefactor of Rajgonds is housed in a rec this region. All the kirana shop keepers of this village tangular thatched shed in Nadimigudem to the west f,urchase the required articles once in a month at Man of the village. There are two Primary Schools in the cheriyal. The villagers attend the weekly shandy on village, one managed by the Social Welfare Depart Wednesday at Kasipet for the purchase of condiments ment and the other by the Fanchayat Samithi, Man and other domestic requirements. The poorer sections cheriyal, which are located in Rajgond and Golla habi invariably purchase not only their domestic require tation areas respectively. As regards the drinking ments but also the clothes and other necessities there water wells, there are ten private wells in Telagawada, itself. five wells in Nadimigudem, four wells in Gollagudem and six wells in Mannewada, besides one well provi.d Village industries ed in the centre of the village amidst the Telagawada 16. There are no village industries, worth men by the Panchayat Samithi, Mancheriyal, for the use tioning, in this village. There are two Madiga house of the public in the village. Hence there is no scarci ty holds who supply country shoes to the villagers and of drinking water in the village. (Fig. 2 shows a wo in turn they are paid an agreed quantity of corn annu rr.an drawing water from the well). The crematorium ally during the harvest season. in the south of the village at the bottom of Peddagutta is used by the Gollas and a few other castes while the History of the village and settlement of different crematorium in the north on either side of the hill sections of population stream is used by the Rajgond, Manne, Madiga and 17. The history of the village including its name other castes. The seri (farm house) of Sri Pusukuri as narrated by a few Rajgond elders is as follows. Venkatrama Dora of Mandamarri, the feudal lord of Late Sri Challam Kattu and late Sri Madavi Malku this village, is the centre of the public attention where belonging to Rajgond tribe were the first settlers in :ell the village disputes relating to land and other civil this village who came about 100 years ago to eke out disputes are settled or arbitrated by him and his word their livelihood in Pochammaloddi forest. As years is final in any dispute. passed on a few other Rajgond fc'lmilies have also mig Welfare and administrative institutions :rated to this villa,ge to eke out their livelihood through agriculture. From the last fifty years, people 15. The entire village administration is managed of the other castes have slowly immigrated into this by Sri Pusukuri Venkatrama Dora, one of the land village from the neighbouring villages and taluks to lords of Mandamarri villa'ge. He engaged a clerk on a earn their livelihood. Being worldly-wise and cunning nominal monthly salary to collect the land reveaue in their economic dealings with Rajgonds the other annually. The paid manager of the landlord's farm caste Hindus have exploited the Rajgonds ruthlessly house in the village locally known as Sekadar looks and occupied their cultivable lands towards the repay nfter the civil life of the village and he faithfully re Ir;ent of debts. Sri Pusukuri Venkatrama'Dora, belong ports any slightest disturbance in the village to the ir,g to Velama caste at Mandamarri village, has ac landlord. Thus he works as an effective liaison for quired 200 acres of cultivable land. Thus many Raj~ smooth village administration. The landlord is other gond families found it difficult to survive in this vil wise known as Asaldar who is solely responsible to l:lge and emigrated to the forest in the neighbourhood the Government for the collection of the land revenue. to make a tolerable living without being troubled The land revenue collections are made and remitted under the wrath of these money lenders. It is reported in the Sub-Treasury at Lakshettipet by the Clerk on that late Sri Challam Kattu was one among these un behalf of the Asaldar as per the demands fixed by the ie,rtunate emigrants of this village. The Rajgonds popu Tahsildar basing on the village records. This village larly believe that the village was perhaps named as falls under the jurisdiction of Dharmaraopet statutory Malkepalle after late Sri Madavi Malku the first set~ panchayat which was. constituted in March IH59. This tler .of this village. In support of this statement, the village panchayat has neither provided any civic ame descendents of Madavi family are still found living in nities non improved the village sanitation, since its in this village eking out their livelihood through agricul ception. The Social Welfare Primary School, and the ture. When enquired about this popular opinion, the P~nchayat Samithi Primary School provide educational same has been widely acknowledged by people of vari facilities upto V Class. Further educational facilities cus castes in the village. Thus this village has derived are· provided by the Zilla Parishad High School at its name Malkepalle from the late Sri Malku of 4 CHAPTER I Madavi family in Rajgond-tribe. The village has gradu ral heritage and the four phratries including the origin ally developed into a I!lulti-ethnic one as the castes of Gond race. It is doubtless that the narration of the belonging to different occupations migrated to this vil myth by mouth from generation to generation might lage to earn their livelihood by providing necessary have been subjected to many variations, having had services to the village community. been much influenced by the prevailing social cUstO!!ls. Prof. Haimendorf observed: 18. According to the settlement history of dif ferent households, one Birdugond household has been "Guardians of the sacred lore are not the Gonds themselves, but their hereditary residing in this village for more than five generations bards, the Pardhans and Totis, who recite while five Birdugond, two Rajgond and one Madiga at each of the major annual feasts the ap households have settled in the village in between four propriate myths or legends; it is largely and five generations. Twelve households of different the manner of recitation by a principal bard and his two assistants which must be c~.stes are residing in between two and three genera held responsible for their successful trans tions and one household each belonging to Birdugond, mission from father to son." 1 Komati, Netkani and Viswabrahmin has reported its settlement from the last one generation. Ten house This observation is literally true even todaY in this holds of different castes belonging to the present gene Gond region. In the Gond region of Utnur Taluk in ration have recently migrated to this village to eke I.dilabad District almost all the religious bards are out their livelihood (Table 75). All these immigra Pardh:ms whose mother tongue is Marathi whereas the tions are from the rural areas of the State, district and religiOUS bards in the Gond area of Lakshettipet Taluk taluk respectively. Of the 19 immigrant households one are Birdugonds who are otherwise known as Thotis. Goundla household with toddy tapping as main occu Though the origin of Pardhans (also spelt as Pra. pation has migrated from the neighbouring Bombay dhans) still remains to be unknown, they have been state and is continuing the same occupation even in classified as aboriginals of this region. The mode of this village to earn its livelihood. Of the remaining 18 life and their social behaviour with other people is households, 13 are from within the taluk, one from quite different and polished, compared to any tribe in outside the taluk but within the district, besides four this region. The Pradhans have mastered the Gondi from outside the district but within the State. The language to sing the epic and hymns of Rajgonds to three immigrated Birdugond households are continu el:e out their livelihood out of sheer necessity and even ing their main occupation as ritual beggars even now. today the Pradhans claim ritual begging as their tra All the remaining functionar? castes namely Chakali, ditional occupation. On the contrary the Birdugonds Golla, Kummari, Mangali and Viswabrahmin are con claim Gondi as their mother tongue and ritual begging tinuing their caste occupations. The Komati is engag as their traditional occupation. The:' appear to be pri ed in trade while Manne and Muslim households are mitive, unlike Pradhans, and nearer to Rajgonds. The continuing rural 13bour as their main occupation. T..1e Thotis (also spelt as TaUs) like Pradhans, play on Munnurukapu, Netkani and Rajgond households are kingri, the three stringed fiddle, whenever they visit engaf:ed in agriculture. Likewise the padmasale has Rajgond house for ritual begging, besides playing on not changed his occupation of weaving. The reported ceremonial occasions. The Thotis are more akin to reasons for immigration are to live with the relatives Rajgonds in their mode of dress, dietary habits, and in marital alliance and to eke out livelihood (Table 77): the observance of marriage customs, funeral rites and In all, four out of six emigrations are to places out other religiOUS ceremonies than Pradhans. Above all side the district while the remaining two are within the Thotis worship the Rajgond Gods and the clan the district. None of the emigrant households ha V'e system is similar to that of Rajgonds. One is inclined changed their occu!lations. Three households could not to think, in case of Pradhans, that they might have specify the reason for emigration whereas two house ~dopted the Raj,gond phratry due to their intimate and holds have left the village for better prospects viz., one pC'rmanent ties as religious bards and their continuous to take up cultivation and the other to work in collie association for generations with Rajgonds. Moreover, ries. The Birdugond teacher is transferred in the nor the Pradhans have no mythical account of their own mal course of professional transfers (Table 78). The while the Birdugonds narrate the mythical origin of rational inference that one could arrive at is that it their tribe. 'R. V. Russel and others have described if a settled village from the last five generations. the Thotis as a sub-tribe of Pardhans.' ' It is difficult to confirm this statement though these two tribes are Mythical origin of Rajgonds and Thotis iden:ical in their traditional relationship to Rajgonds as ritual beggars. The Thotis of this village consider 19. The socio-cultural and religious life of Raj Pradhans inferior to them in social status and they gonds and, Thotis otherwise known as Birdugonds are co ~ot accept foo~ from .them. The Pradhans are suscep deeply rooted in their mythology which has been hand tIble to changmg theIr traditional occupations ritual ed down from generation to generation by the word begging, in favour of any other for better livin~. The of ~outh. The Rajgond myth, which is told from cen Thotis, consider it as sin to change their role as ances tilnes through innumerable songs, narrates the cuItu- tral bards though they have opportunities for better J. C v. F. Haimendorf. The Raj G d ,rAd'l b d M . 2 C v F H' d '" , on so, I a a, aemlJlan and Co., Ltd, (L()odon' 1948 ) 9n • '.. alme~ or,. op. Cit .• P. 50. . • p. ". THE VILLAGE 5 living. A few Thotis who are agriculturists, are still prisingly enough, Vayudemudu enquired into the rea continuing their traditional occupation and thus pro:: son for not cutting away even this 12th wing for which serve their traditional culture. In addition to this, the Lord Siva agreed to give him the reason of such action Thoti women are traditionally tattooing the Rajgond after some time. When the wounded Vayudemudu was women on the chest, arms and legs and in turn they afterwards flying in the sky, a few blood drops from receive cash or kind for their services. In short, the his body have fallen on Heerabai, the adopted daughter Thoti WOmen proudly proclaim that they are tradi of Homguru while she was taldng bath in the sea. tional tattooers to Rajgonds. A discreet enquiry into Then she sucked these blood drops as a result of which the etymological meaning of the Birdugond reveals she conceived. A few months later she was blessed that birdal in Gondi means ritual begging and as such with a son who was named as Dhanasura as he was they are popularly known as Birdugonds. born out of the blood drops of Vayudemudu. A few years later Dhanasura was married to Adibai and be 20. The Gond system of exogamous phratries and got four sons namely Annesural, Kotisural, Munnursu clans is found among Thotis and each Rajgond had a ral and Kalparsural. These four sons were kept in Thoti of his own clan who plays an important role in different places as per the directions of Revaguru. certain social functions like Pradhans in other hill re gions. The Thotis are alJOwed to move about freely 23. Dhanasura, the guardian at the cave in Raj in the houses of Rajgonds and to participate in all the gond mythology, collaborated with Pahandi Kupar social functions without any reservation whatsoever Lingal, the cultur:ll hero of Rajgonds t6 liberate the whereas the pradhans cannot enjoy such social liber Raj-gond Gods. Afterwards, Pahandi Kupar Lingal took tiC's with Rajgonds. But the Rajgonds do not take food these Rajgond Gods to Porepattardhanagam to estab either in the house of the ThoU or the Pradhan. lish the Sagas and also to establish Persapen, the big 21. The mythology of Thotis, is closely related to God of Rajgonds. Since then the Rajgond Gods have that of Rajgonds which is recorded in detail in the become men. At this juncture, Dhanasura requested village survey monograph of *Bhurnur. However, Pahandi Kupar Lingal about his fate as the latter was there is difference in the mythology narrated by the t(lking away the Rajgond Gods to Porepattardhanagam. Pradhans and Thotis, the ritual beg'gars of Rajgonds On the request of Dhanasura the Pahandi Kupar Lin in this hill region. The Thotis or the Birdugonds come go.l agreed to take the former where he will be en into the Gond mythology when the cultural hero, Pa trusted with some responsibilities. Pah(lndi Kupar Lin handi Kupar Linga! saved the Rajgond Gods from "he gal then wanted a few articles, namely, birdarsalt? cave. Since this stage the version of Pradhans as well (iron rod), birdarkate (bamboo), Chauwur and pen as Thotis is almost similar except for a few negligi1Jle ghagra (zingling bells) for establishing Persapen. On differences. The mythological details of Rajgond Gods the advice of Dhanasura, Pahandi Kupar Lingal ap and Pahandi Kupar Linga! are not given in this con proached Revaguru, with whom the four sons of Dha text as they are irrelevant. Moreover, the Pradhans naS:.Ira were living to seek latter's permission for tak and Thotis are referred to in this mythology only after ing the help of Dhanasur~ons to establish Persapen. the Rajgond Gods were liberated from the cave. /,ccordingly, Munnursural, one of the four sons of Before attempting to present the mythical origin of Dhanasura, was contacted who promised to get the Thotis, it is essential to classify the prevailing contro f:ale (iron rod) provided he is given something in turn versy between Pradhans and Thotis about the role of for his services. Then pahandi Kupar Linga! has readi ancestral religious bards. According to the version of ly agreed to name the iron rod after Munnursural as Pradhans they enter into the Rajgol1d mythology in a birdarsale and also granted a boon that any ritual particular context where the Thotis also figure in. The nmong Rajgonds will not be performed without him. He }:,.resent study of mythology supports more in favour .. f wr.s also arotted a Saga of the Rajgonds so that he Thotis than Pradhans, and this controversy is compre may be the ritual beggar to the same Saga of Raj hensively dealt with in Bhurnur village survey mon:) gonds. Similarly Annesural supplied birdarkate (bam graph. boo) on the sa:ne assuran~e. Likewise Kotisural and 22. The myth relating to Thotis runs thus as nar Kalparsural have supplied chauwur and penghagra rated by Sri Kodimetha Ramu, Sri Kodimetha Jangu, rcspective;y. In order to acquire the cloth to dress Sri Vedama Ramu and a few other elderly Thotis of Pcrsapen, Pahandi Kupar Lingal approached Gopiguru this village. The Thotis (Birdugonds) claim th~ir who used to weave the cloth for Gods. Thus all the descent from Dhanasura who, in Rajgond mythology, required things for the Persapen were acquired and seems to be posted as guardian to the cave where the the Pahandi Kupar Lingal established the Persapen Rajgond Gods are imprisoned. At this stage the myth fc·r each phratry. Then Pahandi Kupar Lingal became presents a different picture. According to Thotis, Pra the Katoda - the priest while Dhanasura became the bhuviranjan gave the world to Lord Siva which was birdal (ritual beggar). Thus the Birdugonds even today then full of water. Lord Siva has cut eleven out of the believe that they are the descendants of Dhanasura. twelve wings of Vayudemudu (God of the wind). Sur- The particulars of Sagas among the Birdugonds as * . SEE A Monograph on Bhurnur. Vol. II, Part VI. Villas. Survey MODos.aphs·Serial No. 40. AodhHl Pradesh.CeoSlH of India ,1961. 6 CHAPTER I granted by Pahandi Kupar Lingal for each of Dhana tattoo marks are known as Nilanji Porth. In return sura's sons are given below. for the services of Heerabai, parvathi granted a boon to the women of Heerabai tribe that they would eke Statement I out their livelihood by tattooing the Rajgonds for generations. From thence the Thoti women tattoo the PARTICULARS OF' SAGAS TIajgond men and women and thereby receive some alms. These Thotis are known as Pachabottollu in Saga granted by Name of 'l'elugu while the Rajgonds call them as Birdiyal Sl. Dhanasura's Pahandi Kupar (ritual beggar). No. son Lingal (1) (2) (3) 25. Pahandi Kupar Lingal, the original player of 1 Munnursural Yedwan Saga guitar, the traditional musical instrument, has handed 2 Annesural Pendivan Saga it over to Dhanasura after establishing the Sagas as 3 Kotisural Secwan Saga the latter has become a ritual beggar. Dhanasura used 4 Kalparsural Nalwan Saga to eke out his livelihood from Ra}gond Gods by play ine on this traditional musical instrument. But it i:; The same Sagas and Fadi are found in Rajgonds. The not found among Pradhans who also claim to be ritual Birdugond of a particular Saga is the ritual beggar bards. The origin of khekri (another musical instn even today to the corresponding Saga among Rajgonds. ment) is also not known to Pradhans though it is play 24. As regards the history of Romguru, it is ed by them. The Thotis believe that Heerabni took an strongly believed by Thotis that all the Gods except avatar and turned into the present khekri, the three Rajgond Gods are born in a flower. Accordingly the stringed instrument. Hence they claim to be the ances Homguru was also born in a flower while Heerabai tlral religious bards to Rajgonds as they possess the guitar, the traditional musical instrument, which has was born out of the water bubble. The Heerabai was been given to them by their forefather Dhanasura. ndopted by Homguru. Thotis further believe that Heerabai, the mother of Dhanasura, tattooed first Giri 26. As regards the other castes in this village, the jal Parvathi, the wife of Lord Siva on the forehead origin and history could not be reported by any house and Kuppal on the reverse side of the left palm. These hold belonging to various castes. Cbapter II THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENT Ethnic composition Golla caste followed by !MIanne, a SchedUled Caste with ]3 persons and Rajgonds, a Scheduled Tribe with 12 The ethnic composition of this village is heteroge persons. The solitary Komati household has 11 persons neous, consisting of three Scheduled Castes, two Sche while the strength of other castes ranged between two duled Tribes and twelve other Hindu castes besides a and eight persons. There are neither sects nor sub-sects Muslim. As mentioned in Chapter I, 35 households of among the Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes as different castes, including all the Thoti households have well as among five other Hindu castes viz., ChakaIi, been selected by stratified random sampling method Kummari, Mangali, Telaga and Viswabrahmin in this ~ccording to communities for the present survey. The village (Table 3). community-wise distribution of population together with sex break-up is given below. 2. Table 4 gives the popUlation of the 35 surveyed households by age group and sex. As many as 73 per Statement II sons (or 41.5%) are children. The adults in the age POPULATION OF SURVEYED HOUSEHOLDS group of 25-59 years numbering 6'5 are numerically strong next to children, followed by 30 persons of 15-24 No. of Population years age group. Four out of eight superannuated per Sl. Name of Castel house- ,----'-----...... sons belong to Birdugond tribe while the remaining No. Tribe/Community holds Persons Males Females four are from Golla, Goundla and Padmasale castes. (6) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Females exceed the males in the age group of 15-24 30 years while the males outnumber the females in all the 1 Birdugonds (S.T.) 14 65 35 2 Chakali 1 2 1 1 other age groups excepting in 60 years and above age 7 3 Golla 3 17 10 group wherein both are equal in number. It is evident 4 Goundla 1 11 6 5 from Table; 5 that as many as 73 persons are not mar 5 Komati 1 5 2 3 ried. Child marriages in this village are only four, 6 Kummari 1 6 5 1 the marriageable age among different castes being bet 3 7 Madiga (S.C.) 1 4 1 ween 15 and 24 years. Of the 87 married persons, 'be 4 8 Mangali 1 7 3 longing to different age groups, as many as 54 married 9 Manne (S.C.) 2 13 8 5 persons are reported in the age group of 25-59 years 10 Munnurukapu 1 4 2 2 followed by 23 in the age group of 15-24 years. There 11 Muslim 1 2 1 1 are eight widowed and .seven divorced persons besides 12 Netkani (S.C.) 1 8 5 3 a male with an unspecified marital status. All the 13 Padmasale 1 5 2 3 divorced cases have occurred in all the age groups ex 14 R:ljgond (S.T.) 3 12 5 7 cept 60 years and above, divorce being recognised soci 15 Telaga 1 5 1 4 ally in almost all the castes in this village. All the 16 Tenugu 1 4 2 2 widowed cases are in the age groups of 25-59 years and 17 Viswabrahmin 1 6 4 2 60 years and above. The absence of widows or wido ,';ers in the early age groups is due to the common TOTAL 35 176 93 83 practice of widow remarriages in almost all the castes S. C. I Scheduled Casto S. T. I Schecluled Tribe in this village. Of the 35 surveyed households, 14 or 40% belong to . 3. Of the 176 persons covered by survey, 34 are Birdugonds or Thotis. Three households each belong lIterates and the remaining are illiterates. There are ing to Golla caste and Rajgond tribe are there besides no literates among 7 castes viz, Chakali, Golla, Kum two Manne households of Scheduled Caste and one mari, Madiga, Munnurukapu, Netkani and Tenugu. household each of 12 other Hindu castes besides one These 34 literates consist of 27 males and 7 females. Muslim household. The females out-number the males Three Birdugonds and one Padmasale are literates among Komati, Madiga, Mangali, Padmasale and Te without any educational standard while the remaining laga castes and Gond tribe of this village. Except one thirty consisting of 24 males and six females are lite Muslim household, all the remaining 34 households vi rates with primary educational standard. As many as different castes are Hindus. Of these 34 Hindu house 13 out of 30 literates with primary educational stan holds, 17 (50 %) belong to Scheduled Tribes. There are dard belong to Birdugonds. The female literates are four households belonging to three Scheduled Castes found only in Telagas, Muslims and Birdugonds. This with a total population of 25 persons (14 males and 11 low percentage of literacy is due to the fact that the females). Thus 21 out of 35 households (60%) belong parents prefer their children to pick up their caste to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Table 83). occupations even from their childhood rather than send Next to Thotis as many as 17 persons are reported in them for education. More number of literates are found 8 CHAPTER II in the age groups of 0-14 and 15-24 years respectively min purohit of Tandur officiates over the Golla marri which shows that the younger generation have realised ages in this villa,ge and all the caste disputes are set the value and the need for education (Tables 6 and 7). tled by the Peddagolla along with a few caste elders. All the heads of households in this village are males. They worship all the Hindu deities namely Pochavva, Nine out of 35 household heads are literates belonging Mahalakshmi and Hanuman in this village. The Hindu to one each of Goundla, Komati, Manne, Padmasale, festivals like Sankuratri, Ugadi and Diwali are per Telaea, Viswabrahmin castes and Muslim community formed by them. They accept food in the houses of and two to Birdugond tribe. Thirty out of the 35 house Kapu, Komati, Ayyavar, Velama, Brahmin and Kum hold heads are in the age group of 25-59 years, three mari households in the village or in the neighbour are aged 60 years and above while only one Birdugond hood. As regards social status, they rank above the and one Muslim of below 25 years of age are found Chakali, and Mangali castes. None of the Golla house heading a house each (Table 8). holds have reported about their origin. All the Golla households are living in this village since two or three Description of communities generations. 4. A brief description of each community living in this village is given below in the order of their Manne numerical strength. 7. Manne is one among the three Scheduled Birdugo'llds Castes in this village with a population of 13 persons. The traditional occupation of people of Manne caste is 5. The Birdugonds with fourteen households are agricultural labour. They have settled in this village numerically predominant among the surveyed house some two or three generations ago. There are no sects holds (Figs. 3 & 4 show a Birdugond man and woman and sub-sects among them in this village. Inti peru respectively). A detailed account of the origin of this (surname) is the criteria to settle marital alliances in tribe is given in Chapter I. Almost all the households this caste. The Peddamala officiates over their marri gre engaged in ritual begging, their traditional occu ages. The caste disputes are also settled by Pedda pation, though they are not content with this occu mala with the assistance of a few caste elders. They pation. Being unable to make both ends meet with the treat Madigas, another Scheduled Caste as untouch income from the traditional occupation, three house ables and they do not draw water from the same well. hGlds have changed over to rural labour and attached They do not accept food from Madiga, Medari and Bir agricultural labour and the re:!:laining eleven house dugonds who are called by them as Chukkabottollu. l,olds are continuing their traditional occupation. The However, Madigas in general are considered as lower n.arriage ceremony is officiated by Devari of GO'1d in social status to those of Manne caste as the former tribe or by the elderly person of their own tribe. The eat beef. People of the Manne caste worship all the tErms Birdugonds, Thotis and Pachabottollu are syn Hindu village deities and animal sacrifice is \n vogue. onyms in this area. The mother tongue of this tribe is Gondi and they are Hindus by religion. They also Rajgonds Li=-eak Urdu and Telugu which are also spoken in this 8. Gonds or Rajgonds are among the two Sche ,illage. Besides worshipping their Gond Gods, they also worship Hanuman and other Hindu Gods and per duled Tribes in this village. In the order of numerical strength the three Gond households with a popUlation form Hindu festivals. 'They enjoy social status a little of 12 persons occupy the fourth place. They know their lower to that of Rajgonds. The ThoU women tattoo not mythology through the Birdugonds who are their ritual only the Rajgond men and women but also people ot bards. Like Birdugonds, the Gonds have got four ether castes. The women :1lso work hand in hand with Sagas and the inter-Saga marriages are permitted. The their men in casual labour or agricultural labour to Iliarriage is officiated by Patel of their own tribe. The earn their livelihood. They do not accept food from tribal elders decide all their disputes relating to di- Chakali, Mangali, padmasale and Muslim castes and . vorce and other minor civil disputes. The Gonds are the Scheduled Castes of this village. traditional agriculturists and are continuing it even Golla now. Besides worshipping the tribal deities, they also worship the Hindu deities and also perform the Hindu 6. The traditional occupation of Gollas is sheep festivals. They do not dine in the houses of Velama, and goat rearing. Besides following their traditional Padmasale, Birdugond, Muslim and Scheduled Castes. ocr;upation, they are engaged in agriculture which is Gonds are superior to any other tribe in this region. the main subsidiary occupation. There are three Golla households with 17 persons. Fig. 5 shows an old Golla Goundla man in his traditional dress. The five important sects among Golla caste are Yerragolla, Kannagolla, Paka 9. Goundlas are toddy tappers in this region. Be natigolla, Mushtigolla and Muditagolla and the Golla sides the traditional occupation of toddy tapping, their households of this village belong to Yerragolla sect. main subsidiary occupation is agriculture. They consi Inter-dining is permitted among these five sects but der to be superior to Chakali and Mangali castes. In inter-sectarian marriages are not permitted. The Blrah- Gowda Purana it is mentioned that they have migrated THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 9 from Benaras and other parts of northern India whose she has become Kanakammoru who is their ilavelpu traditional occupation is manafacture and sal Ii! of in (family deity). There are 101 gotras among Yegini toxicating country liquors. The two sects in this caste sect. Out of these gotras, the Labhasetti gotram has are Vibhuthidars (Saivites) and Tirumandars (Vaish been extinguished for which reasons could not b~ navites). The Vibhutidars apply sacred ash to their given by him. The eldest member of the Labhasetti foreheads while the Vaishnavites decorate their gotram at the time of extinction told the other gotras foreheads with three perpendicular lines of tirumani to re1"lember him by saying 'labham' for the first mea (white paste) and sreechurnam (red paste). These sure of produce instead of counting it as numerical marks on the forehead indicate the sect to which they 'one' while conducting the business. It is a popular belong. The Brahmin purohit officiates over their mar belief among them that they get profit only if the first riages. The marriages are contacted within the same rr,easure is called as labham. The informant could not sect and inti peru is the criteria to contract marriages. tell the origin of other gotras in this caste. Sagotra The inter-sectarian marriages are also permitted in rr.arriages are prohibited. The Brahmin purohit of Tan this caste. The surveyed household of' Goundla caste cur officiates over the marriages in this caste. The belongs to Vibhutidar sect. widow remarriage is permitted but the divorce is not accepted in this caste. The Komatis of this village are Netkani exclusively vegetarians. All the Hindu festivals are performed and all the Hindu Gods are worshipped by 10. It is a Scheduled Caste, higher in social st:1- them. tus than Madiga caste. The traditional occupation of tbs caste is weaving but the present household is en gaged in agriculture since one generation. The main Padmasale subsidiary occupation is agriculture besides working 12. Padmasale is one among the artisan castes in as Sekhsindu (village servant). No sects have been this village. This household has migrated to this vil reported in this caste. While contracting marriages lage forty years back from Repalle village of Lakshet they avoid persons of the same surname as they are tipet Taluk of the same district to eke out its liveli considered brothers and sisters. The Kulapedda offici hood through its traditional occupation. The traditional ates over marriages and the caste disputes are also occupation of this caste is weaving which has been settled by him with the co-operation of a few caste given up since four years due to old age. The main elders. They do not accept food from the people of occupation of this household is now agriculture with Thoti, Mangali and Madiga castes. All the Hindu vil casual labour as subsidiary occupation. Marriages are lo.ge deities are worshipped and the Hindu festivals are contracted between persons of different surnames and also performed. Animals are sacrificed in appeasement the Brahmin purohit officiates over the marriages. The of the Goddess Pochavva. caste panchayat settles all the caste disputes. The Pad masales enjoy more or less the same social status along Komati with the other functionary castes in this village. The 11. Komati, Baniya and Vaisya are synonyms and Vibhutidar and Tirumandar are the two sects in this caste. The Padmasales of this viJlage belong to Tiru their traditional occupation is trade. They are also the mandar (Vaishnavaite) sect. Inter-sectarian marriages li!Oney lenders in this village. All the Komati house Lolds of this village belong to yegini sect and all of are not usually permitted but it is not strictly follow them have migrated to this village twenty-five years ecl now-a-days. They take food in the Brahmin, Ko mati, Kapu, Velama, Golla and Kummari households. back from the neighbouring taluk to eke out their livelihood through trade. This caste has four sects They are Hindus by religion. Animal sacrifice is also in vogue. r.amely Yeginikomati, Dudikomati, Netikomati and f.ravakomati. Neither inter-marriages nor inter-dining is permitted among these sects. The traditional occu TeZaga pation of all these sects is trade or business and ev~n 13. Telaga is an agricultural caste and the tradi touay it is their main occupation. Sri Van gala Bou tional occupation is cultivation. This household has dayya of Yegini sect narrated the following incident migrated to this village seven years back from Mall relating to the origin of Yegini sect. A few centuries cheriyal to eke out its livelihood through priesthood. ago a king fe:l in love w·ith a beautiful Komati girl The head of the household is popularly known as Ay who refused 'to take his hand. Afraid of the conse yavaru as he married a woman born of Sathani woman quences resulting from her refusal she got prepared an and a Brahmin man. All the caste people consult this agnigundam (fire pit) with fuel and a few tins of ghee Ayyavaru as he knows to refer the almanac for an to commit suicide. Before jumping into the fire pit, auspicious time to start the marital negotiations and she proclaimed that those, who join with her in this other ritual ceremonies. He is at present earning his sacred enterprise, will be known as Yeginikomati and h,'elihood through priesthood and casual labour. Dur those, that' fear and run away will be known by the ing the period under survey; he worked for some time r.:,_mes of other sects. The Komatis who followed h?r as a teacher. The sagotra marriages are prohibited. No with courage in that brave deed, :.lre known as Yegini sects have been reported in this caste. In case the komatis. It is a strong belief among these Komatis that gotra is not remembered, inti peru (surname) is con- 10 CHAPTER II sldered for settling the marital alliance as the persons dIga maiden). Neither sects nor sub-sects are reported of common surname are not allowed to marry. It is a in this caste. As in the case of people of Manne caste, solitary case of inter-caste marriage. H~ worshi~s all the Peddamadiga officiates over the marriages. The the Hindu Gods and celebrates all the Hmdu festlVals. caste disputes are settled by the Peddamadiga with TI:e Brahmin priest officiates over the marriages of this the assistance of a few caste elders. The Madigas wor caste. ship Pochamma and Mahalakshmi deities and perform all Hindu festivals. The Hanuman is also worshipped Munnurukapu l'y them. Inti peru (surname) plays an important role in settling marital alliances. The persons of the same 14. Kapus being a land holding and cultivating surname are prohibited to marry as they are consider caste, are agriculturists from times immemorial. !he ed as brothers and sisters. The shoes and other leather term 'Kapu' in Telugu means to watch and they mIght goods required by the agriculturists are supplied by have been the watchmen of the cultivable lands in them and they are in turn paid in paddy or in jowar olden days. Now-a-days they are the cultivating class. at the time of harvest by the farmer. As regards the Fig. 6 shows a Munnurukapu coupl~. Most of them de social status, they occupy the lowest status among the pend on agriculture for their livelihood from genera conmunities of this village. The interesting feature is tions and as such they are the eXp€rt cultivators. The that untouchability is practised among these two un bousehold under the present survey reports its tradi touchable castes namely 'Manne and Madiga. Both of tional occupation as agriculture but the contemporary them do not draw water from the same well and do main occupation is casual labour. The Gurat~ and .Mun not dine together. The Madigas sacrifice animals ta nuru are the two sects among this caste. NeIther mter propitiate the Goddess Pochavva. marriage nor inter-dining is permitted among th~se two sects though they are one and the same to all m tents and purposes. The inti peru is the criteria to Chakali, Kummari, Mangali and Viswabrahmin settle the marital alliances and entering into marital 17. The functionary castes like Chakali, Kummari, alliances between persons of the same surname is pro Mangali and Viswabrahmin are engaged in their res hibited. They worship all the Hindu deities of this vil pective caste occupations such as washing of clothes, lage and perform all the Hindu festivals. The Brahmin pottery, hair dressing and smithy. All these caste purohit officiates over their marriages. As regards t~e people have migrated to this village in the present social status in this village they are ranked above tne generation to eke out their livelihood by providbg Viswabrahmin and other functionary castes. The house their essential services to the communities in the vil hold under the present survey belongs to Munnuru lage. In return to their services they are paid either sect. in cash or in kind as agreed upon by them. No sects Tenugu have been reported in anyone of these castes and inti peru (surname) plays an effective role to settle the 15. Fishing and sale of vegetables constitute the marital alliances. The Viswabrahmins claim to be traditional occupation of this caste but the main occu superiors over other functionary castes. Fig. 8 shows pation of this household at present is casual la.bour. a Viswabrahmin couple. The head of this household is residing in this VIllage for the last two generations. He belongs to Tirumandar Muslim (Vaishnavite) sect. Even in this caste inti peru (sur name) is taken into consideration for settling the mar~ 18. The local Muslims are known as Dudekulas. tal alliance. The inter-sectarian marriages are prohl They profess Islam religion and belong to Shaik sect. bited in this caste. The Vibhutidar and Tirumandar They trade in meat and skins. The head of the house are the two sects in this caste. Like any other Hindu hold under survey has reported his traditional occupa caste they worship Hindu Gods and perform Hindu tion as a clerk in a kirana shop but the contemporary festivals. This caste enjoys equal social status with main occupation of the head of the household is tailor~ that of any other agricultural caste. They will not ,ilc ing. He migrated from Bada Bonkulu village in Sui ccpt food from the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes tanabad Taluk of Karimnagar District to eke out his and other functionary castes. Marriages are officiated livl2lihood two years back on the assurance given by either by a Brahmin purohit or a Viswabrahmin puro tis relative residing in the neighbouring village. The hit. There is no Caste Panchayat for this .caste in this ~arriages are invariably contracted within the sect village. and inter-sectarian marriages are prohibited. They do Madiga not participate in the Hindu festivals and perform their own festivals with all pomp and show. The Khazi 16. Madiga is a Scheduled caste in this village officiates over the marriages and the traditional pay whose traditional occupation is shoe-making, the sub n:ent of mahar to the bride is in vogue. They eat meat sidiary occupation being agricultural labour. There are excepting pork. They are treated on the same social a few households with agriculture as their main occu plane as the functionary castes in this village. They pation. The Madigas are residing in this village from do not draw water from the well used by the Madigas thct last four or five generations. (Fig. 7 shows a Ma- and Malas. THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 11 House types picious and the family and the cattle are believed to prosper. A few other Hindu castes consult the Brah 19. The houses constructed by different castes in nom to fix up the auspicious time for drawing the cluding Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes do not house plan on the site with lime powder which is significantly vary either in design or in accommoda lcnown as buggi poyuta and they follow the latter'li tion (Fig. 9 shows a general view of the housing pat direction faithfully. tern). The plinth area of the house varies from house to house depending on the individual taste and econo 21. After the selection of house site, the house mic resources. All the houses in this village irrespec construction work is taken up on Monday or Wednes tive of the community and econo~ic status are thatch day or Friday in any of the months of Magha, Phal· ed and the type of the house is decided by the type guna, Chaitra and Vaisakha by the Scheduled Castes of the roof. All the houses are roofed with rellu gaddi, and other lower castes in this village. The agricultural a type of roofing grass, available in abundance in the castes and other artisan castes consult the Brahmin nearby Pochammadoddi forest and as such the houses purohit at Tandur or any other person, who can refer ~lre called as gaddHlu otherwise known as jadiron'tl the almanac for fixing up the auspicious day for start among Gonds and Birdugonds (Fig. 10). There is one ing the house construction work. The foundation cere gudise type of house belonging to Netkani. Except one mony is known as sankasara among the Birdugonds Birdugond and the solitary Muslim household residing end as sankuwatmad among Rajgonds. A forked post in cattle sheds as many as twenty-five houses are pro locally known as gunja is smeared with turmeric and vided with two slopes and seven houses with four decorated with vermilion. A little of jowar, jeediginjall.l slopes. The only Goundla house is covered with and two brass coins are tied in a piece of new cotton palmyrah leaves and grass and is having two slopes cloth, smeared with turmeric which is known as ginda. (Table 80). This ginda is tied to one part of the forks of the post known as chevi and then this decorated gunja is usual Selection of house site ly fixed in the north-east corner of the house or in the corner where the oven is proposed to be construct 20. As many as nine out of the seventeen commu ed. In this connection all the persons present on the nities viz, Viswabrahmin, Tenugu, Mangali, Chakali, occasion are served with bottu (i.e., applying venni Manne, Golla, Goundla, Birdugond and Rajgond have lion on the foreheads) by the house builder. Likewise consulted either Sri Kanchara Venkaiah of Viswabrah the laying of foundation stone is known as sankuv( 18 ft.; and 24 ft. X 24 ft. for the construction day in any of the months of Sati (November-Decem of houses. The cattle sheds are always located close bel') , Cnaitra (March-April) and Bhava (April-May). to the residential portion of the house and they are On the day of conducting this test, the house builder invariably constructed in front of the main living house cleans and smears the central portion of the proposed among Golla and other agricultural communities. The .house site with dung and facing west keeps two jeedi gunjalu of 6 feet height ar~ fixed in all the four cor ginjalu one Over the other on the cleaned site. While ners and one or ·two gunjalu are also fixed in between keeping these jeediginjalu, he prays Bhudevi (Mother the corner posts to support the beams known as dulal1L Earth) and Lord Sankara to bless him on this occasion. if necessary, both lengthwise and breadthwise. Over Afterwards it is covered with gulla or topHi (bamboo these dulalu thick wooden rafters MOwn as pattilu are basket) for protection, against any disturbance during placed breadthwise near each of the gunjas. Then two the night. If the jeediginjalu are found undisturbed thin beams are fixed on the cross beams, leaving the until the following morning the, site is considered aus- corner beams on either side while the other ends of 12 CHAPTER II these thin beams are connected by a peeta. Over room of the new house. Afterwards he cooks food this peeta the central beam known as yenugarra which he eats in the house itself. Then the house is placed and then the thin long beams known as builder sacrifices a goat and offers non-vegetarian mulavasalu are placed on all the four corners connect feast to all people of his caste and other Hindus in ing one end of it to yenugarra and the other on cross this village. It is a belief that a minimum of five per beams. Likewise the vasalu are placed at an interval sons should be treated to a :feasty food in the new of half foot length-wise and tied with country ropes bouse on this occasion. Irrespective of the caste, the on either end. Afterwards the long bamboo splinters new house is decorated with festoons of green leaves are tied breadthwise at an interval of a foot with and rangavaUi is also drawn with chodi or lime flour thin ropes or with palmyrah fibre. Then the roof IS in the front yard and in the rooms of the house. Both thatched with locally available teHa gaddi. The gunjalu the house builder and the house wife take head bath are of teak, nalla maddi (terminalia ,glabra) and san and get dressed in neat clothes. A few well-to-do dra wood whereas the thin long wooden beams of families wear new cotton clothes on this occasion, pre nana maddi (terminalia glabra), kodisa chenangi and sented by parents-in-law. People of all castes take par teak are used as vasalu in the construction o:f the ticular care to enter the house by placing first the right house. The slope of the roof on both the sides of the foot in as it is believed auspicious. The bad omens yenugarra is such that the ends fall to a height of four such as sneezing, a widow crossing across, a person or five feet from the ground and it also provides a carrying empty pots and fuel are particularly avoided convenient slope to drain the rain water. As many a, by the Hindus when one is about to start to perform 30 houses are provided with thick bamboo wattled the auspicious functions. A few Hindu castes like Ko walls without mud plaster inside the house while those mati, Viswabrahmin, and Telaga perform Satyanara of one Birdugond household are plastered with a mix yana Vratham on this occasion. ture of dung and mud. The two mud walled houses are owned by Manne and Viswabrahmin castes. Many 23. The expenditure on house-warming ceremm1Y inhabitants of this village prefer to construct the walls varies from household to household depending on the with bamboo tatties as bamboo is abundantly available socio-economic status of the house owner. Reliable en in the nearby forest whereby the cost of construction quiries reveal that the expenditure varies from a if, significantly cheap to any other better type of house minimum of Rs. 10 to a maximum of Rs. 100 in this in this remote place (Table 81). The cost of construc villalge. tion of the house depends mainly on the size of the 24. All the Muslims of this village are recent im house and the type of wood used. It varies between migrants and none o:f them have constructed a house. Rs. 50 to Rs. 350. The head of the surveyed household reports that no ceremonies are observed like Hindus. It is a custom House-warming ceremony among Muslims to sacrifice a ram or goat or a fowl, 22. The house-warming ceremony is very simple depending on the economic status of the house owner and mostly informal among Rajgond and Birdugonds. while entering into the new house and this is called The expenditure on this day usually varies depending zuba among them. On this occasion a non-vegetarian on the socia-economic status of the house-builder. This feast is arranged to all the people of the community function, known as punaron nengmadu among Rajgond including relatives and friends. and Birdugonds, is performed on Monday or Wednes day or Friday soon after com!)leting the house con Housing material struction. In this connection all the tribal people are treated to a vegetarian feast in the new house. People 25. The required roofing grass and timber for the of the Scheduled Castes also perform this function on construction of the houses in this village is procured Monday or Wednesday or Friday by offering vegeta from the nearby forest. The villagers, irrespective of rian food to five of their respective caste people in caste and tribe, pay Rs. 5 to Rs. 20 to the local forest the new house. Almost all the other castes perform official depending on the quantity of wood required the house-warming ceremony in a most informal way for the construction of the house to gain access into and no appreciable difference is reported from that d the forest. The hired labour besides family labour is Scheduled Tribes and Castes except consulting the engaged to collect the required housing material well Brahmin purohit at Tandur to fix up an auspicious ahead of the construction of the house. In spite 01 the day. As regards Padmasale and Golla castes, the rigid enforcement of forest conservancy laws, the vil house-builder along with his wife and kurati kunda lagers could go :freely into the forest for their require enters the new house on the auspicious day fixed by ments provided some amount either in kind or in cash the Brahmin purohit or by the local person who can io- paid to the Chowkidar. Even the tribals, who are refer the almanac. Four or five people of the caste are supposed to have the freedom to collect the housing treated to vegetarian food in the new house. The house material free, are paying the money annually to the warming ceremony is locally known as kotta intloki local forest official out of fear. It has almost become povadam or gruhapravesam. In case of Mangali, the a customary payment to the Chowkidar. The door Brahr,!in purohit at Tandur performs puja on an aUs frames and doors are prepared by the local Vadla Vkious day and s,rinkles the sacred water in every (carpenter) on the supply of raw material by the THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 13 house owner. A few purchased them either from Man provide both an entrance and an exit for the conve C'heriyal or from Bellampalle. nience of the household members and no significance is attached to this practice. A mud platform of ! foot Use and maintenance of houses height and of one foot to one and a half feet width of required length is constructed by the side of the oven 26. The houses constructed by all the caste people for keeping the water pots and cooked food vessels,. are independent structures. As many as 17 houses of etc. A number of chikkalu (slings) made of cocoanut cifferent castes have kept their main threshold in the or palmyrah fibre are hung from the vasalu of the north locally known as gangadikku (direction of roof to keep the cooked food stuffs, milk and milk Ganga) while 12 houses have faced their main doors products and other eatables for protection against cats towards east locally referred to as poddudikku (direc and rats. tion of sun rise). One household each among Manne, Munnurukapu and Birdugond has kept its main door 27. The accommodation available for different facing south and no house faces west as it is consider households of different castes can by no means be con ed inauspicious by all the castes. In all, three house sidered as adequate. In all 14 houses are having one holds have not given the particulars as they do not room which is on average shared by more than five cwn houses. In short, the various castes and tribes in persons including young and old and irrespective of this village consider east, north and south as the aus the sex. Thirteen houses have two rooms each accom picious -directions for the main threshold to face. If modating sixty-one persons, four houses of three rooms the house is provided only with a single room, it is each are accommodating twenty-five persons and one house with four rooms provides shelter for five per n~ade into two convenient parts with a bamboo tatty, one for the kitchen and the other for living purposes. sons. The three houses with no regular rooms ha ve A few have constructed two or three rooms, depend also accommodated twelve persons. In short, three inl, on the necessity. In such cases the kitchen and the persons on an average share one room in between living room are separated by bamboo tatties leaving a themselves and livestock, if any, and the accommoda tion becomes all the more meagre when the household space of four to five feet for passage in between them. In cases of houses with three or four rooms, one room goods, grains and other necessities are also to be pre each is kept separately for kitchen, store and main served in the same space, besides inmates. Thus the living room besides one room for sitting p'urposes ·.)r present accommodation is, on the whole, not only con for tying cattle dolring the rainy and wint~r seasons. gested but also provides no privacy for domestic life A few people construct two independent structures one (Table 79). As many as 19 houses are exclusively used for residence, whereas 15 houses are used both behind the other with two rooms each leaving a pass for residence and tethering the cattle. The solitary age space of 3 feet to 5 fect in between these two Komati is using his house as residence-cum-shop structures. In such type of houses the two rooms in (Table 82). the rear side structure are used as kitchen and main living room whereas the other two rooms in the fro11t 28. Most of the houses are provided with bamboo structure are used for store and cattle or for sitting tatty walls and wattle walls, plastered with a mixture purposes. The houses of four rooms with two indepen of dung and mud. Though there are no wall decora dent structures are most commonly found among the tions worth mentioning, a few houses are decorated agriculturists and the people of Golla caste who with line drawings like flowers and trees. All the e\'ince more interest in their cattle wealth. Almost houses are provided with mud flooring and as such all the houses are provided with lofts over the cross the houses are daily swept thrice and bedaubed with leams with thin wooden beams or bamboos. The loft thick mixture of red earth and dung once or twice in locally known as atika is used to store the seed, agri r: week depending on the convenience of the house cultural implements, etc., and a bamboo ladder is used wife, besides plastering on the festive occasions. People to gain access into this loft. The rOOms are locally of Komati, Munnurukapu, Padmasale, Viswabrahmin, known as angadam. The houses are provided neither 'l'elaga and Tenugu castes plaster their houses thrice with ventilators nor with windows. Majority of the in a week and decorate it with lime lines. The dung houses are provided with bamboo doors locally known water is sprinkled daily or on alternate days in the as tatty which is made of thin bambOO ribs. A few front yard of the house and in the sides of homestead houses are provided with wooden door frames and area. The daily sweep and other waste material is doors which are either locally made by the Vadla (car collected in a pit in the back yard of the house or a penter) of the village or purchased at Mancheriyal or little away from the homestead area and this rubbish Bellampalle which they visit now and then for selling is used as manure in the agricultural fields. The hearth their surplus agricultural produce. The villagers in i3 cleaned daily in the morning hours of the day by variably prefer teak wood for door frames and doors all the Hindus and people of a few upper castes smear as it is not only durable" but also available in plenty the hearth with dung water. The houses with wattled ill the Pochammaloddi forest. Almost all the Birdu walls, plastered inside, are white-washed for Dasara gond houses are provided with a single entrance while and Diwali festivals. All the houses are rethatched 1hQ Rajgonds have constructed both an entrance and after attending to minor repairs of the roof once in a an exit facing each other. All the other Hindu castes year before the onset of monsoon in the latter part of 14 CHAPTER II May. The charge~ for rethatching varies from Rs. 3 tying it round the waist, under the saree. Any torn in one of the Birdugond households to a maximum of old piece of the saree is used for this purpose and it Rs. 40 in a Manne hOLsehold. One Birdugond house is known as gochi. The women wear the saree in such hold has spent Rs. 100 for the replacement of roof and a way that it covers both the lower and upper portions rethatching of the house. The average expenditure of of the body. The saree is tied round the waist and one a moderate house for annual repairs varies between end of it is wound into several folds and tucked in the Rs. 15 and Rs. 50 as the roofing grass has to be pur front and a corner of the saree is taken in between the chased, besides engaging hired labour for this work. legs and tucked tightly in the back while the other E·nd is taken over the left hand shoulder to cover th.~ Hygiene breast. Thus the saree is worn in a Maharashtrian f2.shioI\ by all women. The working class women wear 29. There are no bath rooms and lavatories in the the saree in the same manner above their knees and houses but two bore-hole type of lavatories are pro the kongu is tied round their waist without covering vided in the fann house of Dora, the landlord of this the breast. The women of any caste either young or village. Men take bath either in the morning or in the old are not habituated to wearing either petticoats or evening near the well. Many of them take bath duri~g bodices locally known as badilu. The young women in the rainy season in the nearby stream flowing in the Viswabrahmin caste have recently begun to wear north of the village. The women take bath late in the bodice. The working class women use footwear during evenings or under cover of the roof or when the men the summer season. The moderate cost of the female are out on work. All persons irrespective of sex go to dress varies between Rs. 12 and Es. 18 per annum. the neighbouring fields along with a tumbler of water The Muslim women wear a lunga upto the ankles to to answer the calls of nature and the women particu cover the lower portion and ravika to cover the upper larly choose places behind the trees or a low depression portion of the body. The girls aged below 10 years for privacy. wear frocks and cheddies while the grown up girls ",.rear langalu (petticoats) to cover from the waist up Dress and footwear to the ankles and jackets to cover the upper portion 30. The dress of the villagers is not only simple of the body. The boys of below twelve years of age but also accords with the climatic conditions and wear lagulu (knickers) and angilu (shorts) (Fig. 13). serves the requirements of the daily life. The dress If the boys are engaged as attached agricultural lab worn by different castes and tribes do not differ much ourers they wear small dothis upto the knees and from those of the other castes of the neighbouring vil banians. A few Birdugond youths are now-a-daY3 lages. They prefer handloom clothes as they are dnr we:1ring pants and modern slack shirts. The garments able and cheap. The male dress usually consists of a st:ch as blouses, banians and shirts are stitched locally dhoti of 4 yards 'in length, a shirt, a banian and a tur by the Muslim tailor for a nominal rate varying in ban of 2! yards to 3 yards or a long towel. All men between 0.25 P. to Re. 1. The readymade garments wear dhoti in such a way that it covers from the waist for children are purchased at the weekly shandy ill Ulyto the ankles by tying it round the waist and one Kasipet or Mancheriyal as they are cheaper than the end of the dhoti is wound into several folds and tuc::',, locally stitched ones. ed in ~e front while the other end of the dhoti is 32. It is not custOlf'.ary to wear special dress for taken in between the legs and tucked in the back over any festival by the different castes in the village. Al- the hips which is known as gochi. The working class 1:'10st all the caste people wear new cotton clothes 011 men and women and the agriculturists wear clothes Dasara festive day if they can afford to purchase. ahove their knees when they are at work. A few agri Otherwise the washed clothes are worn on this festive eultural labourers do not wear ~my upper garments at c1~y. Enquiries revealed that no special dress is wOtn all. The Muslims wear lungis and shirts and a few of for any festival by people of Viswahrahmin, Munnuru them also wear pyjamas and shirts. The men eith~r kapu, and Tela·ga castes. The annual dress require old or young are not habitl!ated to wearing the unde::-~ ments of the household members are usually purchas wear. All men irrespective of caste wear country shoes ed on festive occasions so that it serves the double ll~ade by the local cobbler belonging to Madiga caste. purpose. Even for weddings the bride and the bride Fig. 11 shows the old style of dress while Fig. 12 shows groom are dressed in new cotton clothes but a little the modern dress pattern. costlier than those purchased for ordinary use. Am~mg Mllslims the traditional costume made of cotton cloth 31. The women of different castes wear sarees of is worn by the bridegroom. Though there is no special 8 yards or 9 yards in length and tight fitting blouses dress for mourning, the widow wears a white saree lucally known as ravika. The Gond and Birciugond aqd a blouse on the obsequies day among Goundla, women do not we?r choU or bodice except on the occa Chakali, Telaga, Tenugu, Komati, Madiga and Golla sion of Dhandari dance or when they visit the neigh cnstes which is presented by her father or brother. The bouring village. The saree is locally known as cheera v:idowers among Goundla, Chakali, Tenugu and Golla or koka among different castes but it is known as kap-' castes are presented with a panchi (dhoti) on the ob pidi among the Birdugonds. Women of all castes we<1T sequies day by his father-in-law or the brother-in-law. a piece of loin cloth in between the legs firmly whHe This custom is not strictly followed by all the house- THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENT .." bolds even in the above said castes. Among Birdu~ called as mudda among Rajgond and Birdugonds. gonds the presentation of a white saree on the obse These are purchased for 50 P. per pair in the week1y quies day to the widow by her father or brother is still shandy of Kasipet. Mattelu are not worn by widows. observed by a few households. It is slowly given up due to their frequent contacts with other urban peo Ornaments of the hands and fi1t1lers ple. The widows are now-a-days wearing coloure1 sarees and bl.ouses, thus slowly giving a go by to the 36. (a) Tikale and mudde are the silver finger traditional custom. rings with or without the coins Rajgond women and otner caste women of the village would follow them to the other world. As regards Bir l-esides the marriage locket. Widows are prohibited to dugonds or Thotis or Pachabottollu, the women are the use the black beaded neeklace as also the marriage traditional tattooers for Rajgond and Pradhans of this locket (Fig. 16). region. It is a strong belief among Thotis that a ThoU woman becomes eligible for marriage only after the Ornaments of the nose and the ear tattoo marks are made on her forehead and on the re verse of the left palm. The men go in for tattOOing to 38. (a) The gold ornament, be sari studded with be relieved of the pains at the joints of the body. ..."hite stones is worn on the nostrils. The gold one Every unmarried women of Rajgond and Birdugond costs Rs. 15 to Rs. 45 while the brass one costs 0.25 P. must have the tattoo marks locally known as Nelenji to 0.50 P. at Kasipet weekly shandy. Poddu (Moon and Sun) withoet fail on the forehead (b) Mukkupulla is another type of nose ornament lest the marriage, according to their custom, will not !hade of gold, studded with white stones including one be performed. red stone in its centre. The brass one is purchased in 41. Both Thoti men and women attend to tattoo the weekly shandy at Kasipet for 0.65 P. or Re. 1 per ing by visiting the villages in this region at least twice Dair. The gold ones are prepared by the local gold in a year (Fig. 17). They are paid from 12 P. to 50 P. smith. d~pending on the design. The tattooing, once a chief (c) Ganteelu are the ring like ornaments made cf subsidiary occupation for Thotis is not quite encour either gold or silver which are worn in the helix of [,ging now-a-days. Though the Raj'gond and other hoth the ears. Each helix is decorated with four ga'(1. castes are still taking up tattooing they are not pay teelu or pogulu. ing so lIberally as before. Hence many of the Thoti women have given up their visits to the villages of (d) Pogulu, ornamental gold rings are worn in this region and are at present, working as agricultural the lobe of the ear. The brass poguht are purchased ~nd casual labourers in and around the villages. Dth' at Kasipet shandy for 0.50 P. per pair. ing the slack season, however, a few Thoti wo.m::m (e) A few women of the working class wear gold follow their menfolk, who visit the villages of this gundlu on the lobes. region for ritual begging and attend to tattooing the womenfolk. In short, this profession is in its last phase 39. The nostrils of almost :Ill the Hindu caste fe of its popularity with the present generation. male children are bored by the local Viswabrahmin on Monday or Wednesday or Friday before completing Household goods one year or earlier. Small pieces of brass wire arc kept in the holes of the ears and nostrils to keep them 42. The various households in the village contain open till they are dressed with ornaments. l'J.ostly artic1~s of utility rather than of decoration. Every household possesses earthen, brass, aluminiur,] and other m~tallic utensils for domestic use. A few Tattooing poor households among the working classes own a 40. It is Observed that the habit of tattooing is few earthen pots for cooking and storing drinking .' not in vogue among Komati, Viswabrahmin and Pad water, and brnss tumblers for drinking purposes. masale castes. The Padmasale reports that he had tat The earthen utensils are known as kundatu too marks on some of the joints of the body to iJe while the brass and aluminiUm utensils are locally relieved of some bodily pains. But tattooing' is a cus called as ganju. The earthen vessels are most common tom among Tenugu and Kummari castes while all ly used both for cooking and storing water by all th~ other castes have taken up tattooing either for social households except by the Vaisyas. The earthen cook or decorative purposes. All the members of Mangali ing utensils which are used for cooking jowar gruel, (Barber) household head except his children had tattoo and curry or sam bar are known as ghato buddi and marks in between the eye brows so as for protection kusiri kunda among Rajgond and Birdugonds. The against riducule l~y others. The younger generation of brass or bell-metal plate, locally known as dhaniya is this caste have given up such belief. Likewise all the llsed for eating purposes while pithru thali (brass members of Madiga household including children had tumbler) is for drinking water. T'he brass bindi and tattoo marks in between their eyebrows for protection earthen pots are also used for storing water. The CO!l against evil spirits. Among Rajgond, tattooing is a diments are stored in small pots and oil in bottles. The must for both men and women. The Raj gond women utensils made of either inferior silver known as buggci have elaborate tattoo marks on the forearm and dots vendi or aluminium are used for cooking food among on the chin and in between the eyebrows. A few of other castes. The aluminium and other metallic ves them have different designs of tattoo marks on the sels, irrespective of the purpose for which they are reverse of both the palms. All the three Rajgond house used are called as bhogonilu or ganjulu. (Fig. 18 shows holds have reported that the tattoo marks are purely some of the household goods). The Scheduled Castes for decorative purposes and those at the joints of the and other working class people use earthen pots for body are to cure the pains. The old Rajgond women cooking food and sambar. Among them the pots used believe that after their death, only the tattoo marks fer cooking rice and jowar are known as annapuknnda THE PEOPLE AND THF.IR MATERIAL EQUIpr"rFNT 1 I or buvvakunda and ambali kunda while the pulusu locally known as ekka or buddi made of tin are used kunda is used for cooking sambar. As many as 31 for lighting purposes. The Kummari is exclusively households use earthen utensils both for storing and using earthen lamp for lighting purposes. The poor cooking purposes. Brass utensils are used by 27 house l_'eople among Scheduled Castes and Tribes use earthen holds while 21 households of different castes use alu l'ramida. locally known as mattideepam and lit them minium utensils (Table 40). The earthen utensils of ""ith castor oil. In all, seventeen households of differ average size cost 25 P. each and they are mostly pur ent castes are using ekkalu or budlu while only four chased from the local Kummari (Potter) or in the teen households possess bed room lamps, Out of 35 weekly shandy at Kasipet. Fig. 19 shows the arrange households, 11 householdsJ• of different castes possess ment of pots. hurricane lanterns (Table1Jin. Of these, one household each among Birdugond and Golla have acquired one 43. Many castes use aluminium and brass vessels hurricane lantern each during the last five years, Dur for storing and drinking water. The plates or ginneI'tt ing the last five years one Birdugond household has used for eating are called thalilu while the tumblers purchased a torchlight (Table 39). The kerosene oil t!sed for drinking water are called chembulu or mun· is purchased from the village shop or in the weekly thalu, The brass bindilu and earthen pots are used for shandy at Kasipet. A few well-to-do households pur fetching and storing water. A few well-to-do families chase their annual reqUirements of kerosene from use koppera and ganga lam for boiling water. The brass Mancheriyal when they visit the market for the sale of and aluminium utensils are used by 77fo and 60% of surplus agricultural produce. A few others also pur the households respectively. The brass utensils are chase kerosene tins at Bellampalle. The tin kerosene mostly purchased at Mancheriyal and occasionally buddis or ekkas are purchased in the weekly shandY from the itinerary merchants who visit the village at Kasipet and hurricane lanterns are either purchas once in a year. The bronze utensils are exclusively ed at MJancheriyal or at Biellampalle. The cost of ea~h found among six Birdugond households and one house ekka or buddi varies from 75 P. to Re, 1.12 P. while hold each among Netkani and Padmasale castes and the cost of hurricane lantern varies between Rajgonds, the Scheduled Tribe (Table 40). Rs. 3,50 P. and Rs. 5. Fuel and lighting Bedding 44. The fuel required for domestic consumption 46. The wooden cots with either tape or country by various households is obtained from the pocham coir are most commonly used for sleeping purposes in .maloddi forest. They mostly use teak, sandra (acacia this village. As many as 34 household·s possess woodl"n sundra), choppari, bathakadimi, maddi (terminalia cots which are woven with either tape or nulaka made alata), tirumani, bilugu, tangedu (cassia auriculata), of country coiro Almost all these cots are made by the palakodich, ippa (bassia latifolia) and gurivikatea, local Vadla. A few Birdugonds and people of Schedul (inora parvifiora) for fuel purposes in this village. ed Castes have prepared their own cots. The cost of The artisan castes and the working classes collect fuel each cot usually varies between Rs. 3 and Rs. 5 de whenever they require the fuel once or twice in a pending on the type of wood and the size of cot. These week whereas a fevl agricult',lrists collect and cots are not only used for sleeping purposes but are store it once or twice a year. All the castes also used to receive the guests and relatives by spread collect fuel free from the forest but the minor ing a kambali or a duppati (coarse type of bed-sheet). forest official is paid some amount, depending The beds are exclusively owned by three Birdugo!ld on the requirements of the household and the households and one household each among Golla, Mun economic status of the person. The persons belonging nurukapu castes and Rajgonds whereas two Birdu to Kummari, Mangali, Chakali castes serve the minor gond households and one household each of Chakali, forest official by supplying the required earthenware', Goundla, Komati, Manne and Telaga castes and Raj by attending on him lor hair dressing and shaving and gonds tribe possess quilts. The bed-sheets are found sllpplying water in the morning hours, and by wash in use in almost all the castes except in Chakali, Kum ing the soiled clothes respectively so as to collect the mari, Netkani, Telaga, Tenugu and Viswabrahmm fuel and other wood requirements freely from the castes, The blankets are used .by one Rajgond and two forest. Likewise the Manne and Madiga castes atteml Birdugond households besides one household among to repairing and rethatching his house annually. The Chakali, Golla, Goundla, Manne, Telaga and Tenugu Tenugu household supplies tamarind to Chowkidar castes. The Muslim household owns a carpet (Table nnd in turn collects fuel free from the forest. The S8), Among the articles of bedding equipment only other castes make annual payments in cash or in kind. tYJO Birdugond households h~ve acquired wooden cots Besides using forest 'wood, the dung cakes are used during the last five years (Table 39), The bedding by all the castes for fuel. In ,general the expenditure equipment of a common man usually consists of a all' fuel is quite negligible in this village. wooden cot, a quilt-like thing locally known as bontha, prepared with old clothes and a bed sheet or any old 45. The kerosene oil is most commonly used for dhoti to spread over the cot. No household in the viI. lighting purposes and the oil lamps without chimneys lage is found using mosquito net ('fable iH. 18 CHAPTER II Furniture to the washerman are made in kind at the time of 47. As regards furniture, a few households pos harvest as per the agreement by the agriculturists. A sess chairs, tables, bhoshanam, gadamanchi, benches few households pay a rupee or two per month for nod stools. There are five chairs owned by Birdugond, washing their clothes. The washermen of this village Goundla, Manne, Rajgond and Muslim households while only wash bu t never iron the clothes. The washed only one table is owned by Manne household. There clothes are ironed by the Chakali at Dbarmaraopet on [-ayment of 6 P. per each cloth. Likewise the barber Chapter DI SOCIAL CUSTOMS General Medical facilities Among all the castes, the pregnancy is recog 2. The village dai locally known as mantras ani nised with the stoppage of the menses and is further of Birdugond tribe attends on delivery cases of almost all the castes and tribes excepting those of Scheduled confirmed with the setting in of vomitings either in Castes. Besides this dai, an experienced old woman of the second month or in the third month. Even the each caste attends on the delivery cases of the same slightest exertion makes the pregnant woman perspire caste. None of the households have ever taken the and fattgue. In the initial period of pregnancy, the assistance of any trained midwife or sought for ad women expresses a desire to eat sour eatables, raw missions in the nearest hospital. The villagers are also rice, etc. Though no special food is served for the habituated to visiting the Government Hospital at Bel pregnant woman, she is not allowed to take heat gene lampalle and they occasionally visit the Primary rating food stuffs and hot drinks with a fear that it Health Centre at Kasipet for any emergency as it is may result in abortion or in premature delivery. It is nearer tnan BeUampalle. As many as eleven house a common practice to give her the food most liked by holds have received Allopathic treatment in the her. The pre~nant woman is howevpr allowed to at Government Hospital at Bellampalle while two house tend to her normal household work unto the seventh holds have taken different kinds of medicine (Table month in the well-to-do families whereas among the 72). Besides making animal sacrifice to the local dei poor sections she is constrained to attend to the house ties, they also take medicine from the nearest Govern hold work upto 9th or even 10th month. But co:habi ment Hospital to cure even the minor diseases. How tation is stopped from the seventh month of pregnancy ever, there is an increasing tendency among the vil lagers of using modern medicines even for pettv dis irr~pective of economic status. Though it is a custom eases. The surveillance worker of National Malaria among different castes to brin~ their dau~hters for the Eradication Programme unit of Nirmal with his head first delivery either in and the placenta are collected in a new earthen pot in the oven and in the well as a mark of purification. locally known as mayakunda. A small pit known as In this conne(:!tion turmeric paste, symbolical of Gow kolIukunta is dug in the corner of the backyard of the ram rna, is presented to an issueless woman by the wo house among all castes and tribes except in Komati man now delivered of the child with the belief that caste. Among Mangali caste the koUukunta is dug in the former begets children. Afterwards she draws the corner of a roam where the child is born. Then water from the well and attends to her normal house the mayakunda otherwise known as buddi among hold work. The mother is served with yachal and old Scheduled Tribes is buried in the kollukunta. After rice for about a month and afterwards she takes the wards a wooden plank is kept over this kollukunta and normal food. bath is given both to the mother and the new born child with hot water boiled with ilaku (a kind of leaf) 5. The mantrasani is paid Rs. 2 to Rs. 5 either in and takkulaku (a kind of leaf) till the last day of cash or in kind for her services. A few present her pollution as it relieves the bodily pains of the mother. with a new saree besides paying the nominal fee. An The mayakunda in Komati caste is buried in a place amount of Rs. 2 to Rs. 5 is spent on preparing the which men and women do not frequent. The mantra yachal. sani attends to give bath to the child daily during the period of pollution. It is a belief among all the castes Naming ceremony and tribes except in Komati caste, that the water used 6. Almost people of all the castes except those for bathing should not be let out upto 21 days. Pollu of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, per tion is strictly observed except in Scheduled Tribes form the naming ceremony on the 21st day of the for 11 days and the husband is allowed to see the child. Among the Scheduled Castes Madiga and Manne child only after the final bath on 11th day. In a few celebrate this function on the 11th day of the child castes like Komati and Viswabrahmin pollution is ob while Netkani performs the same on the 7th day of served for a period of 21 days. Among Scheduled the child. Among the Scheduled Tribes, this function Tribes, pollution lasts till such time as the umbilical takes place on an auspicious day before the child :com cord drops. The mantrasani is given either food or pletes one month. On this day both the mother and raw food stuffs on alternate days till the final day of the child are given bath and are dressed either in new pollution. The ceremonial bath is given on the 11th or washed clothes. Afterwards the baby is kept in the day which is locally known as purudu among all the cradle and then named first by the maternal uncle or castes, except Scheduled Tribes, while it is performed the grand-mother or the respective caste elder of the on 40th day among Miuslims. On the final day of pollu village. The chosen name of 'parents is uttered in the tion, people of the caste are treated with vegetarian ear of the child thrice. In this connection the nearest feast if one can afford to meet the expenditure. Other relatives are invited to a vegetarian feast. In Mangali wise a few nearest relatives are given vegetarian food caste five muthaidulu (women in married status) of on this day. Toddy is also offered among the Schedul any caste other than those of the Scheduled Caste ed Castes & Tribes and other castes like Padmasale, utter the name of the pochamma deity thrice in the Tenugu, Chakali, Mangali, Golla and Kummari except ear of the female child and the name of Pochanna in Komati and Viswabrahmin castes. In this connection case of a male child before giving the chosen name of the room where the delivery took place is smeared the parents on the 21st day of the child. The naming with dung and a fresh bed is arranged for the mother ceremony among the Scheduled Castes is a simple and the child. The mother is served with old rice local function. Both the mother and the new child are given ly known as pata buvva upto 21 days among various bath and dressed either in new clothes or in washed castes while the Scheduled Tribes give wheat or jowar clothes. The child is kept in a cloth cradle and the gruel to the mother till the umbilical cord drops. All chosen pame of the parents is whispered in the ear of castes serve yachal, rr~pared with pippali (pipper the child by the eldest member of the family. A few longes), sonti (dried ginger), garlic and gingelly oil relatives are entertained with vegetarian food on this to the mother along with food for 21 days among the occasion. Like the people of the Scheduled Castes, the .castes and till such time as the umbilical cord drops tribal head names the child with the chosen name vf among the tribes iIi this village. All these ingredients the parents on an auspicious day before the child are ground and mixed in gingelly oil and this mixed completes one month. The tribal elder who gives the stuff is known as yachal. Like the Hindu castes, the name to the child is entertained with vegetarian food. tribes in this village also treat their respective tribal. women to vegetarian food on the fifth day of the 7. The expenditure that will be involved from delivery. the day of delivery till the day of naming ceremony 4. The pollution in Viswabrah!!J.in caste is observ varies from Rs. 5 to Rs. 50. The minimum expenditure ed for 21 days and the father sees the child on th·~ is seen among Birdugonds & Rajgonds (Scheduled 21st day. On the third day after delivery cooked rice Tribes) and Netkani (Scheduled Caste) and maximum mixed in curds locally known as perugu annam is kept expenditure of Rs. 50 in a normal feature among Ko in the kollukunta and covered with earth. On the 21st matL The expenditure usually includes the fee to the day, the mother and the child are given bath. Then mantrasani, ir::.gredients for yachal and the vegetarian the mother drop's a little of turmeric and vermilion feast on the occasion. SOCIAL CUSTOMS 23 Typical names village deities, a fowl or a goat, as per the vow lis sac rificed and then the hair is ceremoniously scissored at 8. Most of the names among different castes and three or five places by the maternal uncle. Afterwards tribes in the village are after the local deities. The the barber shaves the hair completely. In case the names are always referred to with their respective l:.arber is not available, the maternal uncle completely surnames. The most common Hindu names among vari shaves the hair. On this occasion the child is made to ous castes in the village are Ramanna, Latchanna, sit facing east. This ceremony among Komati caste is Bheemayya, Narasayya, Linganna, Mallayya, Pochanna performed on Vidiya, Tadiya, Panchami and Dasami while a few names, derived from their vot~ies are as days in the months of Magha (January-February), follows: Somu, Maru, Laknu, Poru, Yellayya, etc. The PhaZguna (February-March), Chaitra (March-April) females are most commonly named as Rambai, Bheem and Vaisakha (April-May) when the child attains the bai, Latchubai, Sankaramma, Narasamma, Sita, Ana 3rd or 5th year of age. The maternal uncle symboli suya, Pochamma, Lingamma, Mallamma, Hanurnakka cally initiates the hair cut and then the barber shaves ",hich are the names of Hindu Gods and Goddesses. completely. On this occasion, the barber is paid a The modern names like Kalavathi and Sitamma, Lak rupee or two and a kudaka (dried cocoanut cup) for sr..midevi, Suryakantam are also becoming popular his services. In a few well-to-do households, the bar among the younger generation in this village. The ber keeps a brass tumbler with water before the child. names of the Gods like Venkateswara and Rayesudu The elderly persons present on the occasion, take one (Rajeswarudu) are also popular among men and. wo or two copper coins and, take it round the head of the men. Most of the names among the Scheduled Tribes child thrice and place it in the brass utensil. The are after their deities like Bheemdev, Jangubai but money, thus collected, is taken away by the barber. In they have also adopted a few names of Hindu Gods this connection vegetarian meals is arranged by dif and Goddesses. ferent castes. The expenditure for the tonsuring cere 9. Among Muslims the naming ceremony is per mony varies between Rs. 5 and Rs. 25. formed on the final day of pollution i.e., on 40th day. All the community people are invited and the elderly Child feeding person among the gathering names the child after the 11. The infant is fed on CO\7'S milk for the first mostly preferred name by the parents. In this connec two days and in the meantime the child is made to tion, a non-vegetarian feast is arranged. suck the mother's breast. The child sucks the mother's milk for about a year or 18 months. The food is slow Tonsure ceremony ly given to the child when it is in teething age (i.e., 8 10. The tonsure ceremony is locally known as months to one year). The children usually give up puttuventrukatu theeyuta.. The function is performed IT.other's milk when they attain the age of one and a only in the case of male child among different castes half years or two years. The child begins to take the and is performed in case of a female child only for normal food after completing the second year. The the fulfiLment of a vow to any deity. People of all child is profusely smeared with castor oil to the body castes perform this function on an auspicious day fixed and Igingelly oil on the head till one year of age. in consultation with the person who can refer the 'll Among the Scheduled Tribes, Scheduled Castes and manae either in the third year or in the 5th year ex other Hindu castes like Chakali, Mangali, Goundla, cept in Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and Golla and Kummari the infants are left to the care of Munnurukapu caste. Among Scheduled Castes it is per elderly children or old people in the house as the wo formed within a year or in the 5th year on anyone of men also work hand in hand to earn their bread. the auspicious days namely Monday, Wednesday and poverty and ignorance about the ways of bringing up Friday. Among tribes, the tonsure ceremony is per the children of the above enumerated castes are the formed on the day the umbilical cord drops in the main reasons for their ill-nourishment and meagre case of male child and also in the case of the female clothing. It was found during the enquiries that a few child if a votive offering is made to any deity. In case well-to-do castes like Komati, Viswabrahmin, Munnu of fulfilment of a vow to any deity, it is performed rul~apu, Padmasale, Telaga and Tenugu have used the on Monday, Wednesday or Friday which are consider Glaxo to supplement the rr.other's milk. The mothers ed auspicious among them. The Muslims perform this usually do not resort to wean their children away function on the 40th day of the child preferably near from suckling. However, the methods commonly ad a darga. This fUnction is usually performed in their opted to wean the children away from suckling are respective houses of each caste and the proceedings of application of the juice of neem leaves, the outer cover this function do not appreciably differ among the dif of the lemon fruit, myrobalam and soap nut to- the ferent castes in this village. A few households, irres~ nipples. These weaning methods are adopted in cases pective of the caste and tribe and economic status have where children bite the breast while sucklincr the celebrated the function to fulfil their vows before Lord breast. They do not take any particular care toO feed Venkateswara at Vemulawada and Rayesudu at Bugga the children except giving the normal food along with and before pochamma and Mallamma deities within the elders of the house. No special ceremony is per the village. If the ceremony is performed before the formed at the time of first feeding among the various 24 CHAPTER III castes and tribes in the village except in Telaga and The proceedings of this function are almost the same Muslim castes. The ceremony for the first feeding of among all the above said castes. A few households the child is known as annaprasana in this caste and it among Birdugonds and such other castes as Chakali, is usually performed on an auspicious day either in Golla, Goundla, KUmmari, Mangali, Madiga, N etkani the 5th or 7th or 9th month of the child. On this day and Manne castes (the last three being Scheduled the child is fed with sweet rice added with milk local Castes) are also performing this function in an infor ly known as paramannam by the parents. Among Mus mal way in the 5th year of the child irrespective of lims the child is fed with some sweet on the 40th day the sex. Among the above said castes a mixture ()f by the father or the mother of the child. The child putnalu (fried Bengalgram), gingelly and jaggery are is usually carried out in the lap of the mother. A few distributed to the children of the school on this occa women carry their children on their backs with the sion. As many as twelve of the seventeen castes do 1>elp of a cloth till such time they begin to walk not perform any type of function to initiate the child steadily. for learning. Use of contraceptives Puberty 12. The local people are not aware of either con 14. The attainment of puberty is known as jana traceptives or any other method to avoid pregnancy tha or persamanalatha among the Scheduled Tribes by deliberate means. i[\fureover, they consider it as sin y;-hile it is known as peddamanishaindi or rajaswara to spoil or stop the pregnancy as it is a God given laindi among other castes in this village. The girls fruit. Hence they do not take to any abortive methods among different castes usually attain puberty in bet either indigenous or scientific. Reliable enquiries re ween 13 and 15 years of age. The girl is kept under veal that they do not know any indigenous methods pollution for five days among Rajgonds and six days of abortion. The barrenness of the WOl":'lan is always in Birdugonds while the other Hindu castes observe attributed to the sins committed in her past janma the pollution from 9 to 16 days. This function among (life). They make votive offerings such as sacrifice of the Scheduled 'Tribes is performed in a simple nnimals; naming of the child after the God Venkates manner. Soon after the first menstruation, the girl is wara at Vemulawada village and Rayesudu at Bugga made to sit in the corner of the house and hidden village if they beget children. There are no cases of with a bamboo mat without being seen by others. She still births in this village. Three cases of infant mor is neither allowed to move freely to attend to the tality perhaps due to malnutrition are reported among household work nor served food along with others in Birdugonds and Chakali caste (Table 10). Many vil the house. She is served food in separate utensils dur lagers ascribe the infant death to the sins of the ing the period of pollution. On the final day i.e., 6th parents or to the ill-fate of the child. All the villagers or 7th day, as the case may be, of pollution, she is are in favour of the birth of a male child, though they given bath and the women in married status of the often say that the birth of a male or female child is same tribe offer kudakalu (dried cocoanut cups) to purely after the benevolence of the Almighty. It is the girl. On this occasion the women of their tribe are further explained that the son is always helpful to the treated to vegetarian food. Among Rajgonds the girl family unlike the girl who leaves the house after mar is given bath soon after the first menstruation. After riage. The son is always helpful in all the economic wards she is seated in the corner of a house with pursuits of the household even from his boyhood. The kudakalu, in her vodi (lap) and the sister-in-law, pre villagers report that the son is essential to perform ferably maternal uncle's daughter, is made to sit fac the funeral rites of the father. Hence the birth of a ing her. Afterwards these two kudakalu (dried cocoa wn is always looked to with rejoicing. nut cups) are exchanged five times in between them and then they are eaten away by them. Women i!1 Initiation to learning married status of the tribe are distributed with a mix 13. The initiation of a child to learning is known ture of gingelly and jaggery. All the remaining forma as acharabhyasam or colloquially known as chadave lities are similar to those of Birdugonds. The normal . yuta and is obsented exclusively among Tenugu, Te menstruation among the tribes lasts till the discharge laga, Goundla, Viswabrahmin and Komati castes. The stops, which normally lasts for a period of four or five child is initiated to learning in' the 5th year on an aus days. During this period she is not allowed to cook picious day fixed by the teacher, or local Ayyavaru or food but can attend to the household work like sweep the person who can refer the almanac. On this day ing of the house, cleaning of utensils, etc. She is serv the child is given oil bath and dressed in new clothes. ed food in separate utensils. The local school teacher makes the child write the al 15. The observance of attainment of puberty phabets like \.!J (Sree), e., (0), ~ tna), .;;))8 .(maha) among the Hindu castes in this village does not appre on the rice placed in a brass plate or SlIver plale. ciably vary but for the duration of the pollution Afterwards the pappu phalaharalu (pieces of cocoa period. Soon after the first menstruation, the girl j s nut, fried dal and jaggery) are distributed to the r:~ade to sit in a corner of the house which is usually school children. In this connection the teacher is pre secluded by a partition so that the male members may sented with a rupee or two, known as gurudakshina. not see her. Afterwards the mother or the elderly SOCIAL CUSTOMS 25 women members of tbe household invite the neighbour while edttru merarikam (marrying father's own sister's ing women and the women of their caste by putting daughter) is accepted among the Scheduled castes bottu (vermilion) on their foreheads. In the meantime and Scheduled Tribes besides Kummari and Tenugu the Chakali woman brings a white bed sheet and castes. Marrying the wife of the deceased younger or spreads it in the corner of the house which is intended elder brother is permitted in Scheduled Tribes and for the use of the girl during the period of pollution. Scheduled Castes besides Golla and Padmasale castes Among the Scheduled Castes the cloth is spread by and Muslims of this village. The sororate marriages one of the WOr:1en in married status of the caste in a are exclusively permitted in Birdugond (Scheduled corner of the house earmarked for the girl. Then four Tribe) and Manne (Scheduled Caste). All other blood kudakalu containing a jaggery piece in each of them relationships excluding the above enum'erated relation are kept in the four corners of the cloth which is used ships are prohibited. In Rajgonds and Birdugonds mar by the girl under pollution. An elderly woman in mar riages among the same Saga (phratry) are prohibited. ried status of the same c:.ste conducts the girl to this The inti peru (surname) is the criteria to settle the arranged place and makes her sit facing east. The in marital alliance in all the Hindu castes except in K{J vitees present her the kudakalu and jaggery pieces mati caste where gotram plays a significant role in and apply bottu on her forehead. In this connection finalising the marriages. Moreover, persons of the same songs, wishing her a happy wedded life, are sung by surname consider themselves as brothers and sisters these women. Afterwards invitees are offered betel and as such marriages are strictly prohibited. leaves and nuts and are also applied on their foreheads 18. Table 62 presents the persons by age at first with vermilion locally known as bottu. The girl is not marriage. Sixteen women were in the age group of allowed to move freely during the period of pollution. 5-9 years at the time of their first marriage while 8 She is served food in separate utensils. She regularly males and 29 females have been married when they anoints her body with turmeric powder mixed in gin were in the age group of 10-14 years. Twenty-four gelly oil or any other vegetable oil. The girl is en males and four females were in the age group of 15-19 couraged to eat kudakalu and jaggery as much as she years at the time of their first marriage while 15 males can with a belief that she develops good physique. In and only one female were in the age group of 20-24 the early hours of the final day, she is given bath and years at the time of their first marriage. One male the Chakali woman washes the clothes used by the each was in the age group of 25-29 years and 30-34 girl under pollution. The house is smeared with cow years at the time of their first marriage. Of the 103 dung and decorated with lime lines. In case the girl married persons, 78.64% (81 persons) are married is married, the parents-in-law present new clothes and before their 20 years of age. Occurrence of 16 marri sweets to the girl. In this connection relatives and ;?ges in the age group of 5-9 years shows that they people of the caste are entertained to vegetarian food. have not abruptly ,given up the old tradition of marry 16. The pollution for normal menses lasts for fi"e ing the girls before attaining adolescence. Among the or six days among different castes and tribes except total 35 households, 82 marriages have been investi in Komati caste. During this period of pollution, she gated. Of these 82 marriages, only 25 are within the is neither allowed to cook food nor permitted to at consanguineous relationship while the remaining 57 tend to household work. She is served food in separate are non-consanguineous. Among these 25 consanguinp. utensils. Among the Scheduled Castes and Chakali, ous marriages, ten are within the relationship of Mangali, Goundla, Golla and Kummari castes woman mother's own brother's daughter (menarikam) and five under menstruation takes bath regularly and then at within the relationship of father's own sister's daughter tends to her household work except cooking during (eduru menarikam). One marriage each is contracted the period of pollution. In Komatis, among whom the with wife's sister, sister's daughter and mother's step pollution period for the first menarche is for 11 days, Lrother's daughter and the remaining seven are found the pollution period decreases by one day for every in other blood relationships (Table 59). From the subsequent periods and finally it is limited to three &bove analysis, it is evident that the tendency of con days. During this period she is not allowed to do the tracting marriages within the blood relationship is household work or move freely in the house. She is gradually diminishing in this village. As many as 45 served food in separate utensils. Among Muslims too marriages are contracted outside the village but with the ceremony connected with the attainment of puberty in the tal uk, followed by 21 marriages contracted out is. performed as in the case of Hindus. The normal side the taluk but within the district, In all, only 16 menstruation among Muslims lasts for five or six days marriages among five castes have been contracted with or till such time as the discharge stops. in the village (Table 61). The inter-caste and inter tribal marriages are prohibited in this village. How Marriage ever, only one inter-caste marriage is contracted in 17. The girls in this village are married either Telaga caste who married a Sathani woman. As re before or after attaining puberty, Sagotra marriages gards their attitude towards marriage with persons of and marriages among families with the same surname different castes, one Goundla household alone is wi1l are prohibited among all the castes and tribes in this iug to contract marriages with Kapu and periki castes. village. Menarikam (marrying mother's own brother's The payment of customary bride price is in vogue daughter) is accepted among all the castes and tribes among different castes of this village. The payments 26 CHAPTER III are usually made either in cash or in the form of orna Types of marriages ments as agreed upon at the time of betrothal cere 21. The marriages are usually finalised through mony (Table 63). The payment of dowry is not popu negotiation among all the castes and tribes in this vil lar in this village. However, one Goundla household lage. Marriage by elopement is still in vogue among has paid an amount of Rs. 116 towards dowry at the Rajgonds and Birdugonds. The widow remarriage time of his daughter's marriage. The villagers have no locally known as patu or marumanuvu is socially re knowledge about the legislation prohibiting the pay cognised among all the castes and tribes of this vil ments of dowry and about the Hindu Marriages Act. lage. Marriages by negotiation and capture are known The dowry system is in vogue among Viswabrahmin, Komati, Goundla castes and the amount varies from as khaja khobra and peshiwatwaL respectively among Rs. 100 depending on the economic status of the house Rajgonds and Birdugonds. The main difference bet ween these two types of marriages is only in the initial hold. The customary payments in kind known as ava num is paid among Golla and Madiga castes. Among stages while all the other main rites of wedding are strictly adhered to in performing these marriages. The the Scheduled Tribes the bride price varies from Rs. 10 to Rs. 15.50 P. which is usually paid to the parents of consent of the parents of both the parties is a must the bride. The payment of neither bride price nor in khaja khobra marriage while it is of secondary im portance in peshiwatwal marriage. dowry is in vogue among other castes. The bride price is usually decided among Raj-gonds and Birdugonds depending on the economic status of the household. A Khaja khobra few households among Rajgonds have paid Rs. 100 and 22. The mode of performing this. marriage among more towards bride price. Like-wise the mehar amount Rajgonds and Birdugonds does not differ much except among Muslims is paid by the groom as agreed upon that a Patel and Devari officiate over Rajgond marri at the time of betrothal to the bride. age and Devari over Birdugond marriage. The marri 19. The polygynous marriages are permitted age ceremony lasts for three days in both these tribes. among all th~ castes including the Scheduled Castes The matrimonial negotiations are always initiated and Scheduled Tribes except in Komati, Tenugu and through reliable friends or nearest relatives by the Chakali castes. Of the 82 marriages surveyed among young man's parents. After ascertaining the willingness the different castes in the village 80 are monogamous. of the girl's party through reliable sources the young One polygynous marriage is reported in Golla caste man's party consisting of his father and elders visit (Table 60). The polygynous marriagEis are usually pre the house of the girl on an auspicious day, fixed by ferred to beget children in case the first wife is barren. Patel, the Rajgond elder. Otherwise they may start The poorer section of the population go in for more for the girl's village on anyone of the auspicious days than one wife as they will be helpful in supplement namely, Monday, Wednesday and Friday in the week. ing the family economy by working hand in hand with The young man's party primarily meets the tribal the man. However, they are not common in this vil elder of the girl's village and through him the ,girl's lage. The inter-caste or inter-tribal marriages are not parents are informed about the :!'ormer's visit. All the permitted and the contravention of caste or tribal rules tribal people of the girl's village and the young man's are punished with heavy penalty or excommunication party assemble in the bride's house. Then one of the depending on the gravity of the offence. Reliable en f:lderly persons of the young man's party requests the quiries reveal that no such grievous offences have so gIrl's parents to give their daughter in marriage. If far occurred in this village. The solitary inter-caste the girl's party expresses its willingness, the father of marriage between a Telaga and a Sathani woman is the young man pays Rs. 5 to the tribal elders of the looked down upon by both the castes and they are not girl's village and the girl's father also pays Rs. 2 to allowed to participate either in the religious and social these elders which is known as baitok. This signifies functions of both the castes. tl:.e settlement of marital alliance. Afterwards tobacco i:;: distributed to the persons present on the occasion 20. The Brahmin purohit from Tandur or Bellam as a mark of respect. The young man's father then palle officiates over the marriages of all castes except keeps the vermilion on the forehead of the girl whkh Rajgonds, Birdugonds and Scheduled Castes in this is known as yerrabottu. The entire party is then given village. Patel and Devari officiate the marriages a treat. Before their departure, they fix up an auspi among the Rajgonds whereas in the case of Birdugonds cious day after a gap of five or six days for perform marriage is officiated either by Devari of Rajgonds or ing betrothal ceremony locally known as vidiyam. by any elderly person of their caste. The caste elder Peddamadiga officiates over the marriages of Madiga 23. On the appointed day, the groom's party con caste. Similarly the Peddamala and Kulapedda solem sisting of parents and a few tribal elders repair to the nise the marria'ges among Manne (S.C.) and Netkani bride's village. They take particular care to avoid the (S.C.). The procedure of all the rituals connected with bad omens like coming across of a cat, a widow, and marriages is the same among all the Hindu castes m a man with empty pots or fuel, or sneezing at the time general but for a few minor deviations. The Muslim of undertaking the journey. Soon after reaching the Ir.arriages in this village are also officiated by Khazi and t:ride's village, the party visits the house of the Patel nikha is performed following the payment of meha·r. (the tribal elder) who in turn informs their arrival SOCIAL CUSTOMS 27 to the bride's father. After making arrangements for place where rubbish is deposited). The paneduvebuddi the brief stay of the groom's party in a house of the is filled with water and in it are kept a few medi same Saga (phratry), the groom's party 'is taken to twigs. Two persons belonging to the bride and the the arranged guest house locally known as janesoron groom are kept here to watch paneduvebuddi without to rest for a while after their journey. If the groom's being disturbed by anybody. The five karekopans (ear Saga people are not living in the village, a temp<>rary then pots decorated with vermilion) are taken to the • hut is erected for their stay. A little later, the bride's marital pandal by the aunt, preferably, the paternal party customarily greets them saying Ram Ram, and aunt. In the meantime either the Patel or the Devari irlVites them to their house. The concerned patadi nar draws the lihi with jowar flour as shown in the sketch rates about the details of the Saga and Padi of the girl. In this connection, the jewellery, clothes and voli GARIGABUDDI OR (bride price) to be given to the bride are decided upon. KAREKOPAN In the meantime the bride is Igiven oil bath and dress ed in new clothes. Then ornaments like dandakadiyam above the elbow and kanti on the neck, that are pre tented by the young man's father before she is made to sit on the gongali. In this connection the groom's father treats the entire party with liquor as mark of happiness. It is reported that now-a-days the party is treated to a feast at the expense of the groom's party. Thus the betrothal completes. On this occasion the marriage day locally known as laggam agreeable to both the parties is also fixed. LIHI end a little of jowar measuring arasoladu is kept in 24. Among these tribes, the venue for the marri all the corners including the centre in the eastern age is the bridegroom's house. One or two days before side. Then the karekopans otherwise known as gariga the actual marriage two men are sent to bring the girl buddelu are kept over the lihi, three pots on the for marriage. They are paid Rs. 5 to enable them to ('astern side and two on the western side. Afterwards make customary payments, locally known as bhundo a white thread is wound round these garigabuddelu to Rajgond women of the intermittant villages who and propitiates them by offering kumkum (vermilion), customarily stop the bride's party while going for the oulalu jeeth korre (coal powder), ghato (jowar rice) marriage. Thus the girl's party along with these two and garelu. Afterwards these garigabuddelu are tribesmen reach the outskirts of the village. Then the taken by five women in married status in a procession bride's party will be given a feast with ghato (jowar accompanied by musical instruments under a saree gruel), kusini (dhal), onions and ambali by the young canopy to the paneduvebuddi which is already kept man's party. This feast is known as yedudavadi. After near the rubbish heap where the daily sweep is depo wards the girl's party is taken to the village accom sited. Before this procession reaches, the patel draWl panied by musical instruments. Afterwards the father the pattu with jowar flour on the penta (rubbish of the young man ceremoniously wishes the feet of heap) and the paneduvebuddi is kept in the centre 01 the bride, parent's brothers, sisters and maternal the pattu and the garigabuddelu are kept around the uncles while the mother of the young man pours water. paneduvebuddi as shown in the sketch below : Then tobacco is served in honour of the party. After wards the bride's party is conducted to a specially ar ranged temporary lodging locally known as janesor01l where a pandal is erected. 25. On the day of marriage, the parents of the young man offer new clothes to Pochamma deity, be fore they are dressed by the bridegroom, to inVOke her blessings. Afterwards the groom is given. head lath. The dhoti used by the young man is tied to the bride smeared with turmeric powder all over the body and then given head bath. Likewise both the :groom and the bride are given ceremonial bath twice. After wards both of them are dressed in new clothes. In the meantime one of the tribal elders bring five small pots known as ka.rekopan and an earthen pot known as paneduvebuddi which are decorated with vermilion. The Devari (priest) propitiates the God Bheemdev by offering cooked rice mixed with curd and paramannam, 2, CHEEI'UI\P'lJU.A a sweet preparation and invokes his blessings for the 3. JOWAR happy married life of the new couple. The Patel keeps ~. GMIGABUODI the paneduveb'Uddi 011 a, cleaned site on the penta (the PANEDUVEBUDDI 28 CHAPTER III Afterwards the Patel keeps the cheepurpuUalu five rounds around the lihi without breaking the link. (splinters of broomstick) by the side of each gariga. A wooden seat locally ~nown as kuthulu is then fixed buddi. Then a white thread is wound five times, con in the centre of the marriage pandal with the help C'f necting the outer ends of the cheepurpuHalu. ThllS gurkas (nailed sticks) by the sister of the bride. The the Gangadevatha is worthipped by the Patel while new couple pay their respects to this kuthulu by throw· offering the remaining kumkum (vermilion), gulalu ing the sacred rice and they are afterwards made to (rose coloured powder), jeetha korre (coal powder) sit facing east before the lihi. Afterwards the bride's and turmeric powder. Afterwards the remaining ghato sister applies turmeric to the feet and the cheeks of are taken round the pattu thrice, locally known as the new couple which is called as chittiuteda. The new dishti, to protect against any evil effects on the new couple are then conducted into the house with the couple. Then the water in the paneduvebuddi is distri help of the bride's sister and are dressed in washed buted among all those garigabuddelu and the entire clothes. Both the bride ahd the groom are then made party along with the garigabuddelu, carried by five to stand one behind the other facing east in the front women in married status return to the marriage pan yard of the house on two wooden planks. The women dal (marmimandap) , in a procesSion accompanied by in married status pour the water contained in the musical instruments. These garigabuddelu are kept at garigabuddelu on the new couple before they are their usual places over the lihi. New clothes are pre given bath. The groom takes a little of water into the sented both to the bride and the groom by the latter's mouth and sprhkles the same on the back of the bride parents. The bride and the groom covered with a gon while the bride (in the same way) sprinkles water on gali (blanket) are carried by their respective brother the chest of the groom. This is repeated twice by the in-law round the paneduvebuddi thrice. The bride and couple which is called as yenidimadu. The couple are the groom are then made to stand on either side ')f again given bath and dressed in new clothes. In the the paneduvebuddi facing west and east respectively. meantime, the sisters-in-law of the groom hide these The two gongalis are held as curtain in between them wooden planks to create fun and they are finally kept so that they may not see each other. The parents of in the marriage pandal by them after receiving 25 the young man washes the feet of the bride and the paise from the groom's father. The couple then sprinkle groom and in turn the bride and the groom pay their the achintalu (sacred rice) on ; these planks and are respects to the former by touching their feet. After seated facing east. The Patel or -the elderly person of wards the groom keeps the two bits of cocoanuts, one the tribe shows the pusthi (marriage locket) to the over the other after keeping 2 paise and tie it with people present on the occasion. Each one pays bles-s the thread, which is known as kudaka. Likewise the ings to the pusthi by touching it with their hands. bride also prepares a kudaka. Following the directions Following the directions of the Patel the groom ties of the Patel, the kudakalu are exchanged five times the pusthi around the neck of the bride. Afterwards in between them. The groom holding the little finger the mothers of the bride and the groom and three or of the bride by his little finger drags her to his left 10ur women in married status keep the sacred rice on side. The Patel ties the kongus (upper cloth) of the their heads and a few coins in their vodis (laps). The bride and the bridegroom and showers his blessings new couple are then made to stand and the groom by throwing the sacred rice. All the assembled elders presents the sarees to the sisters-in-law (daughters of throw the sacred rice on the heads of the couple with the paternal aunt and maternal uncle), sisters an.:! their blessings. Afterwards the bride and the groom Eunts provided one can afford it. These presentations face each other, and recite the following sacred man locally called as katnalu are given up now-a-days tras as dictated by the Patel while holding their hands among these tribes in this village. upwards facing east. 26. Both the bride and the groom are again car "'~2le>o ..:fo~81e)O ~ lti".;s e> lIcl 0 ried five times round the ga.rigabuddelu accompani Tarabalam chandrabalam tadhavalaghnam ed by musical instruments. On this occasion the new ;-s't:f'O~ ;-S3 couple sprinkle the uta pindi (a mixture of jowar sadanasthaha- flour and turmeric) on each other. A few women in married status also accompany the party to make the 'tlOJ"'2le)o . -a :52ltlO ;-seS""ON' ...__ rounds while carrying the garigabuddelu and the Devabalam daivabalam sabodhana wooden planks. Afterwards the couple are made to The groom sprinkles the achintalu (sacred rice) on sit on a gongali (a coarse blanket) and they fill a the bride and vice versa. Then the Patel takes a little glass with rice. The new couple are then served with sacred rice round the new couple and throws it in the food and the groom offers a morsel of food to the penta. Afterwards the entire procession returns to the bride. In turn the bride offers a smoke to the groom. marmimandap (marriage pandal) under the saree While smoking the groom walks out of the room. canopy. The central garigabuddi in the eastern side Afterwards the entire party is treated to a vegetarian of the lihi is given to the sister of the bride by the feast. Patel or Devari. She holds this garigabuddi with the right hand and holds the right hand of the groom with 27. On the second day of the marriage the new her left hand and in turn the groom holds the right couple are tak:en in a procession to the paneduvebuddi. hand of the bride to form a link. The party makes In this connection two young men of the same tribe SOCIAL CUSTOMS 29 smear their hands with nasi (black colour). Que ters before initiating the issue. The movements of the among the two youngsters knocks away a fowl from girl in the village and in the neighbourhood are watch the house of the groom and hides it in a basket. The ed carefully by the young men. feet of the women of the young man's party are wash ed by the women of the bride's party and vice versa. Case study The entire party then returns home. The fowl, hidden 32. Sri Valka Muttayya of Birdugond tribe who by the youngster, is given to sister-in-law of the groom married by capture narrates his experience in secur who looks after it carefully. It is a belief that the new ing the girl for marriage. He along with a few tribal couple beget children provided the fowl lays eggs and elders visited the girl's village.and were hiding near hatches them successfully. the hill stream where she usually comes to fetch water. 28. The new couple are again conducted to the One among the group belonging to the Saga of the paneduvebuddi to worship the deity Devadevi. A gon young man pounced on the girl and caught hold of her gali is spread near the paneduvebuddi and the entire hand. Soon all other people caught her inspite of her party are comfortably seated. The belipanakam (water weeping to make herself free. On hearing this noise mixed in jaggery) is poured on the paneduvabuddi by the people of the girl's village followed this party and the new couple in the name of Devadevi and they even beat them to free her. Then the young man's pray their Kuladaivam also. Afterwards the kudakalu party along with a few tribal elders visited the girl's (dried cocoanut cups) and belipanakam are distribut village and requested her parents to give her in mar ed among the persons present on this occasion. The riage. The parents of the girl demanded a rupee for entire party then returns home and all of them are en the unauthorised capture which was paid by the young tertained to non-vegetarian food and liquor. man's parents. Thus the girl was brought to the young man's village. In the present case he successfully 29. On the final day of the marriage, turmeric brought her in full tears to his house. paste is applied to the face of the bride and a few 33. In such cases the feet of the girl are washed other women in married status. The bride and h,~r before she is taken into the house. On an auspicious sister-in-law crawl from the marmimandap (marriage day fixed by the tribal elder, the women in married pandal) into the house and keep their hands in the status go to Pochamma deity, decorate the deity with khalikunda (gruel pot) as it is considered auspicious. turmeric and vermilion and offer new clothes. A few Thus the bride qualifies herself for the household work. threads from these new clothes are kept there in token Afterwards all these women take head bath and dress of having offered the new clothes to the deity. Thus in washed clothes. During the night, the bride's party the blessings of Pochamma are invoked and the party and the groom's party are made to sit facing each returns home, accompanied by musical instruments other on a gong ali (blanket) under the marmimandap. locally known as baja. Afterwards all the tribal elders Then the bride serves the belipanakam to the women stand in a row and the would be couple pay their res and the groom to the men. The groom distributes pects to these elders. The girl is then taken to her tamuku (smoke) to all the men, present on this occa vamsapollu (a family of her own Saga) house. From sion. After enjoying the smoke for a while, all people this stage onwards the ceremonies connected with the stand and utter the customary 'Ram Ram' as a ma!"k marriage by negotiation are observed, though they are of respect. not elaborately performed. The payment of the eus. 30. On the following day, a fowl is sacrificed in tomary bride price to the parents of the girl is a 'must' the name of the velpulu (deities) of the groom and a in the social set up of these tribes and the non-pay non-vegetarian feast is arranged on this occasion, Thus ment is always taken as a religious taboo. The expen marriage comes to a happy close. The expenditure of diture on feasts and liquor will be considerably less this marriage usually varies from Rs. 300 to Rs. 500 than in the formal marriage. The expenditure for this among these tribes. marriage usually varies from Rs. 50 to RB, 250 amon~ these tribes. Peshiwatwal 31. The marriage by peshiwatwal (capture)' is Marriage among Hindu castes usually preferred by the poor Rajgonds and Birdugonds 34. The marriages among other Hindu castes in whQ cannot meet the heavy expenditure of khaja this village are almost similar to each other but for a kobra (marriage by negotiation). As mentioned earlier· few minor differences here and there. All the m'arri the main difference between these two types of marri ages among these castes are finalised through negoti ages is only in the initial stages to secure the hand of ation irrespective of the socio-economic status and the the girl. The willingness of the girl is enquired by the caste. The matrimonial negotiations are always initiat young man through her friends or nearest relatives. ed by the young man through their respective caste Afterwards he makes frequent visits to the village to elders, nearest relatives or dearest friends. They exa contact the girl without being noticed by others and mine the surname and the details of the socio-economic ascertains her opinion directly. Among these tribes, life of the girl. Among Komati and Viswabrahmin particular care is taken to avoid the girl of the same castes, the negotiations are further carried on provided Saga as they consider themselves as brothers and sis- the horoscopes or the ianmanamalu agree with each 30 CHAPTER III other. Among the Scheduled Castes and other castes. through a special messenger belonging to their respec like Chakali, Mangali, Golla, Goundla and Kummari, tive castes. A few well-to7do families of Komati, MJun the young man's party consisting of father ~~d a few nurukapu, Padmasale, Telaga, Tenugu and Viswabrah elders visit the house of the girl on an auspICIOUS day, min castes are now-a-days extending their invitations fixed in consultation with the Brahmin purohit at Tan through printed cards well ahead of the marriage. The dur or another person through whom the intention of marriage booths are erected with 4 or 6 or 8 or 12 the girl's parents would have been ascertained ahe~d. posts, as per the custom of different castes both at the If the girl's party expresses its willingne.ss, the gIrl eroom's and the bride's houses, one or two days earlier is made to sit on an wooden plank, facmg east and than the actual day of marriage. keep bottu on the forehead of the girl by one of the 38. Unlike other castes in the village, the Viswa cc.ste women in married status or by one of the caste brahmins perform punyavachanam ceremony as per elders besides presenting a rupee to her. This cere the directions of the purohit of their own caste before wony'which signifies the settlement of the alliance, is the young man's party leaves for the marriage. The locally known as yerrabottu chesi",.amu .. Likewise the purohit recites a few sacred verses and then dresses girl's party also visits the house of the young rr:an on the groom with gayatri (a sacred white thread across an auspicious day to perform the yerrabottu chesmamu the shoulders). Afterwards the purohit worships not ceremony. Among a few castes, namely, Viswabrahmin only two ghada kudakalu but also a small pot contain and Komati either party visits the others' house on an ing a little rice signifying the Kuladevatha. After auspicious day after being satisfied with the agreement wards the young man's party ceremoniously starts for of janmanamalu of the young man and the girl. The the girl's village to the accompaniment of musical in young man's party consisting of elderly persons visit struments. The young man's party usually stays at the the house on an appointed day to perform the 'girl's Hanuman temple in the village while a few castes such betrothal ceremony locally known as nischaya tambu as Chakali, Golla, Goundla and Kummari and Sche lam. On this day, the girl is presented with five kuda duled Castes receive the girl's party on the outskirts kalu (dried cocoanuts), five kharjura (date) fruits, of the village. On hearing the arrival of the groom's two blouse pieces, turmeric powder and vermilion and party, the bride's party offers a warm welcome by of a gold ornament by the young man's father. The date fering bottu and sprinkling of scented water on them. of marriage and the venue for the marriage are decid Either party makes considerable fun on this occasion. ed upon. The young man's party is treated to vegeta The young man's party is then ceremoniously conduct rian food. ed to the specially arranged lodge locally known as 35. The caste people of Padmasale, Kummari and vididi under a saree canopy accompanied by musical Mangali who perform yerrabottu visit the house of the instruments. They are served with light refreshments. girl on Monday, or Wednesday or Friday which are 39. Afterwards a few women in married status the auspicious days for them. The girl is seated on a of their caste bring the avirenikundalu consisting of wooden plank facing east and one of the caste elders three big pots and five small pots including the lids presents two blouse pieces, one saree, two arecanuts, from the local Kummari's (Potter's) house. These pots three date fruits and five kudakalu to the girl. He also are decorated by Kummari (Potter) with lime and puts bottu (mark of vermilion) on the forehead of the jaju (red plaster). A,little of jowar is kept in each of girl. The formal betrothal ceremony locally known these pots and mango leaves are tied to them before as vidiyam is thus performed. In this connection, the they are brought by the women, followed by musical lag gam (marriage day) is also fixed so as to procure instruments. These pots are placed over jowar IJr the required articles for the ensuing ceremony. The p<>.ddy, spread in the room or a place intended for the young man's party is treated to vegetarian food on this ayrenulu. The ceremony connected with ayrenulu is occasion. Likewise the Scheduled Castes also perform also performed at the groom's house before they start the vidiyam. In Scheduled Castes the young man's for the marriage at the bride's village. party is entertained to non-vegetarian food and toddy to mark the occasi~n. 40. The barber of the village draws a mylapolu 36. On the day of betrothal ceremony, the vari as shown in the sketch on opposite page with either ous caste people finalise the list of articles and vori j{lwar or rice and a karri (yoke used to tie the bullocks) (bride price) or the dowry, as the case may be to be is kept on the mylapolu in the marriage pandal. presented to the groom and the' bride at the time of Then the bride and the toda peZlikutuTU (assistant marriage. The venue for the marriage is also fixed bride) are made to sit on the karri, facing east. Both among the Chakali, Goundla, Golla and Kummari. are given oil bath. Likewise the barber prepares the Among Komati, Viswabrahmin and Mangali castes the mylapolu at the vididi and the bridegroom is also marriage is usually performed at the girl's house. The given oil bath. Afterwards both the bride and the groom are dressed in new clothes. venue for the marriage is mostly the groom's house il1 ~cheduled Castes and other castes such as Chakali, 41. The barber prepares the laggampolu with jo Goundla, Golla and Kummari. war, similar to mylapolu in the centre of the marriage 37. The invitations among the Scheduled Castes, pandal. A karri is kept across the laggampolu extend Chakali, Goundla, Golla and Kummari castes are sent ing from north to south. One brass tumbler is kept on SOCIAL CUSTOMS 31 round the garigamuntalu for nine times. Another note worthy difference is that the bride and the groom are made to worship the avireni kundalu and one gariga buddi after they are seated on the karri over the biy yampolu, facing east. Then the Peddamala or Pedda madiga, the priest of their respective castes, shows the pushti (marriage locket) to all the people present on the occasion while distributing the sacred rice. Each one present, conveys his or her blessings by touching it with their hands. The pusthi is then tied around the neck of the bride by the groom as per the directions of the priest (Peddamala or Peddamadiga) and also decorates the bride with toe rings known as mattelu. Instead of talambralu function among the Hindu castes, the paluneyya basa is celebrated by the bride and the groom. On this occasion, a mixture of rice, kudakalu, ghee and milk are poured on the head of the bride by the groom and vice versa. MYLAPOLU 43. After the presentations, the star Arundhati i; shown to the new couple by their respective priests each of the four corners of the laggampolu and a white among the various castes. Then comes the nagavalli thread is woven five times round them by the Brahmin function. The nagavallipolu is drawn with cooked rice purohit or by any officiating priest. Afterwards two by a muttaidu (woman in married status) of their wooden planks locally called as pendlipeetalu are kept own caste. Four earthen lamps are kept on all the four over the karri and the groom is made to sit, first on corners (please see the drawing below). one of the pendlipeeta. Then the bride is brought by one of the women in married status and is seated on the left of the groom over the other pendlipeeta. Thus both the bride and the groom are made to sit facing ~--~futh.. L:P east and a curtain is held in between them. The Brah- II ~'S 1:1in purohit ties the kankanalu (mango leaf tied by a I~' ~~ thread smeared with turmeric) on the right hand wrists ~~~}J ~I• and basikalu on the foreheads of the bride and the ~.:.,o groom while chanting the sacred verses. In the mean ~'~ ~~ time all the invitees and the relatives are comfortably seated under the marriage booth. The kongulu (hems) ~ Jow., <_I~'O' of the bride's saree and the groom's upper cloth are S! 0 tied together into a knot which is known as Brahma ft."~'1 mudi. One brass tumbler decorated with turmeric it and vermilion is kept in front of the bride and the I I groom and is worshipped by them while the Brahmin purohit recites the sacred verses . .Just at this time the sacred rice is distributed to all the persons assembled on the occasion and the pusthi (marriage locket) is shown to all who pay their respects by touching it. Then the groom ties it around the neck of the bride following the directions of the purohit who recites Among the Scheduled Castes the nagavallipolu is drawn some sacred slokas. Mattelu (toe rings) are with jowar flour by the Peddamala in Manne caste fixed to the feet of the bride. The curtam and Peddamadiga in Madiga caste. Instead of earthen is then removed and' all the assembled peo'ple lamps, the cooked rice is kept on all the four corners shower their blessings on the new couple by throwing and the light is lit. Then the couple are made to sit the" sacred rice. The talambralu are then poured on on the karri facing east. In the meantime the sisters each other by making them sit faciIlig each other. On of the groom close the doors of the room into which this occasion presentations locally called katnalu are the couple are intended to be taken while they are given to the bride and the groom. Thus the marriage about to come out of the marriage panda!. Consider ceremony is solemnised. able fun is enjoyed by them as they press the couple to tell each other's name. The following couplet is sung 42. Like the other Hindu castes, the mylapolu b:r the bridegroom and his sisters. and the biyyampolu (known as laggampolu among the Bridegroom : Hindus) are prepared by the Peddamala among Manne caste and Peddamadiga among Madiga caste. Unlike in ~ e:5J.0 a ~ b-;j .,.,.;S th'e case of caste Hindus, the white thr'ead is WCMln Turpu dikkuna vana 32 CHAPTER III ~~~rrSOiJ whose expenditure will be between Rs. 500 and Rs. 1,000 whereas among KomaH caste it may go upto tadisipoye Rs. 2,000 even. From this analysis it is clear that the "'tA)~ ~CXl.) ""~o-~~! 'P~;St'i~€)J expenses of marriage. vary not only from caste to caste Talupu teeyi akkallara ! talanadakalu" but also depend on the economic status of the hOUSe Sisters: hold. ~Gi.'~eJ aeilo-~ o;:r>;0 0"3.). ';5..:5.)~eA) Padamati dikkuna vana lochhe, pachhadalu Consummation <§~~&')-ll03J ';eA);::j i9o).~ 48. The consummation ceremony is locally kno\vn tadisipoye talupu tiyya" as garbhadanam among Komati, Viswabrahmin casL~s Thus reciting the couplet, the sisters open the doors while it is known as kallagollu among the remaining ,;; hereupon the groom makes a customary payment to castes and tribes. There is no formal consummation them. Both the bride and the groom are then taken ceremony among the Rajgonds and Birdugonds. The to the well where the groom, loosens the soil with new couple are left to themselves after the marriage. koripa (an agricultural implement) and the bride and This ceremony is performed on the night of the final the groom sow prattiginjalu (cotton seeds) which sig bath of the first menstruation. The room is usually nifies the need for co-operative effort of the wife and provided with a cot and a bed sheet. Among a few l-,usband to lead a happy conjugal life. On this occa well-to-do people, the rOom is equipped with a deco. sion a few muttaidulu sing the following couplet: rated cot and a few sweets mostly liked by the couple are kept therein. The bride and the groom are made ~!lj~~ !"'lbJ ;;J~ to sit on the nuptial bed and particular care is taken Rajanna gorru patta, to see that they step into the rOom with their right e.>&'~:>i>~ :!).:9JeA) ~mJS feet. Then the bride is given five kinds of fruits and Lakshmamma vittulu poyya" ~ few kudakalu are kept in her vodi. Afterwards man galaharthi is given to the new couple and then they Then the entire party is entertained to vegetarian are left to themselves for one night. Among castes feast. like Chakali, Goundla, Golla, Kummari and Scheduled 44. The vadabala biyyam function is exclusively Castes the nails of the feet of the couple are removed performed by the Viswabrahmins following the naga by the barber and then they are given oil bath. This valLi. A little quantity of rice is kept in the house of is locally known as kallagollu. The kallagolla cere one of their own caste and the same is carried five mony is observed even today among all the castes ex times from that house to the house where marriage cept in Komati caste. In Mangali caste the Brahmin actually takes place by the new couple. Afterwards purohit officiates over this function. Among Viswabrah a vegetarian feast is arranged. mins the punyavachanam ceremony is performed by the new couple as per the directions of the purohit c,f 45. The marriage ceremony among various cast-cs their caste. All the remaining proceedings of this func comes to happy close by paying respects to the avireni tion are similar among all other castes in this village. kundalu by the new couple. On this occasion the basi This cerpmony Jasts for one night among all the castes. kalu and kankanalu are removed by the purohit. Among Muslims, it is performed on the same night of 46. Appagintalu, the final and the most touching the marriage day. Otherwise it is performed on the function of the marriage, is nothing but the handing day acceptable to both the parties after the attainment over of the bride ceremoniously to the groom's of pUberty. In this connection, non-vegetarian feast parents. In this connection a few women sing songs is arranged in all the communities except in Komati requesting the parents-in-law to loa}!: after the bride caste who entertain the relatives and friends with :iffectionately and pardon her if she fails to discharge vegetarian food. the household duties properly. The parents, brothers and sisters of the bride actually weep on this o-ccasion Widow remarriage as it is a separation from the parents who have 49. The widow remarriage is known as maruma brought her up with all affection and love. The par nuvu or patu among various castes and tribes in this ents, full of tears in their eyes, hug the bride and village. It is permitted in all the castes and tribes. bless her a happy wedded life. Before the new couple The widow usually prefers a second marriage if she leave the village, they pay their respects to all the has no shelter to lead her life after the death of her village deities, by offering turmeric and vermilion. first husband. A few widows have not been remarried Thus the new couple are given send off with heavy due to having aged children and also inheriting of hearts upto the outskirts of the village. some property for subsistence. The widow remarriage is only preferred by a widower in all the castes. The Expenditure on marriage intention of the widow for remarriage is ascertained 47. The expenditure on marriage usually varies through the caste elders and her nearest relatives. from Rs. 150 to Rs. 500 among the different castes ex Afterwards the negotiations are finalised through their cept in Viswabrahmin, Mangali and Muslim castes respective caste elders with her parents or any other SOCIAL OUSTOMS 33 nearest relatives of the widow. The widow marriage bers of the Panchayat. The arguments of both the par is a simple affair unlike the marriage by negotIation. 'Ii ties are heard and the accused are awarded punish On an auspicious day, the youngman accompanied by ments depending on the gravity of the offence. The a few caste elders visits the house of the woman with members of the Kulapanchayat always try to unite a saree, blouse and an ornament. The caste elder the husband and wife. The compensation, to be paid among Hindu castes applies bottu (a mark of vermi to the aggrieved party is always decided upon, depend lion) on her forehead while this function is attended ing upon the nature of the case and the decision of to by Peddamala and Peddamadiga among the Manne the caste panchayat is faithfully obeyed by the accus and Madiga castes respectively. Then she is dressed ed. In case the woman elopes with another person in clothes and ornaments presented by the young man. and initiates divorce, the paramour has to pay the In this connection the caste elders shower their bless compensation amount to the aggrieved husband ~s de ings by throwing the achintatu (sacred rice). On this cided by the Kulapanchayat. All the ornaments in occasion the entire party is treated to non-vegetarian cluding the pusthi (marriage locket) are taken away food in all the castes except in Komatis who arrange by the aggrieved husband. If the man initiates divorce, (:nly vegetarian food. The consummation ceremony is the woman is free to marry the person of her own performed on the same night. The couple are ceremo 'choice. She will have the right over the ornaments. niously sent into the room arranged for nuptials with Either of the parties do not have the right to act freely (out much ado. The widow thus married through maru ~nd independently unless the decision of the pancha manuvu or patu, is not allowed to bless the youngsters yat is carried out fully and faithfully by the accused. by sprinkling the sacred rice though she is allowed to The marriage of the divorced woman is called as pat r:articipate in all the social and religious functions. In among different castes and tribes in this village. a few castes this marriage is performed just like the marriage by negotiation but without elaborate arrange Adultery ments. The Brahmin purohit in Hindu castes and Ped 52. Adultery and extramarital sexual relations c1amala or Peddamadiga in 'Manne and Madiga castes are dealt with severely by laying heavy fines or by officiate over these marriages. This type of marriage way of excommunication. is locally called taggam. If the widow is marncd through laggam, she is entitled to participate in all the socia-religious functions just like any other married Death woman in the village. No musical instruments are play 53. Death customs among the various caste Hin ed for this marriage and the expenditure varies from dus are reported to be almost similar and pollution is Rs. 50 to Rs. 100 which mainly depends on the econo- observed for eleven days among all the castes except mic status of the pel'Son. . in Chakqlis who observe it only for nine days. Broad ly speaking, the various customs relating to death 50. The' widow brings along with her, little among the Scheduled Tribes are very nearly similar children born of her first husband and who l1tc::d her to those of caste Hindus in this village. In all 12 deathS care to her second husband's house after remarriage. have been reported among Birdugond tribe, Chakali, Once the children become a little older they leave for Goundla, Mangali, padmasale and Viswabrahmin their paternal relatives and make their own living. castes. Five of these twelve deaths are infant deaths. There are five deaths due to cough, fever and dysen Divorce tery while one death each is reported due to old-age 51. Divorce is permitted among all the castes and and smallpox. No deaths have been reported due to tribes except in Komati and Viswabrahmin castes. 1t snake bite, fall from a tree or wild animals (Table can be initiated either by a man or a woman. In all, 10). Eight out of these twelve dead persons are never there are nine cases of divorce belonging to Birdugona married while three are married and only one is an and Rajgond tribes, Golla, Padmasale and Telaga aged widow (Table 9). Both cremation and burial are castes, besides a solitary case of separation in Birdu in vogue among all the castes and tribes except Mus gond tribe (Table 64). The root cause of separatiQn i3 lims who 'exclusively bury the dead whatever the rea the barrenness of the woman, while the- causes for di sons of ,death and age of the dead person. In general vorce are many. The most common causes are age dlS the children aged below.five years, persons who have parity, temperamental differences, impotency and adul died due to smallpox and also pregnant women are tery. Surprisingly' enough, a divorce has been prefer huried irrespective of the caste and tribe. The crema red in Padmasale caste as the man is taller than the \orium at the bottom of Peddagutta to the south vf woman. All the cases of divorce are settled by their the village is used by Golla and a few other Hindu respective caste or tribal panchayats which are still castes while both the banks of the hill stream to the the potential traditional organisations to administer north are used for both burial and cremation by Raj the socia-religious life. In case the woman initiates gond, Thoti, Manne and Madiga communities. divorce, she simply leaves the husband's house and 54. The person about to breathe his last is brought ~tays with her parents indefinitely. A case of divorce down to the fioor if he is on a cot or bed. In the _last 1s always- reported. by the man to the head of the stages of life, the relatives and friends residing in the Kulapanchayat who sum~ons the other elderly mem- village pour a few drops of water in his mouth as a 34 CHAPTER III token of their affection. In the meantime the serious for eleven days. For unmarried persons, the period of condition of the person is informed to the relatives mourning is observed frbm three days to five days. In and friends livin~ in the neighbouring villages through case of married sister or daughter they take bath im a relative or a known person. Soon after the last mediately on hearing the sad news. Among tribes the breath, the deceased is kept in the front yard of the mourning period is for three days for all the married house and all the villagers visit the house of the de persons and only one day for the unmarried. No pollu ceased to console the bereaved. Afterwards the corpse tion is observed for married daughter or sister among is smeared with turmeric and is given bath with water these tribes except taking bath immediately after hear supplied by the people of the caste. The forehead is bg sad news. In Chakali caste the mourning period decorated with bottu (mark of vermilion). In the for the married is only for nine days and only one day meantime the local Madigas play sorrowful tunes on for the married sisters and daughters and for the un the musical instruments. The bier is prepared with married. bamboos by people of the caste or by the local Vadla 56. The obsequies ceremony is officiated by lh~ (carpenter). The corpse is cover~d with a new cotton Brahmin purohit among Komati and Mangali castes, cloth. Then it is kept on the bier and is carried by Sathani Vaishnava in Padmasale, Jangam in Kummari four persons belonging to the caste of the deceased. and Golla castes and Peddamala and Peddamadiga Among Rajgonds and Birdugonds, the same Saga in Manne and Madiga castes. The Patel among Raj people of the deceased carry the corpse to the crema gonds and Devari among Birdugonds conducts the en torium. The chief mourner, the son or any other nearest tire obsequies ceremony. relative, carries one potful of water and a fire pot and 57. The obsequies locally called pittaki pettadam leads the mourning procession accompanied by musical is performed on 3rd, 5th, 7th and 9th days in all the instruments. The women of Caste Hindus follow the castes except in Komati caste and SchedUled Tribes. corpse upto the dimpudukallam where the corpse is The respective purohit conducts this ceremony. On kept on the ground for a while. Here the chief mour these days a fowl is offered in the name of the deceas ner keeps the achintalu (sacred rice) and one or two ed and non-vegetarian food is offered to the dead at copper coins on all the four corners. Then the persons, the burial ground by the chief mourner. It is a belief carrying the bier change their places in such a way that the soul of the deceased will be happy if any bird tha t the front and the rear people exchange their C2.ts the food offered to the dead. Otherwise it is con places. Jowar mixed with a few copper coins are occa sidered that the d'eceased had still unfulfilled desires .. sionally thrown on the corpse while it is carried in Likewise this function is performed on the 5th, 7th procession to the burial ,ground. After reaching the and 9th days of the mourning period. On anyone of burial ground, three rounds are made by the entire these days, the bones and the ashes are collected among procession around the burial pit or the pyre prepared the tribes and Tenugu, Goundla, Viswabrahmin castes by the seksindhi of the village and the corpse is kept and are mixed in the river Godavari locally referred ever the pyre or the burial pit as the case may be, as Ganga at Mancheriyal. In Komati caste, the bones pointing its head towards the south in all the castes and ashes are immersed in Godavari on the obsequies except in Kummari caste in which case the head of clay. A few well-to-do people make cow and gold &3 the corpse is made to face the northern side. After ceremonial offerings to a Brabmin purohit in the name wards the chief mourner makes three rounds rouud of the dead. The relatives and the persons who carried the pyre along with the pot and the fire while one the corpse are invited to dinner on this day. among the gathering make a hole to the water pot. The pot is thrown tovv'ards the head and then the fire 58. In almost all the castes the ceremony of mak il> lit under the head. The entire party then takes bath ing the bereaved wife a widow is held on the 11th day in the nearby hill stream or a well and pay their res except in Goundla, Tenugu and Chakali castes, where pects to the earthen lamp lighted at the place of death it is on the 9th day of the mourning. In 'I'elaga caste before they return to their respective homes. In case it is performed on 5th or 7th, or 9th or 11th day of of burial, the chief mourner keeps a little of earth and the mourning. In case of Muslims, the bangles, black then the pit will 'be covered by the relatives. All the beads and earrings of the deceased woman a1 e people participating in the funeral function are served removed before the corpse is removed for burial with toddy by almost all the castes except in Komati ground. The elderly widow of the respective and Viswabrahmin castes; The expenditure on the day community takes the wife of . the deceased to the nearby hill stream. The pusthi (marriage of burial varies between Rs. 15 and Rs. 25 while 11 minimum of Rs. 25 is required for cremation. The ex locket), black beads, matteLu and bangles are removed by the elderly widow and she is given a bath. The penditure on the burial or cremation day depends 25- sentially on the economic status of the household and bottu (mark of vermilion on the forehead) is also re also differs from caste to caste. moved. Then she wears a new white saree and blouse presented by her brother or father and returns home. 55. Following the traditional Hindu customs the Afterwards she lits an earthen lamp at the place where funeral rites are performed. In almost all the castes her husband breathed his last and pays her respects 1he period of mourning is for ten days and the obse to the decea~d. Then she is served with the food pre quies are performed on the eleventh day except in pared for the obsequies eeremoriy. Unlike other Hindu Komati, Tenugu and Goundla castes who observe it castes, the pusthi, toe rings, bangles and black beads SOCIAL CUSTOMS 35 are removed in Komati caste by a widow of their wards the chief mourner lits fire under the head of the caste in the burial ground. Aiterwards she is given corpse. In case of burial the chief mourner keeps a bath and is dressed in a white saree presented by her little of earth on the corpse first and the pit is filled brother or parents. up completely by the tribesmen. The entire party re turns home after taking bath in the hill stream or 59. The final obsequies are performed on the 11th nearby well. A chicken is sacrificed at the place where day among various castes except in Komati, Tenugu the life is extinct and then the chief mourner along and Goundla castes who perform this ceremony on the with the persons who carried the corpse take their 12th day. In Chakali caste, this ceremony is perform food. In this connection liquor also is served. On the ed on the 9th day. The chief mOurner will have a same night some chicken are fed with jowar where clean shave including the head and wears new clothes. the deceased is buried or cremated. Afterwards a fowl The feasty food stuffs prepared for this ceremony, are and a goat are sacrificed. All the tribesmen enjoy the offered to the deceased as per the directions of Brah feast and are also entertained with liquor. Then all min purohit, or Sathani Vaishnava or Jangam as the these people dance around the kashtam (the place case may be. Oblations are made in the name of the where the corpse is buried or cremated) during the dead. Tulasi (Ocimum sanctum) water is served in whole night. On the following morning four or five 0r Komati and Viswabrahmin castes to all the members six or seven women depending on the Saga of the de of the household. The chief mourner followed by the ceased untie their hair and then take food. Then the priest visits the burial ground and offers the feasty women collect the ash with medi (a kind of tree) food stuffs to the dead. Afterwards the caste people twigs and then take bath in the nearby hill stream. A and relatives are entertained to non-vegetarian food pit locally known as godi is dug in front of the de among all the castes except in Komatis who offer vege ceased's house and keep the number of earthen pots tarian food. The nelamasikam (monthly ceremony) is depending on the Sag1a of the tribe besides keeping a performed in Komati, Viswabrahmin castes upto one big pot in front of the s;nall pots. Then a medi year. Now-a-days, a few well-to-do families in the (wooden) post locally known as ghatkulta is fixed by Scheduled Castes are also performing the nelamasikalu the side of the big pot and the goat intended for sacri up to one year though it is not a custom among them. fice in the name of the deceased is tied to this wooden On the day of nelamasikam oblations are offered in post. All the 'tribal people are served with liquor the name of the deceased. On completion of one year before executing the sacrifice. Afterwards the meat is the annual ceremony, known as samvathsaramasikam, equally distributed in all these pots and cooked. Half is performed exclusively among Komati and Viswa of the raw meat is taken to .the Barra hill stream and brahmin castes. People of other castes observe peddala a fowl is again sacrificed in the name of the dead. A panduga on pithruamava~ya day once in a year to ap little of the fowl's meat (cooked) and rice are offered pease the ancestors by offering new clothes and feasty to a pitta (bird) in the \name of the departed soul. food stuffs with a belief that the departed souls will People of all Sagas participate in this non-vegetarian be in peace in other world. The obsequies ceremonies feast, keeping a respectable distance in between them are performed among the various castes in this village. though they are seated along with others. The persons 60. As regards the Scheduled Tribes of this vil who carried the corpse are the principal participants lage both cremation and burial are in vogue. All the in this treat. tribesmen, relatives and friends assemble at the house 61. No monthly ceremonies are performed but of the deceased to console' the members of the bereav they annually observe pithrang or novvangua ill! me ed. The corpse is bathed either in hot water or cold mory of the departed souls in the month of Kartika "vater supplied by the households of the same Saga. (October-November). On this day, a corner of the The corpse is thus placed on the bier and carried by house is cleaned with dung and mud and samai kan four men of the same Saga of the deceased to the cre kulu (ear heads) are offered to their ancestors. After mation ground. The chief mourner leads the mourning wards the offered samai kankulu are cooked and en procession, carrying fire in one hand and an axe in the joyed in the name of the departed souls. other in case of cremation. The corpse is thus tak,en in procession accompanied by musical instruments 62. The mourning period among the Muslims lasts played by their tribe. Irrespective of the Sagas, all the for ten days. The Muslims bury the dead according to tribesmen participate in the funeral ceremony. Like their custom. The deceased is bathed and dressed in Hindus, the bier is lowered on to the floor on the out new clothes. Perfumes like scent and sandalwood pa3i:e skirts of the village known as rehanto and a small are also smeared to the body. The bier is constructed quantity of jowar or rice is placed near the head of in box shape and covered with a white cloth and then the corpse. In the meantime, the tribesmen of the same decorated with flowers. This bier is carried by four Saga dig the burial pit or prepare the pyre. The corpse persons after offering prayers to Allah by the assembl is placed on the funeral pyre pointing its head towards ed members. The corpse is taken in a procession with the south among Birdugonds and towards west among Gut musical instruments. The entire party offers Rajgonds. The pusthi (marriage locket), black beads, prayers at the burial ground before the corpse is low mattelu (toe rings) and bangles of the wife of the de ered into the pit, and a wooden plank is kept over ceased are removed and kept on the deceased. AfteI- the bier to avoid earth falling on it and then the pit 36 CHAPTER III is filled with earih. The entire party returns to the '1)ithudu as detailed below. The hair of the person, who house of the deceased and again prayers are offered is the victim of such beating, is scissored a little and to Allah for the peace of the departed soul. The Khazi is dipped in water while bottu (mark of vermilion) (priest) reads a few verses from Koran on all these if, applied on the forehead of the victim. Afterwards ~ccasions. On the tenth day, all the relatives and the following verses are recited by the Mokasi : friends offer prayers to Allah for the peace of the de parted soul. In this connection all the relatives are "§~ §;S~ ;:iyo~ I\vfJ~ ~6'>3 ~~ entertained to a non-vegetarian feast. A few well-to-do Kin kinaka mata gol golka peeta M"uslims arrange non-vegetarian feasts on the 20th, 8:!e>:Y-f. a-:soJ-..S, ;So~oJ-u§"" Q 30th and the 40th days after the demise. In this vil Jalahak, ponapan, nardehipak lage, the Muslims offer non-vegetarian feast on the :ro -D~ ~~ ~ _ ~ '~~ 40th day of death without fail to all their community people and to friends as well. Hikta mata hikta peeta ?(07P eJ~;S L~~ ~;S-Of)oXo Beliefs and practices Ganga Jamuna Prabhu Mahalingam" ~ 00) l;T';S l\) r5:J 63. Many beliefs and practices are prevalent in this village which is multi-ethnic. The beliefs in luck Sayidhana Guru 2nd superstition, taboos and omens are almost the same The Mokasi is customarily paid Rs. 1. 25 P. by the vic nmong the various castes in this village. Monday, Wed tim and the Panchayatdars are paid Hh of the fine nesday and Friday are considered as auspicious days imposed on the wrongdoer. for undertaking journey or for starting any business. All Hindu castes worship with qevotion the village 66. If an inter-tribal marriage is contracted by deities like Pochamma, Mallamnia and Mahalashmi any Rajgohd or Birdugond, the Mokasi performs the and the tribes of this village worship Jangubaipen, following ceremony and admits him in their tribe. .Akipen and Bheemdev. A crude stone idol of Hanu .. OO)~~ 0iT"~ o»¢--~ ~~ man, the Monkey-God, is worshipped with all rever Ibhuti mata ibhuti peeta ance by all the castes excepting Muslims. This Hanu Il!an is regarded as the care-taker and benefactor of eaot" llieJO GO.:>. 8I;.to 6 oSJ-u 00) their livestock. All the Hindu caste people make vo Jahamilaye, jaharamayi tive offerings to Venkateswaraswamy at Vemulawada ~ o~ 6eh7"C);),) ;56Jruerw6 ~ c;pi:b , (\ :;nd Rayesudu at Bugga to overcome ill-luck and other Sankarajipayi, sadgurulara kaname." domestic difficulties. The animal sacrifice to village deities is in vogue among various castes to protect A little of the hair of the victim irrespective of the themselves against minor ailments such as fever, mo sex is scissored and left in the water by the Mokasi. Afterwards seven pandals are erected on the outskirts tions, etc., besides epidemics. of the village and the victim is made to pass through 64. The omens too are almost common among all all these seven pandals. No sooner the victim passes the castes and tribes in this village. Seeing a widow, through these pandals, than they are burnt by anyone :Brahmin, cat, snake, axe, new pots, empty pots and of the tribal elders. After this ordeal, a golden ring person with a bundle of fire~wood and a tamarind tree ia heated and touched at the pointed end of the ton are considered to be unlucky, while seeing a muttaidu gue. From then onwards he or she. is eligible to par (woman in married status), cow, fox, women with pot ticipate in all the social and religious functions of the ful of water or milk or cooked rice, brass ring, neta tribe. Even in this case the Mukhasadar is custom podupu (new ,moon), palmyra and neem trees are con arily paid Rs. 1.25 P. whereas the Panchayatdaros (tri sidered to be auspicious and lucky. Likewise hearing bal elders) are paid !,th of the total fine imposed on the sounds of jeelika bird, peddapitta and dog are in tce accused. auspicious and are believed to even forecast some death in the village. Coming across a cow, washerman 67. The possession and the effects of the evil eye are believed by all the castes and tribes of this vil with soiled clothes, muttaidu and sneezing twice are considered as good omens for starting on a journey. lage. The most common method to ward off the effects Sneezing once, coming across a cat, widow, washerman of evil eye is that some salt, dried chillies and a torn with washed clothes, person with fire wood or empty piece of old cloth or a few splinters of a broomstick are taken round the person thrice and thrown in the vessels are considered unlucky for embarking on any fire. Another popular method is that the dried chil errand and undertaking journey. Sudden breaking of lies, salt and turmeric are boiled in water and the a water pot or any other cooking utensil is con~idered steam is inhaled by the affected person, covering a bed so inauspicious that SOme untoward happening in the sheet over him. It is then taken around the victim household would be apprehended. and thrown in the penta (rubbish heap). Among Vis 65. Among Rajgonds ~nd Birdugonds it is consi wabrahmins, cotton seeds, salt and chillies are taken dered grave if anyone beats them with a shoe or chap round the head of the person affected thrice and pal. In order to ward off the evil effect of this act, thrown in the fire. In Madiga caste, two splinters of the Mokasi (religious head of Rajgonds) performs the broomstick are tied with a country cotton at one SOCIAL CUSTOMS 37 end and dipped in oil. Then this stick is taken around 68. The most x:opular method atnong Mangali the person thrice and lit with fire. These burnt sticks caste is that the picture of a human being is drawn are dipped in water, kept in a dhaniya (brass uten 01'. a vessel with turmeric and it is taken round the person affected with evil eye. It is then mixed in boil sil). It is believed that the dishti (effect of the evil ing water. The belief is that the water gets red if eye) is removed, if water becomes red in colour. there has been disht,i (evil eye). Chapter IV ECONOMY Economic resources little impact on the agricultural economy of the vil lage. Many agriculturists are not aware of the vari Since immemorial past, the governing factor of (JUS legislations and their far reaching consequen~es their economy is agriculture. Each household, irres in the agrarian structure. The village has no indus pective of its caste and tribe, owns some extent of trial base to influence the village economy. A few land for cultivation. Enquiries reveal that large ex functionary castes viz, Viswabrahmin, Chakali tents of land were originally owned by the Rajgon:ds, (Washerman), Mangali (Barber) are continuing their the first settlers of this village. As years rolled on, caste occupations as their chief occupations in this the {lther castes have slowly immigrated into this vil yillage. The village shop-keepers sell the sundry arti !age to eke out their livelihood through agriculture cles of domestic requirements. The Panchayat Samithi and by providing other essential services to the vil at Mancheriyal has not done anything to improve the lage community. The other castes who are intelligent EConomic condition of this village due to its distant enough to exploit the simple and honest living Raj location from the former. Almost all villagers visit gonds, have rightly exploited them by advancing ha~d Bellampalle, the industrial area of this reg,ion and loans to the latter whenever required on the securIty Mancheriyal, the nearest marketing centre to sell their of the lands. A few of the Rajgonds have voluntarily surplus agricultural produce and to purchase clothing surrendered their lands towards the redemption of and other needs of household. But none of them are debt. The present ownership of the land holdings engaged as labourers in the coal mines at Bellampalle shows that large extents of cultivable land are exclu inspite of their frequent visits to this centre. These sIvely owned by Pusukuri Venkatrama Dora belong frequent visits have influenced the younger generatirll1 ing to Velama caste of Mandamarri village. The entire who have started wearing pants, shirts, etc., like the economic life of the village community whirls around youngsters of the plains. There are a few immigrations this solitary landlord who had distributed the land to into this village from the last ten years but no house mr.ny of the recent immigrants and in turn he is charg holds have emigrated form this village to any nearby ing a nominal relit of Rs. 2.50 to Rs. 9 per acre depend l'rban centre to eke out their livelihood. ing on the developments made by each tenant. In gene ral each household grows its own foodgrains. In case 4. Many households have got small land holdin;;s, anyone falls short of foodgrains, he secures them in whereas large extents of land are owned by the land the form of loan within the village itself. The sur lord stationed at Mandamarri. The villagers could not plus produce, if any, is sold at M1ancheriyal, the nearest finance their agricultural expem:es as the yield from wholesale market of this region. their lands has been just sufficient to enable them to 2. Besides agriculture, the mainstay of the vil live on the SUbsistence level. Hence many ryots in this lagers, the other traditional caste occupations, namely village have not adopted improved methods of agri hair-cutting, goldsmithy, washing ~on~workers are in the age group of 15-34 years, be households is eking out its livelihood through cattle ,t;jdes 12 non-workers in the age group of 35-59 years. grazing while the solitary Madiga is working as agri Only 3 superannuated women are among the non culturai labourer (Table 22). V\forkers. In all, 3 men of the working age groups (15-34 ;rears and 35-59 years) are idle without any work. As 9. Among the 35 surveyed households 9 are en per Table 14, among workers, 6 children of below 14 gaged in cultivation run by the households, 4 in indus ;rears of age are employed as agricultural labourers and try run by the households and one in business run by 1"1.lral labourers. Eight persons each in the age group the household. The remaining 21 households are en 0:£ 15-34 years and 35-59 years and one superannuated gaged in other occupations (Table 17). erson are agriculturists. The maximum number of ~ersons are found as rural labourers. In general more Combination of occupations $'lumber of workers of different ag-e groups are found 10. Table 23 shows the combination of occupations j1'1 rural labour followed. by agriculture and ritual iollowed by various households in this village. Among pegging. All the 13 workers engaged in ritual begging II households with agriculture as main occupatlOn, a e £lr exclusively men while the female workers sigmfi households have rural labour as subsidiary occupa c9ntly outnumber the males in rural labour. tIon; 2 households goat rearing; one household each j:t can thus be inferred that 67 of the 78 workers has agricultural labour and ,selling of grass ~spective of various occupations belong to age groups 15-34 years ly as their subsidiary occupation. Of the 12' house ~nd 35-59 years. holds with ritual beggini as main occupation, 4 are having rural labour as their subsidiary occupation. 6. Of the total of 98 non-workers, 67 are aged One among the four households with rural labour as -pelow 14 years and 9 of them are attending to the main occupation is receiving rent. One household has ~chool while the remaining 58 are either infants or c}lildren who are dependants. Tllere are 7 and 6 de combined, washing of clothes with the subsidiary occu pation of rural labour. It is thus evident that the main vendants in the £Ige groups 15-34 years and 35-59 years respectively who are either disabled or infirm, besides occupation agriculture and the subsidiary occupation tile two superannuated dependants. Thus there are 73 rural labour are predominant in this village. dependants among the non-workers. Out of the remain jJl.g 25 non-workers, 15 females are exclusively en Occupational mobility "aged in household work while 10 are either full time 11. According to Table 20, as many as eleven of ~wdents Or children attending to schools (Table 16). the thirty-five surveyed households with different tra ditional occupations have changed over to various '.traditional occupation other occupations, either volUntarily or due to force of circumstances. One household each of Munnurukapu 7. In all 13 traditional occupations have been re and Padmasale castes with the traditional occupations pOrted by various castes and tribes in this village. The of agriculutre and weaving have voluntarily changed traditional occupation of Birdugonds is ritual begging. over to rural labour and agriculture respectively for 'the functionary castes like Mangali, Chakali, Viswa better living. One Madiga household has changed over brahmin, Kummari and Goundla have reported their from its traditional occupation agriculture to agricul respective occupations as their tradit~onal occupations. tural labour due to force of circumstances as his land 1'he Komatis report business as their traditional occu was taken away by the money lender towards redemp pation. The traditional occupation of Padmasale is tion of debt. One household each of Tenugu caste and ,.;eaving (Table 18). Muslim have also changed over to the contemporary main occupations, rural labour and tailoring, respec l\fain occupation tively to earn better livelihood. The remaining six 8. The main o'ccupation of a majority of the households have not given any specific reasons for llouseholds in the village is agriculture. Among the their change of occupation. In all, eighteen households surveyed households, the main occupation of 11 Birdu of different occupations have expressed their discon gond households and one Tenugu household is ritual tentment with their present occupations. pegging. Agriculture is the main occupation for 9 12. When enquired into the nature of aspirations }louses belonging to Rajgonds (3), Golla (2), Manne of the heads of different households, 9 wish their sons (2), Netkani (1) and Padmasale (1) castes. The main tv follow the same occupation while heads of 8 house occupation of Mangali, Viswabrahmin, KUmmari, Cha bolds desire their sons to give up their traditional oc }>ali and Goundla castes are hair cutting, goldsmithy, cupations in preference to Government service and pOttery, washing of clothes and toddy tapping respec agriculture. The note-worthy feature is that one house tively. Two Birdug{)nd households and one household hold each wish their sons to become engineer and tea each of Munnurukapu and Tenugu castes are at pre cher respectively. In all, heads of seven households sent engaged in rural labour while one Birdugoud could not express their desire as they do not bave household is employed as atta<:hed agricultural labour. sons. Head of one household is so innocent that he petty business is run by the Komati, while the MUslim could not express- his desire. The' general diseontent. is engaged in tailorini. One among the three Golla ment amoni the villagers with their present oeeupa- ECONOMY 41 tions invariably indicates their desire for progress d~r, Lakshettipet, basing on the records of the Village (Table al). Karnam. There is an increase of about Rs. 400 over u period of 9 years in the land revenue while the extent Agriculture of cultivable dry land has increased by 113 acres dur 13. As seen from the village records, the total ing the same period. area of Malkepalle is 2,087 acres and 14 ·guntas out Statement III of which, an extent of 998 acres and 17 guntas is patta LAND REVENUE DEMAND AND COLLECTION l .• 40 lfuntQs::; I acre 42 CHAPTER IV by the landlord for his fields besides organic manure. women participate in it humming their favourite folk Almost all the crops except paddy are broadcast by songs and retorting rural jokes. Thus the grain is the ryots. In case of jowar, the seed is poured through separated and stored in big bamboo baskets locally the gorru locally known as gorrakatti pOyuta so that known as gummilu. A few of (them also store the corn the crop grows in parallel lines which facilitates for in gunny bags. inter-cultural operations. The paddy is transplanted in the month of August. The weeding operations are con 19. A few well-to-do agriculturists make prepa ducted in the middle of SepteHlber and the second ra tions for the second crop from the last week of De weeding is taken up after a gap of one month. The cember till the first half of January by ploughing the harvest operations are started when the ear heads are lands three or four times and then apply the organic ripe. The crop is harvested and tied into bundles. This manure. Many ryots broadcast jowal"' seeds and raise harvested crop is spread on a cleared site and the cat the crops like chillies, maize, etc. The other inter-cul tle are made to walk over in rounds to separate the tural and harvest operations are similar t{) those of the grain from the straw. A few ryots thrash the ear heads first crop. A few agriculturists of the village viz, Raj against wooden logs and then the cattle are made to gonds, Birdugonds (S.Ts.) and Scheduled Castes offer YTalk over in rounds. At this stage men and women in a fowl to the plough in the name of their Gods on the the fields winnow the grain to separate the dust from first day of ploughing the land for good harvest. The the grain (Fig. 20). This is one of the picturesque visi sowing and harvesting seasons of various crops grown ons of the agricultural operations as the men and in this village are given below : Statement IV CROP CALENDAR Type of sowing ,...... ____-J.....- ____.,._, Sl. Broad- Transplan- Sowing Harvest No. Name of crop casting tntion season season (1) (2 ) (3) (4) (5) (6) Abi (First crop) 1 Jowar (pacha jonna) Yes July-August October-November (through gorru) 2 Maize (makkalu) Yes June August-September 3 Jowar (teHa jonna) Yes September January 4 Paddy Yes August January 5 Greengram Yes June September 6 Gingelly + Redgram Yes August December (Gingelly (mixed crop) crop) January (Redgram crop) 7 White gingelly Yes July December 8 Castor Yes August January~February 9 Anumulu (mixed crop Yes June October-November with maize) Tabi (Second crop) 1 Jowar Yes January March-April 2 Maize Yes June August-September Seeds Agricultural implements 20. Each agriculturist preserves the required 21. The farmers of this village use the traditional quantity of good corn for seed purposes every year ;]t cgricultural implements (Fig. 21). The modern im the time of harvest. A few agriculturists borrow the proved agricultural implements are not used by any seed from other ryots in the village or in the neigh cultivator as they are perhaps not in the reach of an houring villages on the condition that the same quan ordinary ryot. Even the absentee landlord of this vil tity of seed or a little excess over the quantity borrow lage residing at Mandamarri is conducting all the agricultural operations with the help of indigenous ed Vlould be repaid at the time of harvest. . None of agricultural implements only. The agricultural imple the agriculturists have so far used the improved seed ments, most commonly used by the fanners are nagali in this village. A few well-to-do ryots purchase their (plough), guntaka, gorru, gunapam (crowbar) and para seed requirements from Adilabad or from Mancheriyal (spade). Axes and sickles are the minor agricultural whenever they visit before the sowing season. implements owned by almost all the cultivators. The agricultural implements are locally prepared by the two fixed wooden pegs known as guntaka koyyalu con carpenter of Viswabrahmin caste with or without the nected by an iron blade called palugu. The kadi with supply of wood and iron. The iron requirements for bullocks is tied to one end of the nagalu of the guntaka preparing the agricultural implements are purchased l\ henever it is used in the agricultural operations. from Mancheriyal market. The wood required for the agricultural needs are collected from the nearby forest, 25. Gorru is used to sow jowar, maize or any pochammaloddi. The farmers gain free access into the other seed in lines. It mainly consists of gorru, jaddi gam, koyyalu, nagalu and rumbena. Just a's in guntaka forest for the collection of required wood by paying a the rumbena is used as handle while ploughing. mamooL of 50 Paise annually for each araka (plough) Th~ to the petty forest official Chowkidar stationed in this jaddigam connected with three long bamboo pipes is tied by a rope connecting the other ends of these pipes village. This payment is locally known as avuthpatti. to koyyalu of the gorru. The nagalu is also fixed to When enquired into the authenticity of these avuth patti collections with concerned local petty forest offi the gorru. When it is required, the kadi with bullocks cial, he claims it to be a custom to collect this custom on either side is tied to one end of nagalu. The seed is served through jaddigam into the koyyalu of the ary avuthpatti from generations and then allow the ryots to collect the wood free from the forest. The car gorru and then to field. Thus the seed are sown with the help of this implement. penter-cum-blacksmith of this village attends to pre paring all the requirements of the ryots. (Fig. 22 shows 26. The spade locally known as para is a wide the blacksmith at work). The farmers usually supply iron blade of 2 feet or 2k feet length and 8 inches or the raw materials and the carpenter-cum-blacksmiih 10 inches width which is fixed to a wooden handle of is simply paid the service charges annually in kind at 2i feet length. This is used to turn the earth and to the time of harvest. The charges are not paid then and construct the earthen buds in the fields. there just like in any urban village. The charcoal f~r heating the iron is also supplied by the respective 27. The axe is used to cut the trees and bigger ryots. The farmer assists him till the work is com rlants while the crowbar is used to dig 'pits and lift pleted. The minimum charges for his services are the stones. The sickle is used to cut the crops and Rs. 12 whereas the maximum charges amounting to small plants. 1\s. 50 are usually paid by the absentee landlord of this village. These payments are usually made in kind Fertilisers from 12 tavvalu to 1! panas (bags). Besides these an r.uaI payments, the Vadla (carpenter-cum-blacksmith) 28. Cattle dung is the principal manure. The daily is also given small quantities of other agricultural pro sweep of the house and the cattle sheds is deposited d\_\ce by each farmer to whom he serves. These conven in a pit within the homestead area. The women daily tional payments have no binding over the agriculturists sweep the cattle sheds and deposit it in the rubbish but separate payments are also eade for his extra ser pit. Chemical fertilisers are not used by any agricul vices other than the work connected with agricultural turist except in the fields of the landlord. All the agri culturists of this village use organic manure before implements. 'sowing operations. The agriculturists pay Rs. 10 to 22. The poorer farmers prepare their own agri Us. 15 for a flock of sheep which are allowed to sleep cultural implements except fixing up the iron blades in agricultural fields for about a week besides apply to these implements. The Vadla is paid jowar costing ing cattle dung before the land is ploughed. The non Rs. 4 to Rs. 10 annually at the time of harvest, depend agricultural families collect the dung and the daily ing on his services. The details of the agricultural im sweep of the house which will be sold to the agricul plements are given below. turists. Each cart load of organic manure locally known 23. The plough is made of teak wood as it is dur as penta costs Rs. 2 to Rs. 4 depending on the demand in the village. Enquiries revealed that they are will E'ble. The plough consists of pale, kola, nagali and ing to use the chemical fertilisers provided they are kadi. The painted· iron blade of 10 inches to 1~ feet of sup-plied to them in time and taught about its use. length locally known as karru is fixed to the nagali, allowing 2 inches or 3 inches to project outside. The pale and kola are connected to the na,gali and fixed Improved methods of cultivation with a wooden piece known as seela. The pale is used 29. The peasants follow the age old methods of as a handle by the farmer while ploughing. The bUl farming with the indigenous implements. None of the locks are tied on either side of kadi whiCh in turn i<; farmers knew about the improved agricultural imple tied to one end of the kola. Thus' the plough is made ments and improved methods of fartning. It is obvi ready for ploughing purposes. ously due to absence of any opportunity to know about 24. Guntaka is used to level the land after plough the new things and lack of proper guidance. Among ing the fields. It mainly consists of rumbena, guntaka the surveyed households, one Manne (S,C.) household and nagalu. The rumbena used as a handle while has used the pesticide, endrine, three years back which ploughing and the nagalu tied to the kadi with bl~l was purchased from the agriculture depot at Manche locks are fixed to the guntaka. The guntaka has got riyal. He further acknowledged the good yields during 44 CHAPTER IV that particular year after applying the insecticide. Statement V The traditional custom of rendering mutual assistance PARTICULARS OF WAGES in various agricultural operations on reciprocal basis is still effectively continued among the agriculturists Nature of operation Wage rate per day of this village. They help one other not only in sowing (1) (2) and harvesting operations by way of manual labour 1st crop Rs. P. but also assist one other by lending agricultural im 1 Ploughing 1 .50 to 2 per head plements. The country carts locally called as kacha 2 Broadcasting or 0.75 per fenlale dams are spared to transport the organic manure and transplantation 1 . ao per male t1:e harvested crop. The bullocks are also lent for 3 Weeding 0.75 per female thrashing purposes. Among the surveyed households, 1 .00 per male 4 households have borrowed agricultural implements 4 Harvesting 1.00 both per male & from the co-farmers at the time of cultivation while 6 female househo!ds have mutually helped among themselves 5 Thrashing 1 . 00 per male by way of manual labour in various agricultural ope 2nd crop rations. Surprisingly enough, only one household knows the Village Level Worker (Table 28). There 1 Ploughing 1.5() per head are no agriculturists who have either adopted land 2 Broadcasting or o. 50 per fenlale improvement measures or who have been benefited by transplantation 0.75 per male Village Level Worker's technical advice. 3 Weeding o. 50 per female 30. The women of the Munnurukapu, Tenugu, 0.75 per male 4 Harvesting Goundla, Golla castes, Birdugond, (Scheduled Tribe) 1 .00 per male or female 5 Thrashing and Scheduled castes are employed on daily wages 1.00 per male for sowing, weeding, cutting of grass and harvesting 32. Among the above said agricultural operations, operations, while the males are invariably engaged for the ploughing operations are conducted by the respec harvesting and ploughing operations. They are also tive farmers or by the attached agricultural labourers. engaged to bring the harvest to their homes by manual The wage rate is higher during the first crop season labour or by the country carts. than in the second crop period as all the farmers need labour in the first crop while a few only raise the Labour and wages second crop. The attached agricultural labourers are appointed on yearly basis. The payments usually vary 31. Generally all the members of the agricultural from Rs. 150 to Rs. 350. Advances are paid in cash to households and the workers dependent on agricultural these labourers and the balance is paid in kind at the labour and rural labour, engage themselves in the time of harvest. Neither food nor clothes are given to fields during the various agricultural operations. The them. Young boys of below 18 years of age are paid women and other family members of the farmer assist between Rs. 100 and Rs. 150 per annum who are engag ip.. agricultural operations such as weeding and har ed to look after the cattle. These attached agricultural vesting operations. A few well-to-do agriculturists em lzbourers are given food on festive occasions. They ploy attached agricultural labourers to assist them have to work from dawn to 'dusk with one or one and throughout the year in all the agricultural operations half an hour's leisure for lunch. It is said by these and in turn they are paid between Rs. 150 and Rs. 350 attached agricultural labourers that the present pay~ per year. The peasants give them neither food nor ments are not proportionate either to the present cost clothes. Among the 78 workers of the surveyed house of living or to the work turned out by them while em~ holds, as many as 31 workers (41 . 02 %) are purely ployer grievously complains that these farm labourers earning their livelihood through rural labour and agri are not sincere now-a-days and require constant supel'~ cultural labour. During the peak season, the labourers vision to extract even the legitimate work. are employed on daily wages, though mutual aid ill agricultural operations prevails in Malkepalle village. Agricultural finance There is no dearth of agricultural labour in this vil 33. The chief sources of agricultural finance are lage. Men and women of all the functionary castes the well-to-do peasants or private money lenders. Most excepting those of Komati, Viswabrahmin and Telaga of the farmers meet their agricultural expenses from castes and men and women of other castes employ out of their savings and almost all the agricultural themselves as agticultural labourers during the season. operations are carried on by the family labour. Hence the needs of the village are mostly met from 34. Cost of production mainly depends on the in the labour available within the village and from neigh terest of the farmer and the contribution of the family bouring villages. The labourers are usually paid in members. Almost all the peasants of this village culti money except at the time of harvest. A few farmers vate their lands with their own bullocks and ploughs. pay their labourers in kind for all the agricultural Hence the cost of production usually varies from pea operations. The prevailing wage rates are given below: sant to peasant depending on the cattle wealth and ECONOMY 4S manpower. In order to present a clear picture a few Statement VII-Cone1d. case studies have been given below. PRODUCTION COST AND SALE PROCEEDS, Case study 1 CASE STUDY 2 Cost 35. The details of the cost of production of a Raj of production Sale proceeds gond household is given below. The household owns (1) (2) bullocks and agricultural implements and mainly de Rs.P. Rs.P. 4 Maintenance pends on agriculture. It cultivated an extent of 2 acres 4 Gingelly 120.00 of cattle out of its six acres of dry land during the year under 30.00 5 Ropes survey (1963-64). The family is of simple type and 10.00 Agricultural consists of two members only. Both of them have 6 implements actively participated in the agricultural work. 16.00 7 Seed 5.00 Statement VI Total 435.50 • Total 1,372.00 PRODUCTION COST AND SALE PROCEEDS, Net amount earned from CASE STUDY 1 agriculture Rs. 1,372.00 - Rs. 435.50 Cost oj production Sale proceeds = Rs. 936.50 (1) (2) Case study 3 Rs. P. Rs. P. 1 Land revenue 1,0.00 1 Jowar 96.00 37. A case study of Sri Jangirala Chandrayya of 2 Cost of manure 2 Maize Padmasale caste who also engaged in agriculture, cuI· (mak- tivating an extent of 7 acres of dry land with the help kaZu) 54.00 of his family labour and with the help of his brother's 3 Hired labour 8.00 3 Anumulu family members is presented below. The cultivation (field is carried on with his own bullocks and implements. beans) 4.00 He has taken the land on lease for the last two years 4 Cost of seeds 6.00 4 Castor seed 4.00 on condition to pay Rs. 17.50 P. per year bearing the 5 IMaintenance of 5 Tobacco 10.00 land revenue and other expenses from the absentee livestock 36.00 landlord of this village. The family is of joint type 6 Ropes with five members. Total Total 60.00 168.00 Statement VIn Net income Rs. 168.00 - Rs. 60.00 = Rs. 108.00 PRODUCTION COST AND SALE PROCEEDS, Case study 2 CASE STUDY 3 Sale 36. The income and expenditure particulars re Cost of production proceeds lating to agriculture of Sri Asari Bheemayya, belong (1) (2) Rs. P. ing to Golla caste are given below. He is continuing Rs. P. his traditional occupation, goat rearing, besides culti :1 Land revenue 9.50 1 Jowar 320.00 2 Maize vating his own lands. He owns not only bullocks but 2 Ropes 2.50 (mak. also agricultUral implements. All the family members participate in the agricultural operations. His family kalu) 128.00 is of intermediate type and consists of six members. 3 Implements and 3 Castor seed 108.00 He cultivated 6 acres of dry land during 1963-64. He equipment 26.00 engaged an attached agricultural labourer on payment 4 Maintenance of of Rs. 360 per year. bullocks Total 38.00 Total 556.00 Statement VII Net income earned from PRODUCTION COST AND SALE PROCEEDS, agriculture Rs. 556.00 - Rs. 38.00 CASE STUDY 2 = Rs. 518.00 Cost of production SaZe proceeds Case study 4 (1) (2) Rs. P. Rs. P. 38. Among the agriculturists of the surveyed 1 Land revenue 14.50 1 Jowar 640.00 households, Sri Raya Narsu of Manne caste (Scheduled 2 Manures 2 Maize Caste) is cultivating the maximum acreage of land and (mak he stands second to the absentee landlord of this vil kalu) 51~.GO lage in the extent of cultivated land. An extent of 34 3 Attached 3 Paddy 100.00 acres was cultivated during the year under survey agricul tural with his own bullocks and with the assistance of the labour 360.00 family labour. Besides family labour, he h~ engaged 46 CHAPTER IV aE attached agricultural labourer for Rs. 224 per tic requirements only. The transactions are carried out annum. Besides agriculture, the head of the ho~sehol.d both in kind and in cash. The local shopkeepers make is employed as Sunkari, i.e., Village Servant m thlS wholesale purchases of domestic requirements at Man village. The head of the household ~vho is ~ged ~~es ('heriyal, an important wholesale marketing c.entre of not participate in agricultural operations. It lS a Jomt this region. The surplus agricultural produce lS trans type of family ~and consists of eight members. ported by the kachada.m.s (country carts) to .Mancheri yal market once or twice in a year dependmg on the Statement IX availability of surplus stocks. The transactions at Ma~ PRODUCTION COST AND SALE PROCEEDS, cheriyal are exclusively carried out in cash. The v11- CASE STUDY 4 lagers usually purchase clothes, kerosene, vegetable Cost of production Sale proceeds oil and other essentials with the sale proceeds as they (1) (2) are cheap, compared to the prevailing rates in th.e vil Rs. P. Rs. P. lage shop. Almost all the villagers regularly ViSlt the 1 Land revenue 65.00 1 Jowar 960.00 weekly shandy on Wednesday at Kasipet (6 miles away 2 Seeds 55.00 2 Maize from Malkepalle) for the purchase of kerosene and (makkalu) 640.00 articles of daily consumption. 3 Attached agri- 3 Castor 41. The farmers do not sell the foodgrains in the cultural labour 224.00 seed 640.00 market as they not only use the same for domestic 4: Maintenance of: 4 Gingelly 768.00 consumption but also pay these food grains towards cattle 930.00 wages for the hired labour. The surplus agricultural 5 Implements and 5 Redgram 32.00 produce is transported to the wholesale market at Man equipment 40.00 cheriyal by kachadams (country carts). Among the 6 Carpentry-cum- 6' Anumulu surveyed households 6 households have marketed their blacksmithy 12.00 (field bean) 64.00 surplus agricultural produce direct to the merchants 7 Choppa at Mancheriyal and realised an amount of Rs. 1,550 (fodder) 900.00 during the year under survey. As seen from Table. 27 Total 1,326.00 Total 4,004.00 all the households which produced jowar, malze, Net income on agriculture Rs. 4004 - Rs. 1,326 paddy, field bean and redgram have been exclusively '= Rs. 2,678 used for domestic consumption. 39. From the above analysis, it is evident that the households have not spent much where the family Animal husbandry members have actively participated in agricultural 42. The cattle wealth of the village consists of cperations. Sri J. Chandrayya has not spent any amount 300 cows, 78 bullocks, 2 stud bulls, 30 she-buffaloes, 10 on hired labour as all the members of the household he-buffaloes, 40 calves and 600 sheep. Each Golla house· have actively participated with all the agricultural hold possesses a pet dog to watch the flocks of sheep. operations while the Rajgond household has spent a Among the 35 surveyed households 14 are owning live nominal amount of Rs. 8 on hired labour besides th~ stock. Their cattle wealth consists of 63 milch cattle, participation of family labour. Sri Asari Bheemayya 30 draught bullocks, 11 calves, 113 sheep and 7 fowls and Sri Raya Narsu have employed attached agricul (Table 34). A few country dogs are domesticated by a tural labourers, incurring an expenditure of Rs. 360 few householdS to guard the village. As seen from and Rs. 224 respectively besides the family labour. It Table 34, the Gollas and Mannes own the maximum is clear from the above illustrations that the net iu number of cattle among the surveyed households. The come is definitely more in cases where the family lab sheep and goats are exclusively owned by the Golla our has participated actively in all the agricultural households. Each agricultural househOld of this village operations. Moreover, the cultivation of small holdings owns at least two bullocks and a cow. Most of these by engaging hired labour is always uneconomical. animals are of local breed which are either house-breed Almost all the agriculturists in this village depend not or purchased from the neighbouring villages or from only on hired labour but also on the family labour. In the cattle fairs. The villagers do neither own a plidi. all the above four examples, the agricultural eXp€nses gree bull or he-buffalo. The local stud bulls and he have been met from their own resources without rais buffaloes serve the cows and she-buffaloes of this vil ing loans either from private money lenders or from lage. Even the Gollas, the predominant sheep and any Government agency. The noteworthy feature is that goat owners, do not possess any pedigree rams. No at all the agricultural operations of the absentee land tempts have been made either by the villagers or by lord of this village have been carried out on hired lab the Panchayat Samithi to improve the local breed by our and a supervisor locally known as Seridar is ap supplying the pedigree animals or by artificial insemi 'pointed to look after the fann activities in this villae;e. nation. Almost all the households owning cattle possess Marketing of agricultural produce cattle sheds in the frontyard of the house or attached to the house. The cattle are kept in .these cattle sheds 40. The existing marketing facilities are quite in during the winter and rainy seasons, while they are ~dequate. The village kirana shops supply the domes- tethered in the front yard of the house or in the cattle ECONOMY 47 sheds during the summer season. The cattle are graz stud bulls are not used for any agricultural purposes. ed in the village bancharai (grazing land) or in their The bullocks are of multi-purpose use to the farmers lespective fields during the day time. The agriculturists of this village. usually employ boys on annual payment of grain to graze the cattle. A few households entrust their cattle Shoe-making to the cowherd in the village. The cattle are also fed regularly in the houses with" straw and green fodder. 47. The Madiga household under survey alone is A few well-to-do agriculturists feed the cattle with engaged in shoe-making which is the subsidiary occu rice bran, oil cakes and gram bran. The villagers are pation. It supplies chappals every year to four house not in the habit of selling the milk regularly. Majority holds of Manne (Scheduled Caste), three households of them consume milk and milk prodUcts. Soon after of Golla and three Rajgond households and thereby earns an amount of Rs. 92 annually besides selling raw the harvest, all the paddy straw and jowar choppa are stored in heaps near the residential houses to feed the skin. All the dead animals in this village are usually cattle during the slack season and at homes during removed by the Madigas and in turn they take away the nights. the skins of these animals. Thus the leather for the chappals is obtained free in the village itself. He uses 43. The common cattle diseases are foot and indigenous implements to prepare chappals required mouth disease locally known as gaHu, jabbavapu, for the villagers. (Fig. 24 shows the implements). The domma and tikka. These diseases are locally treated relLi bark used to cure the leather is collected from by the agriculturists as detailed below. the nearby forest. An amount of Rs. 242 is earned by this household either by selling chappals or by selling (a) Foot and mouth disease: They apply kerosene the skins during the year under survey. to the feet and salt to the tongue of the animal. The animal is not allowed to move in slushy soil. Pottery (b) For an ani.mal affected with domma disease, 48. The solitary Kummari (Potter) household the animal is fed with muniga (a tree) bark and scars are made on the stomach with a heated iron rod. makes the earthenwares and supplies them to the vil lagers against the customary payments in kind and for (c) For jabbavapu disease, the animal is adminis cash payments. The potter makes all kinds of pots of tered with nallakal!u (a type of toddy). The agricul different sizes depending on the requirements. He sup turists sacrifice a fowl to Pochamma, the village deity, plies the earthenware not only in Malkepalle village who is supposed to be the benefactor of cattle. but also in the neighbouring villages namely Rotti palle, Thiryani, etc. He occasionally visits Bellampalle 44. A few well-to-do households, where these in to sell them. He also prepares the earthen lamps of digenous methods fail to give relief, take the cattle to different sizes required for various festivals by dif the Veterinary Hospital at Bellampalle or Mandamarri ferent castes in this village. He uses the traditional (another village). By the time the farmer decides to potter's wheel, saZpaZu and one smooth stone for mak take the animal for hospitalisation, it will be almost ing the earthenware. The required raw material viz, in the last stages of its life. Thus the diseased cattle black clay and sand are available in the village. Dung are always left to the mercy of the benevolent village cakes and fuel are used to burn the earthenware. A deities without making any sincere efforts to admin pointed wooden rod is used for revolving the potter's ister the modern medicines. wheel. When the raw earth is moulded into the requir 45. The cost of a pair of bullocks varies from ed earthenware, the exterior is beaten into desired Rs. 120 to Rs. 950 depending on the size and the shapes with saZpaZu. Afterwards they are dried under strength of the animals. Each cow costs Rs. 60 to Rs. 150 shade for a day or two before they are charred in an and a she-buffalo in between lts. 60 and Rs. 200 de indigenous kiln. He has earned eight giddas of jowar pending on its milk yield. The cattle are purchased (i.e., 8 X Rs. 32 = Rs. 256) and Rs. 20 by selling the from the cattle fairs at Mandamarri and Kasipet. One earthenware during 1963-64. These sale proceeds ob or two experienced ryots look to the suduZu of the viously indicate the demand for the earthenware in animal and then purchase them. They also make them this village. Almost all the castes use the earthenware run in order 'to test the free movement of the legs for cooking purposes and as such the output of the and other muscles. potter can be enormously increased, provided the im proved variety of the potter's wheel and other acces 46. The cows and she-buffaloes are exclusively sories are supplied by any developmental department. owned to improve the progeny and for milk purposes. The prices vary from 25 Paise to Rs. 3 depending on The bullocks and he-buffaloes are used to plough the the size and capacity of the vessel. land and also for transport purposes. Each ryot in variably possesses a country cart known as kachadam Commerce (Fig. 23). The bullocks are used to transport manure to fields, surplus agricultural produce to Mancheriyal 49. There are no big commercial estal;>lishments market by kachadam. A few stud bulls of local variety in this village. All the Komati households exclusively are left out exclusively to improve the progeny. 'lhese are running the village shops whieb deal in grocery 48 CHAPTER IV and general merchandise. In all five Komati house could not· be reported by the informant and this house holds are running the village shops which mainly deal hold belongs to 'simple' type of family. As many as 16 in salt, kerosene, soap, condiments, match boxes, ciga households with various occupations are found 'in the rettes, beedis, vegetable oil, dry chillies, etc. They per capita annual household income range of Rs. 101- make large quantities of purchases in the wholesale 200 followed by twelve households in the per capita market at Mancheriyal once in a month during sum annual household income range of Rs. 51-100. Two mer and winter seasons. All the requirements of the. households of 'simple' type families each are found in village for the rainy season are brought at a time be the income ranges of Rs. 1-50 and Rs. 301-500 res fore the setting in of monsoon in the month of May pectively. One household each with agriculture as main as it is difficult to transport the goods during the rainy occupation reports its per capita annual household in season. These stocks are stored in gunny bags, wooden come in the ranges of Rs. 201-300 and Rs. 501 and boxes and oils in tins and kept either in the shop or over and those households are classified as 'other' in the residential house. The articles are sold both for type families. Irrespective of the per capita annual cash and kind. The daily sales in the village are so household inCDme ranges, the households engaged in arranged by mutual agreement among the village shop agricultural labour, attached agricultural labour, trade, keepers to keep open one shop every day to cater i,0 goldsmithy, pottery, tailoring and washing of clothes the needs of the village while the other shopkeepers are all 'simple' type families while two 'intermediate' visit the neighbouring villages, Rottipalle (2 miles), type families with main .occupations of hair cutting and Chintagudem (2 miles), Bugga (4 miles), etc., to sell rural labour are exclusively found in the incDme range the food provisions. These commercial activities are of Rs. 51-100. One 'simple' type of family in the per continued throughout the year. People purchase their capita annual income range of Rs. 1-50; 3 'simple', 2 immediate domestic requirements on credit from these 'joint' and one 'other' type of families in the range of village shops. 'The annual turnover of the household Rs. 51-100; and four 'other' type of families in the under survey is Rs. 10,200 and a total net profit of range of Rs. 101-200 are earning their livelihood Rs. 2;040 is earned during the year under survey, through ritual begging. As many as 16 households are charging a profit of 20% over the total turnover. 'simple' families which are found in all the per capita annual household income range except in Rs. 201-300 50. The wholesale purchase prices at Mancheriyal and Rs. 501 and over income ranges. The six 'joint' and the retail sale prices in the village for the essen families are found in the per capita income ranges of tial articles are given below : Rs. 51-100 and Rs. 101-200. There are ten 'other' type families with various per capita income ranges, follow Statement X ed by two intermediate families exclusively found m WHOLESALE AND RETAIL PRICES the per capita annual household income of Rs. 51-100. Thus the trend is towards 'simpfe' type families in Sl. Name of the Wholesale Retail this village as the sons of different' castes set up their No. commodity unit price price families soon after marriage though they jointly work (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) to earn their livelihood. RS. P. Rs. P. 1 Chillies 1 Qtl. 180.00 225.00 Place of occupation 2 Salt 6.50 16.50 " 52. As regards the place of occupation, 60 of the .::" Jaggery 30.00 100.00 78 workers (777'0) are earning their livelihood 4 Kerosene Tin" 8.75 12.00 through various .occupations in this village. Birdu 5 Putnal (fried gonds, the traditional ritual beggars not only beg in Bengalgram) 8 Kgs. 6.00 12.00 this village but also visit such places as Adilabad, Jan 6 Cocoanuts 8 Nos. 2.50 4.00 gaon, Lakshettipet which are within a distance of 7 Rice 1 Qtl. 64.00 75.00 sixty miles from their habitat. One person of this vil 8 Groundnut oil 1 200.00 250.00 " lage working as teacher at present at Bheemaram (24 miles away) has been transferred from this village Main occupation and per capita income recently in the normal course of professional transfers. 51. Table 24 gives the details regarding the main The toddy tapper of this village supplies the toddy to occupation, per capita annual hous~hold. income and the neighbouring village Dharnaraopet (half a mile) family type. A simple family is defined as one consist while the barber of this village ser~es Pothepalle vil ing of husband, wife and unmarried children. An in lage (2 miles) besides Malkepalle. One agricultural termediate family consists of married couple and un labourer and a clerk under the forest contractor are married brother/sister and one of the parents while working at Kannepalle (10 miles) and Buggagudem . a joint family consists of married couple with married (11 miles) respectively. Thus all the potential agri sons/daughters or with married brothers/sisters. Families that do n{)t fall under any lof the above three cultural labourers of this village find employment op categories are classified as 'other family' types. The portunities in this village (Table 19). per capita annual household income of one Birdugolld 53. Table 42 shows the overall household income household with the main occupation of ritual beggine and expenditure of the surveyed household:!. It may ECONOMY 49 be mentioned in this connection that the common ten Case study 1 dency among the villagers is always to underestimate 57. The particulars of the family budget of Sri ihe income and over-rate the expenditure. However, Kudimetta Jangu, the Birdugond, who mainly depends efforts have been made to collect as accurate figures on the traditional occupation, ritual begging, besides as possible under these two heads. The total income casual labour are given below. The family belongs to of the surveyed household is Rs. 23,056.36 P. while 'simple' type, consisting of five members which is an the expenditure is Rs . .26,472.67 P" thereby register fjverage size of household in this village. ing a deficit of Rs. 3,416.31 P. during the year under survey. T~e {)verall financial position of these house Statement XI holds is not quite encouraging. Among the nine house INCOME AND EXPENDITURE, CASE STUDY 1 holds with agriculture as main occupation, two house holds have reported a surplus of Rs. 972.40 P. while Items of ex- Expen- SOUTce seven households have' recorded a deficit of of income Income pendituTe dituTe (1) Rs. 1,564.10 P. The solitary Komati household with (2) (3) (4) trade as main occupation has a surplus of Rs. 649.44 P. Rs. P. Rs. P. The households engaged in cattle grazing, washing of 1 Wages 30.00 1 Food 480.00 clothes and ritual begging have shown surplus budgets 2 Ritual begging 250.00 2 Toddy 12.00 and have thereby contributed to the total surplus of 3 Borrowings 30.00 3 Fuel & Rs. 1,686.76 P. in the village. In all, 27 households have lighting 27.00 reported a total deficit of Rs. 5,103.07 P. of which the 4 Clothing 70.00 maximum deficit is due to nine Birdugond households, 5 Smoking 6.1)0 followed by seven agricultural households. If the occu 6 Miscellane- pational household average income and expenditure ous services 36.0n are taken into consideration, the solitary household Total 310.00 Total 631.00 with trade as main occupation has contributed the It is evident that the income of this household is maximum amounts under income and expenditure fol from wages and from ritual begging. The head of the lowed by the households with agriculture as the main household has taken a loan of Rs. 30 to meet the do occupation and the household with toddy tapping. The mestic requirements. More has been'spent on food and average difference between the occupational household clothing which are still inadequate for a family of five average income and expenditure works out to Rs. 100 members. The household has exclusively spent Rs. 24 which is an encouraging factor in the economic growth on toilet and washing soaps from the total expendi of the village. ture of Rs. 36 under miscellaneous expenditure. In view of his negligible debt in the year 1963-64 and in Income and expenditure· the absence of any outstanding debt, it is presumed that the household could not give correct estimate of 54. Out of the total income of Rs. 23,056.36 P. the income earned through ritual begging. derived from various occupations, as much as Rs. 9,876 Case study 2 or 42.8% is derived from agriculture by nine house holds; Rs. 4,241.30 P. or 18.31"0 through ritual begging 58. The family budget of Sri Pasupunuti Narn by eleven households; Rs. 2,040 or 8.85 % through simhulu of Mangali caste, depending mainly on the business by the solitary Komati household and Rs. 1,754 traditional occupation of hair cutting combined with or 7.55% through rural labour by four households. the subsidiary occupation of rural labour is given be The remaining 22.5% of the total income is earned low. The household consists of seven members and the family is an 'intermediate' type family. from various caste occupations including agricultural labour and attached agricultural labour by the remain Statement XII ing nine households (Table 42). INCOME AND EXPENDITURE, CASE STUDY 2 Items oj ex- Expen- 55. The main items of expenditure for all com SOUTce of income Income penditure diture munities in Malkepalle are food, clothing and tobacco. (1) (2) (3) (4) ~ : The expenditure pattern, however, depends mainly Rs. P. Rs. P. on the size of the family and source of income and it 1 Cultivation 60.00 1 Food 540. flO also varies from caste to caste. The total expenditure 2 Wages 242.50 2 Toddy 12.00 of the surveyed households during the year 1963-64 3 Service 324.00 3 Lighting 24.00 is Rs. 26,472.67 P. which not only includes the consu 4 House mer goods but also the purchase of assets by various repairs 21).(iO castes of this village (Table 42). 5 Clothing 50.00 6 Land tax 9'.00 56. The following three typical case studies pre 7 Miscellan- sent a comprehensive budgetary position of different ous services 2.00 types 'of families among the surveyed households. Total 626.5Q Total 657. (to 50 CHAPTER IV As seen from the household budget 83.46% is spent on while the total expenditure incurred exclusively for food, followed by Rs. 50 for clothing. The expenditure agriculture is Rs. 1,847 (items 9 to 15). Thus a net on food for a family of seven members is quite insuffi income of Rs. 2,157.50 P. is earned through agriculture cient as it only works out to Rs. 6.42 per month per alone. From the above details the major items of ex each member which is quite insufficient in view of penditure are food, maintenance of cattle, clothing, the present cost of living. An amount of Rs. 12 IS toddy and tobacco. The expenditure on consumption spent on toddy consumption. However, the household of toddy is an inevitable item in all the households, reports a deficit of Rs. 30.50 P. which is negligible. except in Komati and a few Viswabrahmin households. In all the three selected households, the expenditure Case study 3 under toddy consumption is reported. This household has spent Rs. 33.60 P. for tea while this expenditure 59. Following is the family budget of an agricul is not found in other households taken up for case turist, Sri Raya :NaFsu who belongs to the Scheduled studies. Caste, Manne. Next to the absentee landlord of this village, he cultivates 41 acres and 20 guntas of land 60. From the above case studies, it is evident and exclusively earns Rs. 4,004.50 P. per year through that the expenditure mainly consists of food, clothing agriculture besides earning Rs. 180 per year through and toddy consumption. The noteworthy feature is that Sunkari (Village Servant) service. The family is of the villagers are leading a simple life and have not 'joint' type with eight members. All the agricultural developed other avenues of expenditure though they activities are carried on with the assistance of the visit frequently Bellampalle, the major industrial cen I<1mily labour and one attached agricultural labourer. tre of this region. The expenditure on food does not show much variation as the food habits are mostly Statement XIII , common among various communities of this village. INCOMlE AND EXPENDITURE, CASE STUDY 3 However, the villagers are not making any wasteful expenditure except on toddy. Items of ex- Expen- Source of income Income penditure diture 61. The villagers are not spending any amount (1) (2) (3) (4) on education as there is a primary school in the vil Rs. P. Rs. P. l&ge which provides free education to the children 1 Cultivation 4,004.50 1 Food 1,440.00 under compulsory education scheme. Moreover, the 2 Service as 2 Toddy 96.00 Social Welfare Department supplied free clothes, books Sunkari of 3 Tea 33.60 and slates to the Scheduled Tribes who are, howevt)r, the village 180.00 4 Fuel & not willingly sending their children to the school, lest lighting 41.·00 they would be deprived of the manual assistance of 5 House their children in the respective occupations. Thus the repairs 40.00 villagers have not yet realised the need and value of 6 Clothing 150.00 education. 7 Recreation 1.00 Indebtedness 8 Miscellane- 62. It is a tendency among the villagers to inflate ous cere- their indebtedness while deflating their income. In monies 54.00 spite of the patient enquiries the present estimate 9 Agricultu- of indebtedness is only approximate. Friends, rela ral services 12.00 tives and a few well-to~do households in the village 10 Pesticides l.OO are the main sources, who advance loans to the vil 11 Ropes, etc. 40.00 lagers in times of need. As many as 19 (Table 46 shows 12 Attached 24 households, as five households have been repeated agricultu- as they took loans in different periods) of the 35 sur ral labour 224.00 veyed households have a total debt of Rs. 5,137 for an 13 Seeds & interest varying between 12% and 75% (Table 46). manure 575.00 Prior to 1951, the village had a debt of Rs. 80 incurred 14 Cattle by one household; Rs. 1,055 by four households during feed 930.00 the last decade, i.e., 1951 to 1961, Rs. 1,447 by five 15 Land re- households in the year 1961-62 and Rs. 2,555 in ~he venUe 65.00 'Year 1962-63 (Table 46). It thus shows that the needs 16 Medicines 120.00 of the villagers have apparently grown from year to 17 Utensils . 24.00 year and it may thus be observed that higher the in:' 18 Tobacco 84.00 come the greater the debt. However, the average Total 4,184.50 Total 3,930.60 amount of debt per indebted household is Rs. 270.36 P. The surplUS' of Rs. 253.90 P. is due to the active parti and as such the incidence of average indebtedness is cipation of all the family members in agricultural ope 110t much. The solitary household in the annual in rations. The income from cultivation is Rs. 4,004.50 P. come range of Rs. 901-1,200 has raised the maximum ECONOMY 51 debt of Rs. 1,400 while nine households in the alUmal value of Rs. 6,315 under various hends. The chid ave income range of Rs. 601-900 has raised a total debt of nues of investment in this village are given below: Rs. 2,369 followed by Rs. 853 by four households in the annual income range of less than Rs. 300. Five Statement XIV households with a total debt of Rs. 515 fall in the an nual income range of Rs. 301-600 (Table 43). When VALUE OF CAPITAL FORMATION enquired into the causes of indebtedness, as many a3 Percentage ten households have taken a total loan of Rs. 1,312 to Sl. Amount to total meet their needs whlle five households have become No. Name of item invested investment indebted to a tune of Rs. 1,335 to finance marital ex penses. It is quite interesting to note that one house (1 ) (2) (3) (4) hold has raised a fresh debt of Rs. 1,000 to clear an Rs. P. Rs. P. (outstanding debt. The other causes for indebtedness, 4,050.00 64.13 are purchase of land for cultivation, for medical ex 1 Land 17.26 penses, for house construction or repairs to the existing 2 Livestock 1,090.00 houses and to finance the funeral rites. In general, the 3 Buildings 470.00 7.44 loans are usually raised by the villagers for produc 4 Tools & equipment 160.0'0 2.54 tive purposes and to finance the socio-religious cere 5 Jewellery and other monies (Table 44). There are no money lenders in valuables 320.00 5.07 this village. One debtor each is found in Mangali, 6 Investments like sav- Manne (Scheduled Caste), Padmasale and Viswabrah ings bonds, prize min castes, besides two debtors each in Golla, Goundla bonds, etc 225.00 3.56 [tnd Netkani (S.C.) castes. Among the Scheduled Total 6,315.00 100.00 Tribes as many as 13 debtors belong to Birdugonds while only one debtor is found among Rajgonds (Table 66. It is evident from the above analysis that 45). The villagers are quite ignorant of the Money 83.93 % of the savings are invested under items name- Lenders Act. 1y land (64.13 % ), livestock (17.26 % ) and tools ami fl3. However, the pattern of indebtedness rema~n equipment (2.54%), for productive purposes. The re ed unchanged fro,~ the last two decades in this vil maining 16.07 % of the savings are invested in unpro lege. No Government agency has been established to ductive purposes that cover the items like jewellery advance loans in this village and as such the villagers ~nd other valuables and investments like savings have to take loans from the private money lenders at bonds and prize bonds, etc. The investment on jewel exorbitant rates of interest. One presumable reason lery is exclusively made by one household each of for this indebtedness is due to the change in the con Chakali and Manne (SchedUled Caste) castes. The sumption habits while there is no corresponding pe:: maximum amount of Rs. 1,730 is invested on land by ceptible change in the annual income of the house two Golla households followed by Rs. 1,000 by two holds. lIlanne households. The gratifying feature is that 64.13 % of the savings is exclusively invested on la:ld Capital formation by nine households by different castes which is the 64. As regards sale and purchase value of assets chief productive source in this village. One household (luring the last thirty years (1933-62) seven households each of Golla and Manne have also invested their sav have sold lam)., livestock, buildings and jewellery and ings in the purchase of National Savings Certificates ether valuables and realised an amount of Rs. 1,900 and Prize Bonds (Table 48). while twenty-four households have invested an amount of Rs. 5,375 by purchase of land, livestock, tools and 67. The most striking progress in the economic equipment, buildings, jewellery and valuables and condition of the surveyed households in the last tfill other investments. A specific enquiry during the year years is that twelve and seven households have ac 1962-63 reveals that two households have purchased quired landed property and buildings respectively to lund worth Rs. 850 while one household has invested a tune of Rs. 5,415 while two households were able Rs. 90 on the purchase of cattle. A further scrutiny to clear the old debt of Rs. 160. It is evident that the (.f Table 47 reveals that the villagers, being essenti general tendency of the people is towards the purchase ally agriculturists, invest their savings for the pur of land, livestock, tools and equipment besides invest chase of land and livestock which form productive ing on Some other productive activities which augment investment. the growth of the general economic condition of the 65. As seen from Table 48, 12 of the 17 communi village. All these investments indicate the growing ties in this village have made investmants to a total economic prosperity of the villagers (Table 49). Chapter V CULTURAL LIFE AND VILLAGE ORGANISATION Religion Statement XV-Cone/d. The people residing in the village including Sche GLOSSARY OF A FEW GONDI TERMS duled Tribes are Hindus except a few Muslim house Gondi English holds that profess Islam. The main sects among a few (1) (Z) castes are known as Tirumandar (Vaishnavites) and Vibhudidar (Saivites) who worship Vishnu and Siva Ron • • House respectively (Table 3). One and all in the village ex Ermi Buffalo cept p~ople of Islamic religion, participate in the pro Moora Cow pitiation of village deities. Vailo Women Manial Men J"anguage Baika Wife 2. Most of the Hindus speak Telugu but the Raj Madso Husband gonds (Scheduled Tribe) and Birdugonds (Scheduled Peda,l Boy Tribe) speak their mother tongue, Gondi among them Pedi Girl selves. Seventy-seven persons have reported Gondi as Kakad Crow their mother tongue. As many as 91 persons reported Kathulu Cot Telugu as their mother tongue while the mother tongue Nila Stand of eight persons is Miarathi. All the people in the vil Chowkat Good lage irrespective of the religion know Telugu language Yer •• Water (Table 51). In order to educate the Rajgond (Schedul Chow Katmantheet • O.K. ed Tribe) and Birdugond (Scheduled Tribe) children, Nar Village Devanagari is adopted to teach their dialect and pri Kheda Forest mary readers have been published by the then Social Gumpa Temple Service Department of the erstwhile Hyderabad State Konda Bullocks for infant classes. The Gondi dialect is mostly mixed Dagoor Big with Marathi words in Adilabad, and Utnur Taluks ChudoOT Small due to the propinquity of the Maharashtra State while Meera Bahnar? Where do you hail the dialect is mixed with more 'of Telugu words in the from? taluks of Asifabad, Sirpur, Chinnur and Lakshettipet. Sare thinthiki sille? Had your meal? The following glossary of Gondi words with their Meera porol bathal? What is your name? English equivalents is given below to present an idea Nanna dantam • I am going of the dialect. Nimmed bhaga danthi? • Where are you go ing? Statement XV Mee1'!lt, samtheer chowkat Are you doing well? mantheet? GLOSSARY OF A FEW GONDI TERMS Mari miyad samdeer My children and Gondi English chow kat mantheet others are O.K. (1) (2) M eera danthom I go Wara Come Educational facilities Ikkewara Come here Phorol Name 3. There are two Primary Schools in this village Khandeer Children managed by the Social Welfare Department and the Uda Sit Panchayat Samithi, Mancheriyal. Both the institutions Baga Where provide educational facilities upto V Class. The school, Bhan How managed by the Social Welfare Department, is located Ninbor Whom in the north near the Birdugond habitation area. It Bari Why was opened in January, 1953 to provide education to Borandur Who tribal children in this village. The other school was BachaZay . How much? opened on 9-10-1953 in Gollagudem to the south of Bech wear How many? the village by the Education Department of Andhra Roppo in and into Pradesh Government and it was subsequently taken Ghato Food over by the Panchayat Samithi, Mancheriyal. Each in Perak Rice stitution is provided with a single teacher with CHAPTER V villagers. The strength of each institution at the time Higher Grade training qualification. ~e insti;u tions are situated in thatched sheds provlded by .he of survey is given below. Statement XVI STRENGTH OF THE SOCIAL WELFARE SCHOOL IN APRIL 1934 Sl. Child1'en to I Class II Class III Class be admitted Total No. N arne of Caste/Tribe ,-- __ ..A.. ___ ,....--"""'-- r---.Jo------") ,--_...A.._---., ,-._----"-- -...... M F M F M F M F M F (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) ( 7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) 1 Birdugond (Scheduled Tribe) 5 2 3 4 2 4 12 8 2 l\ajgond (Schec.uled Tribe) 25 9 25 9 3 Manne and Madiga (Scheduled Castes) 2 1 7 10 10 10 1 2 7 1 4 Komati 1 3 1 2 2 1 1 2 " 5 Viswabrahmin 6 '"' Total 10 4 5 9 2 36 24 60 30 M,Malcl F. Females data of the present survey. As seen from Table 50, Among 90 children of Nadimig-qd~m, Mannep,:wa~a there are seventeen 'simple', two 'intermediate' and and Telagawada, only 30 are at present studYlng III six 'joint' families besides ten 'other' type of families. the school. On enquiry it is learnt from the teacher In this village the family is a well-knit social unit with that the parents prefer to engage their children as at a specific task assigned to each member and thereby tached agricultural labourers or as casual labour~rs men and women enjoy equal social status within the so that they may also contribute to the ho~sehold ~ family, Besides administering the home life, the women come. Each tribal child of this institution IS supph,ed assist their menfolk in their respective economic pur annually one pair of clothes and all school matenal suits, However, the women of the Chakali, GoundIa, free of cost by the Social Welfare Department. Golla, Kummari castes and of Scheduled Castes are the active participants along with their men in earn Statement XVII ing the livelihood. Thus the village community is ST'RENGTH OF PANCHAYAT SAMITHI PRIMARY nothing but a well-knit socio-religious composite org3- SCHOOL AT GOLLAGUDEM IN APRIL 1964 nisatioIi with different castes who collaborate with one other to promote cQrporate life in the village. The Name of functionary castes such as Chakali, Mangali, Kummari, Sl. Castel Children to Viswabrahmin serve the village community by provid~ NEI. Tribe I Class be admitted TotaZ ing essential services and in tUrn they receive the r----"-- ____ r----...... _--"t , --_....___,. customary payments from the villagers. M F M F M F (1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Leisure and recreation 4 11 4 13 8 1 Golla 2 5. The villagers do not enjoy any specific hours 2 2 Komau 1 1 1 1 of the day or months of the year as leisure. In fact S Muslim 3 1 2 3 3 their life is one of continuous activity. Mostly the old Total 6 6 11 7 17 13 and the physically infirm men and women sit at homes M. Males P. Pemal... and look after the young children or infants, Women of all castes assist their menfolk in their respective A$ seen from the above statement there are eighteen chilru'en in Gollagudem who have not been admitted economic activities besides running their homes. The into the school by the parents who have got them en most common leisure hours are between 1£ noon and gaged as attached agricultural labourers (jeetagadu) 2 p.m., when they take lunch and enjoy either the or to whom these children have been of assistance in smoke or have an affectionate talk amidst their youn~ their caste occupation. In order to improve the present folk. Likewise in the evening hours, after their return state of education in this. village, the teachers of both from the fields, they supply fuel to the housewife, feed tne schools unanimously suggest that provision of 'mid their cattle with grass, or lOOk after the children, while . day meals to the children without any caste distinc relaxing over a cigar. The women are busy like be~s tion would bring fruitful results. as they have to run the home besides partiCipating in the day's labour. Trends of changes in family type 6. As regards recreation, there is neither a re creation centre nor a community radio set in the vil 4. It is not possible to present a comparative pic lage, However, the villagers arrange Harikatha anj ture of the trends of changes in the family type as no Pv:rana knZakshepams in the month of Sravana (July c:ompm-ative data is available on this aspeet except the .A_ugust) and also conduct bhajans near the Hanum:m CULTURAL LIFE AND VILLAGE ORGANISATION deity. A local drama group locally known as Bhaga this village including the Scheduled Tribes. The idol vathulu of Munnur visit this village and stage a drama of Goddess Mahalashmi is made of wood which is to entertain the villagers. All the households irrespec located under velaga (feronia elephantum) tree. This tive of caste contribute their r..lite for the payment of Goddess is mainly worshipped as. the benefactor of Bhagavathulu. The villagers play kolatam for Holi fes cattle annually along with Pochamma in'the month of tival and the Caste Hindu women play Bathukammata Ashada (June-July). The Goddess Pochamma is SY!l1- for Dasara festival. The snake charmers, Gangired l:olised in a conical shaped stone which is situated dollu who visit the village annually in the month of under takkula tree near Golla habitation area. Another May, provide recreation to the villagers. A few vil Pochamma is located under a neem tree in the north l[,gers also visit cinema at Bellampalle or Mancheriyal west of the village. This deity is worshipped to pro during their visits to these urban centres on some bUSI tect them against outbreak of such epidemics like ness but it is not a regular habit with them. The folk smallpox and cholera and to protect their cattle against dances are exclusively organised by the Scheduled diseases. Moreover, the villagers believe that the wor Tribes of this village during their festivals. The soli ship of these deities protects them against ill-luck and tary Goundla household hears the newspaper which unforseen calamities. Even the slightest fever for men will be read to him by his educated son among the and any minor disease for cattle will make them offer surveyed households in this village. Nineteen house a fowl to Pochamma. In the month of Ashada (June holds participate in bhajans and three households in July) either on Monday or Wednesday or Friday before either Purana or Harikatha kalakshepam (Table 52). the new moon day the Pochamma Panduga is per formed on a large scale in the beginning of the year 7. The Dhimsa dance is commonly played by all by various castes of this village. On this day all people the tribes of this village on any occasion. The musical toke head bath and wear washed clothes. The women instruments dhol and pepri are played by the Birdu smear their houses with a mixture of dung and earth 'fonds of this village at the time of this dance. The and the front yards are decorated with rangavalli sounds produced on the drum and pepri are so rhyth (muggulu) with lime powder or jowar flour. All the mical that one gets excited to participate in the dance. castes contribute for the purchase of a sheep or a goat Figure 25 shows the Birdugonds playing on their mu to be sacrificed to this deity. One of the caste elders sical instruments. Figures 26 and 27 show the dhol and of the Scheduled Castes is the pujari for these deities. pepri, the musical instruments respectively. Any num The premises of the deity are cleaned and sprinkled ber .of people can join this dance. While joining the with dung water. The surroundings of this deity are party, one usually chooses place according to his height decorated with muggulu. The forehead and the legs of so that it is easy to step rhythmically. The dancers the animal are washed and smeared with turmeric and form a link, make a round, and dance by allowing vermilion. The women decorate the Pochamma with their rhythmical movements within this round to turmeric and vermilion. The officiating priest offers the sounds of their musical instruments. The Gusadi salutations on behalf of the entire village. Afterwards and Dhandari dances are exclusively played by these the Chakali or any other person in the congregation tribals in the month of Akadi (June--July) at the executes the sacrifice. Then a little meat and blond time of Bheemdev festival. are offered to Pochamma. The head is given away to 8. The boys play various games such as kabaddi, Madiga households. The remaining meat of the sacri kho-kho and lonpath which are. taught by the teacher ficed animal is distributed among all the households. of the village school. The hide-and-seek game is most Thus the propitiation of this deity comes to a close. ly played by the girls besides the chemma chakka 'The worship of Pochamma deity is thus performed game. Many children roam about in the village all the thrice in a year. The grandeur of this celebration de day. Children of all castes except that of Komati and pends Il_luch on the agricultural yield of the year. In Viswabrahmin lend their hand in the economic earn this connection a few households make fowls or goats, ing of the family by participating in the agricultural as the case may be, as votiVe offerings to this deity in activities from the age of eight or ten years. fulfilment of their vows. 11. However, the villagers reported that this ri Religious institutions tual was not performed on a large scale for the last 9. There are no regular religious institutions in three years as the agricultural yield was not encourag this village where daily offerings and prayers are ing. Besides this the general attitude' of the present made. The village deities are symbolised in small ~enera.ti1~~. of yo~ngsters towards these age-old rituals stones, installed on the outskirts of the village under IS slow-r changmg because of their frequent visits trees. A crude stone idol of Hanuman is housed in a to the nearby urban centre. But the older generation thatched shed in Telagagudem, the central place of the because of their long adherence to the chain of tradi village. All these deities except Hanuman are propiti tions are still making vows ,to offer goats or fowls and ated' with animal sacrifice. These deities are worship faithfully fulfil them after being relieved whenever ped independently or by their caste purohit. they are afflicted with smallpox or cholera. 10. The village deities, namely, Mahalashmi and 12. Hanuman, the Monkey-God, is worshipped by Pochamma are worshipped by all the caste Hindus In all the castes including the Scheduled Castes and Schf:- 56 CHAPTER V auled Tribes of this village. This God is looked upon festival. Irrespective of the regions, almost all the fes as the caretaker and benefactor of livestock and pros tivals are common though there will be minor differ perity of this village. Hanuman is annually worshipped ences which are due to the influence of the socio-reli either on Monday, Wednesday or Friday in the month. gious customs of the region. Besides the worship of of Sravana (July-August). The thatched shed where the village deities, these festivals connected with some in the deity is housed and the premises of this God Gods or Goddesses are 'performed with all the re are cleaned and sprinkled with dUng water one or two verence irrespective of caste and social statu". c.ays ahead of the actual day of worship proposed by Festivals like Vinayaka. Chaviti, Deepavali, Nagula the village elders. Any person except those of Sche Chaviti or Naga Panchami, Sivaratri and Holi are duled Castes attends to cleaning the premises of this celebrated in this village. All the Hindus bedaub God. Decorations with lime powder or jowar flour their houses with a mixture of dung and mud and de locally known as muggu are drawn by wo.men and also corate them with rangavalli and festoons of mango decorated with mango festoons. The God is propiti leaves. New clothes are, worn on Dasara festive day ated by offering cocoanuts and plantain fruits by without fail. Special feasty food stuffs depending on each household. A few households prepare some sweet the economic status of each household are prepared dish and offer it to this deity. It is a custom in this Gn each festive day and enjoyed. Feasting and fasting village that the newly married couple of any caste are the two important features of the Hindu festivals. offer their salutations to Him before they leave this Almost all the caste people prepare Vegetarian food village. Thus this God is revered by all the caste people with a special feasty dish on all these festivals. How in this village. No animal sacrifice is made. ever, the details of the festivals, common to an the Hindu castes, are described in detail in the order of 13. A few households among Birdugond (Sche their occurrence from Chaitra month (March-April), duled Tribe) and Chakali communities worship the the beginning of the Telugu year. picture of Lord Siva (Rudra), the destroyer and crea tor of life according to Hindu mythology. They offer Ugadi cocoanuts and plantains to propitiate this deity. 17. In Andhra Pradesh, Hindu festivals usually 14. The Gallas of this village exclusively worship start with Ugadi, the Telugu New Year's Day on Chai their family deity Mallanna. This family deity situated tra Suddha. Padyami (March-April). All the mem in the south-east corner of each house, is represented bers of the household take head bath and put on neat by a silver trisula covered with a silver umbrella and clothes. They take a mixture of jaggery, neem flower is worshipped on every Sunday by each househo:.d. and tamarind for the first time on the New Year's This deity is worshipped with flowers. Cocoanuts and day as it signifies the admixture of joy and sorrow plantain fruits are off~red. The popular belief i~ that of life. Afterwards the feasty food stuffs are offered their sheep and goats when taken for grazing purposes to their ancestors and beloved deities and then con into the nearby Pochammaloddi forest are protected sumed. against wild animals. 15. As regards the tribals, they worship their Sriramrl Navami own village deities namely Jangubaipen, Akipen and Bheemana. The Jangubai, signified in a eonical shaped 18. A few households celebrate Srirama Navami wooden image, is situated to the south of the village on Chaitra Suddha Navami (March-April). On this under a neem tree while the Akipen is located in Raj day they worship Lord Rama and his consort Sita. gond habitation area. ,The Bheemana, the benefactor of The vadapappu (soaked green gram) and panakam Gonds (Rajgonds and Birdugonds) is housed in a rec (jaggery water) are distributed to the persons present tangular thatched shed to the west of the village. The on the occasion. Friends and relatives are treated to worship of each deity is associated with a festival vegetarian meals. among these tribes and as such the worship of these deities is dealt with in detail when the tribal festivals Tali Ekadasi are described in succeeding paras. 19. A few agricultural households and Komati household observe Toli Ekadasi in the bright fort Hindu festivals night of Chaitra. (April-May). 16. The Hindu festivals common to all castes have a religious origin. Though the origin of many festivals Vinayaka. Chaviti is of religious nature, the resultant factor is always 20. The festival Vinayaka Chaviti or Ganesh Cha social integration. Festival in the village is an event viti is celebrated on Bhadrapada Suddha Chaviti when the grievances of the past are blotted and the (August-September). The worship of this elephant wind of joy blows in the village with an exchange of headed god, the beloved son of Parvati, is one of th~ affectionate greetings and gifts. The Hindus of this important festivals of this village. The villagers con village perform a large number of festivals and as sider it auspicious to invoke the blessings of this deity, such no month in the Telugu calendar goes without a being the deity of prudence and prosperity, at the CULTURAL LIFE AND VILLAGE ORGANISATION 57 commencement of any undertaking. Ganesa, the sign ed on this day. A special feature of this festival is of wisdom and prosperity, is most popular and fav the fire works. On this festive occasion, a few busi ourite God of the students. The earthen images of ness men open their new account books for their next Ganesa are supplied by the potter of the village for commercial year. cne anna or two annas depending on its size. All the members of the household take head bath and put Oil Nagula Chaviti or Naga Panchami washed clothes. Then the image of Ganesa is worship ped with flowers and cocoanuts are offered by each 23. The festival Nagula Chaviti or Naga Pan chami is performed on Sravana Suddha Chavithi or household. The sweet undrallu, prepared with jaggery, cocoanut kernel and rice flour, which is the favourite Panchami (July-August) as the case may be. This dish of this deity, is offered to the deity and then all festival is dedicated to the worship of the Serpent-God the members enjoy these feasty food stuffs. A few Sesha and is mainly performed by the women-folk. well-to-do households take this idol in procession The villagers generally do not kill the naga (cobra). round the village on the ninth day and immerse it in In case it is killed inadyertantly, it is cremated with the hill stream. A few households drop this image in milk and a copper coin since it is considered sacred. The copper coin thus used in the cremation of this the well. Serpent-God is made into a ring and worn as it is believed to bring good luck. On this day the women Dasara take ceremonial bath and offer milk and eggs to this 21. Dasara is one of the COmmon and important Serpent-God by pouring the same in the naerby ant festivals in India and it symbolises the triumph of good hill. They worship this deity to protect them and over evil. In this village this is a ten day festival of their cattle against snake bites. A little of earth from vrhich the first three days are dedicated to the Goddess this ant-hill is collected and applied to the lobes of Lashmi, the next three days to Goddess Parvati and the ears with a belief that it protects the ear aches. the last three days to Goddess Saraswathi. On the tenth day, Ayudhapuja is performed. However, this Karthika festival fest!val is not observed for all these ten days. 'The 24. Karthika is one of the important festivals in tenth day locally known as Vijayadasami is observed by all the castes in this village. On this day the agri South India which is celebrated in the month of Kar thika (October-November) on the night of full moon cultural implements and other tools and equipment day. A few well-to-do families fix up long wooden which are used to earn the livelihood are cleaned and decorated with turmeric and vermilion. These imple posts and keep a light on the top of it daily in the ments are worshipped with flowers and then cocoanuts evening hours during this month. This light is called are offered. The bullocks are also washed and decorated akasadeepam. This festival is performed in recogniti:m 'With turmeric and vermilion on this day and worship of the supremacy of Lord Siva. ped by the agriculturists. The animals are first fed \"ith feasty food stuffs of the day and then offered to Vaikuntha Ekadasi Pochamma, before they are tasted. The Vijayadasami 25. The Vaikuntha Ekadasi also known as Pedda day is considered as an auspicious day for undertak Ekadasi is performed in the bright fortnight of Mar ing any new enterprise. gasira (November-December). The significance of this festival is not known to the villagers but the observ Deepavali ance of this festival is believed by them to bring in 22. It is mainly celebrated here on Asviyuja Brt moksha (salvation) to them. Those that observe this hula Chathurdasi (October-November) commemo festival, fast on this day and take food in the night. rating the death of the demon-king Narakasura, wb0 had caused a lot of havoc in the country. Many vil Sankranti lagers knew the story of Narakasuravadha (death of 26. Sankranti or Pongal is performed in the demon Narakasura) by Satyabhama, the consort of month of January. It is a three-day festival. The first Lord Krishna and how the world was saved from this day is called Bhogi when people make Bhogi fire in demon's wrath. All the Hindus bedaub their houses with dung and earth and decorate them with mnga the early hours of this day. All the n~embers of the talli by using the lime powder or jowar flour. Man'go household take ceremonial bath. On this day some fronds are hung to the entrance of each door of the sweet dish is enjoyed. On the second day they offer house. All the members of each household take cere pongal, prepared out of cooked rice and dhal, to the monial bath. However, every house irrespective of Sun-God and they also feed the cattle with pongali. the economic status is decorated with small earthen The third day of the festival known as Kanumu is de plates, locally known as pramidalu whiCh are lit with dicated to the worship of cattle. The cattle are cleaned cotton wicks immersed in some vegetable oil. It is a and decorated with turmeric and vermilion on the popular belief among the villagers that Lakshrni, feet and forehead. The horns are also decorated with the Goddess of Wealth and Prosperity, does not red or green colours. The pongali cooked on this day visit the unlit houses. Special sweet dishes are enjoy- is Offered to the cattle with veneration. Afterwards all 58 CHAPTER V tbe members of the family, relatives and friends are 31. Following is a detailed account of each of the entertained to a feast. festivals performed by the Scheduled Tribes of this village in the order of their occurrences. Sivaratri 27. The Sivaratri festival is performed on Magha Mahalashmi Bahula Triodasi which generally falls in February- 32. Both Rajgonds and Birdugonds worship God March every year. The festive night is dedicated to dess Mahalashmi either on Sunday or Thursday before Lord Siva and they perform bhajans in praise of Lord the full moon day in the month of Chaithu (March Siva, observe fast and keep awake all through the April). All the households contribute equally for the night. On the next day friends and relatives are treat purchase of a goat which is to be immolated before this ed to vegetarian feast. It is a popular belief that those deHy. 'Ihis deity symbolised in a conical wooden log who worship Lord Siva during this night will not have i., situated under a velaga tree in the Gand (Rajgonds rE=birth. and Birdugonds) habitation area to the vv"iJt of the village. The premises of this deity are cleaned and de Hali corated either by the patel or the Devari of Rajg'Ond tribe. The goat is washed and applied with turmeric 28. The Holi festival, otherwise known as Kamudu and vermilion on the feet and forehead. One among Panduga in this village is performed in the month cf the gathering executes the sacrifice. The meat is equal Pha!.guna (February-March) by all the castes with ly distributed among all the households and consumE:d great pomp. on the same day. The special dish garelu with black gram dal is a 'must' on this occasion. This deity is .Muslim festivals -worshipped with a belief that she protects them against 29. Muslims of this village perform Ramzan in illness. January-February, Bakrid in April-May and Mohat ram in May-June besides associating themselves with Bheemana the local Hindu festivals. There is only one Muslim 33. During Chaithu (March-April) both the Raj household in this village. gonds and Birdugonds of this village perform Sanchi Bheemana festival on any Monday before the new \Vorship of deities and observance of festivals moon day. This festival is an important one not only among the tribes to Rajgonds and Birdugonds but also to the Kolams - 30. Like Hindus the rites and ceremonies con <:\ neighbouring Scheduled Tribe. None of the infor nected with the village deities or festivals form an mants could say why and when they have started per essential part of Gonds' (Rajgonds and Birdugonds) forming this festival in their village. It is in vogue religious life. Some festival or other is observed every from their forefather'S time. The Rajgonds are not month by Rajgonds and Birdugonds. The occurrence allowing the Birdugonds now-a-days to participate in ~nd observance of all the festivals is the same among the worship of Bheemana as the latter are considered Rajgonds and Birdugonds and so their observance is as inferior to Rajgonds (Fig. 28). The premises of commonly referred under the name 'Gond'. In order this God are cleaned with dung and decorated with to be familiar with the order of their occurrences, the designs of jowar flour. All the Rajgond households Gondi months along with English equivalents are giv~n contribute equally for the purhcase of a goat to be below. ~acrificed to this deity housed in a rectangular shed, situated to the west of the village. A design with jowar Statement XVIII fiour, turmeric and charcoal powder locally known as 1)attu is drawn before this deity. The Devari or the GONDI CALENDAR OF MONTHS Patel cleans the goat with water and decorates it with Gondi English turmeric and vermilion. Then the Devari or the Patel (1) (2) as the case may be offers it to this God by reciting SOme Gond verses. Afterwards the animal is sacrificed Chaithu March-April 1 in the evening hours of the day by anyone of the April-May 2 Bhave participants. Then the meat of this sacrificed animal Bhud Bhave May-June 3 is cooked. Kudumulu with blackgram dal and rice are Akadi June-July 4 prepared. All the Rajgonds enjoy this meat and kudu Pora July-August 5 mulu followed by heavy drink. The traditional musical Akkenu Pora August-September 6 instruments are played by Rajgonds on this occasion 7 Devadi September-October and Dhimsa dance is also played. Sanchi Bheemana 8 Karthi October-November if; considered as the benefactor of Rajgonds. Hence 9 Sathi November-December this festival is performed with veneration. 10 Poosu December-January 11 Mahve January--February 34. In the month of Bhud Bhave (May--June) 12 Duradi FcbruarY--March the Rajgonds offer a fowl to Sanchi Bheemana to CULTURAL LIFE AND VILL,AGE ORGANISATION 59 invoke his blessings for better agricultural yields on invoking her blessing to protect their cattle against an.y Monday, Wednesday, Thursday or Friday during diseases. this month. Afterwards they broadcast the seed and start all other agricultural operations. Nagula Chaviti 38. In the month of Pora (July-AugUst) Nagula Persapen Chaviti festival is performed just like the Hindus by 35. In the month of Bhave (April-May) the offering milk and eggs to the Serpent-God. Persapen, the big God of Gonds is worshipped with Erandeur and pomp. The same symbols of Persapen Pochamma festival given to the Gods of their cultural hero, Pahandi Ku 39. They worship Pochamma on the full moon day par Lingal are still followed by the Gonds even to of Para (July-August). All the tribals contribute for this day and Gorl,ds of all phratries perform the rites purchasing a .goat to sacrifice to this deity on this oc of Persapen every year with great reverance. How casion. The premises of this deity are cleaned and de ever, time has brought in some changes not only in corated with muggulu by the Patel or Devari. The them but also in the method of worship in this centu goat is smeared with turmeric a?d decorated with ve:- ries-old festival. A detailed account of this festival is milion. It is believed that this deity has accepted theIr given in *Bhurnur village survey monograph. prayers provided the goat shivers while offering to this deity. Otherwise they again wash the goat and de IvIahatoorpen and Bhoodevara corate it, till it shivers. Then the sacrifice is executed 36. The Gonds worship Mahatoorpen and Bhoo by any person present on the occasion. Afterwards a devara on the day of actual sowing in the month of non-vegetarian feast is arranged on this occasion with Akadi (June-July) by sacrificing a fowl to propitiate the meat of the sacllificed animal. An interesting fea these deities. It is believed that all the agricultural ture is that the Birdugonds have recently started fast operations will be conducted successfully if these two ing on every Saturday or Monday during this month, deities are thus invoked. as a mark of devotion to their favourite deity. .Akadi Pora festival 40. 'Pora festival is performed on the new moon 37. Akadi festival, otherwise known as Rajula day of Pora (July-August). On this day the bullocks Devara festival, is observed by Gonds either on Sun are fed with feasty food stuffs like boorelu, garelu and day or Thursday before the full mOon day in the appalu. Then these bullocks are decorated with jhols month of Akadi (June-July). This festival is per and taken out in procession in the village after taking formed in honour of Sri Polam Raju Devara who is them round the idol of Hanuman, the benefactor of the monarch of hills and forests and as such it is per livestock. 'The attached agricultural labourers and the formed in the nearby forest. All the male members herdsmen are given vegetarian food. with their children and cattle go to the nearby forest where the Rajula Devara is propitiated. The premises are smeared with dung and decorated with jowar Dasara and Duvedi kheer payasam flour. The or (sweet rice) is cooked 41. In the month of Devadi (September-Octo-. and the cattle are;d in the name of this deity. After ber) they celebrate Dasara festival on the full moon wards two .goats and two fowls are sacrificed to appease day. Each household sacrifices a fowl to their respec the Rajula Devara. A straight line of fifteen to twenty tIve persapens and also worship its household dei yards' is drawn with turmeric powder and the cattle ties. Friends and relatives are entertained to a feast are made to cross over it before they are driven away 011 this occasion. Besides this festival they also per to the forest without any guard. In the meantime, the form Duvedi festival on the first Monday during with women prepare the feast the meat of the sacrific the dark fortnight of Devadi. ed animals and it is consumed by all the persons pre sent on the occasion. The kheer is also served to aU Sattipen invitees. The cattle, thus driven to the forest for graz ing, are brought back on the following day frOm the 42. On anyone of the auspicious days, namely, forest. If on return to the village all the cattle are Monday or Wednesday or Friday, they observe Satti found, it is believed that the Polam Raju has prote~t pen festival. Each Gond household has a deity known ed their cattle against the wild animals. In case one as Penkomta kept in the corner of the kitch~n which or two animals are lost, they will be alert all through is represented by a little raised earthen platform. It the year to protect their cattle against wild animals. is a custom among the Gonds to smear this Penkomta From this festive day the Dhandari dance is played daily with cow dung and lit an oil lamp. The women till the end of Deepavali. Besides participating in this offer a little morsol of food daily to this deity before festival each household sacrifices a fowl to Pochamma, it is consumed. This festival is annually performed by * A Monoiraph on Bhurnur - Ccn6us of India 1961, Vol. II, Andhra Pradesh, Part Vi-Village Survey Monographs, 81. No, 40. pp. 40.41. 60 CHAPTER V all the Gonds. On this day they cook vegetarian or mits the land revenue collected in the Taluk Treasury. non-vegetarian food and a little of it is offered to The general administration and the maintenance of Penkomta as also to Bheemana deity before it is con law and order is looked after by the Serdar (super sumed. \'isor of agricultural operations) of this landlord. The Asaldar visits the village once in a fortnight or once Akipen in a month and settles all the outstanding issues of the village which could not be amicably decided upon 43. Akipen, the guarding deity of this village, is by the clerk and the Serdar. The decision of this Asal situated in the Rajgond habitation area. The idol of d~r is taken as almost final and unquestionable in res this deity consists of two small wooden poles fixed pect of all the village disputes decided by him. This with a big hole to one end of which is tied a white is because the villagers are economically in the grip of flag (Fig. 29), While erecting this Akipen, some Asaldar in one. way or the other. However, the remark leaves are kept in the pit which the Gonds do not able feature is that Sri PUsukuri V.enkatrama Dora, wish to disclose. This deity is usually worshipped at the Asaldar of this village, is not only rational but the time of sowing. The Patel decides the day of wor. also liberal in settling the village disputes to the satis ship and he himself performs all the ceremonial rites faction of both the parties unlike the general run of for the successful germination of the seeds. A fowl other Asaldars of this region. The clerk is paid Rs. 10 01' a goat is sacrificed and prayers are offered to in per month by the Asaldar as also the usual commis voke her blessings for bUmper crops. This function sion granted by the Government to the Asaldar on the will be concluded by midday and' all the agriculturists total collections of the land revenue. The village ser 'start sowing operations. During Dasara festival, a new vants locally known as Sunkaris are paid monthly white flag is unfurled by the Patel and a goat is sacri Hs. 10 by the Government. The Sunkaris help in look ficed to invoke this deity. • ing after comforts of the visiting officers and calling 44. Besides these traditional festivals, the Gonds the villagers required by the officers. They also assi.,t perform Sankranti, Deepavali and Kamudu (lIoli) the clerk in the collection of land revenue and also ft:stivals according to the customs of Hindus. corry tappals to the tal uk office and to the Asaldar from this village. Fairs 47. The traditional village organisation serves the 45. There are no fairs either in the village or in needs of agricultural economy in this village. All the the neighbourhood. They make votive offerings to other economic activities in Malkepalle village centre -Bnyesudu at Bugga village and Venkateswara at Ve en agriculture as it is the mainstay of their subsi3t mulawada village. The villagers usually visit the ance. The Scheduled Castes ; (Madiga and Manne) shrines on an auspicious day fixed in consultation with provide both attached and casual labour to the farmers the person who can refer the almanac or on an~ one of this village. People of other castes like Goundla, of the good days in the week. They worship these dei Golla and Netkani (Scheduled Caste) provide menial ties by offering fruit_s. The Rajgonds and Birdugonds services to the agriculturists. The mutual relationship of this village do not regularly visit Keslapur Jatara, among the different castes is traditional and is still the famous Gond Jatara of Adilabad District. Besides, continued without being influenced by urban society. the fair being far away from this village, the villagers The potter, belonging to Kummari caste, supplies the are mostly influenced by the other Hindu castes of mud pots for use in kitchen and for other domestic ihis village. purposes against the customary ptyments either in kind or in cash. He also prepares the earthen pramidas Village organisation (small earthen plates) for marriages and Deepavali festivals. Likewise the goldsmith makes the gold orna 46. It is a village almost dominated by the land nlents and attends to repairing and remodelling the lord stationed at 'M]andamarri. Just as any other vil old ornaments. The Vadla (carpenter) of Viswabrah lage of this region, the village officers represent the min caste makes and repairs old ploughs and other Government at the village level. Peculiarly enough agricultural implements required by the farmers. The the landlord is the Patwari of this village who is ad washermen washes the soiled clothes of people of all ministering the village affairs. The other two village the castes and tribes while the barber shaves and cuts officers, namely the Police Patel and the Mali Patel the hair of the people of all castes and tribes. The are only nominal in existence, The Patwari,' locally Madigas besides assisting the farm~rs in the agric,Jl called as Asaldar, has engaged a clerk to look into the tural operations are engaged in preparing the shoes village accounts and the collection of land revenue. required by the villagers. They remove the dead ani He prepares not only the village records as per the mals and take away the skin which is used for stitch instructions of the Government from time to time but ing the shoes. He also repairs the old shoes and th co-operation and education. The other important wel 52. The main sources of income of this panchayat fare activities of the panchayat are construction of are the receipts from the auction of cattle dung, cart tax, cattle pound, profession tax, grants and other new roads, repairs and maintenance of village roads charities and miscellaneous income. The year-wise und cart tracks besides looking after the gen~ral sani particulars of income of the Panchayat are given be t3tion and supplying of protected drinking water. low since its inception. Statement XIX INCOME OF VILLAGE PANCHAYAT, 1959-63 r-___ Year-wise particulars ~------., 1-9-59 1-4-60 1-4-61 1-4·62 to to to to Items of income 3)-3·60 31-3-61 31·3-62 31-3-63 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 1 Profession tax 6.50 6.00 2 Cattle pound 11.50 84.00 22.51} 54.50 3 Cart tax 41.00 103.00 50.00 114.50 4 House construction tax 16.00 [I Auction of cattle dung 426.00 510.00 361.00 245.00 6 Grants and charities 70.00 320.75 421.50 7 Amounts received from Tahsil office 60.00 110.00 I! Miscellaneous 32.50 Total 608.50 1,134.25 877.00 446.50 It is evident from this analysis that the maximum in tion of the headquarters (Dharmaraopet) of this pall come is derived from the auction receipts of cattle chayat and he is paid Rs. 20 per month towards his clung, followed by receipts from cart tax and cattle salary. Other than this no expenditure is incurred pound. The panchayat may as well levy fresh taxes either to improve the sanitation of the village or under on village shopkeepers and other craftsmen to im any other developmental activity in the village. The prove its income so as to be in a position to implement expenditure statement of this panchayat mirrors the some developmental activities in the village. extent of its interest in the overall village develop ment. Another interesting feature is that they have 53. Surprisingly enough the Panchayat is spend made heavy deposits in the name of tbe panchayat ing the maximum amount towards the payment of v:hich cannot be taken as the expenditure in its true salary of the panchayat clerk locally known as Karo sense. The following expenditure Statements substan bari. The sweeper exclusively looks after the sanita- tiate the above statement. Statement XX r,XPENDITURE OF VILLAGE PANCHAYAT, 1959-63 Year-wise particulars of expenditure r- 1-10-59 ~60 ---~~4-61------1-4-62~ to to to to Items of expenditure 31-3-60 31-3-61 31-3-62 31-3-'iJ (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 1 Sweeper for Panchayat office 58.90 2 Health & sanitation 85.00 420.00 240.00 240.00 3 Salary of the clerk 30.00 180.00 180.00 180.00 4 Public works 16.25 40.00 5 Deposits 70.00 320.75 421.50 6 Miscellaneous 14.80 185.00 25.00 51.12 Total 274.95 1,145.75 866.50 471.12 Statement XXI INCOME AND EXPENDITURE OF VILLAGE PANCHAYAT, 1959-63 Balance in Period Income Net Expenditure Surplus pass book balance (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) 1-9-1959 to 31-3-1960 608.50 274.95 333.55 10.00 343.55 )-4-1960 to 31-3-1961 1,134.25 1,145.75 322.05 220.75 542.80 1-4-1961 to 31-3-1962 877.00 866.50 332.55 642.25 974.80 1-4-1962 to 31-3-1~53 446.50 471.12 307.93 642.25 950.18 CULTURAL LIFE AND VILLAGE ORGANISATION 63 The budget at Ii glance shows increasing surpluses Caste or Tribal Panchayat sanction~ complete freedom from year to year but no amount is spent for the wel both to the complainant and to the accused to express fare of the community in any of the villages which their case in full. Afterwards the members come to :m fall under the jurisdiction of this panchayat. Many unanimous decision and the Kulapedda (caste or tri villagers have expressed a desire for a separate pan bal elder) announces the award. chayat for Malkepalle village as very little is done by 57. To quote an example, Sri V. B., of Birdugond the present panchayat since its inception. The present tribe, tr..e aggrieved, has made a complaint to the Village Panchayat has never decided any type of vil elder Vedil about his wife who preferred a divorce lage disputes in this village. and left the house one day without his knowledge. 54. As seen from Table 84, of the 35 surveyed The Vedil in consultation with the other tribal elders households, 18 households are aware of the period of fixed a date and summoned through one of the tribal existence of the Panchayat and all of them acknow men both the parties. One member from each Birdu lEdge that no amenities have been provided by the gond house has attended the meeting without fail. In Village Panchayat in this village. All the heads of the case any person has got work, he has to obtain the surveyed households except the Goundla are not aware permission of the tribal elder and then absent himself. cf anyone of the functioning of democratic institu Sri V. B., the aggrieved, has explained the nature of tions. But the head of the Goundla household knows dispute to the assembled Kulapanchayat. The divorc about the Panchayat Samithi. Only 28 household heads ed woman and her brother came to explain their point know about the local panchayat while 34 of them knew of view to the tribal elders. In this case she expressed cbout the taluk headquarters followed by 25' heads of her unwillingness to continue her marital life with households who can tell the name of the district head him and as such, she left the house. The members qnarters (Table 73). The mode of elections to Pancha 0: the Kulapanchayat ascertained the opinion of the yat Samithi and Zilla parishad are not known to these different tribal people who participated in the meet villagers. It is evident that the villagers evince little ing. After examining all shades of opinion thoroughly, interest in the local affairs which are not connected the accused (divorced woman) was asked to pay a with their work and family. fine of Rs. 40 to the aggrieved husband. Later she could act according to her will. Afterwards the com Caste or Tribal Panchayats p!ainant treated all the members with toddy as a mark 55. All the castes and tribes except Tenugu, Ko (If honour and respect towards them. The quantum of mati, Munnurukapu, Telaga and Muslim castes have fine usually varies depending on the nature and gra got their Caste Panchayats. 'These traditional Caste vity of the case and as such there are no fixed maxi Panchayats administer the socio-economic and religi mum and minimum amounts. The economic status of ous life of these people though the statutory pancha the accused is also taken into consideration before yat is functioning in this village with the advent of awarding fines. Panchayat Raj. T~;e Caste Panchayats are usually com 58. Two divorce cases have been reported among posed of caste elders and the membership is either the surveyed households of Rajgond tribe. One Sri hereditary or elected by the people of the respective A. S. P., has divorced his first wife due to her very castes. These castes panchayats have got jurisdiction young age while another Sri S. M. M., has divorced over inter-family and intra-family disputes which are his wife at her will and these cases were, however, not mostly related to land and other social disputes aris brought to the notice of the tribal panchayat. The ing within the fold of the caste. It also decides the idbal panchayat does not interfere in the disputes divorce cases and fixes the quantum of compensation. which are not reported to it. 'l'he organisational pattern differs a little from one to 59. The Caste Panchayat of Golla caste consists another. Among the Rajgonds, the disputes are settled of Pedda,golla, the hereditary office, and a few other by the Patel, the caste head, and a few other tribal cDste elders. If any complaint is reported, the Pedda elders while the Birdugond elder locally known as golla summons all the heads of the Golla households Vedil decides the disputes among Birdugonds. Like to assemble on a fixed day through one of the caste wise Peddamala and Peddamadiga along with a few men.· A dispute settled by this Caste Panchayat is other caste elders settle caste disputes among Malas given below: The Caste Panchayat elder Sri P., is and Madigas. The decisions of the Cast~ Panchayats the complainant as his daughter wilfully left her hus are faithfully carried out by both the complainant b"nd for the reason that he married another woman and the accused. There are no cases so far where th'! without her consent. As' usual the caste elders and the parties have failed to carry out the decisions of the ('ther heads of Golla households including the accused Caste Panchayat. were summoned. The arguments of both the parties 56. The elders of the Caste or Tribal Panchayat were heard by the caste elders including those of the assemble at a place where the complainant and th'! caste elder, Peddagolla, who is the complainant. It was accused are summoned. The members give a patient then decided by the Kulapanchayat that the accused hearing to both the parties and examine all the avail should give five goats and half of the landed property able evidence before giving the final dedsion. The for marrying another woman without the consent ur 64 CHApTER V his first wife. The other condition was that she was evidently illustrates the desire of the different castes ~t liberty to marry any person among Gollas who was for their respective Caste Panchayats. Thus the Caste most liked by her. A portion of the compensation panchayats still remain to be the potential units in amount was enjoyed by all the persons including the promoting the corporate life in the village community. complainant and the respondent. Thus the cordial re lationship among these two households was maintain ed. Even though the Peddagolla is the complainant, Voluntary organisations the Caste panchayat has decided the issue impartially 62. There are no social or cultural institutions in which evidently speaks of its fair judicial nature. this village. Such voluntary organisations as youth as sociations, clubs and libraries are not started in this 60. Each caste has got its own panchayat except village though it is the nearest village to the head Komati, Tenugu, Munnurukapu, Telaga and Muslim quarters of the Village Level Worker. The informal castes. The Caste panchayats of Avusnla (Viswabrah Bhajana Mandali organised by various castes of this min) and Mangali (Barber) are located at Bellampalle village perform bhajans in the month of Sravana ond Mandamarri villages respectively, as there are (July-August) near the Hanuman temple. only a few households in this village. The Kulapan chayats of Raj,gond (Scheduled Tribe) and of Kum mari have got jurisdiction over the neighbouring vil· Stratification of village community ll'lges but the heads of these Kulapanchayats are resid 63. As in any other village in India, the land ing in this village. The caste heads of Mangali, Cha holding is the key to socio-economic and political sta kali, Goundla are respectively known as Peddaman tus in this village. Except the absentee landlord of gali, Peddachakali and Peddagoud while the other this village, no other caste economically dominates caste heads are called as Kulapeddalu or peddamanu over the other castes of this village. Next to the land shulu. All these Caste panchayats conduct the pro lord, the maximum acreage of land is owned by the ceedings alike by giving an opportunity to both the Manne (Scheduled Caste) household whose members parties to express their points about the disputes. It by accident of birth belong to the lowest rung of social is a common "ractice among all the Caste panchayats status. 'This household commands a little more respect to spend a little of the compensation amount either than the other households of the same caste at the on drinking or on a feast as the case may be so that hands of the other upper castes of this village due to the differences might be forgotten and cordial life is his sound economic status. The relations between the maintained. The respective caste heads are treated peasants and other functionary. castes in this vil with special respect and attention in all the social and lage remain undisturbed as the changes in the econo religious functions. As regards Muslims, all the divorce rrjc status, if any, can be effected within the frame cc-.ses are decided by the Khazi who officiates over the work of traditional system for many castes are follow p.larriages but no traditional Kulapanchayat exists un ing their traditional caste occupations such as pottery, like among the Hindu castes. blacksmithy, carpentry, hair-cutting and washing of 61. All the castes who have got their traditional clothes, etc. As there are no other castes in this vil Kulapanchayats have expressed their desire in favour lage, Komati occupies the highest place in the social of their continuance as they are constituted of their hierarchy followed by Telaga, Munnurukapu, Tenugu, C<1ste elders who are loyal to the caste and are quite Viswabrahmin and Padmasale castes. All the func aware of their age old customs. All castes expressed j ionary castes in the village enjoy more or less equal that the Caste Panchayats are functioning well in social status. The Scheduled Tribes also enjoy the solving the disputes of the same caste among them same social status like the functionary castes. How selves without being known to other castes and there (vel', the caste prejudice is an insurmountable obstacle ty enabling the maintenance of the respect of the for the Scheduled Castes viz, Manne, Madiga and caste in the village. Moreover, the Caste Panchayats Netkani to come up in the social hierarchy of the vil c!ecide the issues quickly besides taking into account lage. Even among these Scheduled Castes, the Madi the economic status of both the complainant and the gas occupy the lowest rung of the social status and respondent. A few people have reported that proper the Mannes neither dine with Madigas nor take water justice cannot be meted out to the minority group in from the well of Madigas. In short, no perceptible a statutory panchayat while it can be done in a Caste change has COme in this village in determining .Panchayat. Since .1949, the Statutory Panchayat has tpe social status of a person in the society inspite of 110t decided any caste disputes of this village which his wealth. Chapter VI SOCIAL REFORMS, AWARENESS AND ATTITUDE Inheritance of property caste elders (Table 85). All the disputes arising within the fold of the caste are so far decided by the Kula Soon after independence, many social laws have panchayat and no cases have been so far referred to been formulated which in fact, have little reached the the Statutory Panchayat. The Caste Panchayats usual villager. This failure is undoubtedly due to the pre· ly decide the cases of divorce and separation, land dis vailing illiteracy among the villagers. Such social legis· putes, thefts, squabbles and other minor disput.es of lations as the Hindu Laws of Succession and Adoption civil nature to the satisfaction of both the aggl'leved ere not heard by them. As regards the inheritance' of and accused and thereby promote smooth corporate property, all the sons irrespective of the marital sta life within the caste (Table 86). The functions of the tus get equal shares in the ancestral property. All Grama Sevak locally known as pentala Girdavar are the 35 heads of households of different communities known to one Goundla household only. The multiple have deposed that sons a,lone should inherit the pro· functions of the Statutory Panchayat as the village perty. As many as ten of the thirty-five surveyed administrative and welfare unit are little known to households are of the opinion that the eldest son is to any of the persons including the Munnurukapu and be given a larger share as he is the rightful person for Goundla who seem to have a little knowledge of these performing the funeral rites of the parents according institutions. Moreover, the Village Panchayat has not to Hindu custom, besides carrying on the major res so, far provided any amenities in this village. The ponsibilities in the household affairs after the death general opinion of the villagers is that the traditional of the father while all the remaining sons are to be Caste Panchayats are the potential units to administer giVen equal shares. No other relative including the civil life of the village than the recently established illegitimate children have the right to property (Table Village Panchayats under the new set up of Pancha 70). In all, fifteen heads of the households of differ yat Raj. In short, the recently established Statutory ent age groups of different castes have agreed that Village panchayat has little impact on this village. daughters also should inherit the paternal property equally with his sons. Five of these persons belong to Family planning the age group of more than 50 years of age, followed by four persons in the age group of 21-30 years. Three 3. As regards family planning, the villagers have persons each are found in the age groups of 31-40 and expressed their ignorance about the existence of deli 41-50 years respectively (Table 71)., In Malkepalle berate measures to prevent conception. Many have ex there are no households who have deviated from their pressed a surprise about these modern methods for traditional inheritance. prevention of child birth which is the gift of benevo ,.~ lent God. All of them believe that prevention of child Composition and functioning of the organs of birth by willful methods is a sin. In all, only four of Democratic Decentralisation the thirty-five persons interviewed are not only aware of the family planning but also approve it. When ex 2. The villagers are not quite aware of the fum! plained about the various difficulties in maintaining tioning of the various democratic institutions in the the large families with the static agricultural economy Panchayat Raj. As many as 1S of the 35 surveyed of the village, twenty persons of different castes have households could correctly tell the period of existence approved the family planning measures. Of the total of Panchayat. None of them are aware of the func of these 24 persons, 12 are willing to adopt family tions of the Statutory Panchayat as they are not con planning after four children, 5 after three children, 4 cerned with the Statutory Panchayat due to the effec after five children, 2 after tVloO children and one after tive fUnctioning of the traditional Caste and or Tribal six children (Table i5). Thus the optimum number Panchayats. The villagers are not aware of the func of children is four according to an average family in tions of the newly constituted Panchayat Raj and as Malkepalle village. such they could not give any specific information about the functioning of the democratic institutions (Table 4. Table 66 shows the attitude towards family planning with reference to the age of the head of the 34). The solitary Munnurukapu expressed an opinion household and caste or tribe. One person each of Cha that the various democratic institutions of Panchayat kali and Rajgond in the age groups of 21-30 years and Raj are functioning satisfactorily. Out of the 35 house above 50 years respectively wish to adopt family plan holds surveyed, 30 household heads desire that their ning after two children. Three of the five persons who traditional Kulapanchayats should function for ever wish to adopt family planning after three children are irrespective of the existence of statutory panchayats more than fifty years old while one person each belongs as they wish to"maintain the solidarity of the caste by to the age group of 41-50 years and 21-30 years res deciding the caste disputes with the help of their own pectiVely. }<'our of the twelve persons who want to 66 CHAPTER VI adopt family planning after 4 children are of above Untouchability fifty years of age followed by three persons in each of the age groups of 21-30 years and 31-40 years res 7. Inspite of the legislation to eradicate this age pectively and two in the age ,group of 41-50 years. One old social evil, it is still observed in one form or the person each of Birdugond, Mangali and Viswabrahmin other in the villages. Despite the sincere efforts of the castes who want to adopt family planning after five Government and many non-Governmental bodies en children belong to the age group of 31-40 years while gaged in social work, the Scheduled Caste persons are one 'Mlunnurukapu is aged between 21 and 30 years. neither allowed to draw water from the wells used by One Netkani, aged between 31 and 40 years wishes to other caste Hindus nor allowed to enter the houses of adopt family planning after six children (Table 66). the latter. The touch of a person of Scheduled Caste is, It is evident from this analysis that persons belonging however, not considered as pollution by all the castes to the working castes wish to have more children as E:xcept by Komati caste. People of SchedUled Castes they will be helpful in supplementing the income. are kept at a respective distance in all the social and religious gatherings. The inter-dining of persons of 5. When enquired into the attitude towards family Scheduled Castes with those of any other Hindu caste planning with reference to age of the child bearing is strictly prohibited. Among the thirty-five heads of women of different castes and different age groups as the households interviewed, only seven persons (one many as twelve persons wish to! adopt family planning person each of Komati, Mt:nnurukapu and Viswabrah aftel' four children followed by five persons who wish min castes besides four Birdugonds) are aware of Un to adopt it after three children, three persons after touchability (Offences) Act. Scheduled Castes observe five children, two persons after two children and one untouchability among themselves and Madigas occupy person after six children (Table 67). the lowest rung of the social order among them. The Manne and Madigas neither inter-dine nor inter-marry. Dowry payments and Hindu Marriage Act Neither tl),e Madigas nor the Mannes draw water from 6. The payment of dowry is not popular in this eE.ch other's well. A public well is constructed with village but the payment of vori, the customary bride the Government funds near the hahitation area of Ma price, is in vogue. The bride price is paid in cash as digas and as such it is exclusively used by them but also in the form of ornaments as agreed upon at the not by the Mannes, the other Scheduled Caste of this time of betrothal ceremony. However, the dowry sys village. The Madigas remove the carcasses of dead tem is in vogue among the Viswabrahmin, Komati and animals even to-day while Mannes do not attend to Goundla castes and varies between Rs. 100 and it. The old prejudices are still maintained though not Rs. 1,000 depending on the economic status of the with the same vigour as in the pilst. In general, the household. The customary payments in kind, known as Scheduled Castes are slowly becoming conscious of oranam, are in practice among Golla and Madiga castes. their rights and untouchability may lose its sharper The bride price among the Scheduled Tribes varies edge provided the villagers are socially educated to from Rs. 10 to Rs. 15.50 P. which is usually paid to some of the social legislations which are of immence the parents of the bride. Neither dowry nor bride benefit to them. price IS In vogue among Munnurukapu, Padmasale, Telaga, Tenugu, Manne (Scheduled Caste), Netkani (Scheduled Caste), Chakali, Mangali and Kummari Public opinion about the survey castes of this village. The bride price is usually decid ed among the Scheduled Tribes depending on the eco 8. Inspite of the initial misunderstanding about nomic status of the person i.e., bridegroom. A few the objects of the survey, slowly the villagers have Rajgond households have paid Rs. 100 or even more come forward with full co-operation. They have given towards the bride price. Likewise the mehar amount an approximate picture of the expenditure pattern but among Muslims as agreed upon at the time of betrothal "Ie quite conservative to furnish the information re <:eremony is paid to the bride. However, the Gound13 lating to the income and other social customs like household has paid an amount. of Rs. 116 towards pregnancy, attainment of puberty, etc. Most of the vil dowry at the time of his daughter's marriage. The vil l&gers could not answer certain questions about the lagers have no knowledge about the enactment prohi marital customs and social legislations due to their biting the payment of dowry. When explained about ignorance. A few well-to-do agriculturists and the ~his Act,. all the villagers have expressed their satis village shop-keepers (Komatis) are more reserved and faction towards this enactment. secretive in giving out the answers. Chapter VII CONCLUSION Malkepalle, a multi-ethnic village inhabited by can deter his activities since he wields great command seventeen communities is a fine little village situated and respect in this area. in the midst of forest. Once a stronghold of Raj gonds 2. Though the village is situated very near to ,md Birdugonds, the Scheduled Tribes, it has now been Bellampalle, a fast developing industrial base in the occupied by several castes who settled here some de State, the people of this village have not been influenc cades ago as agriculturists. Inspite of the prohibition ed by the urban effects in any sphere of life due to for the non-tribals to own lands in this tribal belt, the availability of rich bamboo in the surrounding they have managed to take complete possession of lands forest. Either the democratic agencies or Welfare De from the tribals who were consequently driven to the partment have failed to bring any perceptible change interior of the forests. Yet, legally the land is in the in their age old social norms or economy standards. nnme of tribals even today but the fruits are reaped Hence, even today they are still backward in all the by all the non-tribals in the village. Especially among economic activities due to their ignorance of the tech the non-tribals, a Velama Dora has managed to have nological" developments in the field of agriculture and complete monopoly of landed property and not{ling other fields as well. APPENDIX TABLES All the Tables presented herein except Tables L 11, 12 and 31 are based on the data collected in respect of 35 sample households surveyed in MalkepalJe "illage in April, 1964. Tables 1, 11, 12 and 31 present the data for the entire village. TABLE 1 Area, Houses and Population Area Density No. of Population r------_._------, per square No. of house- ,------_),_------l Year Name of village Acres Hectares mile houses holds Persons Males Females (1) (2) (3) t -l) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) 1951 Malkepalle 2,087 844-94 176 120 120 576 294 282 Source;- 1961 Primary Census Abslracl TABLE 2 Size and Composition of Households Two or three Four to six Seven to nine Total No. Single member members members members 10 members & above ~ ,--____ ..J-___ --. ____-L. ____ --, ______.L..~_- _ ___., ".--_ ~ __ --L __- ---, of house- ~-----_),,_----~ holds House- Fe- House- Fe- House- Fe- House- Fe- House- Fe- surveyed holds Males males holds Males males holds Males males holds Males males holds Males males (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (It) ( (2) (13) (14) (15) (16) 35 7 8 9 22 60 49 5 19 20 1 6 5 TABLE 3 Households and Population by Religion, Sect and Caste/Tribe/Community Not belonging to SI. Religion/Castel any seet or Total No. of No. Tribe/Community Sect sub-sect households Persons Males Females (1) (2) (3) (4) IS) (6) (7) (8) HINDU 1 Birdugond (S. T. ) 14 14 65 35 30 2 Chakali 1 1 2 1 1 3 Golla Yerragolla 3 17 10 7 4 Gound\a Vibhutidar 1 11 6 5 5 Komati Yegini 1 5 2 3 6 Kummari 1 1 6 5 1 7 Madiga (S. c. ) 1 1 4 1 3 8 Mangali 1 1 7 3 4 9 Manne (S. C. ) 2 2 13 8 5 10 Munnl:lrukapu Munnurll 1 4 2 2 11 Netkani (S. c. ) 1 1 8 5 3 12 Padmasale Tirllmandar 1 5 2 3 13 Rajgond (S. T. ) 3 3 12 S 7 14 Tt;laga 1 1 5 1 4 15 Tenugu 1 4 2 2 16 Viswabrahmin "i 1 6 4 2 ISLAM 17 Muslim Shaik 1 2 1 1 Total 26 3S 176 93 83 s. c. = Scheduled Caste S. T. :: Schedu led Tribe [21 APPENDIX TABI;E 4 Population by Caste/Tribe/Community, Age GrouA and Sex Age group (in years) r------______---_J- -______~------_----~ No. of 0-14 , _____ 1_____ --""1 15-24 ,--____25-59t._ __ ~~ 60 & above Total ,.---__ J-___---... 51. Caste/Tribe, house- r-___-L - -- - r-----"----~ No. ~oromunity hoi d, Males Femaks Males Females Males Females Maks Females Males Females {lj (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) Birdugond 14 IS 12 5 4 14 11 3 35 30 2 Chakali 1 1 1 I 3 Golla 3 3 3 2 3 3 10 7 4 Goundla 3 3 Z 6 S 5 Komati 2 2 3 6 Kummari 1 4 5 1 7 Madiga 1 2 1 1 3 8 Mangali 2 2 2 3 4 9 Manne 2 4 3 2 2 8 5 10 Munnurukapu 1 2 2 11 Muslim Il Netkani 4 2 5 3 13 Padmasale 1 1 2 3 14 Rajgond 3 4 4 3 5 7 15 Telaga 1 1 2 4 16 Tenugu 2 2 17 Viswabrahmin 3 4 2 Total 35 40 33 14 16 35 30 4 4 93 83 TABLE 5 Population by Age Group and Marital Status Divorced or Unspecified Total population Never married Widowed separated status _,--____Married _.l_ r-____.l.. ___ -... ,--___..J...-.~_._~ Age grOiJp ,------~' ~-~----~ ----, r-----_!----r---. ,----_}.._----.. (in years) Perso.ns Males Ferna les Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) 0-14 73 40 33 40 28 4 1 15-24 30 14 16 3 2 11 12 2 25-59 65 35 JO 30 24 2 4 2 2 60&abow 8 4 4 4 2 2 Total 176 93 83 43 30 45 42 2 6 2 5 Table 6 [4J APPENDIX TAB Population by Castc/Tribe/Community, ;--______IlJi tcrateL ______Literate without euucational standard (' ____ ~---_-- _.L______~_~ 0-14 15-24 25-59 60 & above 0-14 . 15-24 25-29 60 & above < ___ J.... __ -... .--__J __--. 81. r-__ 1_ -----.., Caste/Tribe) ----'---- r--'---- r-_...J__~ r---J._-~ No_ r----'----.. Community M F M F M F M F 1'.1 F 1'.1 F M F M F (1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) (12) ( 13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) Birdugond 10 9 2 3 10 11 3 2 Chakali 1 1 3 Golla 3 3 2 3 3 4 GoundJa 3 3 5 Komati 2 6 Kummari 4 1 1 7 Madiga 2 1 1 8 Mangali 2 2 9 Manne 3 3 1 1 10 Munnurukapu 1 1 11 Muslim 12 Netkani 4 2 13 Padmasale 1 14 Rajgond 4 4 3 15 TeJaga 2 16 Tenugu 1 1 17 Viswabrahrnin 3 1 Total 32 29 6 13 26 30 2 4 1 M:::Males F =Females P::: Persons tAB LE 7 Population by Age Group, Education and Sex Matricu- Literate without educa- Total Primary or Junior lation or Age group Uliteratl: tional standard Basic Higher (in Years) ~--- --'------~ ,..------'------, .------'------, ~------'------~ Secondary - Persons Males Females Persons Males Femaks Persons Males Females Persons Males Females & abova (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (to) (11) (12) (13) (14) 0-14 73 40 33 61 32 29 2 10 7 3 15-24 30 14 16 19 6 13 11 8 3 25-59 65 35 30 56 26 30 8 8 60 & above S 4 4 6 2 4 Total 176 93 83 142 66 76 4 3 30 24 6 TABLES [5] LE 6 Education, Age Group and Sex Matricula- Primary or Junior Basic tion or ,.-___-_- ______..J.... __ ___ - ______--~ Higher ,.-__0-14_L __ ~ 15-24 25-59 60& above Secondary Total 81. Cas tefTribef ~ __ ....L ___-.. r---..)._--~ r----.J._----.. ~-_;-~--...... & above No Community .M F M F M F M F M F P (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30) (I) (2) 4 2 3 3 35 30 65 Bridugond 1 2 2 Chakali 10 7 17 3 Golla 6 5 II 4 Goundla 2 3 5 5 Komati 5 1 6 6 Kummari 1 3 4 7 Madiga 3 4 7 8 Mangali 2 8 5 13 9 Manne 2 2 4 10 Munnurukapu 1 2 11 Muslim 5 3 8 12 Netkani 1 2 3 5 13 Padmasale 1 5 7 12 14 Rajgond 1 4 5 15 TeIaga 2 2 4 16 Tenugu 4 2 6 17 Viswabrahmin 7 3 8 3 8 93 83 176 Total [6] APPE;>;OIX TAB Household Heads by CastelTribe/Community, Males r------~.------,------... "--'---'--- 0-14 15-24 '25-59 60 & above 0-14 _____ --___ -"-___ --.. ,.--___ _.l.....- , ______; ____ ~, ,--.-__J- __ ~ ,--___ ..}.._ ___ --... SI. Caste/Tribe! No. Community II literate Literate Illiterate Literate Illiterate Literate lIliterate Literate llIiterate Literate (1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (ll} (12) 1 Birdugond 11 2 2 Chakali 1 3 Golla. 2 4 Goundla 5 Komati 1 6 Kummari 7 Madiga 8 Mangali 9 Manne 10 Munnurukapu 11 Muslim 12 Netkani 13 Padmasalc 14 Rajgond 3 15 Telaga 16 Tenugu 17 Viswabrahmin 1 Total 24 6 2 TAB Deaths by Caste/Tribe, Marital Status, Age Group Never married ~ ______MarriedJ.______~ r--- - ___~ ______1.__ - ----~-----'--.. 0-14 15-24 25-59 60 & above 0-14 15-24 25-59 SI. r---"-----... r·-_.t_-~ ,-..)._-~ ,.--_J..._~ r---"--~ No. Caste/Tribe M F M F M F M F M F M F (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) Birdugond 2 Chakali 2 3 Goundla 4 Mangali 2 5 Padmasale 6 Viswabrahmin Total 3 5 1 M= Malos P= Females TABLES [7] LE 8 Sex, Age Group and Literacy Females Total ______A __- _____------~ ~------_~------~ 15-24 25-59 60 & above Males Females ,-_ __.t._---~ ,--___ _J._ ____• ,..- ___ -L ___ --..., .--____._..l_ __--... ______...J.-. _ ____ --... SI. Caste/Tribe! Illiterate Literate Illiterate Literate Illiterate Literate Illiterate Literate Illiterate Literate No. Community (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (IS) (19) (20) (21) (22) (I) (2) 12 2 Birduggnd 1 2 Chakali 3 3 Golla 1 4 Goundla 5 Komati 6 Kummari 7 Madiga 1 8 Mangali 1 9 Manne 1 10 Munnurukapu II Muslim 12 Netkani 13 Padmasale 3 14 Rajgond 1 15 Telaga 16 Tenugu 1 17 Viswabr ahmin 26 9 Total LE 9 and Sex during last Five Years, 1959 to 1964 Widowed ----~ ~------~-----~------~----~ 60& above 0-14 15-24 25-59 60 & above ,.-_....l-_~ "..---'---.... ,..-_..J-_ __. SI. M F M .F M F M F M F Divorced Separated No. Caste/Tribe (17) (IS) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (2S) 0) (2) 1 Birdugond 2 Chakali 3 Goundla 4 Mangali 5 Padmasale 6 Visw .. brahmin Total [8] APPENDIX TAB L E 10 Death by Causes, Age Group and Caste/Tribe during last }'jve years, 1959 to 1964 Number of males Number of females ,-______....L... _____ ----~ ~------~------~ SI. 60 & 60& No. Caste/Tribe Cause of death 0-14 15-24 25-34 35-59 above 0-14 \5-24 25-34 35-59 above (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) Birdugond Infant mortality Smallpox Cougb and fever 2 Chakali Infant mortality 2 3 Goundla Fever 4 Mangali Motions and fever 2 5 Padmasale Due to old age 6 Viswabrahmin Fever Total 3 5 Tables 11, 12 & 13 [lO] APPENDIX TAB Livelihood Agricultural ,...- ______- ____ -__~c. Total No. of persons enume- rated (including I-Cultivators of II-Cui tivators of Occupied inmates of insti- Inmates of land wholly or land wholly or Area houses tutions and institutions mainly owned "..-- __ .J.-___-.. mainly unowned Location in houseless and houseless and their depen- and their depen- Code No. squ· No. of persons) persons Literates dents dents r-__J.- __ --.... ,-____L ______and name are No. of house ,.------'-----, r---_.J.__~_-, ,..----_;,_----, of village miles houses holds P M F M F M F P M F P M F (1 ) (2) (3) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11 ) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) 1951 Census* 127 Malkepalle 108 112 529 262 267 9 75 247 1964 Survey 46 Malkepalle 35 35 176 93 83 27 7 33 18 15 13 9 4 {Surveyed households) *Source :-1951 Adilabad Dis/riel Census JIandbook P : PenODS M: Males F: Females TAB 1961 Primary Total No. of persons enumerated Occupied (including residential inmates of houses institutions Institutio- Literate & Total Area of r-----_)._---, and house Scheduled Scheduled Houseless na) popula. educated workers Name village No.of No.of less persons) Castes Tribes population tion persons (I-IX) (in sq. hou- house- r-_J.....--__ ,--_'___~ r--_>:"_'~ ,--_..J-_-., r--.J...._--.. r--_).._---" r--..}...--., L.C. of p No. village miles) ses holds P M F M F M M F M F M F M F (11) (12) (13) (14) (1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) 46 Malkepalle 3.26 120 120 576 294 282 94 81 79 87 54 9 168 128 P: Feuoal M: Males F: Females TABLES [Ill L Ell Classes r-___- ______Non-agricultural..J- ______classes ~ Per~ons (including dependents) who derive their principal classes______~ ,--______means Of livelihood..J.... ___ _ from IV-Non-cultivat ing owners of land, agricul- III-Cultivating tural.rent re- VIII-Other servi- labourers and ceivers and V-Production cesandmiscel- their depen- their depen- other than laneous sour- Location dents dents cultivation' VI-Commerce VII-Transport ces Code No. ~_-~-__ ~~-_-~-__ ~~-__ ~---~----~----~---..J----~r---~---~ and Dame PM F PM F PM F PM F PM F PM F of village (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (14) (25) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30) (31) (32) (33) (34) (35) (1) 115 50 18 24 127 Malkepalle 39 13 26 14 10 4 9 4 5 68 39 29 46 Malkepalle (Surveyed) households LE 12 Census Abstract WORKBRS ~~------~------~III In mining, quarryinl!, livestock, forestry, V fishing, In manu VIII hunting & IV facturing In trans II plantations, At other than VII port, stora- I As agri orchards house- house VI In trade ge and IX X As culti- cultural and allied hold· hold In con and com- communi- In other Non-wor- vator labourer activitieS industry industry struction merce cations services kers Name ,...-_.J__~ r--..).._-~ ...--...I..__--, ,...----.1----, r--J_--...._ ,..-_-L____ r---'-_"-'\ ,..---'---, ,--..J.._-.. ...--_ J..._--, L. C. of M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F No. village (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30) (31) (32) (33) (34) (35) (36) (37) (38) (39) (40) (1) (2) 66 51 57 71 17 6 2 5 5 12 3 126 154 46 Malkepalle TABLE 13 Workers and Non-workers by Age Group and Sex Total Total workers Total non-workers ~ __----..J.. ______....., Age group ,...... I..__-----""' ,-__---J..--- --. (in yean) Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) 0-14 73 40 33 6 3 3 67 37 30 15-34 56 28 28 40 26 14 16 2 14 35-59 39 21 18 27 20 7 12 1 11 60& above 8 4 4 5 4 1 3 3 Total 176 93 83 78 53 25 98 40 58 Note: The particulars relat. to 35 aurv.;yed households [121 APPENDIX TABLE 14 Workers by Occupation, Age Group and Sex ,-______Age group-1..- (In______years) ------.., 0-14 15-34 35-39 60 & above Total S1. ,-_____l- ___-. ,--____l.__ __ "'_--.. r----...}._-----.., .... ,.. __---J.....------" No. ,------Occupation Males Females Males Female~ Males Females MaIllS Females Males Females Persons (1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) (12) ( 13) 1 Manthrasani (dai) 2 Teacher 3 Clerk to the forest contractor 1 1 1 4 Trader (kirana) 1 1 5 Toddy seller 1 1 1 6 Cultivator 8 7 "i 16 17 7 Herdsman 1 1 1 8 Sheep grazer 2 2 2 9 Toddy tapper 1 1 1 ]0 Attached agricultural labourer 2 2 11 Agricultural labourer 1 "2 1 2 3 5 12 Tailor 1 1 13 Goldsmith 1 1 1 14 Potter 1 1 1 15 Rural labourer 2 3 13 2 5 7 19 26 16 Barber 1 1 1 17 Washerman 1 1 2 18 Ritual beggar 7 5 1 13 13 Total 3 3 26 14 20 7 4 53 25 78 T A BL E 15 Workers engaged in Industry, Business and Cultivation belonging to the Household by Age Group and Sex Working in industry Working in business Working in cultivation belonging to the belonging to the belonging to the Age group Total household household household r---___ J-___~ (in yean) ".-.-----_)._-----~ , _'------., r------_)._-----~ Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) 0-14 3 1 2 3 1 2 15-34 10 10 1 1 1 8 8 35'-39 11 10 2 2 1 8 7 60& above 2 2 1 1 1 1 Total 26 23 3 4 4 2 2 20 17 3 TAB L E 16 Non-workers by Age Group, Sex and Nature of Activity Total No. of non· Persons engaged in Full time students or ______workers....J.... _____ household duties only children attending school Dependants r--___~ __J- ______~ Age group "...-__ - _J._____ -, ,------_}.._------.. (in years) Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) t13) 0-14 67 37 30 9 6 3 58 31 27 15-34 16 2 14 8 8 1 1 7 1 6 35-59 12 1 11 6 6 6 1 5 60 & above 3 3 1 1 2 2 Total ')8 40 58 15 15 :0 7 3 73 33 40 TABLES [.13] TAB L E 17 Households engaged in Cultivation, Industry or Business belonging to the Household Households engaged r------,.}.. ------, Total No. of In cultivation run by In industry run by In business run by Households not running cultiva households the household the household the household tion, industry or business (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) 15 9 4 21 TAB L E 18 Traditional Occupation by Households S1. No. Traditional occupation No. of households ( I) (2) (3) 1 Clerk in kirana shop 1 2 Trader (kirana) 1 3 Cultivator 10 4 Herdsman 1 5 Toddy tapper 1 6 Agriculturallabourer 1 7 Fisherman 1 8 Weaver 2 9 Goldsmith 1 10 Potter I 11 Barber 1 12 Washerman 1 13 Ritual beggar 13 Total 35 TAB L E 19 Place of Occupation NUMBER OF WORKERS WORKING AT r------~--..).------Round Dharm~ about ¥aMmfik" Pothepalle KannepaJle Buggagudem Bheemara m Malkepalle Malkepalle (1/2 mile) (2 miles) (10 miles) (11 miles) (24 miles) SI. r---";'_-~ r---.J...__ ~ ,.--__-L __ -"'I ,--_,__-~ ,---L-l ,-_..J.-__ ~ r-- ,.J... __ ~ No. Occupation M F M F M F M F M F M F M F (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) 1 Manthrasani (dai) 2 Teacher 3 Clerk to the forest contractor 4 Trader (kirana) 1 5 Toddy seller 1 6 Cultivator 17 3 7 Herdsman 1 8 Sheep grazer 2 9 Toddy tapPfir 10 Attached agricultural labourer II Agricul tural labourer I 12 Tailor 1 13 Goldsmith 1 14 Potter 1 15 Rural labourer 7 19 16 Barber 17 Waiherman 18 Ritual beggar 13 Total 35 2S 13 1 M : Males F; F.mal.. [14] APPENDIx TABLE 20 Occupational Mobility, Cause of Change and Contentment dUl,'ing 1963-64 by Caste/Tribe/Community No. of infor- Number of households mants changing traditional who are No. of occupation not con- house- r-----_;__------tent with holds Forced by present Sl. Caste/Tribel From traditional changing To contemporary Volun- circum- Other occupa- No. Community occupation over main occupation tarily stances reasons tion (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) Birdugond Ritual beggar 1 Rural labourer -do- l Attached agricultural labourer 1 14 Cultivator 1 Rural labourer 1 2 Madiga Cultivator 1 Agricultural labourer 3 Manne Agricultural labourer 1 Cultivator 4 MUll.nurukapu Cultivator 1 Rural labourer 5 Muslim Clerk in kirana shop 1 Tailor 1 6 Netkani Weaver 1 Cultivator 7 Padmasale Weaver Cultivator 8 Telaga Cultivator Ritual begiar 9 Tenugu Fisherman Rural labourer 1 Total 11 2 3 6 18 TAB L E 21 Occupational Mobility-Nature of Aspiration NUMBER OF PERSONS WHO WANT THEIR SONS TO BE r------~------___... Persons No. of per- In the same Govern- Persons who could Sl. sons in the occupation ment having not specify No. Occupation occupation as in Col. (2) servant Cultivator Engineer Teacher no sons anything (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) Trader (kirana) 2 Cultivator 9 6 3 Herdsman 1 4 Toddy tapper 1 1 5 Attached agricultural 1 labourer 6 Agricultural labourer 7 Tailor 8 Goldsmith 1 9 Potter 1 10 Rural labourer 4 2 11 Barber 12 Washerman 13 Ritual beggar 12 5 5 2 Total 35 9 8 8 1 7 TABLES [151 TABLE 22 Distribution of Households by Main Occupation and Caste/Tribe/Community CASTE/TRIBE! COMMUNITY r------____ t. ______- _____---_~ Sl. Birdu No. Main occupation gond Chakali Golla Goundla Komati Kummari Madiga Mangali Manne (1) (2) (3) (4) (S) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11 ) NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS Trader (kirana) 2 Cultivator 2 2 3 Herdsman 1 4 Toddy tapper 5 Attached agricul- tural labourer 6 Agricultural labourer 7 Tailor 8 Goldsmith 9 Potter 10 Rural labourer 2 11 Barber 12 Washerman 1 13 Ritual beggar 11 Total 14 3 2 -Contd. TAB L E 22-Concld. Distribution of Households by Main Occupation and Caste/Tribe/ Community CASTE/TRIBEj COMMUNITY ,------~------...)._------~------.... ----.------... SI. Munnu- . Padma- Viswabrah- No. Main occupation rukapu Mush m Netkam sale Rajgond Telaga Tenugu min (1) (2) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS Trader (kirana) 2 Cultivator 1 1 3 3 Herdsman 4 Toddy tapper 5 Attached agricul- turallabourer 6 Agricultural labourer 7 Tailor 8 Goldsmith 9 Potter 10 Rural labourer 11 Barber 12 Washerman 13 Ritual beggar Total J 3 2 1 [16] APPENDIX TABLE 23 Combination of Occupations SUBSIDIARY OCCUPATION GROUP ~------~------~ 81. Total No. of Rural Rent Goat Agricultural Grass No. Main occupation households labourer receiver grazer labourer seller (l) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) t8) NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS Trader (kirana) 1 2 Cultivator 9 3 2 l 3 Herdsman 1 4 Toddy tapper 1 5 Attached agricultural 1 labourer 6 Agricultural labourer 7 Tailor 8 Goldsmith 1 9 potter 1 10 Rural labourer 4 11 Barber 1 12 Washerman 1 1 13 Ritual beggar 12 4 Total 35 8 2 1 TABLE 24 Main Occupation, per capita Annual Household Income and Family Type PER CAPITA ANNUAL HOUSEHOLD INCOME RANGES (ia rupoe') r------_----_-----,.)._---_---___---- ______~ 1-50 51-100 101-200 ,--_____..J.-. ___ -_~ ..)._ 81. r------~ ,--_----L------No. Main occupation S I J 0 S I J 0 S I J 0 (1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) ( (2) (13) (14) NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS 1 Trader (kirana) .- 2 Cultivator 1 2 1 2 3 Herdsman 1 4 Toddy tapper 1 5 Attached agricul- tural labourer 1 6 Agricultural labo- urer 1 7 Tailor 8 Goldsmith 1 I> Potter 1 10 Rural labourer 1 11 Barber 1 12 Washerman 13 Ritual beggar "i 3 2 1 4 Total 2 5 2 4 1 7 2 7 -Contd. TABLES [l7] TAB L E 24-Concld. Main Occupation, per capita Annual Household Income and Family Type PER CAPITA ANNUAL HOUSEHOLD INCOME RANGES (in rupees) r------~------"'\ 201-300 301-500 501 & over ____-L- ____ _... , Si. r-_----J,_-----...... r- - r------''------...... No. Main occupa tion S I J o S I J 0 S I J 0 Total (I) (2) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (:?5) (2c) (27) NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS 1 Trader (kirana) 1 1 2 Cultivator "i 9 3 Herdsman 1 4 Toddy tapper 1 5 Attached agricul- tural labourer 6 Agricultural labo- urer 1 7 Tailor 1 8 Goldsmith 1 9 Potter 1 10 Rural labourer 4 11 Barber 1 12 Washerman 1 13 Ritual beggar 11 Total 2 34 N.B. Income particulars are not available for one household S-Simple family (husband, wife and unmarried children) I-Intermediate family (married couple and unmarried brotber/sister anc! ope of the parents) J-loint family (married couple with married sons! daullhters or with married brothers/Sisters) O-Other family type TAB L E 25 Nature of Interest on Land by Caste/Tribe and Households ,.------...)..__Extent of land (ip ------.. acres) Below Extent of SI. Castel one 10.1 & land:'! No. Tribe Nature of interest on land acre I to 2.4 2.5 to 4.9 5 tolD above unspecified ( I) ( 2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS 1 Golla Land owned Land held from private persons or insti tutions 2 Manne Land owned Land held from private persons or institutions 3 Padmasale Land owned Land held from private persons or institutions 4 Rajgond Land owned 2 Land given out to private persons or institutions [181 TAB L E 26 Change in Ownership of Land during one Gencration by Caste/Tribc No. of househvld:, No. 01 houschojJs 81. th:1t sujfered loss that have gained No. Caste/Tribe No. (If households of land Reasons land Reasons (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) 1 Manne 2 Unspecified 2 Rajgond 3 Unspecified TAB L E 27 Agricultural Produce and Disposal during 1963-64 No. of Quantity consumed Sale SI. Name of agricul- house- Quantity by the producing Quantity available amount No., HIraI produce holds produced households for sale Quantity sold realised (1) (2) l (3) (4) (5) (6) 0) (8) Rs. I Jowar 7 632 kuncliams 632 kunchams 2 Maize 7 244 244 3 Paddy 1 32 " 32 4 Castor seed 3 185 185 kunchams 185 kunchams 752 5 GingiJi 2 100 4 96 96 768 6 Anumulu (field bean) 2 17 17 " 7 Red gram 1 8 8 " 8 Chillies 1 1 maund" 1 maund 1 maund 30 Total 24 J,550 TAB L E 28 Reciprocal Aid and Improwment in Agricultural Practices As~isting neighbours and receiv- ing help at the time Taking of cultiva- help of tion (not Borrowing neigh- including agricul tural bours at sowing and Having implements the time harvesting contact from others of sow- operations) with Using Using at the timc ing or in the shape Villagc SI Income group improved organic Osing of cult iva- harvesl- of manual Level Nh. Caste/Tribe (in rupees) , seeds manures p~sticides tion ing labour Worker (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS Manne 300& eel ow 301 - 600 601 - 900 901 -1,200 1,201 & above 2 Padmasale 300&below 301 -- 600 601 - 900 901 -1,200 1,201 & above 3 Rajgond 300& below 30t - 600 601 -- 900 1 901 -1,200 1,201 &above 18 CHAPTER II Furniture to the washerman are made in kind at the time of 47. As regards furniture, a few households pos harvest as per the agreement by the agriculturists. A sess chairs, tables, bhoshana'm, gada'manchi, benches few households pay a rupee or two per month for nnd stools. There are five chairs owned by Birdugond, washing their clothes. The washermen of this village Goundla, Manne, Rajgond and Muslim households while only wash but never iron the clothes. The washed only one table is owned by Manne household. There clothes are ironed by the Chakali at Dharmaraopet on nre seven gada'manchis, six benches, three stools and ,payment of 6 P. per each- cloth. Likewise the barber two bhoshana'ms. As many as eleven households pos serv~s all castes without making any distinction. After sess trunk boxes for preserving clothes and other cost ~ervmg people of the Scheduled Caste on a fixed day ly articles. One household each among Golla, Padma In a week, he takes bath before entering in the house sale castes and Muslim uses wooden boxes to preserve and also washes the instruments. The barber does not only their clothes but also money and other valu neither collect cooked food nor raw food-stuffs on the ables. The Manne household alone uses a wall-shelf cay of service like the washerman in the village. He to keep the costly articles. In all, 22 households of dif attends on all caste people except Scheduled Castes ferent castes, except Chakali, Goundla, Telaga and Tz whenever they require his servic~s. He also attends t~ r,ugu castes use mirrors (Table 38). Two Birdugond the cropping of younger generation. The Kummari households and one household each of the same tribe (Potter) supplies the required pots per year to the have acquired during the last five years mirrors, a barber for his services. As seen fram Table 41 eight households each belonging to different castes in the chair and a bhoshanam respectively. The Muslim has purchased a chair in the last five years. The Viswa annual income ranges of Rs. 301-600 and Rs.' 601-900 brahmin and Chakali households have acquired a trunk are ~sing toilet soaps followed by seven households in and a stool respectively during the last five years the income group of Rs. 300 and less and three house (Table 39). The modern equipment such as kerosene holds in the income range of more than Rs. 1,201, be stove, petromax light, radio, etc., which are popular sides the solitary Goundla household with an annual in the nearby villages like Kasipet and Dharmaraopet household income of Rs. 901-1,200. In all, 23 households have not yet found their way into this village. How are sending their clothes to the washerman. ever, almost all the articles of furniture are more of utilitarian value than of any social prestige. The fur Food niture possessed by different households in this village 49. Excepting the Vaisyas, all the other inhabi is not only cheap but also durable. tants of this village are non-vegetarians. The staple food of the village is jowar. All the surveyed house Toilet holds mainly live on jowar and five households of dif 48. The habit of toilet and a sense of personal ierent castes rarely take cooked rice. One Birdugond cleanliness are gradually increasing among these vil household lives on edible roots, besides jowar (Table lagers. In all 65.71 per cent of the households are us 54). Of the 35 households, 18 take their food thrice a ing toilet soaps while 60 per cent of the households day while 11 take meals twice a day. Five households are using washing soap (Table 40). The toilet soap is take their food three times a day with coffee or tea not still popular among Kummari, Madiga, 'Munnuru either in the morning or in the evening. One Goundla k2cpU, Netkani, Telaga castes and Muslim. Though the household takes food three tim_es a day with light washing soap is not used by different households, dishes between midday meal and supper, and tea or peoDle of all the castes send their clothes to the coffee in the morning or in the evening (Table 53). \vasherman. The average ~xpenditure on soaps of both The jowar is ~ooked like gruel locally known as ghato, types in a moderate family is about Rs. 12 per annum. and bread is also prepared out of jowar flour. The rice The dhobis of the village wash the clothes of all is usually consumed on festive occasions. They also people irrespective of caste distinction. The soiled take pulses and vegetables. clothes of Golla, Goundla, Komati, Kummari, Munnu 50. The diet of the Scheduled Tribes usually con rukapu, Padmasale, Telaga, Tenugu and Viswabrahmin sists of java (breakfast), shukarghato (lunch) and cp.stes are washed daily by the local Chakali whereas poddireku or javenivelthe (supper). Among the other the clothes of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes castes the breakfast is known as java or ambali, the are washed once in a week or once in a fortnight ac lunch as pagan buvva, ghatka or bhojanam and the cnrding to the convenience of washerman. The clothes Slipper as ratri buvva, ghatka or bhojanam. The break of Mangali (Barber) are washed once in two days and fast is nothing but the jowar gruel cooked in the early in turn the barber attends on the Chakali for shaving, hours of the day and it is eaten along with salt or whenever the former calls on him. The washerman onion by an average family and with thokku (pickle) is given food or raw food-stuffs sufficient for one man by the Vaisya and other agricultural castes. Most of on the day of wash by all the people of all castes, the villagers take their breakfast between 8-00 and 10 whose clothes are washed by him. The Kummari sup a.m., without fail. The lunch consists of jowar bread plies the required num~ of pots to washerman and and a little of cooked rice in a few well-to-do families the latter therefore serVt.;'- the former free of charge. whereas the lunch of an average family is simple jo B'esid~g ,giving food on the day of wash, the payments v,..-ar bread which is taken along with dhal or s'ambar THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIP1.rENT 19 and any vegetable curry. The agriculturists and people whenever they visit the weekly shandy or any nearest of Golla caste take buttermilk without fail with lunch urban -centre. In all, six households take either coffee ~nd supper. They also take fried or cooked vegetables oT tea regularly in their houses and three out of them at the time of lunch and supper. As regards the poor fall in the annual income range of Rs. 601 to Rs. 900 people of Scheduled Castes, Tribes and other working while one household each belongs to other income castes, the lunch is simr-1e jowar gruel which is tak~n groups excepting the income group of ·Rs. 300 and less. with raw or dried chillies and an onion. People of All the six households belong to six different castes all castes take their midday meal in between 12 noon including one Scheduled Tribe and one Scheduled and 2 p.m. During the agricultural season, the agri Caste. As many as ten out of 29 households who are culturists and agricultm al labou~rs take their lunch not in the habit of taking either tea or coffee belong in the fields. The lunch for the agriculturists is brought to the annual household income range of Rs. 301 to to the fields by the house-wives or by any attached Rs. 600 followed by eight households each in the in agricultural labourer or by any other member of the cume groups .of Rs. 601 to Rs. 900 and Rs. 300 and less. family while the agricultural labourers take it to the Two households· with an annual income of more than fields in the morning itself along with them. If the Rs. 1,201 do neither take tea nor coffee (Table 55). workspots are near to their houses, the agricultural Thus it is evident from the above analysis that both labourers also return home for taking lunch. The menu the extremities are reported in the higher income for the supper in any caste does not appreciably dif group only. It is likely that the consumption of tea or fer from that of the midday rr..eal. A few families may coffee would soon becorr..e a regular habit with the prepare a vegetable curry or sam bar if they can afford. younger generation because of their frequent visits to People of all castes usually take jowar bread during Bellampalle, the nearest industrial centre to this vil nights irrespective of the economic status before 8-30 lage. J,:.m. Except Vaisyas all other castes take meat and Liquor fish along with lunch or supper once in a week or 53. All the castes except the Vaisyas drink toddy fortnight. The poor people take meat once in a month supplied by the Goundla in the village. They also drink or two after boiling it in water and adding salt and sara (intoxicating liquor) during their visits to the chillies. A few well-to-do families fry the meat in oil weekly shandy at Kasipet or at Dharmaraopet when and also add the condiments locally known as masata. ever they like. The agriculturists and the working 'I'hey also take boiled or fried eg,gs. The beef and pork classes are habituated to taking toddy regularly in the are prohibited by all the castes except by the Sche evening hours before they return home. A few of them duled Castes. The villagers usually consume the meat arc so addicted to toddy that they even forego their 0: goat, sheep, fowl and wild animals like sambur, etc. meals but not toddy_ Women of the lower castes viz, They mostly take the indigenous vegetables such as Chakali, Golla, Goundla, Kummari, Madiga, Mangali, brinjals, benda (lady's fingers), beera (ridge g.ourd), Netkani and Manne take toddy on festive and cere pumpkins and potatoes. The asafoetida, garlic, zeera monial occasions. At few well-to-do agriculturists drink (cumin seed) and dhaniya (coriander) are also added sara which is purchased at Dharmar:?opet village. In to the cooked vegetables. short, toddy is preferred by these villagers rather than 51. A few well-to-do Hindu castes namely Vaisya, any other intoxicating liquor. Viswabrahmin, Tenugu, Telaga and Munnurukapu Smoking castes prepare sweet dishes, locally known as pa.rama nam or semia (a preparation of rice or semia with 54. All men 6f different castes smoke both beedi jaggery and added milk), burelu and appalu, prepared and tobacco regularly. Tobacco is consumed in th~ out of jaggery and jowar flour or rice flour. They also form of a cigar locally known as chutta by the agri rrepare savouries like garelu, segachi billalu, etc. It culturists and a few artisan castes. The most common is a privilege and considered as lucky among the habit of smoking tobacco is through a leaf-pipe, made l.ower castes like Chakali, Golla, Goundla, Kummari, of a raw beedi leaf locally known as tunika which is Madiga, Mangali, Netkani and Manne and poor people abundantly available in this forest region. The leaf to take c.ooked rice on festive occasions. The non-vege pipe is prepared by each person and loaded with to tarians purchase dry fish in the weekly shandy at lacco pieces. The beedi is mostly consumed by the Kasipet whenever they feel. like to h~ve a non-vege younger generation. A few of theL.1 go in for cigarettes tarian dish. The meat of the sheep and goat is most on festive occasions. The women of Scheduled Castes commonly used by all the non-vegetarians and the and other lower communities chew tobacco and abo chicken is a common non-vegetarian dish among vari smoke cheroot. The men engaged as agricultural lab eus castes irrespective of other economic status. Even ourers and casual labourers always chew tobacco. today the Madigas and Netkanis alone take beef but Most of the women of the Birdug.ond and Scheduled pork is prohibited by all the non-vegetarians. Castes not only smoke but also chew tobacco but sel dom exhibit this habit before the visitors. It is evident Tea and coffee from Table 57 that only five Birdugond women and 52. The habi t of taking tea or coffee is becoming one woman each in Golla, Mangali Manne and Pad lY'ore popular among the younger generation. Though masale castes have reported about' their t~bacco con they do tlQt prepare it in their houses, they take tea sumption. Chapter m ... -", SOCIAL CUSTOMS General Medical facilities Among all the castes, the pregnancy is recog 2. The village dai locally known as mantrasani nised with the stoppage of the menses and is further of Birdugond tribe attends on delivery cases of almost all 'the castes and tribes excepting those of Scheduled confirmed with the setting in of vomitings either in Castes. Besides this dai, an experienced old woman of the second month or in the third month. Even the each caste attends on the delivery cases of the same slightest exertion makes the pregnant woman perspire caste. None of the households have ever taken the and faUgue. In the initial period of pregnancy, the assistance of any trained midwife or sought for ad women expresses a desire to eat sour eatables, raw missions in the nearest hospital. The villagers are also rice, etc. Though no special food is served for the habituated to visiting the Government Hospital at Bel pregnant woman, she is not allowed to take heat gene lampalle and they occasionally visit the Primary rating food stuffs and hot drinks with a fear that it Health Centre at Kasipet for any emergency as it is may result in abortion or in premature delivery. It is nearer tnan Bellampalle. As many as eleven house a common practice to give her the food most liked by holds have received Allopathic treatment in the her. The preEmant woman is howeVf>r allowed to at. Government Hospital at Bellampalle while two house tend to her normal household work upto the seventh holds have taken different kinds of mediC'ine (Table month in the well-to-do families whereas among the 72). Besides making animal sacrifice to the local dei poor sections she is constrained to attend to the house ties, they also take medicine from the nearest Govern hold work upto 9th or even l{)th month. But co:habi ment Hospital to cure even the minor diseases. How tation is stopped from the seventh month of pregnancy ever, there is an increasing tendency among the vil irrespective of economic status. Though it is a custom lagers of using modern medicines even for petty dis eases. The surveillance worker of National Malaria among different castes to bring- their daughters for the Eradication Programme unit of Nirmal with his head first delivery either: in the 5th or- 7th month, it js not quarters at Dharmaraopet visits each househOld of this rhddly followed now-a-days. Those amomr Komati and village once in a fortnight to enquire into the mala Viswabrahmin castes who have brought their d~tlghters rial cases. His jurisdiction extends over 19 villages in for the first delivery, have presented her with new the' neighbourhood. The blood drops are collected clothes. Some sweets and sour eatables have also from the persons effected with malaria for testing them been distributed. before she is taken to her parents' in the laboratory. The quinine tablets are distributed house. A s regards Chakali, Goundla. Golla and Tenu~u to the persons suffering from malaria. Thus this vil castes, the pregnant woman is taken to her parents' lage is protected against malaria. house in the 7th month for the first delivery. She 1S served with special dishes like garelu. appalu, burelu Birth and other eatables desired bv her during the stay at 3. The delivery usually takes place in the main her parents' house. After delivery the mother and the living room in the single roomed houses or in the child are sent to her father-in-law's house on the 21st sleeping room of the houses, consisting of more than day or in the 3rd month after presenting the new one room. When the expectant mother complains about clothes both to the mother and the child. This custom the labour pains, she is made to lie over on the cot is observed only by those castes who can afford it. As arranged for her in the closed room. If the delivery seen from Table 76, one first birth each have occurred occurs in the winter or rainy season, the bottom of a in the husband's house and the parent's house respec half-broken pot or an earthen jar filled with fire local tively while all the remaining subsequent births have ly known as kumpati is kept under the cot to keep the taken place in the husband's house during last seven place warm. In a few Hindu castes, an old chappaZ or years. There are no restrictions like not having a hair a broom-stick is kept near the entrance of the hO'lse cut or not having shaved the beard by a man when in order to keep away the evil spirits from the mother his wife is pregnant. An experienced old woman of and the new born child. Castor oil is applied on the Birdugond tribe is an untra"ined village dai who at abdomen and fomentation is given with hand, heated tends on all the deliveries jrrespective of the caste in on fire, to sooth the labour pains. Soon after delivery, the village. She is locally kt;lown as mantrasani. Reli the umbilical cord of the child is cut with a country able enquiries reveal that all the deliveries of differ knife either for the male or the female child among ent castes are so far attended to by the village dai all the castes and the tribes. The treatment of delivery and in turn she is paid Rs. 2 to Rs. 5 depending on the does ~ot significantly vary among the different castes economic status of the househOld. and tribes in the village. The severed umbilical cord 22 CHAPTER III and the placenta are collected in a new earthen pot in the oven and in the well as a mark of purification. locally known as mayakunda. A small pit known as In this conne~tion turmeric paste, symbolical of Gow. kolZukunta is dug in the corner of the backyard of the ramma, is presented to an issueless woman by the wo house among all castes and tribes except in Komati man now delivered of the child with the belief that caste. Among Mangali caste the kollukunta is dug in the former begets children. Afterwards she draws the corner of a room where the child is born. Then water from the well and attends to her normal house the mayakunda otherwise known as buddi among hold work. The mother is served with yachaL and old Scheduled Tribes is buried in the kollukunta. After rice for about a month and afterwards she takes the wards a wooden plank is kept over this kollukunta and normal food. bath is given both to the mother and the new born child with hot water boiled with iLaku (a kind of leaf) 5. The mantrasani is paid Rs. 2 to Rs. 5 either in <::Ind takkulaku (a kind of leaf) till the last day of cash or in kind -for her services. A few present her pollution as it relieves the bodily pains of the mother. with a new saree besides paying the nominal fee. An The mayakunda in Komati caste is buried in a place amount of Rs. 2 to Rs. 5 is spent on preparing the which men and women do not frequent. The mantra· yachal. sani attends to give bath to the child daily during the period of pollution. It is a belief among all the castes Naming ceremony and tribes except in Komati caste, that the water used 6. Almost people of all the castes except those for bathing should not be let out upto 21 days. Pollu of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, per tion is strictly observed except in Scheduled Tribes form the naming ceremony on the 21st day of the for 11 days and the husband is allowed to see the child. Among the Scheduled Castes Madiga and Manne child only after the final bath on 11th day. In a few celebrate this function on the 11th day of the child castes like Komati and Viswabrahmin pollution is ob ·while Netkani performs the same on the 7th day of served for a period of 21 days. Among Scheduled the child. Among the Scheduled Tribes, this function Tribes, pollution lasts till such time as the umbilical takes place on an auspicious day before the child :com cord drops. The mantrasani is given either food or pletes one month. On this day both the mother and raw food stuffs on alternate days till the final day of the child are given bath and are dressed either in new pollution. The ceremonial bath is given on the 11th or washed clothes. Afterwards the baby is kept in the day which is locally known as purudu among all the cradle and then named first by the maternal uncle or cm~tes, except Scheduled Tribes, while it is performed the grand-mother or the resp-ective caste elder of the on 40th day among Muslims. On the final day of pollu village. The chosen name of "parents is uttered in the tion, people of the caste are treated with vegetarian ear of the child thrice. In this connection the nearest teast if one can afford to meet the expenditure. Other relatives are invited to a vegetarian feast. In Mangali wise a few nearest relatives are given vegetarian food caste five muthaidulu (women in married status) of all this day. Toddy is also offered among the Schedul any caste other than those of the Scheduled Caste ed Castes & Tribes and other castes like padmasale, utter the name of the Pochamma deity thrice in the Tenugu, Chakali, Mangali, Golla and Kummari except enr of the female child and the name of Pochanna in Komati and Viswabrahmin castes. In this connection case of a male child before giving the chosen name of the room where the delivery took place is smeared the parents on the 21st day of the child. The naming with dung and a fresh bed is arranged for the mother . ceremony among the Scheduled Castes is a simple and the child. The mother is served with old rice local function. Both the mother and the new child are given ly known as pata buvva upto 21 days among various bath and dressed either in new clothes or in washed castes while the Scheduled Tribes give wheat or jowar clothes. The child is kept in a cloth cradle and the gruel to the mother till the umbilical cord drops. All chosen pame of the parents is whispered in the ear of castes serve yachal, rr~pared with pippali (pipper the child by the eldest member of the family. A few longes), santi (dried ginger), garlic and gingelly oil relatives are entertained with vegetarian food on this to the mother along with food for 21 days among the occasion. Like the people of the Scheduled Castes, the castes and till such time as the umbilical cord drops tribal head names the child with the chosen name of among the tribes in this village. All these ingredients the parents on an auspicious day before the child are ground and mixed in gingelly oil and this mixed completes one month. The tribal elder who gives the stuff is known as yachal. Like the Hindu castes, thp. name to the child is entertained with vegetarian food. tribes in this village also treat their respective tribal. women to vegetarian food on the fifth day of the 7. The expenditure that will be involved from delivery. the day of delivery till the day of naming ceremony 4. The pollution in Viswabrahmin caste is observ varies from Rs. 5 to Rs. 50. The minimum expenditure ed for 21 days and the father sees the child on th'3 is seen among Birdugonds & Rajgonds (Scheduled 21st day. On the third day after delivery cooked rice Tribes) and Netkani (Scheduled Caste) and maximum mixed in curds locally known as perugu annam is kept expenditure of Rs. 50 in a normal feature among Ko in the kollukunta and covered with earth. On the 21st matL The expenditure usually includes the fee to the day, the mother and the child are given bath. Then ma.ntrasani, ingredients for yachal and the vegetarian the mother drop's a little of turmeric and vermilion feast on the occasion. lABLl:~ [23J T A BL E 39 Material Culture-Furniture and Consumer Goods acquired in last }'he Years (1959 to 19(4) "y Ca5tc;Tribe/ Community and Households ______Number of households______which havcr___ acquired _ in last fi"e years ------_._-.-.---, . Si. Caste/Tribel HUlricane No. Communi ty Cot Chair Bhosltallam Trunk Stool Ivlirror lantern Tl·:chli.;ht (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) ~8) (9) I Birdugond 2 2 Chakali 3 Golla 4 Muslim 5 Viswabrahmin Total 2 2 2 2 TABLE 40 Material Culture-Possession and Usc of Consumer Goous and Services b) Caste/Tribe / Community and Households Fuel and lighting Utensils Other consumer gooJs ~H,d ,~ervi.::es . ___.-L . ______~ r------~---I--- - ._~ __ .-, ~--. ,. ------'------~ (:loth,,:; Ekka Hurri- Wash- sent to Sl. Caste/Tribe! Fire- or Bed Earthen Alumi- cane T()I'ch- Toilet ing washer- No. Community wood buddi lamp lamp nium Brass Earthen Bronz~ lantern light soap soap man (1) (: ) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) ('J) (iO) (II) ( 12) (13) (14) d5) NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS Birdugond 14 9 5 7 8 13 6 11 11 4 2 Chakali 1 1 1 1 3 Golla 3 2 :: 3 3 2 1 J 4 Goundla 1 1 ... 1 5 Komati 6 Kummari 7 Madiga 8 Mangali I I 1 1 9 Manne 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 , 10 Munnurukapu 1 1 II Muslim 1 1 12 Netkani 13 Padmasale I I I 1 1 14 Rajgond 3 1 3 3 :'. 2 2 :'. 15 Telaga I 16 Tenugu 1 17 Viswabr ahmin Total 35 17 14 21 27 31 9 11 23 20 23 [24] APPENDIX TAB L E 41 Material Culture-Consumption Habits by Annual household Income and Households by Caste/Tribe/Community No. of households that use toilet soap/washing No. of households that do not use toilet soapl soap having annual income washing soap baving annual income (in Rupees) of (in Rupees) of r------I,_------______--... r-----_--_--___ --L ______------., SI. Cas te/Tribe/ 1,201 & 901- 601- 301- 300 & 1,201 & 901- 601- 301- 300 & No. Community above 1,200 900 600 less above 1,200 900 600 less (1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) 1 Birdugond 2 5 5 2 Chakali 1 3 Golla '2 4 Goundla "i 5 Komati 6 Kummari 1 7 Madiga 'j 8 Mangali "i 9 Manne "i 1 10 Munnurukapu "i 11 Muslim "i J2 Netkani 13 Padmasale 14 Rajgond 1 15 Telaga 16 Tenugu 17 Viswabrahmin "i Total 3 8 8 7 3 3 -Contd. TAB L E 41- Concld. Material Culture-Consumption Habits by Annual household Income and Households by Caste/Tribe/Community No. of households that send clothes to No. of households that do not send clothes to washerman having annual income washerman having annual income (in Rupees) of (in Rupees) of ".-______-_ __-...J.- ______--..._ ".------_.I.....______"'""'"\ Sl. Caste/Tribe! 1,201 & 901- 601- 301- 300 & 1,201 & 901- 601- 301- 300 & No. Community above 1,200 900 600 less above 1,200 900 600 less (1) (2) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) 1 Birdugond 2 5 4 2 Chakali 1 3 Golla 2 4 GoundJa "i 5 Komati 1 6 Kummari 7 Madiga 8 MangaIi 1 9 Manne 1 10 Munnurukapu 11 Muslim 12 Netkani 13 Padmasale 14 Rajgond 1 "i 15 Telaga 1 16 Tenugu 1 17 Viswabrahmin "i Total 3 11 6 2 5 6 TABLES [25J TABLE 42 Budgetary Position of Villagers by Main Occupation Pur- No. No. No. chase of of of Sale value Occupa- house- house- house- value of Occupa- tional holds holds holds of assets tional house- No. No. with with with ass;:ts during house- hold of of sur- Amount balan- deficit Amcunt during cur- hold average S1. Main house- per- Expend i- plus of ced bud- of curren trent average expend i- No. occupation holds Ilons Income ture budget surplus budget get deficit year year income ture (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) Rs. P. Rs. P. Rs. P. Rs. P. Rs. P. Rs. P. Rs. P. Rs. P. 1 Trader (kirana) 1 5 2,040.00 1,390.56 1 649.44 2,040,00 1,390.56 2 Cultivator 9 50 9,876.00 10,467.70 2 972.40 7 1,564.10 1,097.33 1,163.08 3 Herdsman 5 737.92 721.00 1 16.92 737.92 721.00 4 Toddy tapper 1 11 973.54 1,294.50 1 320.96 973.54 1,294.50 5 Attached agricul- tural labourer 4 419.00 494.00 75.00 419.00 494.00 6 Agricultural labourer 1 4 594.1 0 627.25 1 33.15 594.10 627.25 7 Tailor 1 2 610.00 653.00 1 43.00 61000 653.00 8 Goldsmith 1 6 670.00 697.29 1 27.29 670.00 697.29 9 Potter 6 276.00 444.00 168.00 276.00 444.00 10 Rural labourer 4 18 1,754.00 2,288.55 4 534.55 438.50 572.14 11 Barber 1 7 626.50 677.00 1 50.50 '26.50 671.00 12 Washerman 1 2 238.00 292.00 306.00 238.00 202.00 13 Ritual beggar 11 52 4,241.30 6,515.82 2 12.00 9 2.286.52 385.57 592.35 Total 34 172 23,056.36 26,472.67 7 1,686.76 27 5,103.07 678.13 778.61 Note: One household engalled io ritual begaiol has not reported its income and other partl~ularl. TAB LE 43 Indebtedness by Annual Household Income and Households No. of households in debt and total amount of debt r--_---l---_--. Average indebted- Annual income group Total No. of No. of Percentage of ness per household (In rupees) households households Total debt Col. (3) to Col. (2) in debt (1) (2) . (3) (4) (5) (6) Rs. P. Rs. P. 3QO & below 8 4 853.00 50.00 213.25 301-600 11 5 S15.00 45.45 103.00 601-900 11 9 2,369.00 81.81 263.22 901-1,200 1 1,400.00 100.00 1,400.00 1,201 & above 3 Total 34 19 5,137.00 55.88 . 270.36 Note \ Olle household h"" nOl tepolted it, ln~ome pt.tlWU\8.I'. [26] APPENDIX TAB L E 44 Indebtedness by Cause, Amount and Households Percentage of debt 51. No. of households due to cause to the No. Cause Amount of debt in debt total amount of debt (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Rs. 1 Purchase of land 950 4 18-49 2 House repairs to the existing building 20 0-39 3 Marriages 1,335 5 25-99 4 Funeral 20 0-39 5 To clear outstanding debts ],000 6 Sickness 100 1'95 1 Ordinary wants 1,312 10 8 Household cultivation 400 2 Total 5,137 25 100-00 TAB L E 45 Number of Money Lenders and Debtors by Caste/Tribe Money lenders ,--______DebtorsL ______---.. SI. ~------~------~ No. Caste/Tribe Period Number Amount lent Number Amount borrowed (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Rs. Birdugond Prior to 51 I 80 51-61 2 415 61-62 2 147 62-63 8 730 2 Golla 62-63 2 1,100 3 Goundla 51-61 400 61-6Z 1,000 4 Mangali 62-63 25 5 Manne 61-62 ]00 6 Netkani 61-Sl 200 62-63 200 7 PadmasaIe 62-63 300 8 Rajgond 51-61 240 9 Viswabrahmin 62-63 200 Total 24 5,137 TABLES TAB L E 46 Credit Agency and Rate of Interest by Number of Households and Amount ~ ______Rate of L ______interest ~ ,.--______12%\... ______~ ,,--______25%_..______~ ,.--______75% ..J..______--, No. of house- No. of house- No. of house- Agency holds Amount holds Amount holds Amount (1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Rs. Rs. Rs. Prior to 1951 Private money lender 80 1951-61 Private money lender 240 3 815 1961-62 Private money lender 4 1.247 200 1962-63 Private money lender 11 1,955 3 600 Total 240 19 4,1197 4 800 TAB L E 47 Sale and Purchase Value of Assets during last 30 Years, 1933 to 1962 and 1962-63 Sale value of assets Purchase value of assets ~------~------~ r------~------~ During During During current During current 81. 29 years year 29 years year No. Particulars (33-62) Amount (62-63) Amount (33-62) Amount (62-63) Amount (1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. 1 Land 3 8Q5 8 3,200 2 850 2 Livestock 230 5 1,000 90 3 Tools and equipment 2 160 4 Buildings 100 5 370 5 Jewellery and valuables 2 675 2 320 6 Investments 2 225 Total 7 1,900 24 5,275 3 940 (28] APPENDIX TABLE48 Capital formation by Caste/Tribe and Households Investments (savings bonds, prize bonds, Tools & equip- Jewellery & treasury bonds, Land Livestock ment Buildings valuables etc.) ~ ,----_...t._----.. ,---.J..__ ...... ,-__J.._-""" ,.--__ _.L ___~ ,--___..J- __ ,,--__--t.-.---.., Value Value Value Value Value Value of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. capital of capital of capital of capital of capital of capital of S1. forma- house- forma- house- forma- house- forma- house- forma- house- f orma- house- No. C8ste/Tribe tion holds tion holds tion holds tion holds tion holds tion , holds (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) Cia) (11) (12) (11) (14) Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Birdugond 100 20 1 2 Chakali 90 1 100 1 ]20 3 Golla 1,730 2 750 2 100 100 1 200 1 4 Goundla 250 100 1 5 Komati 200 1 120 1 6 Madiga 90 1 7 Mangali 40 8 Manne 1,000 2 200 25 1 9 Padmasale 570 10 Telaga 100 11 Tenugu 50 1 12 Viswa- brahmin 200 60 Total 4,050 9 1,090 6 160 2 470 6 320 2 225 2 TAB L E 49 Prosperity Index during the last 10 Years (1953-54 to 1964) Number of households which have cleared debts _which existed prior to 10 years from the income ~f the household . • • . 2 2 Total extent of debts cleared under item (1) by all the households together Rs. 160 3 No. of households which have, during the last 10 years (a) acquired any property and! or 12 (b) made any savings in cash and/or (c) investe'd capital in any new undertaking or building except where it is wholly from any debt incurred for the purpose and/or for the proceeds of any sale of property 7 4 The approximate total money value of items 3(a) to 3(c) of all the households together deducting the portion covered by debts and/or the proceeds of the sale of any property Rs.5,415 TABLES [29] TABLE 50 Caste/Tribe/Community and Nature or Family Types of families living in the households Sl. Caste !Tribe( Total number r---~------____ ~ ______~ No. Community of households Simple Intermediate Joint Others (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) 1 Birdugoud 14 1 2 2 Chakali 1 1 S 3 Golla 3 "i 4 Goundla 1 2 5 Komati 1 ~/ 6 Kummari 1 7 Madiga 1 8 Mangali I 9 Manne 2 10 1 1 Munnurukapu 1 1 11 Muslim 1 12 Netkani 1 13 Padmasale 1 14 Rajgond ..... 1 3 1 15 Telaga 1 1 16 Tenugu 1 1 1 17 Viswabrahmin 1 1 Total 35 17 2 6 10 TABLE 51 Mother Tongue and other Languages Spoken Language Total Males Females (1) (2) (3) (4) 1 Mother tongue 1 Te)ugu 87 45 2 Marathi 42 8 5 3 3 Gondi 77 40 4 Urdu 31 4 3 1 Total 176 93 83 II Other languages spoken Telugu 89 48 41 TABLE 52 Cultural Life of the Village ,.-.------Number of persons participating in/associating with Sl. Pur ana or Harikatha ~------~------~ No. Caste/Tribe Bhajana Mandali Folk dances kalakshepolm Reading newspaper and songs (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) 1 Birdugond 12 2 2 Chakali 1 3 Goundla I "i 4 Mangali 1 5 Padrnasale 1 6 Rajgond 2 7 Telaga 1 8 Viswabrahrnin 1 Total 19 3 1 [30) APPENDIX T A BL E 53 Dietary Habit by Households and Caste/Tribe/Community Households__ .J-. ______taking· - ______-~ Breakfast, midday meal and supper, tea Breakfast, or coffee midday with light meal and dishes supper with between mid coffee or tea Breakfast, day meal with light midday meal and supper dishes and supper Breakfast, Two time Total and tea or between with coffee midday meals with SI. Caste/Tribe/ No. or Two time coffee at any noon meal or tea alone at meal and coffee or tea No. Community households meals other time and supper one time supper at one time (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (7) (9) 1 Birdugond 14 6 7 2 Chakali 1 1 3 Golla 3 1 2 4 Goundla 1 I 5 Komati 1 "i 6 Kummari 1 1 7 Madiga 1 I 8 Mangali 1 I 9 Manne 2 1 10 Munnurukapu 1 1 11 Muslim 1 12 Netkani 1 13 Padmasale 1 "j 14 Rajgond 3 15 Telaga 1 16 Tenugu . 1 17 Viswabrahmin 1 Total 35 11 1 5 18 TABLE 54 Staple Food and Dietary Habits by Caste/Tribe/Community and Households Number of households taking "....- ____ - ______-L ______- _____--_ ~ __-"""'\ SI. Caste/Tribe! Total No. of No, Community Rice Jowar Roots hOllseholds ( I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) 1 Birdugond 14 14 2 Chakali I 1 3 Golla 1 3 3 4 Goundla 1 1 1 5 Komati 1 1 1 6 Kummari 1 1 7 Madiga 1 I 8 Mangali 1 1 9 Manne 2 2 10 Munnurukapu • 1 1 11 Muslim I 1 12 Netkani 1 I 13 Padmasale 1 1 14 Rajgond 3 3 15 Telaga 1 1 I 16 Tenugu 1 I 17 Viswabrahmin 1 1 Total S 35 35 TABLES (:11 ] TABLE 55 Habit of taking Tea or Coffee by Household Income and Caste/Tribe/Community and Households No. of households taking tea/coffee with annual No. of households not taking tea/coffee with income group (in rupees) annual income group (in rupe,s) r- ______J.______~.___----_____ -L------Sl. Caste/Tribe/ 1,201 & 901- 601- 301- 300 & 1,201 & 901- 601- 301- 300 & No. Community above 1,200 900 600 less above 1,200 900 600 less (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) {12) 1 Birdugond 1 6 5 2 Chal N. B. The income particulars have not been given by one household TABLE 56 Prohibited Foods and Drinks by Caste/Tribe/Community and H~useholds No.of house. holds tha t did not No. of households reporting as prohibited report ~------.--~------~------~------~ any Caste/ ,.- ______Meat of_.t.. animals ______~ ,--______Meat-_J_ of ____ birds ... _____--.., Eggs Drinks drink Tribe{ ~-"--~~J..---. to be Sl. Com· Pydi pro hi- No. munity Beef Pork Cat Monkey Fox Pigeon Owl Eagle Crow Kite kanti Owl Toddll bited (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) ( 14) (15) (16) 1 Birdugond 13 5 S 1 5 2 4 3 3 8 2 2 Chakali 1 1 1 3 Golla 3 3 2 1 4 Goundla 1 1 5 Komati 1 1 "i 1 "i "i • "i "i 1 6 Kummari 1 1 1 7 Madiga 1 1 1 8 Mangali I 1 1 1 9 Manne 1 1 I 2 2 10 Mu;nnuru· kapu t 1 11 MuslIm I 1 I 12 Ndkani 1 1 1 13 Padmasale "i 1 ]4 Rajgond 3 1 1 1 'j' '2 "i 1 15 Telaga 1 16 Tenugu 1 17 Viswa- brahmin 1 1 Total 31 22 7 4 2 7 10 2 10 14 4 4 9" 7 [32] APPENDIX TAB L E 57 Smoking and other Habits by Caste/Tribe/ Community Number of members ~ r-_--______--..I. __...J.- ______Every day Sl. Caste/Tribe! ,-______.l.... ______--.-~ Festive ocea- No. Community Particulars of habit Persons Males Females sions only (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) 1 Birdugond Beedi 1 1 Cigarette 3 3 Cheroot 12 7 "5 Leaf pipe 6 6 2 Chakali Tobacco chewing 1 1 3 Golla Cheroot, 5 4 Leaf pipe 3 3 Tobacco chewing 1 1 4 Goundla Beedi 1 1 Cheroot 1 1 Tobacco chewing 1 1 5 Kummari Leaf pipe 2 2 6 Madiga Cheroot 1 1 7 Mangali Cheroot 1 1 8 Manne Cheroot 5 4 1 9 Munnurukapu Leaf pipe 2 2 10 Muslim Beedi 1 1 11 Netkani Leaf pipe 3 3 12 Padmasale Leaf pipe 3 2 1 13 Rajgond Cheroot 3 3 14 TeJaga Beedi 1 1 ]5 Tenugu Cheroot 1 1 ]6 Viswabrahmin Beedi 1 1 Cheroot 1 1 TABLE 58 Periods of Pollution of Puberty and Menstruation among Caste/Tribe/Community SI. Caste/Tribe! Attainment Normal No. Community of puberty menstruation Remarks (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 1 Birdugond 6 days 5 days Bath wiJI be given on 11th day 11 days Norma! menst.ruation batn will be taken ?n 5th day 2 Chakali 9 days 5 days Bath will be given on the 5th day and agam final bath will be given on 9th day. Normal menstruation bath will be given on 5 th day 3 Golla 11 days Bath will be given for every two days and final bath will be given on 11th day 4 Goundla 11 days 3 days Usual bath will be given on 2nd day and final bath will be given on 11th day S Komati 15 days First bath will be given on 15th day. second bath will be given on 16th day 6 Kummari 16 days Final bath will be given on 16th day 7 Madiga 16 days 5 days Bath will be given on 16th day Normal menstruation bath will be given on 5th day 8 Mangali 11 days Bath will be given on lit h day 9 Manne 11 days Bath will be given on 11th day 10 Munnurukapu 16 days Bath will be given on 16th day 11 Muslim 11 days Bath will be given on 11th day 12 Netkani 9 days Bath will be given on 9th day 13 Padmasale 11 days Bath will be given on 11 tb day 14 Rajgond 7 days Bath will be given on 7th day 5 days Bath will be given on 5th day 15 Telaga 13 days Bath will be given on 13th day Normal menstruation bath will be given on 3rd day 16 Tenugu 16 days Bath will be given on 5th, 7th and 9th days and final bath will be given on 16th day 17 Viswabrahmin 16 days 7 days Bath will be given on 16th day Normal menstruation bath will be given on 8th day TABl.ES l33) TAB L E 59 Marriages by Caste/Tribe ..... ______Number --_...t,_------. of marriages with Father's Mother's own Other own sister's Mother's blood brother's daughter it step tela- St. Caste/ daughter (eduru Wife's Sister's brother's tion- No. Tribe (menarikam) menarikam) sister daughter daughter ship (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) 1 Birdugond 5 3 I 3 2 Chakali 3 Golla 1 "i 4 Goundla 1 1 5 Kummari 6 Madiga 1 7 Manne 1 8 Padmasale 1 1 9 Tenugu 10 Rajgond 1 1 Total 10 5 1 7 TABLE 60 Marriages by Relationship and Caste/Tribe/ Community Inter-communal Non-consan- in the same Total Consanguineous guineous Monogamous Polygymous Polyandrous religion ~ ___J.... ___-., ~ __J.__ _ _ --",-_ ___j._ ___~ r------"------...,----"---- ~ r-___J- ___~ Castel Total No. Tribel No. of of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of NO. of No of Sl. Commu- house- marri- house- marri- house- marri- house- marri- house- marri- house- marri- house- marri- No. nity holds ages holds ages holds ages holds ages holds ages holds ages holds ages (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11 ) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) Birdu- gond 14 29 9 12 9 17 14 29 2 Chakali , 1 1 1 1 1 3 Golla 3 11 2 2 3 9 3 9 4 Goundla 1 4 1 2 1 2 1 4 5 Komati 1 I 1 1 1 1 6 Kummari 1 1 1 1 'y 1 1 7 Madiga 1 3 1 1 2 1 3 8 MangaIi 1 2 1 2 1 2 9 Manne 2 5 "i 3 2 2 2 5 10 Munnuru- kapu 1 1 1 11 Muslim 1 1 1 1'2 Netkani 1 1 1 13 Padma- sale I 3 1 2 1 1 1 3 14 Rajgond 3 14 2 2 3 12 3 14 15 Telaga 1 3 1 3 I 3 1 16 Tenugu 1 1 1 1 1 1 17 Viswa- brahmin 1 Total 35 82 18 25 29 57 35 80 [34) APPENDIX TA BL E 61 Marriages by Spacial Distribution and Caste/Tribe/Community No, of marriages No, of marriages contratcd outside the No 0'( marriages contracted outside the con· village but within the taluk ~ ______taluk but withinA ______the district ~ tract ed ~------~------~ within Below 101 & Below 101 & S1. Caste/Tribe! the 10 11-25 26-100 above 10 11-25 26-100 above No, Community village miles miles miles miles miles miles miles miles (1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) 1 Birdugond 8 5 9 3 3 2 Chakali 3 Golla 3 3 2 2 4 Goundla 1 3 S Komati 1 6 Kummari I 1 Madiga 3 8 Mangali 1 9 Manne 1 2 10 Munnurukapu. 1 11 Muslim 1 12 ~etkani 1 13 Padmasale 1 2 14 Rajgond 3 2 "i 4 2 15 Telaga 3 16 Tenugu 17 Viswa· brahmin Total 16 20 14 11 2 il 7 TAB L E 62 Persons by Age at First Marriage and Caste/Tribe/Community Age group (in yean) ,------_-"------__, r-__0-4-L. __ -. r-_-.....L5-9___ -"'\ 10-14 15-19 20-24 S1. Caste/Tribe! ~---_,._----, r----_.L---~ ,--.---..,).._ -----.., No. Community M F M F M F M F M F (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (U) ( 12) 1 Birdugond 2 2 12 ]0 5 1 2 Chakali 1 1 3 Golla 'j "j 3 4 4 Gounela 3 1 5 Komati "i 6 Kummari 1 7 Madiga 1 8 Mangali 2 9 Manne "3 1 '4 10 Munnurukapu . 1 "i II Muslim 1 "i 12 Netkani 1 13 Padmasale "2 ''2 1 14 Rajgond 1 1 I "2 "4 15 Teiaga 1 2 I 16 Tenugu 1 1 17 Viswabrahmin "i Total 16 8 29 24 4 15 -Contd. TABLES [35] TAB L E 62-Cone/d. Persons by Age at First Marriage and CasteJTribeJCommunity Age group (in years) -r------______-L---_------~------~ 15-29 30-34 35 & above Unspecified" Total r----_\_-.... -~ r----..J--~~ r-___.J- ___~ ,--__J.._ __~ r-----J._--_~ SI. Caste/Tribe! M F M F M F M F M F No. Community (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (1) (2) 2 18 18 1 Birdugond 1 1 2 Chakali 7 6 3 Golla 3 3 4 Goundla 1 1 5 Komati 1 1 6 Kummari 1 I 7 Madiga 1 2 8 Mangali 4 4 9 Manne 1 2 10 M unnurukapu 1 1 11 Muslim 1 1 12 Netkani "i 2 3 13 Padmasale 5 4 14 Rajgond 1 3 15 Telaga 1 1 16 Tenugu , 1 1 17 Viswabrahmin 3 50 53 Total M: Males F: Femalei TAB L E 63 Marriage Payments .,.-______--_------...J.--Property (specify)______.. ______, "'-\ Cash (in rupees) Sheep Goat Cow Calf ,-___ - _ _A....-_--..... ,...--____..).__-_---... ".---_--..)._-----.. r-____,..J.._ ___...... _. r----_.\,,_---~ No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of house. house- hous~. house- house· house- house. house· house- house- holds holds holds holds holds holds holds holds holds holds making receiving making receiving making receiving making receiving making receiving SI. payment payment payment payment paymtnt payment payment paymeBt payment payment NO. Caste/Tribe (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (1) (2) (3) (4) 1 Birdugond 7 2 Chakali "i 1 3 Golla 4 Goundla "i 5 Komati Kummari ' ... 6 1 7 Madiga 1 8 Manne 9 Munnuru- . kapu 10 Netkani 11 Padmasale 12 Rajgond 13 Tenugu 14 Viswa- brahmin -Contd. [36] APPENDIX TAB L E 63-Concld. Marriage Payments Ornaments (speeify) ~----~------~--.._------.....,_--__,------~--~------~ Gold Goldpogulu Silver Silver kadiyalu Silver kante Silver bi1la ,.-_____.t_ ___ ~ ,--___ L ___--.. r---_--t.___ ...... r--__-L __~_~ r---...l..-____ ,--_. _ _.L __ ~ No. of No. of No.of No of No. of No. of No. of No. of N,) of No. of No of No of house- house- house- house. house- house- house- house- hou~e- house- house- house- holds holds holds holds holds holds bolds holds h01ds holds holds holds making receiv- making receiv- making receiv- making receiv- making receiv- making receiv- SI. pay- ing pay- pay. ing pay- pay- ing pay- pay- ing pay- pay- ing pay- pay- ing pay- No. Caste/Tribe ment ment ment ment ment ment ment ment ment ment ment rnent ( 1) (2) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (2t) 1 Birdugond 2 Chakali 3 Golla 2 2 4 Goundla 1 1 5 Komati 1 '" 6 Kummari 1 1 7 Madiga 8 Manne 1 9 Munnuru- kapu 10 Netkani 1 1 1 11 Padmasale 1 1 12 Rajgond 13 Tenugu 1 14 Viswa- blahmin 1 1 TABLE 64 Separation/Divorce by Reasons, Agency, Conditions and Caste/Tribe No. of house- Agency setting holds reporting the dispute Amount of separa ti on! divorce and a brief compensa- ,--_ __..J._ ____~ Reasons for separa- note on its tion, if any, A note on condition of S1. Separation Divorce composition paid No. Cas t e ITribe tion/divorce separation/ divorce (5) (6) (1 ) (2) (3) (4) (7) (8) Rs. 1 Birdugond Barrenness To marry a young women 1 Kula Peddalu 30 She does not like him 2 -do- 40 2 Golla Her hnsband married another girl -do- 1/2 share of She is at liberty the landed to remarry property Kula Panchayat 100 She is at liberty 3 Padmasale The boy was taller than her to marry again 4 Rajgond She has not attained puberty 1 At will 1 Both can marry again 5 Telaga They are having illicit intercourse with others 2 TABLES [37] TABLE 65 Information and Attitude towards Family Planning by Caste/Tribe/Community Number approv- Number Number ing aware of Number approv- family Number liking to adopt family planning Family aware of ing plan- methods after Plan- family family ning after r--~----~-~-~------l 81. Caste ITribel ning plan- plan- being 2 child- 3 child- 4 child- 5 child- 6 child- No. Community Centre ning Ding explained Total ren ren ren ren ren (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (l2) 1 Birdugond 9 9 2 6 2 Chakali 1 1 1 3 Golla 2 2 2 4 Goundla 1 4 Madiga 1 1 "i 6 Mangali 1 1 7 Manne 1 1 2 2 8 Munnurukal'u 1 1 9 Mu~Hm 1 1 ]0 Netkani 1 1 11 Padmasale 1 1 12 Rajgond 2 2 13 Viswabrahmin 1 Total 4 4 20 24 2 5 12 4 TAB L E 66 Attitude towards Family Planning 'With reference to Age of Head of Household by Caste/Tribe/Community Number that like to adopt family planning after ,------~- ~-----_._------...... ------~ 2 children. the age of head of 3 children, the age of head of 4 children, the age of head of hou!ehold being household being household being ,--______--L ----... ------...r------.J....--_-____ ~,_._------'------~ S1. Caste/Tribe/ 51& 20& 51& 20& 51& 20& No. Community above 41-50 31-40 21-30 below above 41-50 31-40 21-30 below above 41-50 31-40 21-30 below (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (l2) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) 1 Birdugond 2 2 2 Chakali 3 Golla 4 Goundla 5 Madiga 6 ,Mangali 7 Manne 8 Munnurukapu 9 Muslim 10 Netkani 11 Padmasale 12 Rajgond 13 Viswabrahmin Total 3 4 2 3 3 -Contd. [38] APPENDIX TAB L E 66-Concld. Attitude towards Family Planning with reference to Age of Head of Household by Caste/Tribe/Community Number that like to adopt family planning after r------___ - ______-l..___ ---- __ ------__~ 5 children. the age of head of 6 child~en, the age of head of household seing household being ~----~------~------~ ~-- ___ -___ --A------~ 81. Caste/Tribe! 51 & 20& 51 & 20 & No. Community above 41-50 31-40 21-30 below above 41-50 31-40 21-30 below (1) (2) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) 1 Birdugond 2 ( hakali 3 Golla 4 Goundla 5 Madiga 6 Mangali '"1 7 Manne 8 Munnurukapu 9 Muslim 10 Netkani 1 11 Padmasale 12 Rajgond ... 13 Yiswa!:>rahmin 1 Total 3 1 .... TAB L E 67 Attitude towards family Planning with reference ito Age of Child bearing Woman by Caste/Tribe/Community Number that like to adopt family planning after ------~------, 4 children, the age of 2 children, the age of the child bearing 3 children, the age of the child bearing the child bearing woman woman t-eing (in Years) woman being (in years) being (in years) ,..-___ - __.J..... ___--..,...-- ______A_ .-~r------;,--,---....., Castel 15 & 15 & 81. Tribel 41 & be- 41 & be- 41& No. Community above 36-40 31-35 26-30 21-25 16-20 low above 36-40 31-35 26-30 21-25 16-20 low above 36-40 31-35 26-30 () ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) \8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) 1 Birdugond 1 1 2 Chakali 3 Golla 1 4 Goundla 5 Madiga 1 6 Mangali 7 Manne 8 Munnuru· kapu 9 Mmlim 10 Netkani 11 Padmasale 1 12 Rajgond 1 13 Yiswa- brahmin Total 3 4 3 -Comd. TABLES [39J TAB L E 67-Collcld. Attitude towards Family Planning with reference to Age of Child bearing Woman by CastejTribejCommqnity Nurr.b~r that like to adopt family planning after ~------~------~ 4 children, the age of the child bear ing woman being 5 children, the age of the child bearing 6 children, the age of the child bearing (in years) woman being (in years) woman being (in years) ,..-___..J.- ___~ r------__...J..... ______• __~ r------_.J.-______--... Caste! 15 & 15 & 15 & SI. Tribe/ be- ~& ~ 41 & be- No. Community 21-25 16-20 low above 36-40 31-35 26-3021-25 16-20 low above 36-40 31-35 26-30 21-25 16-20 low (1) (2) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30) (31) (32) (33) (34) (35) (36) (37) 1 Birdugond 2 Chakali 3 Golla 4 Goundla 5 Madiga 6 Mangali 7 Manne 8 Munnuru- kapu 9 Muslim 1 10 Netkani 11 Padmasale 12 Rajgond 13 Viswa- brahmin Total 2 z Note :-Ooe household head of Birdugond beini a widow did not offer any opinioll. TABLE 68 Attitude towards Family Planning with reference to Duration of Marriage by Caste/Tribe/Community Number wanting more children, duration of Number wanting no more children duration of marriage being (in years) marriage being (In years) r-______.J.... ______~ ~------~------~ SI. Caste/Tribet 21 & 5& 21 & 5& No. Community above 16-20 11-15 6-10 below above 16-20 II-IS 6-10 below (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) (12) 1 Birdugond 2 5 2 2 Chakali 3 Gol1a 4 Goundla 5 Komati 6 Kummari 7 Madiga 8 Mangali 9 'Manne ··i 10 Munnurukapu 11 Muslim 12 Netkani 13 Padmasale I 14 Rajgond 2 15 Telaga 16 Tenugu 1 17 Viswabrahmin Total 5 2 2 11 6 4 2 [40] APPENDIX TABLE 69 Attitude towards Family Planning with reference to Annual Income by Caste/Tribe/Community Number wanting more children having annual Number wanting no more children having annual (in rupees) income --~ r------'___ income----L---_------....., (in rupees) ,..... ______- ___J.______S1. Caste/Tribe/ 1201 & 901- 601- 301- 300 & 1201 & 901- 601- 301- 300 & No Community above 1200 900 600 below above 1200 900 600 below (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) 1 Birdugond 3 2 2 3 3 2 Chakali 1 3 Golla 1 1 4 Goundla 5 Komali 6 Kummari 1 7 Madiga 8 Mangali 9 Manne 1 10 Munnurukapu 1 11 Muslim 1 12 Netkani 1 13 Padmasale 1 14 Rajgond 1 1 15 Telaga 1 16 Tenugu 1 17 Viswabrahmin Total 1 1 5 4 2 1 10 6 4 Note -The Income particulars are not furnished for one household of Birduiond • • TAB L E 70 Share of Property for Sons by Caste/Tribe/Community Number indicating that sons inherit property in the following manner r------....L____ --- ______-""'\ Larger share Larger share is given to is given to eldest son, youngest son, SI. Caste/Tribe/ No. of persons All sons get Only eldest Only youngest other sons other sons No. Community interviewed equal share son inherits son inherits inherit equally inherit equally t1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) I Birdugond 14 14 2 Chakali 1 3 Golla 3 "j 4 Goundla 1 5 Komati 1 1 6 Kummari 1 1 7 Madiga 1 1 8 Mangali 1 1 9 Manne 2 1 1 10 Munnurukapu 1 I 11 Muslim 1 1 12 Netkani 1 1 13 Padmasale 1 1 14 Rajgond 3 1 2 15 Telaga 1 1 Iii Tenugu 1 1 17 Viswabrahmin 1 1 Total 35 25 10 TABLES [ 41] TABLE 71 Attitude about Inheritence of Property by Daughters equally with Sons by Caste /Tribe/ Community Number of persons who agree that daughter should inherit equally No. of with sons, the age of interviewee being (in years) SI. Caste /Tribej persons r-_--____---- ___ --J._____ ------____ _.. No. Community interviewed 51 & above 41-50 31-40 21-30 20 & below ( 1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) 1 Birdugond 14 2 2 2 Chakali 1 3 Golla 3 4 Goundla 1 5 Komati 1 6 Kummari 1 7 Madiga 1 8 Mangali I 9 Manne 2 10 Munnurukapu 1 11 Muslim 1 12 Netkani 1 13 Padmasale 1 1 14 Rajgond 3 1 15 TeJaga 1 16 Tenugu 1 17 Viswabrahmin 1 Total 35 5 3 3 4 TAB L E 72 Medical Care ,-______Number of householdsL _____ following - ______~ Number oC households in which 'llaternity cases are attended to by Combina------~------~ tion of Taking . different the wo- Calling Without Allopa- Ayurve- Homeo~ systems Total men to Calling Calling an un· any assi· thic die sys- pathic of treat- No. of hospital a doc· a quali. quali. stance system tern of system ment of Location Distance house- for con~ tor at fied fied from of treat- treat· of treat- any other of (in holds finement homo midwife midwife outside ment ment ment system hospital miles) (1) (2) (3) (4 ) (5) (6) (1) (8) (9) (10) (II) ( 12) 3S 28 11 2 Bellam- 10 palle Kasipet 5 [42] APPENDIX TABLE 73 General Knowledge of Household Heads by Caste/Tribe/ Community ~--______Number of household heads ofA ______which know the name of ~ Zilla Pari- Panchayat Names of princi- Total No. shad head- Samithi Panchayat Taluk District pal lakes and 81. Caste/Tribel of house- quarters head- head- head- head- rivers of the No. Community holds quarters quarters quarters quarters district (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) . (6) (7) (8) (9) 1 Birdugond 14 11 13 12 Godavari 2 ChakaJi I I 1 I 3 Golla 3 3 3 2 4 Goundla 1 1 1 1 Ganga'(Godavari) 5 Komati 1 1 1 1 6 Kummari 1 1 7 Madiga 1 1 1 8 Mangali 1 1 1 9 Manne 2 1 2 10 Munnurukapu 1 1 1 Godav'a~i 11 Muslim 1 1 1 12 Netkani 1 1 1 13 Padmasale 1 1 14 Rajgond 3 2 3 15 TeJaga 1 1 1 Ganga"{Godavari) 16 Tenugu 1 1 1 Ganga (Godavari) 17 Viswabrahmin 1 1 1 Godavari Total 35 28 34 25 TAB L E 74 Period of Existence of Households, Immigrated during the Present Generation by Caste/Tribe/ Community Period of households immigrated (tn years) SI. Caste/TribeJ ~------~------~------~ No. Community 3 & below 4 to 10 11 to 20 21 to 50 51 & above (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS 1 Birdugond I 2 Chakali 1 3 Golla 4 Goundla 5 Kummari 6 Munnurukapu 7 Muslim 8 Padmasale 9 TelBga Total 2 5 TABLES [43] TAB L E 75 Settlement History of Households by Caste/Tribe/Community Number of households settled ~------~------~ Total Earlier Between Between One No. of than 5 4&5 2 & 3 genera- Present S1. Caste/Tribe! house- genera- genera- genera- tion genera- No. Community holds tions tions tiona ago tion (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) 1 Birdugond 14 :5 , 1 2 Chakali I 1 3 Golla 3 2 4 Goundla I I 5 Komati I 6 Kummari 1 7 Madiga 1 8 Mangali I i 9 Manne 2 2 10 Munnurukapu 1 11 Muslim 1 12 Netkani 1 13 Padmasale I 14 Rajgond 3 "i I 15 Telaga 1 16 Tenugu 1 17 Viswabrahmin 1 Total 35 8 12 4 10 TAB L E 76 Place of Birth Number of persons ,--___l.._--, Subseo· ~ ______~ ____Number~ ____ of births~_A ______in the village during ~ First quent I'lace of birth birth birth 1957-58 58-59 59-60 60-61 61-62 62-63 63-64 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) {IO) t Inside the village 1 In the same househotd 1 30 5 3 5 4 8 5 2 Mother's parents house 1 1 3 Hospital/Nursing home '... .'t' II Outside the village Nit Total 2 30 S 3 4 5 [44] APP. .E!NDIX TAB L E 77 Immigrant Households by Place and Reasons and Caste/Tribe/Community No. of households immigrating from ~------~------~Outside the Outside the District but Taluk but Outside the within the within the Within the Occupationr-______before...l- __ immigration-_ __ State State District Taluk r---J____ ~ ,.-_...J...... ___ ~ SI. Caste/Tribe! ,---"'_--~ ,.-.--_'_---~ Tea- Tra- Culti- wea- No. Community RUral Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban cher der vator ver (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) (12) (13) (14) 1 Birdugond 3 2 Chakali 1 3 Golla 2 4 Goundla ... S Komati 1 6 Kummari 1 7 Mangali 1 8 Manne 1 9 Munnuru- kapu 1 10 Muslim 1 11 Netkani 1 12 Padmasa!e 1 1 13 Rajgond 1 •• j 14 Telaga 1 15 Tenugu J 16 Viswa- brahmin Total 4 1 13 1 1 3 1 -Contd. TABLE 77-Concld. Immigrant Households by Place and Reasons and Caste/Tribe/Community Reasons for immigration ,..-__ --...J..... ___-, Occupation before immigration-Concld. To live Mar- To eke ~------~------_,Goat Rural with ita! out Sl. Caste/Tribel rear- Toddy Fisher- Gold- labour- Bar- Washer- Ritual rela- alIi- liveli- N<'. Community er tapper man smith Potter er ber man beggar tives ance hood (I) 12) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) 1 Birdugond 3 2 2 Chakali 1 3 Golla 2 2 4 Goundla 1 5 Komali 1 6 Kummari 1 1 7 Mangali 1 8 Manne 1 9 MunnufU- kapu 1 10 Muslim 1 11 Netkani 1 12 Padmabale 1 13 Rajgond 1 14 Telaga ... , 1 15 Tenugu 1 16 Viswa- brahmin Tolal 2 2 3 3 IS tABLE! {4S] TAB L E 78 Emigration by Number of Members, Place and Reasons R.easons for the Occupation before emigration emigration ,-______No. of members-J... ______emigrating -...... --___.J....-_--- ..... ,.-____ -_-J------~ Ritu- Due For To Outside the Outside the Within the cul- work in Un State District _ District Rural Wash- al De!,- to ,.-_..J-_~ ,-.... __J..._"-\ r---..J-_-""-\ Tea- labour- er- begg- en trans tiva- coilie- speci- SI. Castel cher er man ar dant fer tion ries fled 'No. Tribe Rural Ulban Rural UTban Rural Urban (8) (9) (10) (U} (12) (13) (14) (IS) (16) (17) (1) (2) (~) (4) (5) (6) (7) 1 1 Birdugond I 1 2 Chakali t 1 3 Golla <4 Goundla S Manne 3 Total 2 1 1 1 2 1 TABLE 79 Houses by Number of Rooms and Number of Persons Occupying and Caste{Tribe{Community Houses with Houses with no regular Houses with Houses With Houses with four or more one room two rooms three rooms rooms roomS ,_,.,.-__J- __ ---. ~--...J.--..--. r---L----.. r-___J.-_----.. ,--___A,_ ___ --.. Total Total Total Total Total Total No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. or houst:- house- house- house- house- house_ hold hold Total Total hold hold hold hold mem- No. of mem- No. of mem- No. of mem Caste/Tribe/ No. of No.of mem- No. of mem- No. of Sl houses bers houses b~rs houses bers houses bers No. Community houses rooms bers houses bers (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) (12) (13) (14) (IS) (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) 1 Birdugond 14 19 6S 2 10 7 28 3 11 2 16 2 Chakali 1 2 2 1 2 3 Golla 3 8 17 2 12 5 4'.... Goundla 1 1 11 11 5 Komati 1 1 5 5 6 Kummari 1 1 6 6 7 Madiga 1 2 4 1 4 8 Mangali 1 2 7 1 7 9 Manne 2 4 13 2 13 10 Munnurukapu 1 1 4 4 11 Muslim 1 2 2 12 Netk&ni 1 1 8 8 5 13 Padmasale 1 1 5 '6 14 Rajgond 3 5 12 6 2 Tdaga 1 3 5 '.,' 5 15 4 16 Tenugu 1 3 4 17 Viswabrahmin 1 2 6 6 Total 35 56 176 3 12 14 73 13 61 4 25 5 [46] APPENDIX TAB L E 80 House Type by Roof Material and Caste/Tribe/Community Number of house- No. of households holds with straw{ , with palmyrah leaves ,--Name___ of...1.- house____ type -, grass roof and grass roof SI. Caste/Tribe! ,-~ __J-._--___., r----J..,--_---._ No. Community Name Number 2 sloped 4 sloped 2 sloped 4 sloped (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) 1 Birdugolld Gaddil/ll 13 12 2 Chakali -do- I J 3 Golla -00- 3 :2 4 Goundla -do- l 5 Komati -do- l 6 Kummari -do- l 7 Madiga -do- l 8 Mangali -do- l 1 9 Manne -do- 2 1 10 Munnurukapu -do- l 1 11 Nelkani Gudisa I 1 12 Padmasale Gaddillll I 1 13 Rajgond -do- 3 2 14 Telaga -do- l 1 15 Tenugu -do- l 1 16 Viswabrahmin -do- l Total 33 25 7 1 Note: Two households, ooe each of Birdugood and Muslim castes, are takiog shelter io tbe cattle sbeds of others. Heoce they are oat covered io this Table. 't A :B L E 81 House Type by WaH Material and CastejTribejCommunhy Number of households with ~------~----~-----~-4 Mud plastered 81. Caste/Tribe/ Bamboo wattled bamboo wattled No. Community Mud wall wall wall (1) (2) (3 ) (4) (5) 1 Birdugond 12 1 2 Chakali I 3 Golla 3 4 Goundla 1 5 Komati 1 6 Kummari I 7 Madiga 1 8 Mangali I 9 Manne 1 10 Munnurukapu 1 II Netkani i 12 Padmasale 1 .. , 13 Rajgond ~ 14 Telaga 1 15 Tenugu 1 16 Viswabrahmin Total .2 30 Note: Two bouseholds have nQ bouses, TABLES [47] TAB L £ 81 Houses and Use Residence-cllm Residence Shop Residence-Clllll-shop cattleshed (I) (2) (3) (4) 19 15 TAB L E 83 Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes _'y Households and Population ~ ______Population L_~ ______~ Name of Scheduled Castel Total No_ of Scheduled Tribe households Persons Males Females (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) Scheduled Castes Madiga 1 4 1 3 Manne 2 13 8 5 Netkani 1 8 5 3 Total 4 25 14 11 Scheduled Tribes Birdugond 14 5 35 30 Rajgond 3 12 5 7 'fotal 17 77 40 37 Grand Total 21 102 54 48 TABLE 84 Awareness about the Existence of Panchayat by Households and Caste/Tribe/Community No that could Ie II the period of existence of Remarks including a note on the amenities SI. Caste/Tribel No. of Pdnchayat provided by the Panchayat from No. Community households correctly its inception (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 1 Birdugond 14 5 No amenities were provided 2 Chakali 1 1 -do- 3 Golla 3 3 4 Goundla J 1 No amenities ~~re provided 5 Komati 1 1 -do- 6 Kummari 1 7 Madiga 1 1 No amenities were provided 8 Mangali 1 1 9 Manne 2 1 No amenities ~~re provided 10 Munnurukapu 1 1 11 Muslim 1 12 Netkani J 13 Padmasale 1 14 Rajgond 3 "i 15 Telaga 1 1 No amenities ~~re provided 16 Tenugu 1 17 Viswabrahmin 1 Total 35 1& APPBNPIX TABLE 85 Caste/Tribal/ Community Panchayat-Existence and Attitude by Nnmber of Informants No. according No. according to Remarks including a to whom Caslel whom Castel note on the reasons Tribal/Community Tribal/Community for the continuance of S1. Caste/Tribe/ No. of persons Panchayats Pancbayats Caste/Tribal/Community No. Community interviewed exist should continue Panchayats (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) 1 Birdugond 14 14 14 To se ttle divorce I 2 ChakaJi 1 I 1 separation cases and 3 Golla 1 3 3 thefts and squabbles 4 Goundla '.. 3 1 1 -do- S Komati 1 -do- 6 Kummari 1 1 1 -do- 7 Madiga 1 1 1 -de- S Mangali 1 1 1 -do- 9 Manne 2 2 2 -do- lO Munnurukapu·. 1 -do- It Muslim 1 -do- 12 Netkani 1 1 1 -do- 13 Padmasale 1 1 1 -do- 14 Rajgond 3 3 3 -do- 15 Telaga 1 -do- 16 Tenugu . 1 -do- 17 Viswabrahmin 1 1 -do- Total 35 30 30 TAB L E 86 Caste/Tribal! Community Panchayat-FunctioJts Number according to whom funet ions of CastelTribaIlCommunity Panchayats are settling r------~------~ S1. Casterrribel No. of house- Divorce and Thefts, squabbles and No. Community holdl> separation cases land disputes (1 ) (2 ) (3) (4) (5) 1 Birdugond 14 ]4 14 2 ·Chakali 1 1 1 3 Golla 3 3 3 4 Gound'a 1 1 1 5 Komati 1 6 Kummari ] ooi 1 7 Madiga 1 1 1 8 Mangali 1 1 1 9 Manne 2 2 2 10 Munnurukapu 1 11 Muslim 1 12 Netkani 1 ooi I 13 Padmasale 1 1 1 14 Rajgond 3 3 3 15 TeJaga 1 16 Tenugu 1 17 Viswabrahmin 1 1 Total 35 30 30 GLOSSARY A charabhyasam Initiating the child to learning Ganteelu Gold or silver ornaments Achintalu • Sacred rice worn to the helix of the ear Garbhadanam Ambali Gruel Consummation Ambalikunda or Pot used for cooking food Garelu A savoury prepared with Anna,pukunda or blackgram Gulla or Topili Buvvakunda. Bamboo basket Angadam Room Gummi A big bamboo basket used for Angilu Shirts storing grain Gunja Annaprasana Giving Solid food for the fint W00den pole time to the child Ataka Loft A virenikundalu Sacred pots used in marriage Harikatha Legend of exploit of some God or hero related with singing, music and dance Basikam Sacred badge tied on the fore head of both the bride and the bridegroom [la,velpu Family God Besari Nose ornament made of gold Intiperu Surname Bhajan Singing in chorus in praise cf God, Goddess or saint Bhosana,m A big wooden box used for J anesoron 'or Vididi • Temporary Guest House for preserving valuables, etc. the groom's party to stay Bindi • Brass vessel for fetching and in the bride's village at the storing water time of marriage Bontha Quilt made of rags Bottu A dot of vermilion on the forehead Kachadam Double bUllock cart Buggavendi Silver of inferiQr quality KaLZakadiyalu Silver anklets Burelu A sweet dish prepared out of Kambali Coarse type of' bed sheet rice flour and jaggery Khade Silver wristlet Khaja khobra Marriage by negotiation Khekri A stringed musical instrument Cheera or Koka Saree Kolatam A game played exclusively by Chikkalu Slings girls Chitang Silver or golden necklace Koppu Woman's hair style Choli Blouse Kotta intloki povadam House-warming ceremony Kudaka Dried cocoanut cup Kumpati Oven Kundalu Dandakadiyalu Elbow ornament Earthen pots Disti Effect of evil eye Dulalu Wooden beams Duppati Blanket Laggam Auspicious time for marriage Lagulu Knickers Langalu Petticoats Ekka or Buddi Kerosene oil lamp without chimney Eduru menarikam Marrying one's mother's own Mantrasani Midwife sister's daughter Marnimandop Marriage pandal Marumanuvu or patu Widow remarriage Mattelu Toe rings made of silver Menarikam Marrying one's mother's own G addilZu or Jadironu . Thatched hut brother'S daughter Gadamanchi A wooden plank improvised Molatradu or Kardoda Waist string made of silver into a bench Mudda Finger ring made of silver Ganju AluminiUm utensil Mukkupulla Nose ornament made of gold ( SO} GLOSSARY Muthaidulu 'Nomen in married status Purohit Brahmin priest purudu Pollution due to delivery Pusthe Marriage locket panch Wrist ornament made of Puttuventrukalu- Tonsure ceremony silver theeyuta Panchi Dhoti Paramannam Rice cooked with milk and sugar Rangavalli Decorations made on floor Patti Waist belt made of silver with lime powder or jowar Peddala.panduga Annual ceremony celebrated flour in the name of the deceased Ravika Blouse ancestors Rellu gaddi A type of grass Pecldamanishaindi Attained puberty or Rajaswaralaindi Penta Rubbish heap S akri or Sarri Silver necklace Perugu annam Cooked rice mixed with curds Sankuveyuta Laying the foundation stone Peshiwatwal Marriage by capture Seri Farm house Pithru thaU or Brass tumbler for drinking Seridar Supervisor on farm Chembu or water Shukarghflto muntha Lunch Poddireku or .supper Javenivelthe Pogulu Gold rings worn to the lobe Thokku Pickle of the ear TikaIe Silver finger ring Pramida Small earthen plate used for lamp Punyavachanam Consecration VadIa Carpenter