Signal Processing Methods for Beat Tracking, Music Segmentation, and Audio Retrieval

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Signal Processing Methods for Beat Tracking, Music Segmentation, and Audio Retrieval Signal Processing Methods for Beat Tracking, Music Segmentation, and Audio Retrieval Peter M. Grosche Max-Planck-Institut f¨ur Informatik Saarbr¨ucken, Germany Dissertation zur Erlangung des Grades Doktor der Ingenieurwissenschaften (Dr.-Ing.) der Naturwissenschaftlich-Technischen Fakult¨at I der Universit¨at des Saarlandes Betreuender Hochschullehrer / Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Meinard M¨uller Universit¨at des Saarlandes und MPI Informatik Campus E1.4, 66123 Saarbr¨ucken Gutachter / Reviewers: Prof. Dr. Meinard M¨uller Universit¨at des Saarlandes und MPI Informatik Campus E1.4, 66123 Saarbr¨ucken Prof. Dr. Hans-Peter Seidel MPI Informatik Campus E1.4, 66123 Saarbr¨ucken Dekan / Dean: Univ.-Prof. Mark Groves Universit¨at des Saarlandes, Saarbr¨ucken Eingereicht am / Thesis submitted: 22. Mai 2012 / May 22nd, 2012 Datum des Kolloquiums / Date of Defense: xx. xxxxxx 2012 / xxxxxx xx, 2012 Peter Matthias Grosche MPI Informatik Campus E1.4 66123 Saarbr¨ucken Germany [email protected] iii Eidesstattliche Versicherung Hiermit versichere ich an Eides statt, dass ich die vorliegende Arbeit selbstst¨andig und ohne Benutzung anderer als der angegebenen Hilfsmittel angefertigt habe. Die aus anderen Quellen oder indirekt ubernommenen¨ Daten und Konzepte sind unter Angabe der Quelle gekennzeichnet. Die Arbeit wurde bisher weder im In- noch im Ausland in gleicher oder ¨ahnlicher Form in einem Verfahren zur Erlangung eines akademischen Grades vorgelegt. Saarbrucken,¨ 22. Mai 2012 Peter M. Grosche iv Acknowledgements This work was supported by the DFG Cluster of Excellence on “Multimodal Comput- ing and Interaction” at Saarland University and the Max-Planck-Institut Informatik in Saarbr¨ucken. I thank Prof. Dr. Meinard M¨uller for the opportunity to do challenging research in such an exciting field and Prof. Dr. Hans-Peter Seidel for providing an excellent research en- vironment. Special thanks for support, advice, and encouragement go to all colleagues in the Multimedia Information Retrieval and Music Processing Group, all members of the Computer Graphics Department at MPII, the outstanding administrative staff of the Clus- ter of Excellence and AG4, and the members of the working group of Prof. Dr. Clausen, University of Bonn. F¨ur meine zwei M¨adels. v Abstract The goal of music information retrieval (MIR) is to develop novel strategies and techniques for organizing, exploring, accessing, and understanding music data in an efficient manner. The conversion of waveform-based audio data into semantically meaningful feature repre- sentations by the use of digital signal processing techniques is at the center of MIR and constitutes a difficult field of research because of the complexity and diversity of music sig- nals. In this thesis, we introduce novel signal processing methods that allow for extracting musically meaningful information from audio signals. As main strategy, we exploit musi- cal knowledge about the signals’ properties to derive feature representations that show a significant degree of robustness against musical variations but still exhibit a high musical expressiveness. We apply this general strategy to three different areas of MIR: Firstly, we introduce novel techniques for extracting tempo and beat information, where we particu- larly consider challenging music with changing tempo and soft note onsets. Secondly, we present novel algorithms for the automated segmentation and analysis of folk song field recordings, where one has to cope with significant fluctuations in intonation and tempo as well as recording artifacts. Thirdly, we explore a cross-version approach to content-based music retrieval based on the query-by-example paradigm. In all three areas, we focus on application scenarios where strong musical variations make the extraction of musically meaningful information a challenging task. Zusammenfassung Ziel der automatisierten Musikverarbeitung ist die Entwicklung neuer Strategien und Tech- niken zur effizienten Organisation großer Musiksammlungen. Ein Schwerpunkt liegt in der Anwendung von Methoden der digitalen Signalverarbeitung zur Umwandlung von Audio- signalen in musikalisch aussagekr¨aftige Merkmalsdarstellungen. Große Herausforderungen bei dieser Aufgabe ergeben sich aus der Komplexit¨at und Vielschichtigkeit der Musiksi- gnale. In dieser Arbeit werden neuartige Methoden vorgestellt, mit deren Hilfe musikalisch interpretierbare Information aus Musiksignalen extrahiert werden kann. Hierbei besteht ei- ne grundlegende Strategie in der konsequenten Ausnutzung musikalischen Vorwissens, um Merkmalsdarstellungen abzuleiten die zum einen ein hohes Maß an Robustheit gegenuber¨ musikalischen Variationen und zum anderen eine hohe musikalische Ausdruckskraft besit- zen. Dieses Prinzip wenden wir auf drei verschieden Aufgabenstellungen an: Erstens stellen wir neuartige Ans¨atze zur Extraktion von Tempo- und Beat-Information aus Audiosignalen vor, die insbesondere auf anspruchsvolle Szenarien mit wechselnden Tempo und weichen Notenanf¨angen angewendet werden. Zweitens tragen wir mit neuartigen Algorithmen zur Segmentierung und Analyse von Feldaufnahmen von Volksliedern unter Vorliegen großer Intonationsschwankungen bei. Drittens enwickeln wir effiziente Verfahren zur inhaltsba- sierten Suche in großen Datenbest¨anden mit dem Ziel, verschiedene Interpretationen eines Musikstuckes¨ zu detektieren. In allen betrachteten Szenarien richten wir unser Augenmerk insbesondere auf die F¨alle in denen auf Grund erheblicher musikalischer Variationen die Extraktion musikalisch aussagekr¨aftiger Informationen eine große Herausforderung dar- stellt. vi Contents 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Contributions ................................. 3 1.2 IncludedPublications. 7 1.3 SupplementalPublications . 8 PartI BeatTrackingandTempoEstimation 9 2 Predominant Local Pulse Estimation 11 2.1 RelatedWork ................................. 12 2.2 OverviewofthePLPConcept . 14 2.3 NoveltyCurve................................. 14 2.4 Tempogram .................................. 19 2.5 PredominantLocalPeriodicity. 20 2.6 PLPCurve................................... 21 2.7 DiscussionofProperties . 22 2.8 Iterative Refinement of Local Pulse Estimates . ...... 26 2.9 Experiments.................................. 28 2.9.1 BaselineExperiments . 29 2.9.2 AudioDatasets.............................. 34 2.9.3 TempoEstimationExperiments. 35 2.9.4 ConfidenceandLimitations . 36 2.9.5 DynamicProgrammingBeatTracking . 38 2.9.6 BeatTrackingExperiments . 39 2.9.7 Context-SensitiveEvaluation . 41 2.10Conclusion................................... 43 3 A Case Study on Chopin Mazurkas 45 3.1 Specification of the Beat Tracking Problem . ..... 46 3.2 FiveMazurkasbyFr´ed´ericChopin . 47 3.3 BeatTrackingStrategies . 48 3.4 EvaluationontheBeatLevel . 49 3.5 ExperimentalResults . 51 3.6 FurtherNotes ................................. 55 vii viii CONTENTS 4 Tempo-Related Audio Features 57 4.1 TempogramRepresentations . 58 4.1.1 FourierTempogram ........................... 58 4.1.2 AutocorrelationTempogram . 60 4.2 CyclicTempograms.............................. 60 4.3 ApplicationstoMusicSegmentation. 62 4.4 FurtherNotes ................................. 63 Part II Music Segmentation 65 5 Reference-Based Folk Song Segmentation 67 5.1 BackgroundonFolkSongResearch . 68 5.2 Chroma-BasedAudioFeatures. 70 5.3 DistanceFunction............................... 73 5.4 SegmentationoftheAudioRecording . 74 5.5 EnhancementStrategies . 74 5.5.1 F0-EnhancedChromagrams . 75 5.5.2 Transposition-Invariant Distance Function . ........ 76 5.5.3 Fluctuation-Invariant Distance Function . ....... 77 5.6 Experiments.................................. 77 5.7 FurtherNotes ................................. 79 6 Reference-Free Folk Song Segmentation 81 6.1 Self-SimilarityMatrices. 81 6.2 Audio Thumbnailing and Segmentation Procedure . ...... 82 6.3 EnhancementStrategies . 84 6.3.1 F0-Enhanced Self-Similarity Matrices . ..... 84 6.3.2 TemporalSmoothing. 84 6.3.3 ThresholdingandNormalization . 85 6.3.4 Transposition and Fluctuation Invariance . ...... 85 6.4 Experiments.................................. 86 6.5 Conclusion................................... 87 7 Automated Analysis of Performance Variations 89 7.1 ChromaTemplates .............................. 90 7.2 FolkSongPerformanceAnalysis . 95 7.3 AUserInterfaceforFolkSongNavigation . 100 7.4 Conclusion...................................101 CONTENTS ix Part III Audio Retrieval 103 8 Content-Based Music Retrieval 105 8.1 Audio-BasedQuery-By-Example. 107 8.2 AudioIdentification.............................. 109 8.3 AudioMatching................................112 8.4 VersionIdentification . 116 8.5 FurtherNotes .................................119 9 Musically-Motivated Audio Fingerprints 121 9.1 ModifiedPeakFingerprints. 123 9.2 Experiments..................................125 9.2.1 Dataset ..................................125 9.2.2 SynchronizationofFingerprints . 126 9.2.3 Experiment: PeakConsistency . 126 9.2.4 Experiment: Document-Based Retrieval . 128 9.3 FurtherNotes .................................130 10 Characteristic Audio Shingles 133 10.1 Cross-VersionRetrievalStrategy. 134 10.2 Tempo-Invariant Matching Strategies . 135 10.3Experiments ..................................135 10.3.1 Dataset ..................................136 10.3.2 Evaluation of Query Length and Feature Resolution . .......136 10.3.3 EvaluationofMatchingStrategies . 137 10.3.4 Evaluation of Dimensionality Reduction . 138 10.3.5 Indexed-Based Retrieval by Locality Sensitive Hashing. .139 10.4Conclusion...................................140
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