The Development of Plant Pathology

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The Perils of Agriculture (and their solutions) Presentation by Richard Hoenisch Migration and the movement of humans, plants, and animals

2 Image courtesy of Marius Christensen Plant Importation

With the Age of Exploration came a keen interest in Botany. Plants were brought To Europe from all over the world. Botanical gardens and private collectors vied with each other for the largest and most exotic collections.

Captain Bligh and Breadfruit

In 1865 alone, 460 tons of plants were imported into France, and by the 1890’s, the trade had grown to 2,000 tons. In 1875, 50 tons of vines were imported from the US. 3 Early Plant Explorers

Alexander von Humboldt Captain James Cook Louis de Bougainville

Engelbert Kaempfer Sir Joseph Banks Asa Gray and Liberty Hyde Bailey 4 David Fairchild 1869 - 1954

An American botanist and plant explorer. Fairchild was responsible for the introduction of more than 200,000 exotic plants and varieties of established crops into the United States, including soybeans, mangos, avocados, nectarines, dates, bamboos, and flowering cherries. Certain varieties of wheat, cotton, and rice became especially economically important. The World Was My Garden (1938)

5 Gingko biloba

Kurt Stueber Wikipedia

Engelbert Kaempfer was the doctor with the Dutch East India embassy to Japan in 1690. In 1691 he discovered Gingko biloba in a Buddhist monastery in Nagasaki. He brought seeds and planted them in the botanical garden in Utrecht. The original tree is still there. The species is approx. Meteor 2017 Wikipedia 270 million years old.

6 Dawn Redwood Metasequoia glyptostroboides

Discovered in China in Modaoxi, Hubei, in 1943, in a temple courtyard, by Zhan Wang and identified by Wan Chun Cheng http://arbresvenerables.free.fr

In 1948, the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard sent an expedition to bring back seeds and cuttings of this “living fossil.” They distributed seeds and cuttings to universities and arboreta.

7 Plant a Plant – Get a Plant Pest Rusts of Wheat Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici

This fungus has plagued wheat crops and the human populations that depend on them for generations — the ancient Romans even worshiped Robigus, the god of rust. Each spring they held the Robigalia festival and offered sacrifice of a red dog so that he might spare their wheat that year.

Wheat rust is not a new phenomenon. A rust epidemic in 1916 destroyed 100 million bushels in the U.S. and Canada, and the last major North American episode in 1954 destroyed 40 percent of the U.S. wheat crop. Photo USDA -ARS Ergot of Rye Claviceps purpurea Tul. 1853

Luerssen Ergotism – or St. Anthony’s Fire, was first mentioned in 857, and occurred sporadically through th the 19 century, when milling Photos CPS practices were able to separate out the diseased kernels Late Blight of Potato 1845 Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary

Photo Cornell University

Photo USDA-ARS

Phytophthora infestans can be traced to a valley in the highlands of central Mexico. It was first noticed in the US, in Philadelphia, in 1843. It crossed the Atlantic ocean with a shipment of seed potatoes for Belgium in 1845. Weather conditions in northern Europe were so wet between 1845 -1850 - perfect for the fungus to flourish on potatoes. America’s Deadly Gift to Europe

• Powdery Mildew 1847 • Phylloxera 1863 • Downey Mildew 1878 • Black Rot 1885 • In France alone, 6.2 million acres of grapevines were destroyed

12 The Microbe Hunters

Rev. M.J. Berkeley Robert Koch Louis Pasteur Anton de Bary

Charles Valentine Riley Louis René Tulasne Pierre-Marie Millardet Pier Andrea Saccardo Microbe Hunters – The Book

Microbe Hunters By Paul de Kruif 1926 Colorado Potato Beetle (CPB) Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say, 1824 - Coleoptera

Photo: W. Crenshaw

Photo: Richard Casagrande Photo: USDA/Scott Bauer

The CPB was a North American native beetle living on the east slope of the Rocky Mountains, feeding on a native solanaceous plant, Solanum rostratum. As the settlers advanced westwards, they planted potatoes. The CPB quickly found this a more nutritious hosts, and began to follow potato crops eastward, then made it to Buffalo Bur Europe in WWI, spreading quickly after WWII Photo by Jerry Friedman Colorado Potato Beetle Spread The CPB, once it met the potato, began a reproduction frenzy. The female can lay as many as 800 eggs in her lifetime. The eggs are laid in batches of 30 on the underside of a leaf. The CPB populations were so immense, that the beetles devastated crops, filled houses and buildings. They reached Germany in 1877, but were eradicated. Then…

Map by Fritz Geller-Grimm

Photo: Estonian Institute of Agriculture Rocky Mountain Locust Melanoplus spretus Walsh 1866 1873 to 1877 - now extinct Photo by Jim Conrad

Photo courtesy of University Cambridge The habitat of the species was the high, drylands on the eastern slope of the northern Rocky Mountains. The species occurred at elevations of 2,000 to 10,000 ft. It was unable to survive in low, moist areas for more than one generation. It was once found in greatest abundance in prairie lands with annual rainfall of less than 25 inches. As settlers moved into its range during the western migration, they planted mostly grains. The locusts would swarm out of the Rockies and destroy the crops and anything green. They were destroyed when farmers moved into their breeding grounds and destroyed the species by 1902. It is estimated that one swarm in 1874 covered approx. 198,000 square miles! Rocky Mountain Locust Range Locust is from Latin, locus ustus, meaning "burnt place"

Copyright © 2010 public domain published 1877 Black Stem Rust

19 Yue Jin Black Stem Rust • Stem rust fungus is the most feared wheat disease • Wind born • Produces 100 billion urediospores per hectare • Can destroy a crop of wheat in 3 weeks • Outbreaks of stem rust hit North America in 1905, 1916, and 1953-1955 • Extensive USDA and CIMMYT resistance breeding • 1999 in Uganda a new race appeared: Ug99 • Spread into Sudan, Ethiopia, Yemen, and Iran

20 Aecium 2N Aeciospores 2N (infects wheat) (sexual recombination) Life Cycle of Puccinia graminis Berberis Leaf

Spermogonium (two mating types

Uredospores 1N

Basidiospores 1N (two mating types) to Berberis Teliospores 1N 21 photos courtesy of the University of Hawaii Berberis vulgaris – Barberry Alternate host for Puccinia graminis

Includes genera:

Berberis Mahonia x Mahoberberis

over 500 species Albert Roodink

. Native to Eurasia

. Brought to North America as a medicinal and culinary plant Wikipedia . Anton de Bary proved that it as the alternate host Zereshk - Dried fruit of B. vulgaris, a for cereal rusts in 1865 much favored delicacy of Iran . Berberis eradication programs in the US, including 2 native species 22 Berberis vulgaris jaki good

WY 1990

Barberry distribution in US & Canada

Barberry quarantine area of the United States In 1920, the USDA Barberry eradication program began a farm to farm survey covering 750,000 sq miles. By 1933 over 18 million bushes had been destroyed. Canada began its program in the Prairies in 1910. 23 Uganda 99 Wheat Rust Epidemiology

1999 Uganda 2001 Kenya 2003 Ethiopia IRAN 2008 2007 Yemen Cyclone Gonu hit the Arabian Peninsula on June 8, 2007

2008 Iran

24 Nematodes

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek ( 1632 – 1723) first saw “eel worms” with his original microscopes, which could magnify up to 275 X

Karl Rudolphi ( 1771 – 1832) and Otto Bütschli ( 1848 – 1920) from Germany identified, catalogued, and described the hosts and life cycles of 1000 species. They are considered the “Fathers of Nematology”

Nathan Cobb (1859 – 1932) studied nematology at Jena, then worked with the USDA, traveling the world and compiling collections and literature, he In turn trained Benjamin Chitwood (1907 - 1972), who worked extensively on both plant, animal, and human parasitic nematodes. He studied & developed treatment for Liliaceae bulb nematodes Nematode Damage

Iowa State University Photo courtesy of UCD Nematology

Courtesy G.L. Tylk Soybean cyst nematode Iowa State University Iowa State University

Courtesy R.D. Riggs Pratylenchus Plant Viruses Discovered Martinus Willem Beijerinck 1851 –1931 Wageningen and Delft Universities The Founder of Virology Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) called it “contagium vivum fluidum”

TMV Plant Viruses

Wendell Meredith Stanley 1904 – 1971 UC Berkeley With the English crystallographer Rosalind Franklin discovered the structure of plant viruses and the structure of the polio and influenza viruses.

TMV Polio Virus Influenza Virus Virus Spread and Symptoms

Cornell CE

INRA Avignon, France INRA Avignon, France

Lettuce mosaic virus Grapevine fanleaf virus Squash Mosaic Virus

UF/IFAS Scottish Crop Research Station

Aphids Whiteflies Mites Nematodes Heredity to the Rescue

Walter Sutton 1877-1916

Gregor Mendel 1822- 1884 Hugo de Vries 1848 – 1935 Theodor Boveri 1862 – 1915 demonstrated heritable traits Defined the word “gene” both observed chromosomes dividing and recombining Notable Plant Breeders John Garton in England – First hybrid grains and vegetables – early 1900s Nazareno Strampelli in Italy – high performing hybrid wheat varieties 1900 onwards Luther Burbank in the US – hybrid fruit and flowers – 1880s – 1920s Norman Borlaug 1950s to 2000s New Molecular Tools or Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) 1973 – first recombinant bacteria – E. coli with a Salmonella gene 1978 – E. coli with insulin gene – mass manufacturing of insulin (Genentech) John McHugh

Transgenic Plants: Tolerant of glyphosphate (Roundup) corn and soybeans Corn with Bacillus thuringiensis gene ( Monsanto) Resistant to Papaya Ringspot Virus ( Dennis Gonsalves) Golden Rice ( high in vitamin C) - ( IRRI ) The Future World Population Growth

1999 6 billion 2006 6.5 billion 2009 6.8 billion 2011 7 billion 2025 8 billion 2050 9.4 billion

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