Z African Roots of the Jazz Evolution Third Edition Z By Karlton E. Hester, PhD University of California, Santa Cruz A J Bassim Hamadeh, CEO and Publisher Michael Simpson, Vice President of Acquisitions and Sales Jamie Giganti, Senior Managing Editor Miguel Macias, Senior Graphic Designer Kristina Stolte, Senior Field Acquisitions Editor Alexa Lucido, Licensing Specialist Kaela Martin, Associate Editor Rachel Singer, Associate Editor Copyright © 2017 by or Cognella, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be re- printed, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information retrieval system without the written permission of Cognella, Inc. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Printed in the United States of America ISBN: 978-1-63487-498-4 (pbk) / 978-1-63487-499-1 In Memory of Clara and Webb Hester, Jr. CONTENTS Preface vii Foreword ix An Introduction to Afrocentric Music xv I. Traditional African Music 2 II. The Sociocultural Context in Which 60 African American Music Emerged III. Traditional African American Music 90 IV. Innovators Emerging Between 1900 and 1910 140 V. Innovators Emerging Between 1910 and 1920 198 VI. Innovators Emerging Between 1920 and 1930 234 VII. Innovators Emerging Between 1930 and 1940 290 VIII. Innovators Emerging Between 1940 and 1950 346 IX. Innovators Emerging Between 1950 and 1960 412 X. Innovators Emerging Between 1960 and 1970 454 XI. Innovators Emerging Between 1970 and 1980 502 XII. Innovators Emerging Between 1980 and 2000 542 Discussion Questions 591 Index 615 Preface here is a huge diff erence between the origin of a culture’s music and the infl uences that T aff ect it as it moves through space and time. Bigotry and the Afrocentric “jazz” evolution begins with the origins of “jazz” in traditional African society. Th e approach to rhythm, pitch fl uctuation, timbre, melodic construction, and other musical elements at the foundation of “jazz” are a consequence of the linguistic and musical characteristics of African traditional music. We will examine the cultivation of the seeds of “jazz” within African American culture and traditions (and within a segregated American society), then explore the various infl uences that continuously shape the art form as it evolves. Th is daunting task cannot be eff ectively and thoroughly accomplished without acknowledging the complex socio-cultural milieu that impacted strongly upon the progenitors of “jazz” who perpetually propel the music forward. Th is study is perhaps intended to be more informative than entertaining. It is certainly not a nationalistic diatribe intended to make any group of people feel uncomfortable, superior, inferior, guilty, or angry. On the contrary, knowledge should be liberating. If we look at history holistically and with open minds, we will learn much about the path along which “jazz” and other African American music has evolved on an array of stratifi ed levels. Th ere are no objective histories, although it is important to try to view history from a “Martian’s perspective.” Nonetheless, this history, like others, is told from the author’s perspec- tive. We reveal as much about our personal perspectives by the thing that we don’t say (or don’t include) as we do by the things we choose to say or include. Th roughout the twentieth century, books on American music, written by objective scholars, included only European American composers. Although this history of an African-derived music is told from an Afrocentric per- spective, it has to include the contributions of men and women from a variety of cultures. Many vii of the countless musicians who are not discussed in the body of the text are included in the biographies and discography on the companion resource CD that supplements this book. I have learned a great deal about European, Asian, and other world music when the study of music history was placed within a framework that illuminated the world in which the music developed. African Americans have endured much suff ering that is paradoxically refl ected in the beautiful musical contribution to world culture some call “jazz.” If we can look at the entire story of this powerful music together, its art and its social context, we may all grow in our understanding of the music and musicians involved. Music is a healing force in our universe. It is not necessary to fi lter out all elements of history that make us uncomfortable in order to enjoy learning about art we love and respect. Th e musicians who poured their love, genius, and sincerity into the music we now enjoy and admire deserve our sincere respect. If they could manage to suff er through the painful and oppressive circumstances that engulfed a large portion of American history, then perhaps it is appropriate to look close enough to understand the environment that shaped their lives and artistic expression. Music, and its social history, is for all to share freely. Because music refl ects life in a uniquely vivid way and does not unfold in neat little self-contained chapters, the structure of this book is at times rhapsodic. For instance, racism and sexism aff ects all generations of African American musicians. Th e element that most often impacts upon the lives and careers of African American musicians is the socio-cultural environment in which they live and create their expressive art. Likewise, some artists continue to evolve throughout their career. Th e most dynamic artists cannot be contained within a single stylistic era, because their music and range of infl uence traverse broader terrain. Consequently, a few innovators are mentioned in more than one chapter when their stylistic evolution warrants positioning them into a broader chronological span of time. Karlton E. Hester, PhD Santa Cruz, California viii African Roots of the Jazz Evolution Foreword Racism is alive and well in America, it is a growth industry. We need to understand that white world supremacy (racism) is a given fact of life in the world and is not vanishing. Th erefore, we cannot, if we are intelligent, continue to use racism as an excuse to not execute our worldview. If this is clear, we will save a lot of hearts and minds that think we can change white people with conversation, spiritual sharing, money or astronomy.… I am convinced without doubt or hesitation, that white world supremacy has to be seen as an organized and deliberated attack on all people of color. And an eff ective defense against it must be incorporated into the teaching of every Black youth in the world. —Haki R. Madhubuti H e term African American is witness to the continued exclusion of people of phenotypi- T cal African ancestry from an unchallenged claim to call themselves American after more than four hundred years in this land. I never hear objections to the terms Latin jazz, Japanese jazz, Polish jazz, Brazilian jazz, and now even Chinese jazz, but African American jazz seems to rub people the wrong way. Why is that? I submit that such objections are under the aegis of a paucity of available history written from the African American perspective … one of the greatest stories never told. Th is sad state of aff airs aff ects students of all hues. What is tragic in all of this is that scientists have recently concluded that the total variance in the human gene pool is at the 0.001 level. Yet most of the wars on earth center on racial or ethnic themes. Th ese are facts that cannot be mitigated by cultural blindness but by raising ourselves to a ix level where we can identify primarily with the common denominators while still appreciating the idiosyncrasies. The great battle in any cultural war is for the primacy of symbol. —Jamal Ali It follows that African American culture and arts can only be properly taught or transmitted in the context of an African worldview, the oldest known worldview on the planet. Otherwise, it will become extinct with the next generation of its elders who pass away. Absent this requirement, not even a reasonable facsimile of the cultural tradition results. We are steadfastly approaching a time when no one will be around who knows the difference. A read of history from the African American or African perspective enables one to see a quite different point of view. What is needed is an examination of African American culture from the perspective of the African worldview. Dr. Karlton E. Hester’s treatise addresses and thoroughly challenges the reader to confront both the overt and vestigial expressions of bigotry that continue to plague the evolution of Afrocentric jazz. Some would argue that the jazz world is a shining example of democracy at work. They expound examples that fail to notice the subtleties that characterize modern bigotry. Bigotry is evident where it is claimed that the origins of jazz came from Europe, a claim that was anathema before the US congressional designation of jazz as a national treasure in 1987 (HCR 57). We hear no disputes of the idea that the Chinese invented gunpowder or the Europeans invented symphonic music or opera as we know it. As soon as the Black man claims to be the source of positive value, especially at a time when the value is officially declared to be such, there is a dispute over the label. This is the same music that was during my lifetime not considered to be an art form at all by many music schools that today claim it to be “American,” as opposed to “African American.” Bigotry is expressed in programs that train artists into the European tradition on the assumption that they will be able to transfer their skills into any other tradition in the Western world.