Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Proceedings of the High Level Policy Forum 6 - 7 March 2014, Semera, Afar National Regional State Empowered lives. Resilient nations.

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Integrated Drylands Management

in Ethiopia

Proceedings of the High Level Policy Forum

6-7 March 2014, Semera, Afar National Regional State

United Nations Development Programme

Ethiopia Country Office

Addis Ababa FORWARD

Drylands in Ethiopia cover about seventy five percent of the total land mass of the country. Thesedrylands harbor one third of the population of Ethiopia and this number is continuously increasing as more and more people migrate from highly- degraded highland areas into the drylands. However, if well managed, drylands have tremendous potential to contribute to livelihood improvements and economic development. They have unexploited diverse agro- ecological resources, which include rich and diverse plant and animal species and huge underground water resources in the Afar region.

Despite these potentials, drylands management in Ethiopia is beset with challenges that require the application of science and innovation and human efforts to bring about change and sustainable management of drylands in ways that both promotes livelihood and resilience to shocks. Some of the key challenges that make this task additionally complex is the lack of inadequate delivery of public services and amenities exacerbated by inadequate social and physical infrastructure, high incidence of human and livestock diseases, water scarcity and extreme weather condition as well as land degradation due to population pressure and increasing spells of droughts among others.

The UNDP appreciates the difficulties in promoting human development and poverty reduction in the face of increasing climate variability for household and communities living in arid agro-ecological zones. The government has important roles to play, and needs to be capacitated to search for home-grown solutions and draw upon proven approaches and technologies to ensure that programmatic interventions are effective and sustainable.

The UNDP in Ethiopia is privileged to partner with the government of Ethiopia to support sustainable management of drylands and thereby ensuring that these drylands habitats provide avenues for livelihood improvements and resilience to climate related shocks. In particular, UNDP is proud to partner with and support the Afar Environment Protection, Land Use and Administration Agency (EPLUAA) in building local capacities for promoting diversified livelihoods and coping strategies of pastoral communities living in dryland areas. The capacities of the people of Afar and local institutions have been enhanced and the utilization of natural resources made more efficient and sustainable. Sustaining these interventions remain critical in advancing human progress in the Afar region and other communities living in arid climatic conditions.

Sustainability can be attained with strong political will and robust and visionary policies and strategies supported by all stakeholders, and promoting policy dialogue is key in this regard. UNDP working with the Afar regional government organized a multi-stakeholder high level policy forum on dry lands management in Ethiopia to discuss and share research based findings and best practices. This publication compiles the proceedings of the high level policy forum heldin March 2014 and codifies some of the latest research findings and best-practices on climate change adaptation, resilience building and dryland ecosystem management systems. It also provides insights on livestock production and value chain development that is so critical in enhancing livelihoods of pastoral communities, and how strong institutions and policies can help to bring about conservation and sustainable utilization of dryland resources in the Afar region and other dryland areas in Ethiopia.

I am confident that you will find this compilation useful, insightful and stimulating to read.

Samuel Bwalya Country Director UNDP Ethiopia Message from the Agency Manager

hinders the effort of pastoral and Agro pastoral community of the region to assure its food security.

hazards, activities to improve the adaptation capacity of the pastoral and Agro pastoral communities in response to climate change is being undertaken in the region with more emphasis and special attention. With regard to this, Afar Integrated Dry Land Management Project has been working on strengthening the adaptive capacity of Afar people in building climate resilient sustainable development in the region.

Elema Abubaker Since all economic and social sectors are affected by climate change induced hazards, it is crucial to integrate Afar Environment Protection Land Use and and organize all stakeholders to take integrated measure Administration Agency, General Manager on all sectors so as to increase the adaptation capacity of regional community. In this regard, AIDLMP achieve successful results on natural resource development and Climate change (global warming) is caused by the protection, range land management, renewable alternative emission and accumulation of green house gasses in to energy source provision, alternative income generation, the atmosphere due to increased in human population and animal health, provision of drinking water, small scale technological development. irrigation development, capacity building at all level and hence degraded areas are being reclaimed and problems Though, Developed countries who followed carbon related to climate change have been minimized so that the intensive development path for the past centuries are more responsible for the occurrence of climate change, developing countries whose contribution for carbon Starting from the launching of the project, number of emission is negligible are severely affected by adverse expected and unexpected problems were faced which impact of climate change. The vulnerability of developing hinder the project activities to be implemented as per countries such as Ethiopia to climate change is attributed the annual work plan. but those problems were solved to limited economic resources ,low levels of technology, gradually by dedicated and unreserved effort of project poor information and skills, poor infrastructure, unstable or weak institutions, and Inequitable empowerment and access to resources which are most evident in emerging regions like Afar. Likewise, the impact of climate change is more evident and exacerbated. Finally, I would like to give my deepest gratitude to all who directly or indirectly contribute their best for the success of The Afar National Regional State is geographically located the project on behalf of me and Afar Environment Protection in low land area which has got very hot temperature, Land Use and Administration Agency. obtain small and erratic annual rain fall and is vulnerable to climate change. due to this reason the region is suffer from recurrent drought, excessive hot temperature, occurrence and transmission of human and livestock diseases, invasion of range land with exotic weeds and bushes, loss of bio diversity, drinking water shortage which thereby Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. AIDMP Policy Forum Workshop Opening Speeches Sumarry ...... Page 1

Session on climate change adaptation and resilience building in the drylands

2. Agricultural and pastoral technologies and practices for climate change adaptation in lowland dryland areas of Ethiopia, Kidane Georgis ...... Page 2

3. Analysis of pastoralist’s adaptation to climate change and variability in the dryland areas of Afar, Ethiopia

Amanuel Mekonnen, Desale Kidane and Demel Teketay: ...... Page 22

Session on dryland ecosystem management:

4. Characterization of irrigated soils & irrigation water in relation to salinity & sodicity in the Middle Awash Valley, Ethiopia: implications for management of dryland degradation

Kebenu Feyisa Gonfa: ...... Page 36

5. Composition & diversity of invasive plant species and their socio-economic impacts on livelihoods of pastoralists in the rangelands of Telalak District, Afar National Regional State, Ethiopia

Natnael Demelash, Lisanework Nigatu and J. J. Sharma: ...... Page 56

Session on livestock production value chain in the context of enhancing pastoralists livelihoods

6. Analysis of small ruminants value chain in Yabello and Shinille Districts, Ethiopia Getachew Legese, Aynalem Haile, Tadele Dessie, Nizam Hussein, Sisay Kuma and B. Rischkowsky: ...... Page 74

Session on institutional and policy issues in the conservation and sustainable utilization of drylands

7. The impacts of development interventions on the customary institutions of forest resource management: the case of the Borana Oromo of Southern Ethiopia

Halake Dida Gobessa and Tadesse Woldemariam Gol: ...... Page 96

8. An assessment of the land tenure system and conflict resolution: Tendaho Irrigation Project case study, Lower Awash Basin, Ethiopia

Desale Kidane, Amanuel Mekonnen and Demel Teketay: ...... Page 128

Opening Session

9. Opening Speech of the Vice President, Afar Regional State

HE Ato Awel Arba: ...... Page 139

10. Welcome Speech of the State Minister, Ministry of Environment and Forest

Ato Kare Chawicha: ...... Page 140

11. Welcome Speech of the Head, Afar Environmental Protection, Land Use and Administration Agency Ato Elema Abubeke: ...... Page 141

12. Speech of the Country Director, United Nations Development Programme

Samuel Bwalya: ...... Page 142 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 1

1. AIDMP Policy Forum Workshop Opening Speeches Summary

Ato Berhanu Solomon Ato Elema Abubeker

Ato Berhanu Solomon from the Ministry of Environment Ato Elema Abubeker, Director General of EPLUA, on his and Forest (MEF) started the meeting by delivering speech behalf welcomed participants to Semera/ Afar and gave on behalf of HE State Minister Kare Chawecha. In his a brief overview of the regional state and the project speech, Ato Berhanu stated that dry lands are increasingly intervention area. The workshop with officially opened becoming hotspots of a number of economic development by the speech and guidance notes given by the Guest activities in the country. He also noted that dry lands are of Honor, HE Ato Awel Arba, vice president of the Afar frontiers of desertification, where mismanagement of National Regional State. natural resource leads to degradation of their potential to provide goods and services vital for economic use. This HE Ato Awel Arba welcomed participants to the area problem is further compounded by the vulnerability of where human evolution started, and home of many areas to the effects of climate change. Hence, he indicated natural attractions. He mentioned that Afar is the driest that the government is strongly supporting projects like harsh environment, and yet with the oldest history of the AIDLMP and other similar interventions. To address human exploitation of natural resources. He explained development and environment related strategic challenges, how the community managed resources sustainably over the government of Ethiopia has developed Climate centuries, and the current challenges for sustainability Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy – both the due to climate change, population growth and land use green economy and resilience strategy components, and changes in line with the national economic development created the CRGE facility to mobilize resources needed to plans. He explained that the Government of Ethiopia has implement the strategies on ground. The dry land areas given special attention and adopted policies, strategies and like Afar are the priority areas to combat desertification and programs for integrated development of pastoralist and adapt to the impacts of climate change, while making the agro-pastoralist areas. He also noted that support from the desired progresses in economic development. development partners is vital for successful implementation of the strategies on ground.

The Guest of owner thanked the Royal Norwegian W/ro Sinkinesh Beyene Government and the people of Norway for generous financial support, UNDP and the Ministry of Environment W/ro Sinkinesh Beyene delivered opening speech on and Forest for technical support and follow-up of the behalf of Mr. Samuel Bwalya, UNDP Country Director. She AIDLM implementation. He also thanked the different stated that climate change is a global problem that requires sectors in the region for concerted efforts to implement a global solution grounded in national actions. Tackling the project. He wished successful deliberations during the root causes of drought and climate change requires the workshop, expressed high expectations of policy a long-term approach both from national authorities and relevant recommendations, and promised to implement development partners. She highlighted that there is an recommendations of the forum in collaboration with urgent need for stepped up efforts to adapt to and mitigate development partners. the effects of climate change, and hoped that this forum will help advance this important agenda by highlighting the important contributions that drylands management can make to this end. She gave extensive presentation on the state of drylands, their economic significance, key challenges and what UNDP is doing globally and in the country to address their sustainable development. 2 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Session on climate change adaptation and resilience building in the drylands

2. Agricultural and pastoral technologies and practices for climate change adaptation in lowland dryland areas of Ethiopia

Kidane Georgis

ABSTRACT

Key words: Dryland areas, climate change, technology, adaptation

deserve full understanding of the Drylands in Ethiopia cover about 75 for climate resilient green economy ecosystem. percent of the total land mass of the (CRGE) development that focuses on country. Drylands consist of a wide It is estimated that about one-third mitigation and adaptation. Adaptation range of agroecologies, including of the populations in Ethiopia live in and mitigation strategies are being arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid. drylands. The human population in reviewed and possible options are Drylands are most prevalent in the drylands is continually increasing as suggested. Currently, almost all north, east, central Rift Valley areas, more people are moving from the technologies in crop, livestock and south and southeastern parts of the highly-degraded highland areas to natural resources developed by country where diversified agricultural the fertile lowlands. As the population national and international agricultural environments prevail. The lowland increases beyond the carrying research systems (e.g., CGIAR) are dryland areas in Ethiopia - the focus capacity, the land resources are documented and this will form the of this paper - cover about 61 percent poorly managed and land degradation basis of discussion in this paper. of the land mass of the country. The follows. The agricultural production It now well established that the altitude of lowlands ranges from -124 system is largely rain fed, with rainfall major challenges threatening to 1,500 metres above sea level distribution being highly variable due dryland communities are related to (m.a.s.l.) and average annual rainfall to climate change and variability. This degradation of the environment and varies between 200 and 700 mm. is the major challenge of production natural resource bases. Ongoing The length of the growing period is systems, even though the lowland natural resource degradation leads 90 to 180 days. Drylands are habitat drylands are naturally rich in various to soil and vegetation loss, fertility to various types of domestic and wild resource bases. Most of the oil crops decline, water stress, climate change animals. Rangelands, for example, and livestock for the export market and drying up of water resources, are important for providing forage for come from the drylands. livestock and wildlife. They are also such as lakes and rivers. The other central for livestock genetic resources. The drylands, with their untapped overriding factor limiting agriculture For example, Borana cattle, Jijiga potential, have been marginalized by production and productivity in the cattle, black head Ogaden sheep, the policymakers, researchers, planners dryland areas is climate change and Afar goat, the Somali goat and the and development workers in the past. variability. Major issues in developing camel are distinct breeds of livestock. But now the government has realized drylands using a climate change Their conservation and utilization this and has developed viable policy perspective in terms of adaptation Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 3 and developing resilience will be strategies used by national research climate change. The paper will discussed in this paper. systems to address the major conclude by suggesting and challenges that dryland production identifying what needs to be done Despite their importance, little is systems face due to climate variability within crop and livestock farming known about the major challenges and change, document inventoried (e.g., agriculture and related land and problems, with special focus technologies and practices used in uses) and in forest and water on climate change and variability, agricultural-based livelihood systems management to increase productivity deterring the development of in crop and livestock production, to achieve better livelihoods and the dryland areas in Ethiopia. In assess the current climate change food security, reduce emissions, addressing these problems, this report challenges and their likely future increase sequestration and enhance emphasizes adaptation to climate impacts and assess the relevance environmental sustainability. change and variability in agriculture- of the technologies developed in based livelihood systems and order to identify best-bet practices to underlines the importance of creating improve livelihoods of dryland farming awareness about the impact of communities. climate change among communities, policymakers, researchers, extension The emphasis in this paper is on workers and development planners opportunities, rather than constraints, when addressing challenges. The when developing dryland areas and paper will highlight climate change addressing ecosystem challenges, effects observed in the drylands, taking into consideration ongoing

Introduction

Background

Dryland areas are important nationally, third of the Ethiopian population, often believe that dryland areas do not regionally and internationally. These and it is continually increasing due to have great potential for development. dry areas account for about three migration of environmental refugees This paper aims to demonstrate the billion hectares (19 percent of global from the highly-degraded highland potential of dryland ecosystems and land area) and are home to more than areas. their resource bases for sustainable 1.7 billion people, or 25 percent of the development. The dryland areas have high potential global population. About 41 percent of for economic development. They In order to have a clear understanding the population in dry areas depends consist of wide and diversified about dryland ecosystems, it is on agriculture as the major source of agroecologies and are endowed with important to define and describe what its livelihood. Regionally, drylands in a wide diversity of crop plants, as the drylands are, their geographic Eastern Africa provide livelihoods to well as wild plant and animal species. coverage, their resource bases and people through a host of ecosystem They have comparative advantages potential and their major challenges goods and services (Georgis, 2010). over high rainfall areas due to in the context of climate change. Realization of those benefits is reduced disease pressure and more The paper specifically focuses on hampered by poor understanding sunlight. Hence, the highest yield and agricultural and pastoral production of the right mix of interventions most prosperous agricultural areas systems, their development needed to balance sustainable in the world are in lowland dryland challenges and technologies that have management and use of the fragile areas. In Ethiopia, the importance of been generated through research environment that is highly vulnerable developing these areas to improve in response to these intrinsic and to degradation. The ecosystems, production systems for economic climate-change related challenges. particularly the rangelands, occupy a development and overall livelihoods very large area, 88 percent in Kenya, The Ministry of Agriculture defined of the people residing in these areas 83 percent in Tanzania, 40 percent and delineated the agroecologies is crucial. in Uganda, 75 percent in Ethiopia of Ethiopia, including the resource and almost all of Somalia, Eritrea Currently, there is are misconceptions bases, farming systems, area and Djibouti (Georgis, 2005). The about the importance of dryland areas coverage, location, potentials and dryland areas harbour about one- for economic development. People constraints. Accordingly, the country is 4 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

divided into 32 agroecological zones and fodder production and human mostly situated around the borders of based on the length of the growing and livestock consumption. This is the country and centrally following the period and thermal zones. Georgis further aggravated by climate change Great Rift Valley. These drylands fall et al. (2010) classified the drylands and variability (erratic rainfall), under the category of dry savannahs of Ethiopia using the agroecological which leads to drought disasters, with lower rainfall and longer dry zones of the Ministry of Agriculture. threatening the survival of humans, seasons. They are situated in many The authors used additional input livestock and wildlife. Most efforts of parts of the country, in the north, north from the aridity index (P/PET), where development agencies that provide eastern, south eastern and central Rift P is precipitation and PET is potential food aid in drought-affected areas Valley areas (Figure 1). evapotranspiration as calculated by have not contributed to sustainability the Penman method (Doorebos and of ecosystems and improvement of Data sources and compilation Pruitt, 1977), taking into account livelihoods of the people. Adoption methods atmospheric humidity, wind and of best approaches to improving A variety of data sources were solar radiation. This approach is human wellbeing, while sustaining evaluated and reviewed for this paper, comprehensive and up-to-date, and ecosystems, through provision of as well as consultations held. The hence adopted in this paper. economic benefits and poverty main topics, sources and methods of reduction has remained largely compilation are described below. According to the Ministry of Agriculture elusive. (formerly, the Ministry of Agriculture Review of literature on: and Rural Development), drylands in Farmers in drylands face a number Ethiopia cover 51.4 percent of the total of challenges: low crop and livestock - Climate change and agricultural landmass (MoA, 2005). According to productivity, frequent drought, poor production systems that address Georgis et al.’s (2010) reclassification soils and degradation of the natural the issue in Ethiopia and other using the aridity index methodology of resource base. Poverty and food countries in sub-Saharan Africa UNESCO (1977), dryland areas cover insecurity are widespread. Despite - Dryland agricultural research and more than 75 percent of the landmass considerable efforts to improve development work by the National of Ethiopia. All areas within arid, semi- the situation through research and Agricultural Research System arid and sub-humid agroecological development, technology penetration (NARS) of Ethiopia zones are classified as drylands. is still low. The future is likely to bring even more formidable challenges due - Strategy development for drylands Dryland areas are defined as those to the impacts of climate change on in Ethiopia production systems where water agriculture. stress is a major constraint, with a high - agricultural-based livelihood variability for agricultural production. systems in drylands in the context Objectives In general, drylands are low rainfall of climate change areas, but not low potential areas. This paper aims to identify key - technology, policy changes, The rainfall is limited in amount, interventions needed in agriculture, agricultural development to erratic, with uneven distribution, pastoralism, forest and water increase crop production in semi- and hence, frequent drought is a management and related land use arid areas common experience. Rainfall is also to deliver increased productivity, generally concentrated in a few heavy reduced emissions, increased - Ethiopia’s Climate Resilient storms with high intensity. Vegetation carbon sequestration, environmental Green Economy (the country’s is scattered, degraded and very sustainability, better livelihoods and climate-resilient strategy for the sparse, leaving the soil uncovered. In food security. agriculture and forestry sectors) many drylands, except maybe valley bottoms, the soils have low organic Materials & methods - Other documents on adaptation matter content, are highly eroded and of technologies and practices for are poor in fertility. The existence of Descriptions of the dryland increased agricultural production high temperature with strong wind areas in Ethiopia in dryland areas, including also causes high evapotranspiration Georgis (2010). rates and limits moisture availability. According to the classification of In general, the ecology is fragile and Georgis et al. (2010) the dryland areas Review of books and research the environment is unstable. of Ethiopia include arid, semi-arid and findings on: sub-moist zones with growing periods The core problem in the dry areas is ranging from less than 45 days to 120 - the role of dryland agriculture the scarcity of water for crop, feed days. The dryland areas of Ethiopia are for future food security, crop Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 5

Legend: Dryland AEZ’s A1. Hot to warm & lowland plains

A2. Tepid to cool & mid highlands M1. Hot to warm moist lowlands

SA1. Hot to warm semi-arid lowlands SA2. Tepid to cool semi-arid highlands

SA2. Tepid to cool seb-moist mid highlands SM1. Hot to warm sub-moist lowlands

SM2. Tepid to cool seb-moist mid highlands SM3. cold to very cold sub-moist sub-afroalp

Regional boundary National boundary

Figure 1. Dryland agroecologies - includes all coloured parts 6 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

production, natural resource - Reviewed dryland strategy, Production systems conservation and management national strategies with emphasis on dryland agricultural research Pastoral production systems - pastoral and agropastoral strategies (federal, regional) In Ethiopia, pastoralism is one of the production systems and food (EIAR, 2000). security most important production systems. In Key findings & discussions fact, among the sub-Saharan African - agricultural technology options in countries, Ethiopia encompasses pastoral areas Geographic distribution and the largest pastoral and agropastoral production systems of drylands production system both in terms - agricultural water management of area of coverage, human and Geographic distribution - pastoral development-range land livestock populations and resource and crop production According to Georgis et al. (2010), diversification. These production dryland areas are widely distributed in systems are important economically, - watershed management for all regional states of Ethiopia, except socially and politically. The areas natural resource conservation Gambella in the southwest. Drylands under pastoral and agropastoral and management in the semi-arid occur mainly in the north, east, central, production systems have resources areas of Ethiopia south and southeastern parts of the which could be used for development and improve the livelihood of millions - the International Center for country, with very wide and diversified of people who reside in the areas. Agricultural Research in the Dry agricultural environments and farming Pastoral and agropastoral lands of Areas (ICARDA) strategic plan systems. They include highlands, Ethiopia embrace an area of around 2006 - 2016 mid-altitude and lowland areas. The climate, temperature, rainfall and soil 620,000 km2 which includes 122 Review & discussion of types vary considerably with altitude. woredas that fall under seven national research work done on regional states: Afar, Dire Dawa, dryland agriculture in Ethiopia The main blocks of dryland areas are Somali, Oromia, SNNP, Gambella and other relevant dryland the following (see Figure 1 above): and Benishgul. It is estimated that the total grazing areas of the pastoral production systems in sub- Northern dryland areas: these and agropastoral woredas is about Saharan Africa and around the areas include almost the entire 545,100 km2 or 89 percent of their world, including: Tigray National Regional State, total land surface area (PADS, 2003). - Technologies developed by NARS except some parts of the western (federal, regional, higher learning zones, substantial areas of The ecosystem in pastoral areas is institutes), the CGIAR centres Amhara National Regional State heterogeneous and has varied and (ICARDA, ICRISAT, CIMMYT, (most parts of north and south diversified agroecologies with different ILRI, IITA), United Nations Wello, most areas of the Oromia production systems, socio-economic agencies (FAO, UNDP) and zone within the Amhara region, conditions and resource bases. These regional programmes, such as Wag Hamra, parts of south and factors should be clearly known and the Intergovernmental Authority north Gonder and north Shewa). documented so that policymakers and on Development (IGAD), the planners can use them to intervene in The northeastern and southeastern Association for Strengthening development programmes to increase dryland areas: this includes most Agricultural Research in Eastern agricultural production with the aim of parts of the Afar and Somalia and Central Africa (ASARECA) attaining food and feed security and National Regional States. enhanced natural resource bases on Consultations with NARS The central dryland areas: central a sustainable basis (Georgis, 2003). staff and reference of special Rift Valley areas around Alem Crop production systems documents Tena, Bulbula, Ziway and the Arsi - Consulted groups include the Zone from Dera to Sire in Oromiya The drylands cover eight Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural National Regional State. agroecological zones, which are Research (EIAR) Crop Research sub-divided into 17 crop production The south and southeastern Directorate, Pastoral and systems and a water body (see dryland areas: Elkere, Dollo, Agropastoral Research Directorate Figure 2). Neghelle Borena, Hamer and and Soils and Agronomy and Bako, Bodi, Yabello to Moyale and Forestry Directorate parts of South Omo. Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 7

Figure 2. Dryland agroecology zones and crop pasture production system zones 8 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

The semi-arid regions (constituting for livestock genetic resources, as Eastern Afar and Eastern Tigray parts of the drylands) are the major exemplified by Ethiopia, Kenya, and Somali. These areas have crop production systems, having the Sudan and Somalia. For example, large quantities of groundwater following characteristics: in Ethiopia, the Borana and Jijiga along the valleys that can irrigate cattle, the Black-headed Ogaden millions of hectares for food and 1. No growing season will have nearly sheep, the Afar goat and the Somali cash crop production. the same amount, kind or range goat and camel are distinct breeds of precipitation as the previous of livestock in the drylands. Their Soil resources: If the land is well season and the temperature conservation and utilization deserves managed, particularly in pastoral average, range and extremes will full understanding of the ecosystem. areas and valley bottoms, there is also be vastly different; a high agricultural potential, with The details of resource bases in the nutrient-rich soils, and providing 2. Management practices cannot be dryland areas are summarized as possibilities for surpluses. planned or managed the same follows: way from season to season; and Biodiversity: Agricultural bio- Water resources: Drylands are diversity is very high in certain 3. The soil resource base and water endowed with water resources parts of pastoral areas. There is a holding capacity does not remain much of which have been rich diversity of genetic resources the same for any long period once untapped and have valuable of livestock and crops, such as an agroecosystem is introduced potential. For example, they have cereals, sorghum, millet, wild into a dryland region. substantive river systems and grasses, pulses, cow peas and Abundant sunshine and cloud-free groundwater, which are cradles pigeon peas. The drylands are days induce rapid growth when of important watersheds and likewise rich in plant and animal moisture conditions are favourable, riverside ecologies, diversity species. Most dryland areas in the but these conditions cannot be of fish and have high values south, southeast and northeast sustained through the season, for hydropower and irrigated fall within the Horn of Africa thereby demanding careful soil and commercial crop agriculture. Biodiversity Hotspot. water management (Srinivas et al., There are three categories of Energy: There are substantial 2004). Development programmes water basins in the area (EPA energy resources, including can be planned based on these 1998): gas, petroleum and geo-thermal characteristics to address problems sources in the Rift Valley, as well of the areas. Surface water - lakes: There as mineral resources in several are seven major lakes of the Rift parts. Energy reserves have Resource bases of dryland Valley, namely: Ziway, Langano, areas a high potential for economic Abiyata, Shalla, Awassa, Abaya development, but these reserves The drylands are naturally rich in and Chamo. These lakes are have barley been explored and natural resources. Drylands are home used for commercial fisheries, tapped. to various types of domestic and wild irrigation, recreation & industrial animals. Rangelands, for example, purposes. Wildlife and tourism: There is are important in providing forage for a tremendous diversity of wildlife livestock and wildlife. Drylands are Surface water - rivers: There that is known to be an attraction for also the main centres of sorghum, are twelve river basins with a total tourism. Most of the country’s 277 finger millet, field peas, chickpeas, surface run-off of about 110 billion species of wild mammals and 861 cowpeas, perennial cotton, safflower, m3. Major river basins are Awash, species of birds are found in the castor beans and sesame production Genale-Dawa, Wabi Shebele, rangelands. Most parks, endemic (Georgis, 2003). Baro-Akobo, Tekeze, Merb, bird areas, game reserves and Fafem and Abay. Some of these controlled hunting areas are found The biodiversity in the drylands in rivers are used for commercial in the drylands. There is a great general and in Ethiopia in particular fisheries, irrigation, recreation potential in the dryland areas for is highly diversified. For example, and industrial purposes. developing the tourism industry of Kenya has nearly 7,500 plant species Ethiopia which can increase hard of which at least 265 are endemic. Groundwater: There is also a currency earnings and improve Ethiopia also has over 6,000 species high potential of groundwater in the livelihoods of pastoralists. of higher plants, of which at least 600 many pastoral areas, including are endemic. Drylands are a centre the Rift Valley areas of Oromia, Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 9

Anthropology & archeology: limited and sometimes heavy rains. stress is a universal problem and Drylands have anthropological These adverse impacts are also common denominator to all semi-arid and archeological importance. The affecting agricultural production and areas. Water is the central production remains of human ancestors were water balances, distribution of vectors factor affecting sustainability and mainly discovered in the dryland of diseases and more frequent and food security. This is aggravated by areas in northeast Ethiopia. The severe hydrological extremes with climate change, which is a consistent oldest remains of our species, serious negative impacts on water threat in the semi-arid areas. Homo sapiens, were also found in resource systems. The drying of lakes Consistent shifts in the rain pattern these regions and have attracted (e.g., Haramaya Lake and many and recurrent drought are becoming the attention and interest of world others), reduced river flow and other more prevalent, while rainfall patterns anthropologists and archeologists. water resources are all indications of are expected to become more erratic. This has placed Ethiopia as one of climate change. Agroecosystems of semi-arid areas the primary sites of human origin, consequently are vulnerable to food The threat from climate change evolution and civilization. This has and feed shortage. This problem in on dryland development is severe more than monetary value and some situations is likely to become because Ethiopia has a natural benefits, and could further benefit even more difficult in the future. resource-based economy and a the tourism industry. Global Circulation Models (GCM) large rural population that remains scenarios for some East Africa directly dependent on rain-fed Climate change and challenges countries point to an overall reduction agriculture. Approximately 85 percent of the drylands in soil moisture availability. Long-term of the population earns a living from change in temperature and rainfall Climate change is one of the major agriculture and over 40 percent of patterns is having a serious impact on environmental, social and economic all exports are agricultural products. biodiversity. threats facing Ethiopian agriculture Agriculture contributes 45 percent in the drylands. This situation can of GDP. About one-third of the Many countries around the world be explained mainly by human income is generated by agriculture, are facing water scarcity. In many intervention via various economic with crop production and livestock sub-Saharan African countries, activities, including forest clearance husbandry accounting for half or availability of fresh water has already and plowing of steep slopes more of household incomes. The dropped to 170 m-3/year, well below resulting in land degradation and poorest members of society are those the internationally recognized water desertification. Several reports noted most dependent on agriculture and scarcity standard of 500 m-3/year. that the temperature in Ethiopia is environmental resources for their The water poverty index (WPI) is a on a rising trend. Rainfall is another livelihoods, making the situation even reflection of the fact that in a number of monitoring variable, but no conclusion worse. countries water resources is misused has been reached whether the total and not managed sustainably, The impacts of climate change in rainfall is in a declining trend or not. contributing to scarcity. Irrigation dryland areas that are leading to However, because of the shift in accounts for about 80-90 percent agricultural yield decline, decline in rainfall onset dates, the length of of all water used in the drylands. the quality of pasture and livestock growing periods is declining. Overall, However, increasing competition production and reduced vegetation the changes are reflected in reduced for water among several sectors will cover place millions of people in the agricultural productivity and reduced likely reduce the share for agriculture drylands at risk of exacerbated food adaptive capacity of society to climate to about 50 percent by the year 2050 insecurity and malnutrition. According change. (ICARDA, 2006). to the Intergovernmental Panel on Therefore, in drylands, climate Climate Change (IPCC) (2007), the Natural resource degradation change is emerging as one of overall cost of adaptation to climate the most important challenges in change in Africa could be as high as In most drylands food demand is terms of agricultural production five to 10 percent of the continent’s outstripping production due to rapid and productivity, and is threatening GDP, and similar figures are expected population growth (about two percent the overall livelihood of the people in the dryland areas of Ethiopia. annually). The proportion of the total residing in these areas. There are area that is arable land is lower (4- clear trends of climate change and Water stress and drought 11 percent) than in other climatic variability in Ethiopia as indicated by zones in other developing countries In the drylands one of the key problems increased drought frequency, long (ICARDA, 2006). In addition, soil related to climate change is water dry spells, highly variable rainfall fertility is a declining asset in most stress and associated drought. Water between and with seasons and agricultural lands in semi-arid areas. 10 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

This is caused by the ever-increasing invasive weeds, such as prosopis Maize human and livestock population and juliflora, that replaces the more the associated demand for basic nutritive browsing varieties. This has NARS and the International Maize natural resources, such as land, resulted in sharpened conflicts in and Wheat Improvement Center water, forest products and other recent years between land users over (CIMMYT) have developed maize agrobiodiversity resources and their pastures and water resources (PADS, varieties that are drought tolerant and products (Georgis, 2005). 2003). early maturing, which can be used in areas faced with the risk of yield Grazing pressure Research findings & reduction due to reduced rainfall. technologies for climate Several varieties have been released Increasing human and livestock resilient agriculture in the by the national programmes and are populations have become a major drylands planted on hundreds of thousands threat to land use systems, such of hectares. Many new, even better as pastoral areas where livestock After assessing the problem of drought-tolerant varieties and hybrids production is practiced and a agricultural production in relation to have been identified (ASARECA, considerable number of wildlife exist. climate change in the drylands of 2010). This is leading to land degradation, Ethiopia, the next logical step is to take overgrazing and loss of biodiversity. inventory of available technologies In Ethiopia, there are about 20 maize and practices developed by national varieties released for the dryland The conversion of grazing areas into and international research systems areas. The discussion in this paper large-scale sedentary agriculture (NARS, CGIAR, non-governmental through irrigation is also marginalizing organizations and others) for the grazing areas. For example, adapting to climate change. This recently two dams for large-scale includes mainly technologies for sugarcane production for two sugar crop, livestock, agroforestry and factories were established in the natural resources conservation and middle of the grazing areas of the management. Agricultural and natural Afar pastoralists in Rift Valley areas of resource technologies available to Ethiopia. These dams resulted in land adapt to climate change, including clearing, shortage of grazing areas crop, livestock, natural resource leading to overgrazing, and have conservation and management, are triggered ecological degradation and briefly described in this section. conflict. As a result, the demand for animal feed also exceeds the region’s Crop technologies available current production level. Such feed for climate adaptation in the shortages, coupled with water drylands shortages and the threat of diseases, are leading to low production and aggravation of poverty.

Soil salinity is also constraining agricultural production in the pastoral Rift Valley areas, particularly in Afar. For example, salt-affected soils in Ethiopia cover a total land area of 11,033,000 ha, the highest in Africa (Georgis et al., 2004).

Pests and diseases

Apart from drought, up to 40 percent annual losses are estimated to be caused by a large number of pests and diseases which damage crops and livestock in semi-arid regions. The semi-arid ecology, particularly in the rangelands, is encroached by Figure 3. Melkassa-6Q improved maize variety with a high protein content Source: Wegary, 2010. Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 11

focuses on the high-yielding hybrids participation, in order to mainstream maturing and adapted to the semi- (Georgis et al., 2010), including and scale up the technologies in arid areas of Africa. Pearl millet is drought-tolerant varieties, like drought-prone areas of the country. suitable to drylands in regions that are Melkassa and Melkassa 2. The yields too hot, dry and with poor soil fertility. of these hybrids range from 4.5 to 6 Sorghum Finger millet can be grown under t/ha; they are drought resistant and There are several improved cultivars diverse agroecologies and offers early maturing (less than 120 days). of sorghum. About 120 have been good nutritional value, with 5-40 times One of the success stories in the released across sorghum-growing more Ca, Iron and phosphorus. There dryland areas of Ethiopia is the release areas. These are early maturing, are also genetic resources, collected, and adoption of a variety called capable of escaping terminal drought, conserved and characterized, which Melkassa-6Q. Melkassa-6Q is high disease and pest resistant, and could be utilized by NARS for breeding yielding (4.5-5.5 t/ha), early maturing have the desired market traits for for improved crop production. There (flowering in 60 days, maturating East Africa. Recently, an additional are 14 pearl millet and 13 finger millet in 120 days), drought tolerant, 81 varieties were released for most varieties released for semi-arid and nutritionally enhanced (QPM) and countries in eastern, southern and arid agroecologies, which should be disease tolerant. It is a good example central Africa. Yields of improved used to increase crop production in of adaptation to the Rift Valley of varieties are 20-40 percent higher water stress areas of Ethiopia and Ethiopia and other similar areas. For than local varieties and have been other East Africa countries (Wegary, adoption of these drought-resistant tested and released in a number of 2010). varieties by user communities, it is countries, including multiple releases, Among small cereals, tef is important recommended that there are more and are ready for scaling up (Georgis, for climate change in Ethiopia and on farm demonstrations, with farmer 2010). potential for other countries too. It There are also three hybrid sorghum is a stable and stand by crop in the varieties released for drylands of East drylands where rain is short and Africa and Ethiopia. These hybrids highly variable. There are many have a yield advantage of 25-60 varieties recommended by NARS percent over traditional varieties and that are short cycle and pest and yield even more in dry years. disease tolerant and that are a fit for areas with short and variable rainfall. Small cereal (millet and tef) Improved varieties, such as Kuncho, give substantial yield increases, Several millet varieties, both pearl up to four t/ha, as verified by the millet and finger millet, have been Ethiopian Agricultural Transformation developed by NARS and the Agency (Tareke Berhe, personal International Crops Research Institute communication). for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) that are drought resistant, early Barley and wheat

Barley crops for both food and malting are important for stallholder farmers in the highland zones of Ethiopia, Eritrea and Kenya. Barley is an important food and malting crop. Both NARS and CGIAR centres (including ICARDA) have released improved varieties: 17 for food and three for malting. High yielding varieties produce up to seven t/ha.

Wheat is important for food and cash in the crop production system. The major problem of wheat production is a new race of wheat stem rust disease that is spreading rapidly and threatening wheat and barley

Figure 4. drought-resistant sorghum hybrid (P9501A x ICSR) Source: Wegary, 2010. 12 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

production worldwide. With the efforts They are drought resistant and nutrients, cassava requires little or of ICARDA and NARS, a new high suitable for climate adaptation, and no fertilization and yet will maintain a yielding variety (Ug99) and disease- their yield is reasonably high. steady production trend over a fairly resistant variety was released in long period of time in a continuous Ethiopia and two new varieties are Oil crops farming system (Shiferaw, 2012). expected to be released shortly. Many varieties of sesame, groundnuts An FAO project has been successful Elite germplasm are also identified in and safflower are drought-resistant, in distributing more than 200,000 more than 20 countries in Africa and short-cycle, high-yield crops. There planting materials of six improved worldwide. This noble work can be are many varieties recommended cassava varieties to the Hawassa scaled up for wider use. by NARS in Ethiopia as having the Agricultural Research Center and potential to be adapted for climate Mekelle University. A number of change. Almost all of these crops farmers in Meisso woreda have fetch good prices. secured their food and even obtained Grain legumes Root crops additional income through growing of drought-tolerant root and tuber crop There are many important legume Cassava is a very important crop varieties, particularly cassava. These species and varieties that can adapt in Africa as a food security crop, farmers who received only 20-30 to climate change. For example, the particularly in dryland areas vulnerable cassava cuttings have multiplied the common bean (Pharsalus vulgaris) to climate change. Improved varieties planting materials and expanded the is one of the most important grain have been released for Ethiopia and crop in their farms. They have also legumes grown in many areas of other African countries, like Rwanda, provided cuttings to their neighbors Africa. It is an important food and the Uganda, Tanzania and Zimbabwe, and relatives. The results obtained by cheapest source of plant protein for and there is a likelihood that a new farmers who are first round recipients poor farmers. It is produced mainly wave of cassava production will have encouraged other farmers living in areas with rainfall of 500 - 800 mm take place and go a long way toward in area. As a result, the ripple effect annually (Masumba, 1984). alleviating the food situation in the through farmer-to-farmer exchanges continent in drought-prone areas. of planting materials of these Improved common beans developed improved varieties is increasing. This in drought-prone areas that can be From an agronomic point of view, points to root crops, such as cassava, used for climate change adaptation cassava is important for soil fertility as excellent for food security under include pigeon peas, cowpeas and improvement and weed control, both the ongoing threat of climate change. mung beans. These are multipurpose of which are main constraints in the An example of an improved cassava crops used as human food grain, drylands. Because of its massive variety in the arid and semi-arid fodder, fuelwood, to improve soil leaf production which drops to form varieties is shown in Figure 7 below. fertility and as cash crops for export. organic matter thus recycling soil

Figure 6. Improved sesame variety for adaptation to climate Figure 7. Improved cassava variety demonstration plots at Gamila change Source: Georgis, 2013. woreda Source: Shiferaw, 2012. Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 13

Soil and water conservation Improved agronomic practices play planting in the flat seedbed in many and management for improving a major role in increasing crop semi-arid areas of East African adaption of crops to climate production on a sustainable basis. countries, including Ethiopia, Eritrea, change Thus, a technological development Kenya, Uganda, Zimbabwe and strategy needs to include both Sudan. However, the technology has Above described some of the many breeding and improved agronomy. not been widely adopted by farmers. improved crop species and varieties The message is clear that under that can lead to increased food dryland farming conditions the Figure 8 below is a picture of tied production in drought-prone areas agronomic management practices ridges, with a description of how experiencing climate change in mentioned above are very critical in to construct them, including a Ethiopia. However, the potential of the determining the productivity of crops description of the size, height, width improved crop species and varieties and should be used with improved between rows and ridge height. The cannot be exploited unless integrated varieties to exploit their genetic description also indicates the time with improved management practices potential. needed to make the cross ties and the in holistic packages. In the drylands, frequency and time of weeding. water stress, low soil fertility, pests and Soil and water management disease are the major constraints and Improving water productivity The tied ridges in situ soil and so must be included as a package. water harvesting technique Improving rainwater management Therefore, the strategy should be to alone cannot deliver increased enhance the livelihoods of the poor Tied ridges as an in situ soil and water productivity. Water management in semi-arid farming systems through harvesting technique has proven to must form part of a farming system integrated genetic and natural be very effective for soil and water that includes a whole range of inputs, resource management strategies. conservation in Ethiopia and many such as fertilizer, pesticides, improved other African countries. The technique seeds and adequate farm power. In There is much evidence that has been extensively tested and the drylands, where the key problem appropriate agronomic management evaluated with smallholder farmers in practices, such as improved soil and Kenya, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Zimbabwe, water, fertility conditions, pest and Uganda, Tanzania, Burkina Faso, Technology: Tied Ridge, In-situ Water Harvesting disease control, are more critical Nigeria and other areas in Africa factors for determining crop yield than Description semi permanent ridges (ideally (Georgis, 2003). The experimental improved variety alone. There are about 20-25 cm in - 1% across the slope, evidence of the effectiveness of tied improved crop species and varieties cross ties are put in to a height of ½ to 2/3 the ridges for soil and water conservation height of the ridges at intervals of 1 to 2 meters which are drought and pest resistant, and its impact in yield increase depending on slope, however in flat topography heat tolerant, early maturing, with high and water use efficiency is well the interval could be wider up to 5 m interval. The yield potential that were developed ridges are constructed using an animal -drawn demonstrated. Its use increased by research systems, but the genetic plough or ridger in a deeply ploughed up field grain and straw yield of crops by 150 potential of these improved varieties (approximately 23 cm). percent and 90 percent, respectively, can best be exploited when used in compared to traditional methods of combination with improved agronomic management practices.

In the United States, for example, where sorghum yields tripled in 30 years from, 1.2 metric tons per hectare in 1950 to more than 3.8 in 1980, the genetic contribution was estimated to be from 28 to 39 percent (Miller and Kebede, 1984). Over 60 percent of these very large yield increases were due to improved agronomy practices, especially fertilization, herbicides and water control. The new cultivars are generally more responsive to higher input use and gave high yield under conducive environments.

Figure 8. Tied ridges in-situ soil and water harvesting Source: Georgis, 2003. 14 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Table 2. Integrated agronomic management practices for improving water productivity Technology: Tied Ridge, In-situ Water Harvesting

Cross ties are put in after ridging using a Management practices Yield cultivator with a worn-out moldboard attached on t/ha increase the rear tine position. For maize attached on the Broadcasting, no fertilizer, late weeding six weeks after emergence, 1.3 rear tine position. For maize and sorghum the flat planting (farmers practice) standard spacing of 75 cm is used and planting is Row planting, no fertilizer, late weeding six weeks after emergence, 1.7 (37) done into a fully moist ridge, Two hand weeding flat planting operation are recommended, the first being 2-3 weeks after germination and the second soon No fertilizer, late weeding six weeks after emergence, tied ridges 1.9 (46) after re-ridging and re-tying when the crop is No fertilizer, early weeding three weeks after planting, tied ridges 2.3 (73) knee high (maize). about 40 N 46 P2O5, early weeding three weeks after planting, tied ridges 2.9 (117)

in crop production is water stress, Livestock production and integration of forage legumes into water needs to be conserved and to climate change cereal production systems and make farming more productive, water various forms of utilization of feed Practices and technologies for conservation must be integrated with resources for livestock production. adapting to climate change in other improved agronomic practices livestock production Area closure for rehabilitation so that the soil water retained can of rangelands and improve feed be used effectively. Weeds should There are several traditional practices sources be controlled as early as possible to in livestock production used to adapt avoid completion. Fertilizer needs to and mitigate climate change. Many Livestock herders also use traditional to be applied at the recommended of these practices and innovations are practices to conserve and rehabilitate rate. Such integrated management documented by Georgis et al. (2010). rangelands. Natural forage is practices have resulted in increased improved by closure of certain maize yield in the range of 37-117 Conservation of grazing areas to allow the natural pasture to percent as can be seen in Table 2. resources regenerate. Enrichment planting with suitable fodder crops and trees is also Mulching for building soil To mitigate feed shortages in the carried out to fill the gap when there is fertility and enhancing water dry season, pastoralists sell their no natural vegetation. conservation and utilization sheep, goats and cattle, especially males and unproductive females, As an example of this, highly degraded Most soils in semi-arid areas are in order to purchase grain for home areas were selected and enclosed by highly degraded with poor physical, consumption. local communities and development chemical and biological properties. agencies in dryland areas to allow The soils have the problem of Depending on the degree of severity of the natural pasture to rehabilitate compaction or surface sealing or drought, in order to adapt pastoralists and vegetate. Then drought-resistant crusting which leads to low water may: reduce the herd (at these times herbaceous legumes and grass infiltration and high runoff. Mulching when pressure for selling breeding species were promoted to improve is traditionally used to alleviate these stock rises); select drought and heat the fodder quality (Catholic Relief problems and research results in tolerant livestock species; change Services, 2008). the central Rift Valley indicated that the type of livestock; or diversify their use of mulches at the rate of three stock. Forage species and varieties for tons increased yield by 30 percent Feed shortage is one of the major climate change adaptation compared to without mulching. The constraints in livestock production mulching materials are obtained from Several leguminous shrubs which are in Ethiopia and most East African pigeon peas and sesbania sesban, drought-resistant forage crops, such countries. Research activities have which are drought resistant, and can as pigeon peas, saltbush, Senna been carried out by NARS and CGIAR, easily be produced locally in many and Opuntia, are grown in watershed universities, non-governmental drought-prone areas. The use of areas in many districts in semi-arid organizations, etc. to improve feed sesbania sesban mulches was also areas. These forage crops can grow availability and strengthen food found to increase grain and stover in areas with rainfall as low as 200 security in relation to climate change. yield substantially in wheat compared mm per year. They are nutritious Activities have included natural to the control without mulching perennial forage shrub for small pasture improvement, backyard (Gebrekidan, 2005). ruminants and cattle. They provide forage introduction and development, Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 15 protein and minerals (especially altitudes. One of the most widespread Agroforesty practices for salt, e.g. from salt bush) needed and useful acacia species is the improving agricultural by ruminants. In addition, there are umbrella thorn (A. tortilis), whose production and climate change several feed resources, including pods and seeds are an important feed adaptation forages identified by NARS and resource for livestock and wildlife in CGIAR (mainly by ILIRI) which are Africa (Menwyelet et al., 1994). From Agroforesty is widely practiced by playing an important role in drylands a nutritional analysis of seeds of traditional farmers in East African by having a multipurpose value for various acacia species, Tolera et al. countries, including Ethiopia, Kenya, the farmer, beyond just being a feed (2000) concluded that these seeds Sudan and Eritrea. Despite its resource for livestock (Georgis et. al., could partly help solve the shortage of potentials this old practice is still a 2010). energy and protein feedstuffs during much-neglected area in terms of the dry season and supplement low research and development and needs The most important leguminous quality forage grazed by ruminant research to quantify contributions fodder trees indigenous to eastern livestock. This analysis suggests that to improve productivity. There is Africa are acacias and aidherbia there are many feed sources in the substantial evidence to show that albida. There are about 130 species dryland areas which could be used to alley cropping can result in higher of acacia widely distributed in Africa. adapt to climate change and increase productivity, better control of the Many are very drought-tolerant and livestock production on a sustainable environment and can safeguard can survive over a wide range of basis. against unfavourable conditions,

Figure 9. Promoting the growth of climate smart trees and shrubs 16 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

including climate change and in East Africa are essential for soil National Adaptation Programme of variability. stabilization, provision of ground Action (NAPA). cover and as wind breaks to prevent In traditional agroforestry in many soil erosion. They contribute to soil Available technologies to dryland areas, trees are kept by fertility through decomposition of adapt to climate change and small-farmers on farmland for various organic matter and microbial nitrogen increase livestock production uses. Some of the important uses fixation. Forage grasses and natural farmers attribute to trees are soil There are some technologies pastures are also important in carbon developed to improve livestock fertility maintenance, soil and water sequestration (Georgis et al., 2010). conservation, a feed source, shade for production in the face of climate crops, animals and humans, source of Natural pastures, fallow land and change. The challenge now is how to cash and firewood. In Sudan, Ethiopia, crop residues are the major source of get these technologies and practices Eritrea and other countries, farmers livestock feeds in many areas where to be adapted and adopted by user maintain Faidherbia albida trees in available agricultural land is used communities. Some communities their farm for fertility maintenance for food crop production, relegating may require new technologies and and increased yields (Georgis et al., livestock production to be supported others may need the revival of 2010). by marginal lands not suited to traditional technologies and practices. crop production. The fluctuating The important thing is to sieve out Agroforestry is important for natural feed supply and poor quality of the what works, identify the best-bet resource conservation and increasing available feeds, especially during the technologies and then seek ways organic matter, thereby improving soil long dry season, are major constraints to make them available to livestock fertility, soil water holding capacity to increasing livestock productivity in herders. Below are some of the and availability and the resilience of dryland areas. available technologies. the soil. This contributes to increased production on a sustainable basis in In general, the food values of Genetic improvement for dryland areas. Agroforestry should be African trees and forests have not livestock production under scaled up in all dryland areas of East been systematically explored and climate change focusing on Africa. documented. Despite frequent climate smart livestock species recurring famines, these have so and breeds: breeding and In recent years, interest has grown in far been given little attention. The selection the utilization of multipurpose trees, reluctance to systematically catalogue Genetic improvement of livestock in particularly tree crops. The variety the food values of Ethiopian trees of products that can be obtained Ethiopia remains a challenge. Local and forests is further persuaded problems encountered in traditional from them and their number of uses by the rapid destruction of natural should push multipurpose trees to livestock production systems were forest vegetation and the low level not considered in the development the forefront in rural development of dependence on forest food, as in many East African countries. of improved breeds, therefore, compared to eastern and southern prescribed ‘improved’ breeds and Documentation of multipurpose tree African countries. crops in landscape conservation, crossbreds have not solved the with particular emphasis in adapting Nonetheless, these wild plants can problem of smallholder farmers under to climate change, is important and be very important for food security, dry or low-input systems. should be promoted. particularly in light of the current Rearing small ruminants and threats of climate change. There is In semi-arid areas of Africa, there are camels to adapt to climate substantial opportunity to domesticate change some important trees species which wild plants and to expand their market are currently used to conserve soil value. In a situation of a rapidly The introduction of small ruminant and water and improve agricultural changing global environment, wild breeds is contributing to adaptation production for adaptation to climate plants are important reserves of to climate change and food security change, such as Azadira chtaindica biodiversity for human use. However, and improving livelihoods of pastoral (neem), Moringa stenopetala, Moringa the challenge is that now many of the and agropastoral communities in the oleifera and Leuceana leucocephala. plant species used as wild food are drylands. There are also many useful shrubs, rapidly disappearing, even before There are several indigenous sheep such as Cajanus cajan (pigeon peas) being known to science. There is an breeds, such as the Afar sheep and and Opuntia ficus-indica (cactus). urgent need for their conservation, blackhead Somali sheep, which are as prioritized in the country’s climate Fodder trees, forage grasses and hardy and drought resistant. They are legumes found in natural pastures change adaptation programme, the Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 17 useful for climate adaptation in the and 125 kg. Mature ewes average have a straight to concave facial drylands. Below are additional small 73-100 kg and have excellent meat profile. Both males and females ruminant breeds that maybe useful for qualities. A live weight of about 36 kg have horns, and in most cases the climate change adaptation efforts. can be reached by the Dorper lamb horns in males are much bigger at the age of three-four months. The and spiral shaped. The coat of Dorper sheep Dorper has a thick skin which is highly most Afar goats is plain and patchy. The Dorper is a South African mutton prized and also protects the sheep Spotted coat colours are common. breed from the initial crosses between under harsh climatic conditions. The The hair is short and smooth in Dorset Horn and Blackhead Ogaden, Dorper skin is the most sought after both sexes and males have beards also called Blackhead Somali and sheep skin in the world and is marketed and ruffs. Mean height at the Blackhead Persian. These breeds under the name of Cape Glovers. The shoulders is 71.4 cm and 65 cm for have Ethiopian blood. Dorper sheep skin comprises a high percentage of adult bucks and does, respectively. are widely distributed in some the income (20 percent) of the total Boer goats: The Boer goat is one African countries, such as Botswana, carcass value. of the hardiest of all small stock Zimbabwe, Zambia, Kenya and South Goat breeds for climate change breeds in the world. The Boer goat Africa. Dorper sheep can also be adaptation has the ability to adapt to almost found in North America and other any climate, from the hottest dry countries around the world. NARS have identified and collected desert climate, as in Namibia and many indigenous goat breeds which Dorper sheep are highly adaptable Australia, to the snow covered adapt to climate change in pastoral and do well in harsh, hot and dry mountains of Germany. The and agropastoral areas of Ethiopia. conditions, as well as under more present day Boer goat appeared These include the breeds described intensive operations. As a strong and in the early 1900s when ranchers below. non-selective grazer, the Dorper can in the Eastern Cape Province of advantageously be incorporated into Somali goats: Short-eared Somali South Africa started selecting for a well-planned range management goats are widely distributed in a meat type goat. The general system. The characteristics of the northern and eastern Ogaden and characteristics are that the Boer breed include the ability to walk long Dire Dawa. Long-eared Somali goat is a large, double-muscled distances in permanently dry areas goats are found in all parts of the animal developed specifically for and in times of drought. Dorper Ogaden, the lowlands of Bale and meat and hardiness. Boer goats sheep have a natural tolerance to the Borana zones of Oromia and have a high resistance to disease high temperatures and heavy insect in some parts of the Sidama zone and adapt well to hot, dry, semi- populations, most probably due to their of the Southern Region. Short deserts. Acclimatization is often Blackhead Persian origin. The breed is and long-eared Somali goats are a slow process, taking a year or well adapted to dry environments and related. longer. a wide range of production systems. The fertility rate is high, with a kidding They are productive in areas where Abergele goats: The Abergele goat rate of 200 percent being common other breeds barely survive. Other is believed to be a relative of the for this breed. Puberty is reached good characteristics include high Afar and Worre goat. Abergele early, usually about six months for fertility rates with an unrestricted goats are found along the Tekeze males and 10-12 months for females. breeding season and the body of River and other parts of Ethiopia. The Boer goat also has an extended Dorper sheep, except the belly and the Abergele goats are stocky, breeding season, making possible face, is covered with a mixture of hair compact and well built. The goats three kiddings every two years. and some coarse wool. Dorpers have a have a straight to concave facial Producing weaning rates in excess black head and neck with a white body, profile. Both males and females of 160 percent, the Boer goat doe is but there are also solid white Dorper have horns, and in most cases the a low maintenance animal that has sheep. Both rams and ewes are polled. horns in males are much bigger sufficient milk to rear an early maturing Dorper sheep are relatively big and and spiral shaped. Abergele goats kid. Does are reported to have superior ewes under a favourable environment are widely prevalent in the Afar mothering skills compared to other weigh about 60 kg. Dorper sheep are region. Abergele goats are milked goats. fast growing with good conformation for domestic consumption. Their for meat production. skin is also used to make aprons, Performance records for this breed containers, etc. indicate exceptional individuals are Dorpers also have fast growth with capable of average daily gains of over mature rams weighing between 100 Afar goats: Afar goats are stocky, compact and well built. The goats 200 g/day in a feedlot. More standard 18 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

performance would be 150-170 g/day. and cross-sectoral approach at all in semi-arid parts of Africa have The mature Boer buck weighs between levels, including on a landscape and tremendous time-tested knowledge 110 and 135 kg and does between 90 watershed level, must be developed and practice in management of fragile and 100 kg. The Boer goat also has to face climate change and support dryland ecosystems and how to excellent carcass qualities, making agriculture and food security. There adapt to threats of climate change. it one of the most popular breeds of are many successful experiences and Pastoralists and agropastoralists meat goat in the world. best practices in Ethiopia (Georgis et have been custodians of the land, al., 2010) and other semi-arid areas water, forests, biodiversity and other Camels of Africa to achieve the “triple win” services for time immemorial and their Camels are important livestock species of climate-smart agriculture. Action experience and practice is important for drought-prone areas. Camels have must be taken to scale-up, replicate and does not have a substitute. and adapt what works. This should special adaptation features to survive Laying a supportive foundation: under the harsh conditions of dryland be backed by conducive institutional Appropriate institutions, sound policy areas. Camels are raised under and policy frameworks and climate- frameworks and good governance traditional management systems. smart strategies, including science, are required at all levels to achieve Despite the major importance of technology, education and extension climate-smart agriculture and must camels, there has been limited services. Agriculture and rural create an enabling environment for research and development efforts development must be integrated into sustainable farming and for climate- related to camels and camel husbandry other national political processes, smart agricultural investments from in the dryland areas of eastern Africa. supported by assessments at the all sources, be it government, donors There are several camel breeds which local level. or the private sector. This should be are fit to be adapted for climate change Urgently address serious issues: done within a broader landscape adaptation efforts that could be scaled The challenges and solutions for approach, at the watershed scale. up by NARS (Georgis et al., 2010). increased production should be clearly understood to improve the Step up research and Conclusions and development: It is important to recommendations economic development of agricultural communities. In line with this, it is establish a centre of excellence Below are some research and important to identify urgent actions in the country that can coordinate development approaches that can to be taken to prevent food insecurity all research and development be taken to promote climate change and degradation of ecosystems, programmes taking place in the adaptation in dryland production including preventing the loss of dryland areas, and be involved systems and some potential tools to biodiversity. To this end, a roadmap in networking and collaborative improve dryland production systems for action on agriculture needs to be work. Research programmes are under the threat of climate change. developed. needed to investigate all production systems in dryland areas. Research Make a broad and strategic A theme that appears repeatedly and development activities should plan: Agricultural production must in this paper is food security and particularly focus on and be oriented undergo a paradigm shift at all levels to achieve it requires agricultural toward the following activities: of administration if rapidly growing production systems to change in the human and animal populations in direction of higher productivity and Risk management, drought semi-arid areas of Ethiopia are to be production lower output variability mitigation, climate change fed and the natural resource base and greater eco-efficiency. This mitigation and adaptation; sustained. Business as usual is no includes promoting ecoagriculture. Integrated water and land longer an option. With a transition Such green growth in the agricultural management, improving to climate-resilient, low-emitting sector is fundamental for food biophysical, economic social and production systems, agriculture security, socio-economic growth and environmental returns per unit of can become part of the solution to environmental sustainability. Small- water; sustainable development. and family-based farming systems, particularly in developing countries, Community and institutional In the drylands there are multiple are vital for green growth and climate- frameworks; challenges in terms of climate smart agriculture, including organic change, including degradation of Policy options to stimulate systems. ecosystems and food insecurity, technology adoption; and requiring an integrated approach to Support and revive traditional Diversification and market solve the problems. An integrated knowledge and practices: Farmers Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 19

research to encourage farmers to are leading to shortages of land for in Africa are raised seedbeds that shift from subsistence to a market cultivation. The support of public and trap water and keyhole gardens that orientation. private institutions to ensure access use wastewater. Improved irrigation of farmers to new technologies at systems include mini-sprinkler and Network and coordinate to competitive, affordable prices is vital. drip systems and precision timing address common problems: It is also important to remember in plant watering and crop systems. Given the complex challenges that agriculture is related to other Another example is the intensive faced by dryland communities, issues, such as livelihoods, market rice system which uses less water which span many disciplines, development, cultural aspects and than traditional systems and lowers and the trans-boundary nature of biodiversity. Research agenda greenhouse gas emissions compared many of the constraints to dryland solutions should be tuned to “triple win” with traditional paddy systems. development, no single country can solutions, such as the CGIAR Climate manage the research systems and Change Challenge Programme. Manage soil and nutrients: The efforts required to improve dryland availability of nitrogen and other natural resource management and Expand the role of tree crops: nutrients is essential to increase utilization. Networking alliances and There is an urgent need for restoration yields. Methods and practices that partnerships, including bilateral and of degraded agricultural landscapes, increase organic nutrient inputs on regional and international bases, in particular in drylands. A productive should be promoted. Examples should be established to ensure and diverse landscape will be more of agroecological practices that more efficient use of resources, resilient to climate change and contribute to soil and nutrient fertility better public relations and resource provide critical ecosystem, social and enhancement include residue mobilization. cultural services. and manure and crop fertilization, agroforestry, more precise matching of The interconnected nature of today’s Including trees in the production nutrients with plant needs, controlled agricultural challenges, including landscape can help reduce erosion, release and deep placement ecosystem degradation, food increase nutrients in the soil and technologies and using legumes for security and climate change, requires sequester carbon. Tree crop use natural nitrogen fixation and carbon coordination at national, regional should be coupled with conservation- sequestration. These practices can and international levels. The private oriented management practices, such be used in combination with efficient sector should also be brought into as soil fertility enhancement, minimum use of artificial fertilizers and carbon this endeavor, since the private sector tillage and organic agriculture. Such sequestration. Efficient use of has a key role to play in climate-smart measures increase resilience while fertilizers – such as proper manure agriculture and food security, food storing carbon in the soil. storage and management of artificial production, processing, marketing fertilizers and aspersion techniques and development and application There are many trees in drylands of – must also be encouraged to of new technologies, including eco- Africa which could be used to increase contribute to reducing greenhouse efficient and responsible investments. resilience while storing carbon in the soil. An example of a successful gas emissions. Promote tools and technologies agroforestry tree is Faidherbia albida, Preserve genetic resources: Most for climate smart agriculture: which sheds its leaves in the rainy countries in East Africa have rich Increased productivity is necessary season. Planting trees and restoring biodiversity with highly-valuable to meet the needs of people for forests can also provide major benefits genetic resources with tolerance to nutritional food, feed for their animals, to both the quality and long-term shocks of temperature extremes, fiber, energy and other products, reliability of water flows and increase drought, flooding, pests and while conserving the functions of water availability for agriculture and diseases. Preservation of these natural ecosystems. To this end, broader ecosystems functions. genetic resources is fundamental for sustainable agricultural intensification Conserve and harvest water: developing resilience of plants and and increased productivity is animals to shocks, improving the recommended, rather than expanding Improved water harvesting and retention and water use efficiency efficient use of resources, shortening areas under cultivation. The focus production cycles and generating should be on intensification and are fundamental for increasing agricultural production. A suite of higher yields and improving market diversification and increasing yield access and germplasm exchange. and water use per unit of land, rather measures exists in both rain-fed and than on expansion of areas under irrigated agricultural systems for water The role of farmers in preserving cultivation, as the latter is becoming conservation and harvesting. Good local crops and seeds is important. impractical. Population increases examples of rain-fed systems found There is a need to support farmer’s 20 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

adaptation to climate change by and more broadly assessment of the Africa. conservation and maintenance of their greenhouse gas profile of agricultural Catholic Relief Services/Ethiopia crop diversity through incentives for systems. Scaled up financing for (2008). Terminal Evaluation of their contributions to conserve crop research has an important role to play. Integrated Watershed Management genetic diversity. Policymakers and It is also noted, to the extent possible, Project. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. researchers should facilitate genetic research should be open to ensure its resource preservation to benefit small widest possible benefit. Doorenbos J. and W.O. Pruitt (1977). farmers. For example, there are funds “Guidelines for predicting crop under the International Treaty on Plant Improve knowledge sharing and access to information and water requirements,” Irrigation and Genetic Resources for Food and Drainage Paper no. 24 (rev.). Rome: technology transfer: Net¬working Agriculture, but not many African small FAO-ONU, 144 pp. farmers are benefiting from this fund. and knowledge sharing should take place between research and Gebrekidan, H. (2005). “Soil and water Conduct livestock and other knowledge institutions and synergies conservation practices (tied ridges relevant research: Research looked for in research activities. In and planting methods) on cultivated and development in livestock has tandem with this, knowledge should lands of the sub-humid and semi- been neglected by researchers, further be shared among producers’ arid highlands of eastern Ethiopia.” development workers and organizations, non-governmental Haramaya University publication. policymakers in Ethiopia. There are organizations, the government very few technologies developed for agricultural extension service sector, Georgis, Kidane (2003). “Land improvement of rangelands and water the private sector and research degradation adoption, low soil fertility management and little effort made to institutes, and joint approaches and water stress: the major issues breed for improved breeds. There has supported. As farmers’ advisory for improving crop production and also been little research work done systems are important to address food security in the dryland areas on some types of livestock, such as climate change, they should be of Ethiopia,” proceedings of the camels. recognized and further developed. conference (Ed. 13-15) Challenges and Prospects of Food Security in There is a need to conduct research Identify and scale up replicable Ethiopia, 3-15 August 2003, United activities that can help improve grazing models: Successfully scaling up Nations Conference Centre, Addis areas, including pastoralist-grazing, replicable models requires a long term Ababa, Ethiopia, pp. 201-216. breeding and fodder management, commitment, learning by doing and and improve management and re-use participatory approaches. Support Georgis, Kidane (2005). “The role and of animal waste to reduce the carbon mechanisms are needed to provide contribution of dryland biodiversity in footprint of livestock and control water incentives to bridge the gap between Ethiopia,” paper presented at the pollution. An example of the latter short-term costs and longer-term regional workshop of biodiversity is the use of manure for biogas and productivity gains and to ‘internalize held at Dar Es Salaam University, as an organic fertilizer. There is also externalities’ for decision makers. It is Tanzania. a need to research how aquaculture also important to share experiences Georgis, Kidane (2009). “The and fisheries can be sustained in the between countries. role of trees on natural resource context of rising temperatures and conservation with particular emphasis water scarcity. References on watershed.” Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: While much is known about Amhara Microenterprise Development, Ethiopian Development Research mechanisms that could contribute Agricultural Research, Extension & Institute. to the development of climate-smart Watershed Management Project in Georgis, Kidane (2009). “Watershed agriculture and pastoralism, much Ethiopia (AMAREW), (2007). “Micro- approach for natural resource more remains unknown and needs enterprise development, agricultural management and agricultural to be researched and further studied. research, watershed management,” production in the semi-arid areas Research and development of plant terminal report. July 2002-2007. of Ethiopia.” Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: and animal varieties, including Association for Strengthening Ethiopian Development and Research livestock breeds, which are more Agricultural Research in Eastern and Institute. robust to drought and flood, are Central Africa (ASARECA) (2010). critical. It is also important to address Conference on climate adaptation Georgis, Kidane (2010). “Food knowledge gaps in many areas, strategies, capacity building and security and agricultural technology including, for example, cost-effective agricultural innovations to improve options in pastoral areas of Ethiopia,” approaches for assessing soil carbon livelihoods in Eastern and Central paper presented at the InterAfrica Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 21

Group Symposium on Agrarian on Climate Change, 7-9 June 2010, Tolera, A. and R. C. Merkel, A. L. Technology Options and Food Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Goetsch, T. Sahlu and T. Negesse Security in Pastoral Areas, 7 October (2000). “Nutritional constraints and Masumba, B. A. N. (1984). 2010, Harmony Hotel, Addis Ababa, future prospects for goat production “Physiological measurement for Ethiopia. in East Africa,” in: R. C. Merkel, G. ranking bean cultivars with respect to Abebe and A. L. Goetsch (eds.), Georgis, Kidane and Alemneh Dejene, relative drought and heat resistance.” “The Opportunities and Challenges Meshack Malo (2010). “Agricultural- East African Agricultural and Forestry of Enhancing Goat Production in East based livelihood systems in drylands Journal. 44:290-296. Africa.” Proceedings of a conference in the context of climate change: Menwyelet, A. and D. L. Coppock, J. held at Debub University, Awassa, inventory of adaptation practices K. Detling (1994). “Fruit production of Ethiopia, 10-12 November 2000. E and technologies of Ethiopia.” FAO Acacia tortilis and Acacia nilotica in (Kika) de la Garza Institute for Goat publication No 38. semi-arid Ethiopia,” Agroforest. Syst. Research, Langston University, Georgis, Kidane and John H. 27:23-30. Langston, OK pp. 43-57 Sanders, Della E. Mcmillan, Eliud O. Miller, Frederik Rand and Yilma Wegary, Dagne, (2010). “Best- Omolo (2004). “Technologies, policy Kebede (1984). “Genetic contribution bet cereals and grain legumes changes and market development to yield grain in sorghum, 1950 to technologies for adaptation to climate to increase crop production in the 1980,” in Genetic Contribution to Yield variability and change in ASAL semi-arid zones of Ethiopia.” IGAD/ Grains of Five Major Crop Plants, W. agricultural systems of Ethiopia,” INSOMIL/USAID-REDSO. R. Fehr, ed. Madison, Wisconsin: Conference on Climate Change Georgis, Kidane and Bedru Beshir Crop Sciences of America Society of Adaptation Strategies, Capacity (2010). “Cereals and grain legumes Agronomy. Building and Agricultural Innovations for semi-arid areas of Ethiopia,” to Improve Livelihoods in Eastern and Pastoral Area Development Study Research Report 84. Addis Ababa, Central Africa, 7-9 June 2010, Addis (PADS), (2003). “Land and range,” Ethiopia: Ethiopian Institute of Ababa, Ethiopia. Techniplan in association with MCE Agricultural Research. and Agristudio, Rome and Addis Yami, Alemu and R. C. Merkel (2008). Kimani, Paul and Roland Chirwa, Ababa. Sheep and Goat production handbook Robin Buruchara, Clare Mukankusi, for Ethiopia, Sheep and Goat Shiferaw, Wondmagegn, (2012). J. C. Rubyogo (2010). “Coping with Production Improvement Programme “Cassava production in Ethiopia.” climate change: Best-bet technologies for Ethiopia. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Food and and strategies for disseminating beans Agricultural Organization of the adapted to stressed environments United Nations. in Africa.” ASARECA Conference 22 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

3. Analysis of pastoralist’s adaptation to climate change and variability in the dryland areas of Afar, Ethiopia Amanuel Mekonnen 1 , Desale Kidane 2 and Demel Teketay 3

ABSTRACT

Key words: adaptation strategies, Afar, binary and multinomial logit models, climate change

Pastoralists throughout the Horn of (78.6 percent) over the last 30 management (5.6 percent). Results Africa are the most vulnerable group years. Actual climate data analysis from the Multinomial Logit (MNL) to the impacts of climate change also indicated similar trends. The Model indicated that the choice of and variability. This study assessed majority of the respondents have pastoralists between major adaptation pastoralist adaptation to climate taken adaptation measures to these strategies is significantly influenced change and variability in Afar National perceived changes in climate (86.4 by multiple factors. These factors are: Regional State, Ethiopia. A total of 250 percent). Results from the Binary the pastoralist’s perception of climate randomly-selected participants from Logit (BNL) Model revealed that change components (increasing Dubti, Asaita and Mille Districts of Afar pastoralists perception of increasing temperature, decreasing rainfall and National Regional State were included temperature and drought, ownership recurrent drought), ownership of in the study. Descriptive statistics, of radios, levels of education, farming radios, distance from river banks, level binary and multinomial logit models experience and extension services of education, the household head’s were integrated with qualitative data have a positive influence on the gender and access to extension analysis techniques to analyse data decision of pastoralists to adapt to services. Hence, interventions to collected through household surveys, climate change and variability, while enhance adaptation of pastoralists focus group discussions, interviews gender and nearness to river banks to climate change and variability and document analysis. have a negative influence. should be in line with these factors. More integrated extension services, According to the descriptive Afar pastoralists have generally used establishment of climate data data analysis, the majority of the four major adaptation strategies centres and more focus on livelihood respondents perceived an increase to changes in climate change: diversification and herd management in temperature (85.2 percent), a mobility (49.6 percent), livelihood are recommended. decrease in rainfall (79.6 percent) diversification (19.2 percent), herd and increasing occurrence of drought management (12 percent) and fodder

1 Mekonnen (email:[email protected]; tel: +251910027147) Samara University, Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, P.O. Box 132, Semera, Ethiopia.

2 Desale Kidane (email:[email protected]; tel: +251913121286), Samara University, Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, P.O. Box 132, Semera, Ethiopia.

3 Demel Teketay, Botswana College of Agriculture, Department of Crop Science and Production, Private Bag 0027,Gaborone, Botswana: email: [email protected] and [email protected]; Tel.:+267-3650140; Fax: +267-3928753. Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 23

Introduction Background

There has been a growing consensus livestock (due to water shortages and pastoralist’s adaptation to changes in that climate change is one of the heat stress), conflict over resource climate and scarcity of resources. In biggest environmental threats facing utilization and ownership, loss of land addition to mobility, pastoralists have the world today. Climate change to agricultural encroachment, increase been adapting to climate change refers to a permanent shift in the state in frequency of flooding, spread of thought strategies such as keeping of climate components manifested human and livestock diseases thriving animals that can endure seasonal by changes in the mean and/or the in the wet season and the weakening feed shortages and long intervals variability of its properties persisting of social institutions. between drinking; keeping large for an extended period of time, herds in the hope that some animals Pastoralists have a high degree of typically decades or longer. It occurs will survive a period of feed shortage; exposure to climate change due to either due to natural variability or as a diversification into cropping, engaging their location in vast arid and semi- result of human activity (IPCC, 2007). in non-pastoralist activities, like trade, arid areas all over the world, including The most common manifestation etc. (Hesse and MacGregor, 2006; Africa and Ethiopia. Compared to of climate change and variability Coppock et al., 2009; Niamir-Fuller, highland areas, these areas are are changes and variability in 1999). While studies about sedentary characterized by marked rainfall temperature and precipitation as well agricultural farmer’s adaptation to variability, fast return rate of drought as occurrences of extreme climatic climate change are abundant, studies cycles and associated uncertainties events, especially drought, flooding, on pastoralist’s adaptation to climate in the spatial and temporal sea level rise and storms (hurricanes, change and variability are very limited. distribution of water resources and tornado, typhoons, etc.). Empirical This is particularly true with local level grazing for animal feeding (Conway studies have confirmed that climate analysis (Deressa et al., 2008). This and Schipper, 2010). Pastoralists change poses direct negative impacts study was carried out to contribute to are also highly sensitive to such on agriculture, livelihood assets, filling the gap in this regard. exposure to climate change due to water resources and the nutrition their location in isolated, remote and and health status of people (Henson, Objectives underdeveloped areas. These areas 2006; IPCC, 2007; Boko et al., 2007). are often highly conflict prone, food The objectives of the study are to: (i) The most adverse impacts of climate insecure and have poor basic service identify whether pastoralists in Afar change are predicted to hit hardest provision, with health and education region recognize climate change and poor people in the countries of the indicators that are lower than national variability, (ii) examine factors that developing world because of their figures (IPCC, 2007; Deressa and influence the decision of pastoralists geographic exposure, already fragile Hassan, 2010). Moreover, increasing whether or not to adapt to climate environments, dominance of climate- population growth, unresolved land change and variability; and (iii) assess sensitive sectors in their economy tenure issues, poor market access, factors that determine pastoralists’ and low adaptive capacity (IPCC, encroachment of large-scale state choice of different adaptation 2007; Deressa and Hassan, 2010). and private investment and all forms of strategies to climate change and Pastoralism, which is a way of life prevailing political and socioeconomic variability. based primarily on mobile raising of marginalization make pastoralists Materials and methods livestock, particularly small ruminants, more sensitive to the impacts of cattle and camels, is one of the climate change. That also implies low Description of the study area climate-sensitive livelihood systems adaptive capacity to climate change The study was conducted in Mille, that is and has been negatively impacts (GebreMichael and Kifle, Dubti and Asaita Districts in Zone affected by climate change and 2008). One of Afar National Regional State variability (Koocheki and Gliessman, For many years, pastoralists have in northeastern Ethiopia (Figure 1). 2005; Anderson et al., 2008). Many developed management systems studies indicate that climate change based on strategic mobility, which is posing significant adverse impacts are well adapted to difficult conditions on the life of pastoralists (Koocheki (Hesse and MacGregor, 2006). and Gliessman, 2005; Anderson Mobility is a common feature of et al., 2008), such as the death of 24 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

change and adaptation decisions and factors that determine a pastoralist’s choice of adaptation strategies. The questionnaire was pre-tested for consistency, logical fl ow, coding and length, and amended accordingly. Training was provided for educated enumerators who understand and speak the local language (Afaraf) to facilitate successful data collection. In order to confi rm pastoralist perceptions of climate change, secondary data (thirty-year rainfall and temperature data) was also collected from the National Meteorological Services Agency (ENMSA). In addition to the household surveys, focus group discussions and key informant interviews were carried out with pastoralists and other government authorities to supplement the survey data.

Methods of data analysis

Data collected from both household surveys and meteorological stations were quantitatively analysed by using SPSS version 17 and STATA version 12 software. Descriptive statistical Sampling design techniques, such as frequency, mean, Figure 1: Map of the study areas A total of 250 households from the three percentage and standard deviation, The altitude of the study sites ranged districts were randomly selected for were employed to compare perception from 400m to 424m above sea level. this study. To ascertain if pastoralists’ of agropastoralists to climate changes The study area is characterized by perceptions of climate change and and variability. The Binary Logit (BNL) lowland plains in a very hot and arid variability corresponded to actual long Model was employed to examine a zone. It is distinguished by an arid term climatic records, thirty years of pastoralist’s decision to undertake and semi-arid climate with low and climatic record data (precipitation any adaptation measure. Finally, the erratic rainfall. The mean maximum and temperature) collected by the Multinomial Logit (MNL) Model was temperature ranges from 32.10C Ethiopian National Meteorological used to analyse a pastoralist’s choice to 42.10C and the mean minimum Service Agency was analysed of the different adaptation strategies. temperature ranges from 15.5 to and compared to fi ndings from the Model specifi cation 24.90C. The hottest months are household surveys. The climate data March to October and the coldest covers the period from1981 to 2011. The binary logit model months are November to February. Trends and variability of precipitation Mean monthly rainfall ranges from and temperature were analysed. In order to determine whether 3.9 to 57.7 mm. March, April, July adaptation is undertaken in response and August receive the most rainfall. Methods of data collection to observation of climate change, a Distractive high winds accompanied probability model is used, in which the The principal method of data by dust are very common every day in binary dependent variable is a dummy collection used was the household the afternoon. As a result, the region for undertaking any adaptation at all survey. For this purpose, structured is a drought-prone area, with major (i.e., Yi) and has only two possible questionnaires (open-ended and shocks and hazards associated with values, 1 or 0, for either adapting or close-ended) were developed to a recurrence of drought that disrupts not adapting to climate change. Thus, gather pertinent information about the the livelihoods of the population. awareness of pastoralists to climate Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 25

Yi= Xi α+ε ...... …………...………….1

It is assumed that the probability of observing pastoralist i undertaking any adaptation at all (Yi = 1) depends on a vector of independent variables (Xi), unknown parameters (α) and the stochastic error term (εi) (Gujarati, 2003). Assuming that the cumulative distribution of εi is logistic, the probability that the pastoralist adapts to climate change is estimated using the logistic probability model specified as (Woodridge 2001):

P(Y=1│X)=Ʌ(x1 α)=

xꞌ _____e α 1+exꞌ α …………………...... ………………………2

Then the corresponding log likelihood function for the probability is: lnL

N ꞌ ꞌ =∑ i=1 Ii ln[Ʌ(xα)] + (1-Ii )ln[1-Ʌ(x α)] …………………………………….……….……3

Where Ii is the dummy indicator equal to 1, if the pastoralist i undertakes any adaptation at all to climate change and 0 otherwise. The marginal impact for each variable on the probability level is given by:

(∂P(Y=1│X)______= ______(∂Ф(Y=1│X) =Ʌ(X ꞌ α) [1-Ʌ(X ꞌα)] αk ∂Xk ∂Xk …………………………………..…...... …….4

while the marginal effect for a dummy variable, say Xk, is the difference between two derivatives evaluated at the possible values of the dummy i.e. 1 and 0. Thus:

(∂P(Y=1│X) = [Ʌ(X ꞌ α)[1-Ʌ(X ꞌ α)] α ] X =1-[Ʌ(X ꞌ α)[1-Ʌ(X ꞌ α)] α ) ] X =0 ______k k k k

∂Xk ...... ……5

The Multinomial Logit Model

In order to determine the factors influencing a pastoralist’s choice of a particular adaptation method to climate change, the Multinomial Logit (MNL) Model was used, in which the dependent variable is multinomial, with as many categories as the number of adaptation methods to climate change. The use of the MNL Model is needed because pastoralists have to choose from many adaptation methods which are unordered and nominal in character (Bartels et al., 1999; Greene, 2000; Wooldridge, 2001; Gujarati 2003). The MNL Model assumes Independence from Irrelevant Alternatives (IIA) (Wooldridge, 2001).

P(Y=j│X) = ( Xβ ) ______exp j

(1+∑ J ( Xβ ) ……………………………………………...... ……….6 j=0 exp j Where βj is a Kx1 vector and j = 0, 1, 2. . . J. Equation 6 can only provide the direction of the effect of contextual background on choosing a particular adaptation method. The marginal effects are obtained by differentiating equation 6 with respect to independent variables of interest. The marginal probability for a typical independent variable is given as:

P(Y=j│X) = P(Y=j│X)(β -∑(j=1) ) ______jk Pj βjk

∂Xk ………………………...... ……..…. 7 26 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Description of variables Table 1: Definition of explanatory variables used in the models

The dependent variable (DV) of the binary logit model is Variable Type Modalities whether a pastoralist takes adaptation at all and it is coded (description) 1 for taking adaptation or 0 for not taking adaptation. Household head gender Dummy 0=Female; Literature states that there are limited studies on the 1=Male adaptation of pastoralism to climate change and variability, Household’s annual income Continuous Amount in while there are considerable studies on adaptation of Ethiopian Birr sedentary crop farmers to climate change and variability Farming experience Continuous Number of (Hassan and Nhemachena, 2008). Hence, many of the years stayed in explanatory variables employed in this study are selected pastoralism with reference to such studies. The explanatory variables Level of education Continuous Number of years attended school are as given below. Frequency of drought Dummy 0=No; 1=Yes Household head’s gender: As much empirical evidence occurrence indicates, this study hypothesized that pastoralist Increase in temperature Dummy 0=No; 1=Yes households headed by males will adapt to changes in Decrease in rainfall Dummy 0=No; 1=Yes climate better than their female counterparts. Located along river banks Dummy 0=No; 1=Yes Access to media Dummy 0=No; 1=Yes Household’s annual income: The total annual income of (ownership of a radio) a given household which is expected to have a positive Receive extension services Dummy 0=No; 1=Yes relationship to taking adaptation measures. Since many Rear cattle as major herd Dummy 0=No; 1=Yes of the adaptation strategies require financial investment, animal pastoralists with higher annual income will adapt better to changes in climate and variability. Ownership of a radio: Access to timely information is fundamental to adaptation efforts to climate change and Farm experience: In this study, it is assumed that the variability. Radio is one of the most commonly owned more experienced a pastoralist is, the more successful sources of media information by pastoralists. This study he or she will be in adaptation to climate change and hypothesizes a positive relationship between a pastoralist’s variability. This is because pastoralists know how and ownership of a radio and decisions to adapt to climate when climate changes and what strategies should be change, as well as to choose a given adaptation strategy. followed to respond to such changes. In this study, it is Level of education: In this study, the level of formal Availability of extension services: hypothesized that pastoralists who receive extension education the household head has attained is services and visits tend to adapt to climate change. Here, hypothesized to have a positive significant effect on extension services are expected to have a positive effect decisions regarding a pastoralist’s adaptation to climate on a particular pastoralist’s decision to adapt to climate change. change and to choose specific adaptation strategy. Pastoralist’s observation of changes in local climate It is a well-established fact variables: In this study, local climate variables are Pastoralist’s major herd: that all herd species do not have the same resistance to increasing temperature, decreasing rainfall and climate change and variability. The ability of a herd animal recurrent occurrence of drought. This study hypothesizes to withstand climate change stress varies from type to type. that the observation of increased incidence of drought, Pastoralists with cattle as their major herd are hypothesized increasing temperature and decreasing rainfall will to decide to quickly adapt to shortages of water and pasture positively influence pastoralists’ decisions to adapt to caused by climate change and variability. climate change.

Location of a pastoral around a river bank: The Key findings and discussion presence of the Awash River valley in the study area forced Background of the respondents the researchers to include this variable in the model. This is due to the assumption that pastoralists near the Awash The findings (Table 2) indicated that pastoralists in the River valley in different parts of the region will find it easy study area have very low education levels. Out of the total to get water and animal feed, while the reverse is true for respondents, 88.8 percent were found to be illiterate, while those in remote areas away from the river bank. Hence, it the remaining can only read and write. Moreover, 82 percent was hypothesized that the proximity of a pastoralist to the of the respondents fall into the poor wealth status category. river bank will have a negative effect on decisions to adapt As far as the gender of the respondents is concerned, 64.6 to climate change. percent are males, while the remaining are females. Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 27

Table 2: Demographic characteristics of respondents (n = 250) Table 3: Pastoralist’s perception to changes in selected climate elements (n = 250) Variable Total Variable Total Frequency Percentage (%) Frequency Percentage (%) Education Increasing Temperature Illiterate 222 88.8 Yes (1) 213 85.2 Read and write 28 11.2 No (0) 37 14.8 Wealth status Decreasing Rainfall Poor 207 82.8 Yes (1) 199 79.6 Medium 30 12 No (0) 51 20.4 Rich 13 5.2 Frequent Drought Gender Yes (1) 196 78.4 Male 161 64.6 No (0) 54 21.6 Female 89 35.4 Source: Author’s fi eld survey, 2013. Source: Author’s fi eld survey, 2013. According to the recorded climate data, rainfall distribution Pastoralist’s perception to changes in is bi-modal throughout the region and interruptions in the temperature, rainfall and drought occurrence performance of any rainy season will have an impact on the availability of pasture and water, as well as the overall food The majority of pastoralists in the study area have perceived security situation of agropastoral communities. Rainfall an increase in temperature (85.2 percent), decrease in amounts and distribution are of paramount importance to rainfall (79.6 percent) and increased frequency of drought rain-fed agriculture in less developing countries, including occurrence (78.6 percent) within the last three decades Ethiopia (Deressa et al., 2009). Research on the climate of (see Table 3). The perception of pastoralists is found to be Africa by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in line with actual climate data as recorded by the Ethiopian (2007) revealed that the amount of total annual precipitation National Meteorological Service Agency (ENEMSA). and distribution are highly variable both spatially and The data was collected from records of the last 30 years temporally. (1981-2011). The mean is calculated and presented as Trends of temperature changes and variability follows. All the stations in the study area experienced total annual rainfall amounts of less than 700 mm. The maximum Like the rainfall data, temperature data for a thirty year total annual rainfall of Dubti, Mille and Asaita Districts was period (1981-2011) were gathered from ENEMSA and 255.1 mm, 324.4 mm and 662.4 mm, respectively. The analysed. The maximum mean annual temperature lowest minimum total annual rainfall in the last thirty years recorded over the 30 years was 37.5 ±1.22, 38.08±0.91 was recorded in Asaita (45 mm). As expected, there is great and 38.12±1.09 oC, while the minimum mean annual average variability in rainfall totals (59.8 mm to 662.4 mm) temperature was 34.5 ±1.27, 37±0.91 and 37oC ±1.09 in with a mean of 286.2 and standard deviation of 126.76 mm. Dubti, Mille and Asaita Districts, respectively. The mean Strong variations and changes of rainfall totals have been annual temperature of Dubti, Mille and Asaita Districts was recorded across the years (Figure 2). 37.5±1.22, 38.08±0.91 and 38.12oC ±1.09, respectively. Assaita Dubti Millie 700

600

500

400

300 Rainfull (mm) 200

100

0 1981 1985 1989 1994 1998 2002 2007 2011 Year Figure 2. Rainfall trends in Dubti, Mille and Asaita Districts Source: ENMSA, 2013. 28 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Assaita Dubti Millie 42

40 C)

0 38

36

34

Temperature ( Temperature 32

30 1981 1985 1989 1994 1998 2002 2007 2011 Year Figure 3. Temperature trends in Dubti, Mille and Asaita Districts (1981-2011) Source: ENMSA, 2013.

As the climate record data shows (Figure 3), the variance Table 4: Adaptation strategies used by pastoralists (n = 250) of temperature changes has increased regularly over the years analysed. Adaptation strategy Frequency Percentage (%) Herd management 30 12 A study conducted in the highlands of Ethiopia found that Fodder management 14 5.6 temperatures have been increasing annually at a rate of 0.2°C over the past fi ve decades (Legesse et al., 2013). Mobility 124 49.6 The study concluded that this has already led to a decline Livelihood diversifi cation 48 19.2 in agricultural production. Regional research on predictions No adaptation 34 13.6 for climate change in Africa by the end of the twenty-fi rst Total 250 100.0 century was conducted in Kenya by Herrero et al. (2010). Their climate model simulations under a range of possible Source: Author’s fi eld survey, 2013. emission scenarios suggested that for Africa in all seasons the median temperature increase lies between 3°C and 4°C, roughly 1.5 times the global mean. The second most important adaptation strategy to climate change and variability by pastoralists in the study areas Pastoralist adaptation to climate change and was livelihood diversifi cation (19.2 percent of respondents). variability Pastoralists have been engaging in different sources of livelihood, such as selling high quality charcoal (from Adaptation strategies used by pastoralists Prosopis julifl ora, an invasive tree - see Figures 4a and 4b As indicated in the table below (Table 4), half of the - which the national government is aiming to eradicate respondents (49.6 percent) have used mobility from area through utilization), selling camel milk (see Figure 4c), of scarce water and fodder to areas of abundance within selling tooth brushes, small-scale trade (in the nearby the Afar National Regional State. Such movement was towns of Logya, Semera, Mille, Dubti, Asaita, etc.), selling made to areas that border the neighbouring regional states fi sh products from irrigated areas around the Awash River of Tigray, Amhara and Oromia. Pastoralists also stated and selling maize from Tendaho and other irrigation that this adaptation strategy enabled them to temporarily projects. settle around water points and grazing lands with abundant Figure 4: Photos of livelihood diversifi cation activities in the pasture for their livestock. Mobility has served pastoralists study areas as a successful adaptation method to climatic and environmental hazards, as well as to adapt to the diffi cult Pastoralists stated that such livelihood diversifi cation nature of the arid environment. However, the effectiveness activities enabled them to be much more successful in of this adaptation strategy is facing increasing pressure trade activities, and there are even pastoralists that own due to natural resource-based confl icts. Participants in cars, mini buses, bajaj (three-wheeled taxis) and conduct this study’s focus group discussions explained that before other types of trade. the establishment of a federal system in the country they could move to central parts of adjacent regions of Tigray, The third most prevalent adaptation strategy to climate Amhara and Oromia, but this has become more diffi cult in change in their locality (12 percent of the respondents) the current era. is herd management. Most pastoralists have reduced the number of their herds, while at the same time increasing Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 29

the quality of their livestock. Due to climate change- induced shortages of water and pasture, pastoralists in the study areas are also altering the composition of their herds. They are increasingly replacing cattle with goats, sheep, donkeys and camels. The change in composition of livestock has been facilitated by many social measures, like giving drought-resistant herd species as marriage dowry.

Lastly, the adaptation strategy used by 5.6 percent of the respondents was fodder management. This adaptation strategy has recently been introduced. Pastoralists in the study areas have begun to make hay and to purchase on his or her decision to adapt to climate change. A one crop residues from adjacent sedentary farmers and unit change in the proximity of a pastoralist to the river agropastoralists. Some of the hay is sold to animal bank will decrease his/her probability of deciding to adapt keepers in towns. As indicated by focus group discussion to climate change by 10.2 percent (p<0.005). The focus participants, this has been integrated with the cut and group discussions participants stated that this is due to carry system of fodder collection, in which pastoralists cut the relative abundance of water and fodder along the river pasture from protected areas, like the Awash National Park bank. Studies have confirmed that farmers in different (prohibited for grazing), and carry it to an area where they environments make different decisions in adapting to can store and feed their livestock. climate change (Seo et al., 2009; Nhemachena and Hassan, 2007). Different environments possess different Factors influencing pastoralists’ decision to types and amounts of resources for adaptation to climate adapt to climate change and variability change. Having learned that the majority of pastoralists in the study The marginal effect of a pastoralist having received area have accurately perceived changes in temperature extension services was found to be 8.5 percent. This implies and rainfall, as well as the frequent occurrence of drought, that pastoralists who receive extension services have an a Binary Logit Model was run to examine the factors that 8.5 percent higher probability of adapting to climate change influence the decision of pastoralists whether and how and variability (p<0.005). Many studies, like Etwire et al., much to adapt to the climate changes. In the model, 2013, Nhemachena and Hassan, 2007, Gbetibouo, 2009 the dependent variable (DV) was whether a particular and Deressa and Hassan, 2010, have ascertained that pastoralist adapted to the changes in climate (Yes = 1) there is a positive relationship between receiving extension or (otherwise = 0). Along with this, the model has eleven services and the decision to adapt to climate change. This independent variables (IV) that are hypothesized to is due to the fact that pastoralists who have contact with influence the decision of a pastoralist to adapt to climate extension workers will have better knowledge and support change and variability. The log-likelihood ratio test of the in their efforts to adapt to climate change. full model with all its predictors is -80.69671, which is smaller than the initial log-likelihood ratio of -111.56092; The probability of a pastoralist who owns a radio adapting which makes the overall Chi-square test to be x2(11,N to climate change and variability is 21.59 percent (p<0.001) = 250)61.73, P<0.0005. Hence, it is concluded that the higher than those who don’t own a radio. As the researchers variables included in the model explain the variation in the hypothesized, the focus group discussions participants regressand adequately and very well. stated that the information transmitted via radio about climate change impacts, adaptation strategies and market The results of the Binary Logit Model (Table 5) indicated information provoke them to decide to adapt to climate that location or proximity of a pastoralist to the river bank change. This is similar to the findings of Deressa of the Awash River has a significant negative influence 30 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Table 5: The binary logit model of a pastoralist’s decision to Pastoralists who have perceived increasing trends in undertake adaptation to climate change temperature were found to have 22.54 percent higher probability of adapting to climate change and variability Explanatory variable Coefficients Marginal effect (dy/dx) (p<0.1). In discussions with pastoralists, they stated that when temperatures increase their livestock suffers Pastoralist’s perception of 1.8580*** 0.2254* increase in temperature # from heat stress, hence they are forced to take adaptive [0.6848] [0.1165] measures. The marginal effect for pastoralists perception Pastoralist household owning 0.9533** 0.0688** of increasing drought frequency for the last three decades cattle as a major herd # [0.4412] [0.0336] is 8.4 percent (p<0.01). This implies that pastoralists who Pastoralist’s perception of 0.9676 0.0518* have recognized the increasing frequency of drought decreasing rainfall # [0.6563] [0.0281] have an 8.4 percent higher probability of adapting to Ownership of radio # 2.1866*** 0.2159*** climate change than the base case (those who have not [0.4913] [0.0571] perceived the higher frequency of drought). However, Household head’s level of 1.1701** 0.0634** whether a pastoralist had noticed the decreasing amount education of rainfall over the last three decades was found to have [0.5392] [0.0257] no effect on his or her decision to adapt to climate change. Pastoralist who receives 1.4076*** 0.0850*** extension services # Many studies discovered that farmers who experience [0.5411] [0.0284] increased incidence of drought, increasing temperatures Pastoralist’s perception 1.4797*** 0.0841*** and reduction in rainfall are more likely to adapt to climate of increasing drought [0.5655] [0.0288] occurrences# change (Komba and Muchapondwa, 2012; Nhemachena Household head’s gender # -0.4108 -.0274 and Hassan, 2007; Gbetibouo, 2009; Deressa and Hassan, 2010). The findings of this study are in confirmation to [0.4590] [0.0293] those findings, except for rainfall. River bank # -1.5307*** -0.1021*** [0.5029] [0.0339] The other most important predictor that determines the Farming experience 2.7612*** 0.1749*** decision of pastoralists whether or not to adapt to climate [0.6365] [0.0398] change is found to be farming experience, with the marginal Livelihood system # 0.1012 0.0071 effect being 17.49 percent (p<0.001). The marginal effect [0.4226] [0.0296] implies that a unit change toward more farming experience from little farming experience will increase the probability Constant 8.4363** of a given pastoralist to adapt to climate change and [1.4622] variability by 17.49 percent. Literature on the effects of

Observation 250 farming experience on adapting to climate change have mixed conclusions. Some studies concluded that farm LR χ2(11) 61.73 experience has no effect (Bekele and Drake, 2003; Hassan (p-value) 0.0000 and Nhemachena, 2008), while some found a significant negative impact (Lapar and Pandy, 1999; 2006; Nyangena, and Hassan (2010) and Mandleni and Anim (2011) who 2007; Anley et al., 2007) and others found positive effects have reported that access to information on climate change (Okeye, 1998; Bayard et al., 2007) on adaptation to climate and variability through, for example, a radio positively change. affects adaptation to climate change. The results of this study’s analysis also indicated that the The marginal effect of 6.34 percent (p<0.05) for pastoralist probability of pastoralists who rear cattle as their major household head’s level of education implies that pastoralists livestock herd to adapt to climate change is 6.88 percent who are not illiterate have a 6.34 percent higher probability higher than those who rear other types of livestock as their of adapting to climate change and variability. The more major heard (mainly camel and goats) p<0.05. In the focus they are educated the more probable they will be to group discussions, participants stated that cattle are highly decide to adapt to climate change. A number of studies dependent on climate-sensitive resources, as opposed to found that education and knowledge are crucial elements other types of herds, such as camel and goats. Hence, of climate change adaptation measures and natural pastoralists decide to adopt climate change adaptation resource management practices (Glendinning et al., 2001; strategies because of the need to search for the feed and Hassan and Nhemachena, 2008; Deressa and Hassan, water requirements of their cattle. 2010). The level of education of farmers was found to be Finally, the model results showed that the gender of the positively associated with decisions to adapt (Hassan and household head, the type of livelihood system (whether Nhemachena, 2008) and negatively associated as with the the pastoralist is undertaking some form of agriculture or studies of Okeye (1998) and Gould et al. (1989). Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 31 irrigation) and household income was found to have an 5.49 percent (p<0.05) when the level of education of the insignificant effect in predicting the decision of respondents household head increases by one year. Pastoralists who to adapt to climate change and variability. have perceived increasing frequency of drought in their locality were found to have a 13.82 percent (p<0.05) higher Factors determining pastoralist’s choice of probability of using herd management as an adaptation different adaptation strategies to climate change strategy. Receiving extension services from nearby farmer and variability training centres (FTC) increases the probability of using Different climate adaptation strategies have different levels herd management by 11.37 percent ((p<0.01). Households of effectiveness. Obviously, pastoralists might prefer some headed by males were found to have a 7.37 percent adaptation strategies over others. In addition to such (p<0.05) higher probability of adapting to climate change preferences, some adaptation strategies might be more and variability through herd management compared to appropriate than others in certain environmental and social female headed households. Being located near the banks contexts. An analysis of the factors that determine which of the Awash River has resulted in a 0.43 percent (p<0.1) adaptation strategies are selected can provide valuable lower probability of using herd management as adaptation information about the social context of the community under strategy. consideration and the social-economic, environmental and Fodder management institutional factors that influence their decision to adopt a particular strategy (Yegbemey et al., 2013; Deressa et Pastoralists who have perceived increasing temperature al., 2009: Nhemachena and Hassan, 2007). From this in their locality have a 0.04 percent (p<0.05) lower approach, a Multinomial Logit Regression model was run likelihood of using fodder management as an adaptation to analyse the factors that determine the choice of climate to climate change and variability compared to those who adaptation strategies by a given pastoralist. have not. Table 6 also indicates that pastoralists who rear cattle as their major herd have a 2.73 percent (p<0.05) The dependent variable (DV) of the models was adaptation higher probability of using fodder management due to strategies, which have four responses each, representing the fact that fodder is mostly used by cattle compared four different climate adaptation strategies (Where 0 = to other herd types. It was also found that a one year herd management, 1 = fodder management, 2 = mobility, increase in the level of education of the household head and 3 = livelihood diversification). The base category for increases the probability of using fodder management as reference of comparison was the ‘no adaptation’ group. an adaptation strategy to climate change and variability The model has 10 predictors (independent variables) that by 0.01 percent (p<0.05). The argument behind this is are hypothesized to influence the decision of northeastern that fodder management requires considerable skill and pastoralists of Ethiopia to adopt certain adaptation some behavioural change. Pastoralists who have received strategies. Model output indicates a Log likelihood ratio of extension services were found to have a 5.33 percent -261.0722 and a likelihood ratio chi-square (LR chi2 (40)) (p<0.01) higher likelihood of using fodder management of 153.76 with a p-value < 0.0001 implying that the model as an adaptation strategy than those who have not as a whole fits significantly better than a model without received extension services. The likelihood of using fodder predictor variables. management as an adaptation strategy is 1.72 percent Herd management (p<0.05) higher for more experienced pastoralists than those who are less experienced. This indicates that when Results for strategy one indicated that having cattle as a pastoralists have a higher level of education and more major herd increases the probability of herd management farming experience they tend to use fodder management, by 13.16 percent (p<0.01) as opposed to the rearing of other because with education and experience they acquire the types of herds, such as camel and goats. According to the necessary knowledge on how to manage fodder for their focus group discussion results, cattle have low adaptive livestock. capacity to the impacts of climate change compared to other types of herd. Hence, pastoralists having cattle as Notes: a major herd are forced to manage their herd. Pastoralists Base category for adaptation methods is “No who own radios have a 6.72 percent (p<0.05) higher adaptation” probability of adapting to climate change through herd management than those who do not (Deressa et al., 2008). P values are in brackets; *, **, *** imply significance One year increase in farming experience increases the level at 10%, 5%, and 1% respectively probability of using herd management as an adaptation strategy by 6.11 percent (p<0.01). The probability of using herd management as an adaptation strategy increases by (#) dy/dx is for discrete change of dummy variable from 0 to 1 32 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Table 6: The multinomial logit model marginal effects for a pastoralist’s choice of specific adaptation strategies to climate change

Explanatory variable Adaptation strategies Herd management Fodder Mobility Livelihood management diversification Pastoralist’s perception of increases in temperature # 0.0847 -0.0004** -0.1548 0.0356* [0.062] [0.022] [0.144] [0.081] Pastoralist household owning cattle as a major herd # 0.1316*** 0.0273** -0.0185 -0.0567 [0.002] [0.033] [0.791] [0.213] Pastoralist’s perception of decreasing rainfall # 0.0384 1.02e-07 -0.0177** 0.0755* [0.297] [0.783] [0.037] [0.067] Ownership of a radio # 0.0672** -3.79e-07 -0.3024*** 0.0291** [0.041] [0.217] [0.000] [0.046] Household head’s level of education 0.0549** 0.0001** -0.0886 0.1291 [0.042] [0.024] [0.446] [0.227] Pastoralist who receive extension services # 0.1137*** 0.0533*** -0.0376** 0.1718*** [0.001] [0.003] [0.038] [0.006] Pastoralist’s perception of increasing drought 0.1382** 6.67e-08 -0.0198** 0.0283** occurrences# [0.022] [0.851] [0.037] [0.027] Household head’s gender # 0.0737** -1.69e-07 0.2596*** -0.4285***

Mobility The results of the focus group discussions with respondents indicated that when pastoralists perceive that drought Results from strategy three indicates that pastoralists who occurrence is increasing, they tend to reduce their reliance have perceived a decreasing amount of rainfall have a 1.77 on pastoralism and to diversify into other means of livelihood. percent (p<0.05) lower likelihood of using mobility as an Participants of the focus group discussions also stated that adaptation strategy. Respondents stated that when they there is a relative abundance of fodder and water near the perceive rainfall is decreasing, they mostly opt for other banks of the Awash River, which makes them not choose strategies rather than moving in search of water elsewhere. to move to other locations. Moreover, they have stated that In addition, owning a radio decreases the probability of when their experience in farming increases, they realize using mobility as an adaptation strategy by 30.23 percent that mobility is a traditional way of adapting to climate (p<0.05). These days, the government is encouraging change and they decide to adapt through other strategies, pastoralists to permanently settle and to benefit from such as herd and fodder management. The other predictor public service infrastructures, rather than to move across variable having a positive effect on mobility was gender. the region. This policy direction of the government is Households headed by males were found to have a 25.96 frequently discussed in the mass media and pastoralists percent (p<0.001) higher probability than those headed by are increasingly becoming aware of it. females to use mobility as an adaptation strategy to climate change and variability. In addition, the federal system of government does not allow cross-border mobility of pastoralists among adjacent Livelihood diversification regional states, as was common in the past. Receiving extension services was found to decrease the probability As for the results from strategy four, the perception of of using mobility as an adaptation strategy by 3.76 percent pastoralists of increasing temperatures has increased (p<0.05). Pastoralists explain that extension service the probability of using livelihood diversification as an experts and development agents usually encourage and adaptation strategy by 3.56 percent (p<0.1) compared train them on how to manage their herd and fodder and how to those who have not noticed temperature changes. to diversify their livelihood. A perception of the increasing Perception of respondents to a decreasing trend in rainfall frequency of drought, the location of a pastoralist near to has also increased the likelihood of using livelihood the Awash River banks and farming experience have also diversification as an adaptation strategy by 7.55 percent decreased the probability of using mobility as an adaptation (p<0.1). Pastoralists who have perceived an increasing strategy by 1.98 percent (p<0.05), 12.05 percent (p<0.1) frequency of drought occurrence were found to have a 2.83 and 0.81 percent (p<0.1), respectively. percent (p<0.05) chance of livelihood diversification than Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 33 those who have not. Respondents Conclusions and policy need to be adjusted to the mobile stated that the heat stress caused implications nature of the pastoral communities by increasing temperatures and the (for instance, by distributing sources lack of water and pasture caused by Conclusions of media, like radios, or by arranging low rainfall and drought have been mobile posts for extension services). From the findings of this study, it is forcing them to abandon livestock Secondly, extension services concluded that pastorals in the study rearing and diversify to other means should not only focus on improving area have an adequate perception of of livelihood. Ownership of a radio, productivity, but should also integrate changes in climate, as well variability having received extension services dissemination of daily, monthly, of weather elements. Due to this, and farming experience has increased annual and multi-decade climate data they are mostly aware of the impacts the probability of using livelihood so that pastoralists have adequate that are prevailing and that could diversification by 2.91 percent information on trends of climate take place in the future. This in turn (p<0.05), 17.18 percent (p<0.01) and change. Thirdly, the indigenous way has initiated them to take adaptation 8.05 percent (p<0.1), respectively. The of information dissemination of the measures to offset the impacts of focus group discussion participants Afar people, called dagu, should climate change and variability. A stated that the government regularly be harnessed for climate-related pastoralist who owns a radio, receives transmits radio programmes that information dissemination and be extension services and has a higher explain the importance of livelihood accompanied with adequate training. level of education is more likely to diversification and how to get involved decide to take adaptation measures. The other most important policy in it. Such radio programmes have Similarly, pastoralists that have implication of this study is the a considerable effect on creating perceived increasing temperatures establishment of a climatic data awareness and motivating pastoralists and drought occurrences, have longer centre for the Afar National Regional to use livelihood diversification as an experience and those whose major State as a whole, as well as for all adaptation strategy. herd is cattle have a higher probability its administrative units. This centre Respondents also stated that of taking decisions to adapt. The would gather, analyse, record and development agents and other pastoralists who have decided to take disseminate climate change data workers that provide extension adaptation measures have adopted relevant to pastoral production services are always encouraging either or some combination of the systems in dryland ecosystems. This pastoralists to diversify their livelihood four major adaptation strategies. centre would also finance and conduct to other sources of income. In the These are mobility, livelihood research and adaptation projects focus group discussions, pastoralists diversification, herd management and in cooperation with concerned reported that as their farming fodder management. The choice of stakeholders. experience increased, they had come pastoralists between the four major Education is indispensable to to understand the lack of productivity adaptation strategies was significantly climate change adaptation efforts. of livestock keeping and therefore influenced by multiple factors. These Hence, a special focus should are gradually shifting to some other factors are: pastoralists’ perception be given to promoting education livelihood sources, such as irrigation- of climate change components among pastoralists. However, this based farming and petty trade. The (increasing temperature, decreasing should not be limited to formal results from strategy four have also rain fall and recurrent drought), education. Informal ways of educating indicated that households headed ownership of radios, distance from pastoralists (especially those who are by males have a 42.85 percent river banks, level of education, gender illiterate) should be arranged. Through (p<0.001) lower likelihood of using of the household head and access to this, pastoralists can learn to read and livelihood diversification than those extension services. write, which will facilitate adaptation headed by females. This implies Policy implications efforts by easing the utilization of that females are more successful in different adaptation technologies and livelihood diversification, especially in To enable successful adaptation of relevant information. petty trade and commercial activities. pastoralists to climate change and The nearer a pastoralist is located to variability, extension services should Currently, mobility is the major the Awash River bank also increased be provided to all pastoralists in a very adaptation strategy to climate the probability of using livelihood integrated and local-people friendly change and variability. This strategy diversification as an adaptation way. First, it should be made available is, however, no longer effective strategy by 8.05 percent (p<0.1) over to all pastoralists who are in remote because of border and ownership those who are located in areas farther areas as well as those that can be issues with neighbouring regions as away from the river bank. easily accessed. Extension services well as the villagization programme 34 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

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Koocheki, A. and R. Gliessman Nyangena, Wilfred (2007). “Social Session on dryland ecosystem (2005). “Pastoral nomadism: A determinants of soil and water management sustainable system for grazing land conservation in rural Kenya,” management in arid areas”, Journal Environment, Development and of Development Agriculture, Vol. 25, Sustainability, 10(6), pp. 745-767. Issue 4. 36 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

4. Characterization of irrigated soils and irrigation water in relation to salinity and sodicity in the Middle Awash Valley, Ethiopia: implications for management of dryland degradation Kebenu Feyisa Gonfa

ABSTRACT

Key words: dryland (arid and semi-arid regions), irrigated soil, irrigation water, salinity, sodicity

In Ethiopia, about 70 percent of the discontinuity, most of the soil’s soil, respectively. Although irrigation land mass is classified as drylands physical properties showed variability appeared to have contributed to some which are mostly characterized by with soil depth. The soil pH values extent to the development of salt- low and erratic rainfall (moisture ranged from 7.4 to 8.7, ranging from affected soils, there is also a natural deficit areas) throughout the year. slightly alkaline to strongly alkaline, potential salinity as well as sodicity in Knowledge about the status of soil while electrical conductivity of the the area. The irrigation water samples quality indicators and irrigation water saturated soil paste extract (ECe) were moderately alkaline in reaction quality are required for sustainable ranged from 0.63 dS m-1 (non-saline and moderately saline in salt content. land use of drylands. soil) to 45.50 dS m-1 (highly saline The HCO3- salts of Ca2+ and Na+ soil). Both in the soil solution and the ions are mainly contributing to the This study was conducted in Fantale exchange site, Ca2+ and Na+ were development of salinity and sodicity District, East Shewa Zone of Oromia the pre-dominant cations, whereas (alkalinity) hazards in the irrigation Regional State in the Great Rift Valley Cl- and HCO3- were the pre-dominant water. In general, the irrigation of Ethiopia. The study focused on anions in almost all the profiles. water was medium in soluble salt characterization and classification of concentration, low in sodicity and irrigated soils and irrigation water by Accordingly, Ca and Na salts of Cl- safe in residual sodium carbonate characterizing the physicochemical and HCO3- were mainly contributing hazards. Accordingly, the results properties of soils and irrigation for the salinity developments in the showed that the irrigation water water of the Irrigation Site in relation study site. Therefore, having pH < 8.5, is potentially suitable for irrigation to salinity and sodicity. Soil samples ECe > 4 dS m-1 and ESP > 15 percent purposes, while the soils of the area from four profiles (depth-wise) in in the surface, the soils of Profiles 1 are prone for secondary salinization representative locations and five and 3 were classified as saline sodic, and alkalization processes calling for irrigation water samples from different while the soils represented by Profile proper management practices and locations of the main canal and the 2 (ECe < 4 dS m-1 and ESP > 15) frequent monitoring of the soil-water- Awash River were collected and and Profile 4 (ECe < 4 dS m-1 and plant relationships in relation to soil analysed. The results revealed that ESP < 15) classified as sodic soil salinity, soil sodicity and specific ion due to the presence of lithological and non-saline non-sodic (normal) toxicity effects.

4 Kebenu Feyisa Gonfa, Samara University, Semera, Ethiopia, [email protected]. Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 37

Introduction Background

Salinization of land and water years if current irrigation practices are and increasing agropastoralists’ resources is a major landscape allowed to continue without proper income in Fantale District of the degradation issue worldwide management (Tadesse and Bekele, East Shewa Zone. However, efforts (Rhoades, 1990). High concentration 1996; Georgis et al., 2006). to increase agricultural productivity of salts in the root zone limits the with the help of irrigation, improved As reported by Murphy (1968), the Rift productivity of nearly 953 million varieties, chemical fertilizers, better Valley zone of Ethiopia as a whole is hectares (ha) of productive land in the management practices and other potentially a very valuable agricultural world. According to recent reports, the agricultural inputs will only be possible area. Moreover, Gebremariam area of salt-affected land coverage is if the project is supported by research (2003) indicated that the greatest estimated to be more than 60 percent on the soil and irrigation water concentration of water bodies in in Australia, which has continued to qualities in order to practice effective Ethiopia is located in the Rift Valley. expand (Robertson et al., 2010). In control of soil salinity. Information Thus, there is a tendency to consider Africa it covers about 81 million ha of on the physical and chemical the use of these waters for irrigation dryland areas (Szabolcs, 1979). Most composition of soils and quality of as a solution to alleviate the problem of the salt-affected soils and brackish waters used for irrigation are essential of very unreliable rain-fed agriculture groundwater resources are confined for planning and implementing and a determinant for agricultural to arid and semi-arid regions and are reclamation programmes in a timely development and self-sufficiency with the causative factors for triggering the and cost-effective manner that respect to food production. Realizing process of desertification. Generally, allows sustained crop production and these options and opportunities, in irrigated areas, human-induced promotes sustainable land use. Ethiopia - which suffers from repeated salinity- and sodicity-related land drought, famine, low soil fertility, low Even though white salt crust and degradation is becoming a serious productivity using rain-fed agriculture shiny black soil surfaces are easily challenge for food and nutritional and high population pressure in the observable in the field, except for security in the developing world highlands (Lakew et al., 2000) - is a few preliminary surveys on soil (Golchin and Asgari, 2008; Singh, currently seeing the need to extend fertility, the irrigated lands in Fantale 2009; Wahab et al., 2010). agricultural production by using District have not been studied and Ethiopia is the first in Africa and the irrigation in vast areas of potentially- as such there is a lack of baseline ninth country in the world having more irrigable lands in arid and semi-arid data and scientific information on the than 11 million ha of salt-affected lowlands of the country, where rain- salt status of the soils and irrigation soils (FAO, 1988; Szabolcs, 1989) fed production is difficult. water. Therefore, knowledge about which are mainly found in the Rift the status of the soil quality indicators To understand how improved irrigation Valley, Wabi Shebele River Basin and soil physicochemical properties technology may assist in reaching and various lowlands of the country. and irrigation water quality, types these needs, it requires knowledge of Following the establishment of large and distribution of the salinity- and salinity- and sodicity-related chemical scale irrigated farms, the problem sodicity-related problems of the soils properties of irrigation waters and the become worse due to poor drainage are required for sustainable land use soils of the lands to be converted into systems and inappropriate water of the area. irrigated agriculture. Such knowledge management practices coupled with is believed to help producers and unsound reclamation procedures. Objectives production managers to understand For instance, over 2,280 ha (Melka and make necessary modifications Therefore, the objectives of the study Sadi), 500 ha (Matahara), 300 ha in the soil-salt-water balance and in were to: (Asyta), 220 ha (Kebena or Yalo), ecosystem equilibrium that may arise 145 ha (Kesem), 100 ha (Gewane), Characterize and classify the as a result of introduction of irrigation 56 ha (Werer State Farm), 80 ha irrigated soils of Fantale District farming (Rajabzadeh et al., 2009; (Shoa, Kefa Dura), 20 ha (Mille) have based on the existing salinity and/ Shahid et al., 2009a). been proved to be salt-affected soils. or sodicity status; Moreover, it is expected that the The Oromia Regional State has started Evaluate and classify the irrigation salt-affected soils in these areas will an irrigation-based development water quality based on its dramatically increase in the next few project for ensuring food security suitability for irrigation; and 38 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

propose a way to manage salinity- According to data obtained from the area is characterized with features and/or sodicity-induced land Fantale District Land Administration of past and recent volcanic events, degradation (soil and water) in the and Environmental Protection which is evident from the observation study area. Office (2009) and Dinka (2010), the of vast lava extrusions at the foot climate of the area is characterized slope of mountain Fantale and dots Materials and methods as semi-arid, with an annual mean of extensive scoriceous hills in the Description of the study area temperature of about 25 OC (Figure locality (Mohr, 1971), as cited by 3 and Appendix Table 1). The area Abejehu (1993). Geographically, the study area is is also characterized by a long dry The dominant soil type of the study located in Fantale District, East period and short rain season, where area is Andosols and its parent Shewa Zone of Oromia Regional the evapotranspiration (ET) always material may be grouped as volcanic State (Figure 1), in the Great Rift exceeds the rainfall amount, except materials and skeletal soils of recent Valley of Ethiopia, which is about 190 in July and August. The mean annual alluvial and colluvial deposits. In km east of Addis Ababa. Specifically, rainfall of the area is 553 mm (Figure the site, there are accumulations the study site is found at the Fantale 3 and Appendix Table 1). Rain-fed of medium to very coarse textured Irrigation Project Farm at the western agriculture is unreliable for crop volcanic rocks and also accumulated part of Lake Basaka and Matahara production in the area because of the in the underlying soil under the town (the capital of Fantale District) insufficient amount of rainfall and its conditions where the soils moved lying between 585320 - 589923 UTM erratic distribution. Hence, irrigation down from hills and are deposited on easting and 963581 - 981706 UTM has become an important agricultural the rocky land surfaces. northing coordinating points (Figure activity. 2). The area lies on altitude ranging Until recent years, the land was used As the site is situated in the central from 950 metres above sea level only for communal grazing and the Rift Valley region, it is vulnerable to (m.a.s.l.) at Lake Basaka to 1,900 communities’ lifestyle was pastoralist. the occurrences of different tectonic m.a.s.l. at Fantale Mountain. . However, at present, communities and volcanic activities. As a result, the are becoming agropastoralists, with different crop production activities being practiced using irrigation along with rearing animals. This is mainly through different development initiatives being undertaken in the district, like the Fantale Irrigation Based Development Project. The Fantale District Irrigation Based Development Project was planned to cover a total of 18,000 ha of land, which was expected to feed 36,000 households, and currently about 1,000 ha of land is irrigated. According to the information obtained from the local community and field observations, the natural vegetation of the area includes different types of acacia trees, bushes and different grasses. However, recently, invasive plant species, such as Prosopis juliflora and Partineum, are invading the study site.

Figure 1. Map of the study area Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia Figure 3. Mean monthly rainfall, ET and temperature of Matahara areas 39

140 35

120 30

100 25 C) 80 20 0

60 15

40 10 Temperature ( Temperature Rainfall and ET (mm) Rainfall and ET 20 5

0 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Rainfall Mean ET Mean Temperature

Source: Dinka, 2010. Figure 3. Mean monthly rainfall, ET and temperature of Matahara areas Source: Dinka, 2010.

Site selection, soil and irrigation Soil sampling at the diversion weir and the other water sampling four from the main canal diverted After site selection, soil profiles were from the Awash River at 10, 20, 30 Site selection opened on sites where indicators of and 40 kilometre distances from the the problems were seen during field diversion weir (Appendix Table 3). General reconnaissance surveys observation (Appendix Table 2). For The collecting, handling and analysis and field observations were carried this study, soil samples were collected of the irrigation water samples were out to determine the representative from four freshly opened soil profiles done according to the procedures sampling sites of the study, of which which were excavated to a depth of outlined by the US Salinity Laboratory four representative soil profile 2 metres, with 1.5 metres width and Staff (1954). sampling sites were selected and 1.5 metres length. Soil samples were one profile was opened for each. The collected from each horizon or layer Soil and water analysis sampling site selection was done on depth-wise to determine selected soil Analysis of soil physical the basis of site history of irrigated physical and chemical properties in the properties and non-irrigated lands, white salt laboratory. That is, the profiles were crust formation on land surface (an divided into their soil layers according The soil samples were air dried, indicator of saline soil), shining black to the evidence of pedogenic horizon ground and sieved through a 2 mm crust soils on land surface (an indicator development when applicable and sieve and made ready for laboratory of sodic soil), vegetation type (salinity to sampling layers where genetic analysis. Soil physical properties, and sodicity loving plant species or horizons were not evident. Sampling particle size distribution, particle halophytic plants), surface drainage and field description of the layers density and bulk density were condition (which naturally hold water) were made based on the guidelines analysed, and from their results total and crop stand status. Accordingly, for soil description (FAO, 2006), while porosity was calculated. Particle Profiles 1 and 3 represent irrigated soil colour was interpreted using the size distribution was analysed by land with white salt crust appearances Munsell Color Chart (Munsell Color the Bouyoucos hydrometer method on the land surface at Mel-dhiba and Company, 1975). using sodium hexametaphosphate Nukusa sites, respectively (Appendix as a dispersing agent as described Table 2). Profile 2 was selected for Irrigation water sampling by Sertsu and Bekele (2000). Soil irrigated land with very poor crop particle density was estimated by the stand, poor drainage conditions and As the source of irrigation water was pycnometer method (Blake, 1965), shiny black soil surfaces, while Profile Awash River, water samples were while bulk density was determined 4 was opened on a grazing land with taken from the Awash River and on undisturbed soil samples following no history of irrigation and cultivation the main canal. Five water samples the core method. Finally, total porosity as a control at Nukusa site. were collected during the dry season in early December 2010. A sample was calculated from the values of bulk was collected from the Awash River density (ρb) and particle density (ρs) 40 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

as: Particle size distribution to 1.57 g cm-3 at the surface layer of Profile 2 (Table 1). However, the Total Porosity (%)= The particle size distribution analysis lowest (37.9 percent) and highest ρb revealed that sand was the dominant __ (58.8 percent) total porosity values [1-( )]x100 fraction in all of the soil profiles ρs were recorded at the surface layer of

studied. This was followed by silt and Profile 2 and at the bottom (121-160 clay fractions, in that order, although cm) layer of Profile 3, respectively. the distribution did not follow any In Profiles 1, 2 and 3, bulk density, consistent pattern with soil depth Analysis of soil chemical particle density and the total porosity (Table 1). Accordingly, both the properties showed increasing trends regularly surface and the subsurface soils of with the soil depth, respectively. While The soil chemical properties analysed Profiles 3 and 4 were dominated by in the other profiles, they did not show include pH, ECe, basic exchangeable sandy loam, while Profiles 1 and 2 a consistent relationship with depth cations (Ca, Mg, Na and K), CEC, were loam at the surface but sandy up to the bottom layer due to the exchangeable acidity, soluble cations loam was dominant in the subsurface presence of lithological discontinuity (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ and K+), soluble soils of Profile 2. similar to the particle size distribution. anions (Cl-, SO42-, HCO3-, CO32- The possible reason for the pre- and B). These parameters were According to Foth (1990), soils without dominance of sand could be due to analysed following their respective structure, such as single grained and the young parent material deposited procedures as stated by Wolg (1971), massive soils, have a bulk density of by erosion (alluvial/colluvial parent Sertsu and Bekele (2000), Reeuwijk about 1.6 to 1.7 g cm-3. In relation materials) and the removal of finer (2002) and from these values, to this, with its massive soil structure soil particles from the land surfaces sodium adsorption ration (SAR), and bulk density of 1.57 g cm-3, the by wind. In line with this, Abebe residual sodium carbonate (RSC), surface soil of Profile 2 could be (1998) and Zewdie (2004) have also percent base saturation (PBS) and considered as within the normal range. reported that the soils in the Rift exchangeable sodium percentage In addition, the possible reason for Valley areas were highly eroded by (ESP) were calculated. the highest bulk density at the surface wind during dry seasons because soil of Profile 2 could be ascribed to Finally, the soils of the study site were of their low structural stability, weak high compaction and surface crusting classified into different salt-affected coherence, low bulk density and due to cementing effects of calcium soil types and boron toxicity levels low moisture retaining capacity. The carbonate which resulted in less pore according to the criteria set by the variation in particle size distributions spaces. As a result, the lowest total US Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954) within the soil depth were due to porosity was recorded in the same provided in Appendix Tables 4 and 5. the recently deposited alluvial soil layer as these are inversely related parent materials from which the to each other. As a whole, the total Analysis of irrigation water soils have been developed. This porosities of the profiles were almost indicated the presence of lithological Parameters like pH, EC, dissolved within the normal range, though lower discontinuity within the soil profile cations (Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+ and K+) from Profile 2 (Foth, 1990). According and was confirmed by the findings and anions (Cl-, SO42-, HCO3- and to Singleton et al. (1999), the particle of other studies on soils of the CO32-) were analysed according to density of soils containing allophane Melka Sedi-Amibara plain of the the specific methods described by was small as it consists of hollow Ethiopian Rift Valley (Gebrekidan, Reeuwijk (2002). spheres. Based on the report of the 1985). In addition, Fasika (2006) same author, the volcanic soils of At last, classification of the studied and Hailu (2009) observed a similar New Zealand containing allophone irrigation water was done based on phenomenon in soils of the Southern were characterized by particle density salinity (EC), SAR, RSC and boron Rift Valley of Ethiopia and the Dirma values ranging from 2.05 to 2.27 g content in accordance with the criteria Irrigation Project at Dessie Zuria and cm-3 in the surface layer. In line with (Appendix Tables 6 and 7) established Kalu Districts, respectively. this, the minimum particle density by the US Salinity Laboratory Staff Soil densities and total porosity value (2.09 g cm-3) recorded in the (1954). surface soil of Profile 1 in this study The particle density ranged from 2.09 was within this range, most probably Key findings and discussion at the surface layer of Profile 1 to 2.85 due to the same reason as to why Soil physical properties g cm-3 at 74 -121 cm depth of Profile volcanic ash soil parent materials 3, while bulk density ranged from dominated the study area. 1.02 at the surface layer of Profile 1 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 41

Table 1. Some physical properties of the soils at the Fantale Irrigation Project site

Depth (cm) Particle size distribution (%) Textural class Particle density Bulk density Total porosity (g cm-3) (g cm-3) (%) Sand Silt Clay Profile 1: Irrigated maize field with white salt crust on the surface at Mel-dhiba 0-29 43.52 38.40 18.08 Loam 2.09 1.02 52.2 29-65 34.88 39.00 26.12 Loam 2.56 1.13 55.9 65-129 54.12 35.60 10.28 Sandy loam 2.69 1.25 57.6 129-183 45.48 38.20 16.32 Loam 2.65 1.31 50.6 Profile 2: Irrigated maize field with poor stand showing shiny black surface at Nukusa 0-25 47.84 42.04 10.12 Loam 2.53 1.57 37.9 25-60 71.60 18.28 10.12 Sandy loam 2.73 1.49 45.4 60-94 67.28 24.60 8.12 Sandy loam 2.70 1.43 51.9 Profile 3: Irrigated maize field with white salt crust on the surface at Nukusa 0-30 73.76 14.10 12.14 Sandy loam 2.54 1.18 53.5 30-74 60.80 29.10 10.10 Sandy loam 2.66 1.23 53.8 74-121 50.00 35.70 14.30 Loam 2.85 1.28 55.1 121-160 71.55 16.30 12.15 Sandy loam 2.67 1.10 58.8 Profile 4: Un-irrigated/uncultivated field/grazing land at Nukusa 0-32 54.32 29.60 16.08 Sandy loam 2.63 1.31 50.2 32-69 71.60 18.70 9.70 Sandy loam 2.52 1.33 47.2 69-108 67.28 22.40 10.32 Sandy loam 2.56 1.25 51.2 108-151 68.20 21.58 10.22 Sandy loam 2.73 1.34 50.9 151-200 60.80 25.10 14.10 Sandy loam 2.69 1.22 54.6

Soil chemical properties having the ECe >15 dS m-1 at surface Cl-, HCO3- and SO42- were present soil, the site represented by Profile 1 in high concentrations, chloride, Soluble chemical properties was characterized as very strongly bicarbonate and sulphate salts Maize field with white salt crust saline. of sodium and calcium were the surface at Mel-dhiba (Profile 1) major contributors to the salinity In the surface soil, Ca2+ was the pre- development in the soils represented dominant cation followed by Na+. The pH values of this field (Profile by this Profile. However, in the bottom However, the concentration of Ca2+ 1) ranged from 7.5 at the surface to subsoil layer, in line with the high pH decreased dramatically from 64.89 at 7.7 in the subsurface layers showing value, the highest values of soluble the surface to 3.33 mmolc l-1 at the a slightly increasing trend down the Na+, HCO3-, RSC and SAR were bottom layer (129-183 cm) where profile (Table 2). According to the recorded. Fasika (2006) also reported Na+ was pre-dominant (Table 2). On rating by Murphy (1968), the soil similar ions distribution patterns in his the other hand, Cl- was the highest could be classified as slightly alkaline study on the soils of Alage ATVET among the anions throughout the in reaction. College Campus in the southern Rift profile followed by HCO3- and SO42- Valley of Ethiopia. The ECe decreased from 45.5 at , with consistent decreases with soil the surface to 28.00 dS m-1 in the depth above 129 cm depth. The SAR The concentration of B in the Profile subsurface. This indicates that the also followed the pattern of soluble increased from 0.419 at the surface to upward movement (capillary) of salt Na+ and increased in the subsurface 1.214 mg l-1 at the bottom layer (129- is much more than the downward from 3.79 at 25-65 cm to 15.26 at the 183 cm) which was the maximum B (leaching) and the surface soil contained bottom layer consistently with the soil concentration for the soils in the study more salts than the underlying layers. It depth. site (Table 2). According to the B is also reported that surface salinity is hazard classification criteria set by the The highest concentrations of soluble a common problem in arid and semi- US Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954), cations and anions were found at arid areas, due to evaporation of water the surface soil was categorized as the surface layer of the profile (0- from the soil surface and subsequent safe from B toxicity for most sensitive 29 cm) which resulted in high salt accumulation of salt over time (FAO, plants. However, the concentration in concentration. Hence, as the ions of 1988; Rengasamy, 2006). Therefore, the subsoil revealed that appropriate Ca2+, Na+, 42 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

management practices and care must moving from the surface down to the (Table 2). Similarly, the maximum be exercised to minimize its build up lower depths on account of irrigation values of SAR (27.44) and RSC to the surface soil, as B imposes its water applied in excess of soil pore (13.37) were recorded in the topsoil, toxicity effect on plant physiological spaces. The result was in agreement while RSC decreased consistently processes. with the findings of Sunitha et al. with depth to 1.82 mmolc l-1 at the (2010) on soils of Dodda Seebi bottom layer. Poor maize stand field with shiny command area in India. black surface at Nukusa (Profile In general, the soluble bicarbonate 2) The predominant soluble cation was and carbonate salts of sodium were Na+ throughout the profile, followed the predominant salts contributing In the field supporting a poor maize by K+ at the surface and Ca2+ at the to the salinity problem in the soils stand and showing a shiny black subsurface layers (25-94 cm). Similar represented by Profile 2, which was surface (Profile 2), soil pH decreased to the ECe, but contrary to the pH also similar to the findings of Hailay gradually from 8.6 at the surface values of the profile, the concentration et al. (2000) on soils of the Abaya layer (0-25 cm) to 7.9 at the bottom of soluble Ca2+ increased linearly State Farm in the southern Rift layer (60-94 cm) (Table 2). According from 0.15 at the surface soil to 4.35 Valley of Ethiopia. Furthermore, the to the classification of soil reaction mmolc l-1 at the bottom subsurface surface soil was compacted due to by Murphy (1968), the soils of this layer with soil depth (Table 2).This is in the dispersion effects of Na+. As a farmland were strongly alkaline at the agreement with the research findings result, less permeability of water, surface and moderately alkaline at of Birchall et al. (1995), Chorom and poor root depth and stunted maize the underlying subsoil layers (25-94 Rengasamy (1997) and Busaidi and growth were observed in the field. cm depth). Cookson (2003) who observed a In addition, as the pH increased the The ECe ranged from 0.63 dS m-1 at negative association between soluble concentration of Ca2+ and Mg2+ in the surface horizon to 3.00 dS m-1 at Ca2+ ion concentration and soil pH the soil solution was reduced due to the bottom (60-94 cm) and increased and a positive association with soil the formation of relatively insoluble linearly with depth contrary to the salinity. Among the anions, HCO3- calcium and magnesium carbonates pH value (Table 2). Unlike in Profile was the predominant, followed by by reaction with soluble carbonate of 1, less accumulation of soluble salts CO32- at the surface and SO42- at sodium (Warrence et al., 2002; Qadir were observed at the surface soil of the subsurface layers. In line with et al., 2007b). This in turn results in this profile. This implies, leaching the pH values, the concentration of their deficiency for plant growth. The of salts dominated over the upward HCO3- decreased consistently down solubility and availability of other (capillary) movement. In the other the soil depth from 13.02 mmolc l-1 essential elements like Fe, Mn and words, the soluble salts have been at the surface layer to 7.40 mmolc l-1 Zn could be also negatively affected. at the bottom layer of the subsurface Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 43

Table 2. Soluble chemical composition of the soil profiles at Fantale Irrigation Project site in the Middle Awash Valley, Ethiopia

ECe (dS m-1) -1 1 Depth pH Soluble cations (mmolc l ) SAR Soluble anions (mmolc l- ) B (cm) at 25 OC (mg l-1) Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ CO3- HCO3- Cl- SO4- RSC Profile 1: Irrigated maize field with white salt crust on the surface at Mel-dhiba 0-29 7.5 45.50 64.89 2.60 27.65 1.36 4.77 trace 8.70 105.62 2.86 trace 0.419 29-65 7.5 28.00 16.59 0.95 11.22 1.04 3.79 trace 9.57 62.11 2.20 trace 0.422 65-129 7.7 28.00 8.22 0.86 14.46 0.83 6.79 trace 6.46 49.10 3.18 trace 0.802 129-183 7.7 28.00 3.33 0.55 21.21 0.73 15.26 trace 9.55 66.86 2.66 5.61 1.214 Profile 2: Irrigate field with poor maize stand showing shiny black surfaces at Nukusa 0-25 8.6 0.63 0.15 0.19 11.25 0.47 27.44 0.74 13.02 0.66 0.25 13.37 0.325 25-60 8.2 1.81 1.83 0.34 6.46 0.32 6.21 0.92 10.19 0.67 1.43 8.94 0.274 60-94 7.9 3.00 4.35 0.98 11.66 0.23 7.15 trace 7.40 0.84 1.58 1.82 0.262 Profile 3: Irrigated maize field with white salt crust on the surface at Nukusa 0-30 7.4 30.50 18.69 1.06 6.38 0.60 2.03 trace 6.93 64.07 1.65 trace 0.286 30-74 7.6 8.76 3.66 0.34 2.79 0.33 1.98 trace 2.57 14.89 1.41 trace 0.521 74-121 7.7 6.40 0.63 0.08 2.55 0.28 4.32 trace 3.80 9.93 1.53 3.09 0.360 121-160 8.7 8.03 0.01 0.01 1.98 0.22 19.80 0.85 4.10 6.15 0.85 4.93 0.824 Profile 4: Un-irrigated cultivated field/grazing land at Nukusa 0-32 7.5 2.00 0.86 0.12 0.71 0.38 1.01 trace 6.91 0.52 1.03 5.93 0.439 32-69 7.8 5.82 4.69 0.47 0.55 0.38 0.34 trace 9.67 2.17 1.73 4.51 0.278 69-108 7.8 5.80 3.43 0.41 0.41 0.24 0.30 trace 6.33 2.59 1.14 2.49 0.276 108-151 7.8 4.30 1.43 0.23 0.54 0.23 0.59 trace 2.60 2.28 0.81 0.94 0.310 151-200 7.6 4.93 0.22 0.35 1.44 0.31 2.72 trace 4.43 4.40 0.97 3.86 0.353

ECe = electrical conductivity of saturated paste extract; SAR = sodium adsorption ratio; RSC = residual sodium carbonate

Unlike in Profile 1, the concentration depth, with the highest value (30.50dS Generally, the topsoil of this profile of B in Profile 2 decreased regularly m-1) at the surface layer of the profile. was characterized by a high from 0.32 at the surface to 0.26 mg Like in Profile 1, the surface soil of concentration of soluble Ca2+, l-1 at the bottom depth (60-94 cm) this profile was also characterized Cl- and HCO3-, while the extreme (Table 2). These values were within by a higher concentration of soluble bottom of the subsurface layer was the safe range (< 0.7 mg l-1) for most salts than the underlying subsurface characterized by high Na+, Cl- and sensitive plants with regards to boron layers as a result of capillary and HCO3- concentrations. Therefore, toxicity levels (US Salinity Laboratory evapotranspiration. Hence, the root the chloride and bicarbonate salts Staff, 1954) as provided in Appendix zone was more likely to be influenced of sodium and calcium were the Table 5. by salinity impacts as it lowers major salts contributing to the salinity the osmotic potential of crops as problem in the soil represented by Maize field with white salt crust described by Rengasamy (2010). Profile 3, which was almost a similar surface at Nukusa (Profile 3) phenomenon with that of Profile 1. In soluble cation composition, the The pH of the maize field with white surface layer was dominated by As in Profile 1, the concentration of salt crust surface (Profile 3) increased soluble Ca2+ (18.69 mmolc l-1) B increased (variably) from 0.286 at consistently with depth from 7.4 at the followed by soluble Na+ (6.38 mmolc the surface soil to 0.824 mg l-1 at surface layer (0-30 cm) to 8.7 at the l-1), while their concentrations the bottom of the subsurface layer. bottom layer (121-160 cm) (Table 2). decreased consistently down the Therefore, the surface soil was safe According to the soil reaction levels profile depth (Table 2). At the extreme for the most sensitive plants from B for Ethiopian soils as indicated by bottom depth (121-160 cm), the toxicity, however, the subsurface soil Murphy (1968), the top soil of the soluble Na+ was dominating, in which was marginal (US Salinity Laboratory profile was categorized as slightly the highest pH (8.7) and SAR (19.80) Staff, 1954) as described in Appendix alkaline, while the subsurface soils values were recorded in line with the Table 5. Hence, remedial actions qualified for a moderate to strong availability of CO32-and RSC. Among should be practiced to prevent the alkalinity level. the anions, Cl- was the dominant ion underlying subsurface soils coming to However, the ECe of the soil showed in the profile followed by HCO3- and the surface. a decreasing trend irregularly with SO42-. 44 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Uncultivated field/grazing land at Cl- and SO42-. Therefore, having were also explained by Gebrekidan Nukusa (Profile 4) high (5.93mmolc l-1) values of RSC, (1985) and Fasika (2006) on soils of the surface layer was dominated by the Melka Sedi-Amibara plain and the The surface layer of Profile 4 had a Ca2+, HCO3- and SO42-ions, while Alage ATVET College Campus of the pH value of 7.5 and an ECe value of ions of Na+, HCO3-and Cl- were more Ethiopian Rift Valley, respectively. 2.00 dS m-1 (Table 2). Even though concentrated at the extreme bottom of the results showed increasing trends the subsurface layer. As a whole, having The CEC ranged from 41.10 at the for both parameters, they did not high concentrations of Ca2+, Na+, surface soil layer to 42.23 cmolc show a consistent relationship with HCO3- and Cl- ions throughout the kg-1 at the bottom of the subsurface the soil depth. Therefore, the surface profile depth, chloride and bicarbonate soil layer which was dominated layer of this profile was categorized salts of sodium and calcium were the by exchangeable Ca (Table 3). As as slightly alkaline based on the major constituents contributing to the described by Brady and Weil (2002), classification of soil reaction set by salinity development in the soil of the CEC of a mineral soil ranges from a Murphy (1968) and slightly saline in grazing land which was almost similar minimum of 2 cmolc kg-1 in sandy soil its soluble salt concentration, while to the soils of Profiles 1 and 3. up to a maximum of 60 cmolc kg-1 in moderately saline at the subsurface clay soil. Therefore, having a loam soil horizon (FAO, 1988). The B concentration ranged from 0.276 textural class, the CEC value obtained at the subsurface soil to 0.439 mg l-1 at (41.10-42.23 cmolc kg-1) was within Although the site of Profile 4 was not the surface without any trend with soil the normal range for mineral soils. irrigated, its subsurface soil layers were depth (Table 2). The B concentration Furthermore, the CEC recorded for categorized as saline soil. This indicated was <0.7 mg l-1 (class 1) that the soil was high, which means that that although irrigation accelerates the represented a safe level for the most the soil has resistance to changes development of salt-affected soil, the sensitive plants from boron toxicity in the soil chemical composition that study area was naturally saline, which (US Salinity Laboratory Staff 1954), as are caused by land use systems may be due to the salt rich soil parent provided in Appendix Table 5. (Hazelton and Murphy, 2007). materials and their deposition coming down from its surrounding upper areas Exchangeable cations and The value of ESP was> 20 percent by runoff combined with climatic effects. cation exchange capacity throughout the profile and variably in Similar factors were described by increasing order down the soil depth. Maize field with white salt crust Yohannes (2010) as the major causes These values followed the trends of surface at Mel-dhiba (Profile 1) for the development of salinity and Na values both at the surface soil layer sodicity problem in some soils of the Calcium was the dominant as well as at the subsurface soil layer Dupti area in the lower Awash Valley exchangeable cation followed by Na, which was also observed on soils of of Ethiopia. Knowing the basic natural Mg and K in the exchange site of the Dodda Seebi command area in India condition of irrigation sites is important surface layer of the irrigated maize (Sunitha et al., 2010). According to to adopt appropriate management field with white salt crust surface Horneck et al. (2007), soils with >15 practices to cope up with salt impacts as appearances (Profile 1) (Table 3). The percent ESP have a high sodicity a result of irrigation interventions on the concentration of exchangeable Ca risk due to the effects of Na on soil environment (Shahid et al., 2009a). decreased linearly from 32.61 at the soil structure and toxicity to crops. Therefore, reducing evaporation from surface soil layer to 21.02 cmolc kg-1 Accordingly, the soils represented the soil surface, selecting appropriate at the bottom of the subsurface soil by this profile were characterized by crops and irrigation methods and layer (129-183 cm), while Na increased sodicity hazards. Furthermore, there efficient use of the irrigation water need from 8.74 to 11.03 cmolc kg-1 in same was a high (> 100 percent) value great attention at the site. layers with the soil depth. This was in of PBS in the profile. The PBS high agreement with previous findings on value could be associated with a high At the surface soil layer, the soluble the soils of the Alage ATVET College exchangeable calcium content as it Ca2+ was the dominant cation followed Campus in the southern Rift Valley of was extracted by ammonium acetate by Na+. But the extreme bottom layer Ethiopia (Fasika, 2006). Due to the which dissolves CaCO3 and probably of the subsurface soil layer (151-200 absence of soluble CO32- in the soil exaggerates the Ca concentration cm) was dominated by soluble Na+ solution throughout the profile, more of the exchange site. Based on the (1.44mmolc l-1) like in the other three Ca was adsorbed in the soil exchange ratings given by Hazelton and Murphy profiles (Table 2). Their concentrations site. This resulted in the dominancy of (2007), the recorded PBS values did not follow a consistent relationship Ca over the other cations both in the were very high. This indicated that with the soil depth. Among the anions, surface and subsurface layers of the the exchange site was saturated by HCO3- was the most dominant soil exchange site. Similar findings exchangeable bases with a very weak throughout the profile, followed by leaching effect. Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 45

Poor maize stand field with shiny The value of CEC was high and toxicity to crops (Horneck et black surface at Nukusa (Profile (35.41cmolc kg-1) at the surface al., 2007). Hence, the soil of this 2) soils with no regular pattern with the profile was characterized by high soil depth. Therefore, the surface soil sodicity hazards, especially in the Unlike in Profile 1, Na was the of this profile had moderate to high surface layer. This may explain the dominant cation at the surface soil adsorbed cations with the dominance compaction and cementing effects layer of Profile 2 followed by Ca of monovalent over the divalent cations on soil structure that were observed (Table 3). The high exchangeable (Hazelton and Murphy, 2007). due to the excessive Na and its Na was accompanied by the high associated impacts as described value of soluble Na+ in the soil The surface soil was also characterized under morphological and physical solution, specifically at the surface by a high (35.61 percent) value of properties. In relation to this, soil. Such Na saturated soils had also ESP which decreased consistently Mamedov et al. (2001) also explained been reported to occur at the Melka with the soil depth. As the ESP that because of their moderate Sedi-Amibara plain (Gebrekidan, mainly depends on exchangeable Na stability of the soil aggregates, 1985) and Matahara Sugar Estate content, it followed more or less the loam soils are most susceptible to (Abejehu, 1993) in the Middle Awash same trend with exchangeable Na, surface sealing as a result of high Valley of Ethiopia. But, in this study as was also pointed out by Sunitha et ESP impacts. Like in Profile 1, there high exchangeable Ca and Mg were al. (2010) for the soils of the Dodda was also high (> 100 percent) PBS recorded for the subsurface soil Seebi command area in India. in this soil profile indicating that the layers with a consistent increasing Moreover, soils with >15 percent exchangeable site was saturated trend with the soil depth accompanied ESP have a high sodicity risk due with the basic exchangeable cations by a decrease in exchangeable Na. to the effects of Na on soil structure indicating very low leaching. 46 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Table 3. Exchangeable chemical composition of soils of the Fantale Irrigation Project site in the Middle Awash Valley, Ethiopia

-1 Soil depth Exchangeable basic cations, CEC and exchangeable acidity (cmolc kg )* (cm) Ca Mg Na K Exchangeable acidity (Al + H) CEC ESP PBS Profile 1: Irrigated maize field with white salt crust on the surface at Mel-dhiba 0-29 32.61 3.21 8.74 2.53 0.12 41.10 21.26 114.54 29-65 29.31 3.01 9.22 3.61 0.01 42.12 20.49 100.33 65-129 28.00 2.02 10.61 3.05 Trace 40.61 26.13 107.56 129-183 21.02 3.34 11.03 7.04 Trace 42.23 26.12 100.47 Profile 2: Irrigated field with poor maize stand showing shiny black surface at Nukusa 0-25 11.24 1.48 12.61 2.18 Trace 35.41 35.61 105.93 25-60 23.55 5.81 1.59 2.71 Trace 33.37 4.76 100.87 60-94 25.38 8.69 1.56 2.24 0.08 34.60 4.51 109.45 Profile 3: Irrigated maize field with white salt crust on the surface at Nukusa 0-30 23.39 2.51 4.64 3.76 0.10 30.10 15.42 113.45 30-74 34.19 3.67 4.69 4.58 0.10 42.27 11.20 111.49 74-121 30.14 2.31 5.49 5.70 0.03 40.80 13.45 106.96 121-160 27.59 1.61 11.18 6.59 Trace 41.04 27.26 114.56 Profile 4: Un-irrigated/uncultivated field/grazing land at Nukusa 0-32 30.60 3.30 0.65 7.81 0.08 37.51 1.73 112.96 32-69 37.38 4.78 0.94 1.45 0.10 39.25 2.40 113.64 69-108 35.18 4.41 0.88 2.80 0.12 37.00 2.38 116.95 108-151 32.75 5.15 0.98 3.16 0.07 36.42 2.69 115.49 151-200 30.98 5.03 1.99 3.51 0.09 37.45 5.32 110.84

*CEC = cation exchange capacity; ESP = exchangeable sodium percentage; PBS = percent base saturation

Maize field with white salt crust Amhara Regional State. acidity ranged from 0.08 at the surface surface at Nukusa (Profile 3) to 0.12 cmolc kg-1 in the subsurface The surface soil contained 15.42 (69-108 cm) and showed no evidence percent ESP which was high enough In the irrigated maize field with white of relationship with soil depth. salt crust appearance on the surface to negatively affect the soil profiles and soil at Nukusa (Profile 3), the exchange plant growth (US Salinity Laboratory The CEC of the soil at the surface layer site was dominated by exchangeable Staff, 1954; Horneck et al., 2007) and was 37.51 cmolc kg-1 and showed no Ca followed by Na, K and Mg, in that invariably showed increasing trends consistent trend with the soil depth. order (Table 3). Though Ca and Mg with depth from the second layer Like in Profiles 1 and 3, the CEC of showed variability, Na and K increased to the bottom layer. The ESP value soils represented by this profile was consistently with the depth. followed the trend of Na values in the controlled by high exchangeable Ca subsurface layers. Like in Profiles 1 on the exchange complex. According The CEC value was relatively lower and 2, high (> 100 percent) saturation to Hazelton and Murphy (2007), the (30.10 cmolc kg-1) for surface soils with basic cations was also recorded CEC of this soil was rated as high. and higher (42.27 cmolc kg-1) for in this profile, indicating that the the subsurface (30-74 cm) soils. exchange complex of the soils was The ESP ranged from 1.73 at the This indicated that the topsoil had saturated by exchangeable bases surface soil layer to 5.32 percent at less resistance capacity to chemical (Hazelton and Murphy, 2007). the bottom of the subsurface (151-200 changes than the underlying cm) layer and varied in an increasing subsurface soil layers. Throughout the Un-irrigated/uncultivated field/ trend with soil profile depth. According soil profile, the values of CEC showed grazing land at Nukusa (Profile 4) to the US Salinity Laboratory Staff an inconsistent relationship with the (1954) and Horneck et al. (2007), the Calcium was the dominant soil depth as a result of the lithological soil of this profile was characterized exchangeable cation at the surface discontinuity among the layers. Also, a by less sodicity hazards. Like in the soil layer of the un-irrigated and/or similar finding was reported by Hailu other three profiles (Profiles 1, 2 and uncultivated land followed by Mg, K and (2009) on soils irrigated by waters 3), high (> 100 percent) PBS was Na. Their values were variable with the from the Dirma River and groundwater recorded in this profile indicating the soil depth. The value of exchangeable sources in the south Wello Zone of the presence of a very low leaching effect. Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 47

Generally, in all of the soils of the study and such conditions were described Table 4. Accordingly, by considering area and across soil depth, except at as they were within the normal ranges the values of pH, ECe (dS m-1) at 25 the surface soil of Profile 2, Ca was for soils of semi-arid and arid regions oC and ESP, the irrigated maize field the dominant cation in the exchange (Garg and Jain, 1996). Sunitha et surface soils of Profiles 1 and 3 were complex followed by Na. The high al. (2010) had also reported similar classified as saline sodic, while the PBS of the soils could be attributed findings for soils of the Dodda Seebi irrigated field (Profile 2) supporting to high exchangeable Ca content command area in India. poor (stunted) maize stand was sodic as well as preferential and stronger soil (Table 4). On the other hand, adsorption of the divalent cation over Soil classification based on its the surface soil of the un-irrigated/ monovalent cations (Na and K). On salinity and sodicity level uncultivated field/grazing land (Profile the other hand, exchangeable acidity The soils of the study area were 4) was non-saline non-sodic soil, ranged from 0.01 to 0.12 cmolc classified according to the criteria while the underlying (subsurface) soil kg-1 and PBS > 100 percent were set by the US Salinity Laboratory layers were saline making the soil recorded throughout all the profiles Staff (1954) as indicated in Appendix potentially saline.

Table 4. Classification of soils into salt-affected soil types based on relevant soil was in agreement with the findings of chemical properties of the surface soils Alamirew (2002) on the Awash River water. Profile No. Chemical properties of the surface soils *pHe ECe (dS m-1) ESP (%) Classification Similarly, the value of SAR ranged Profile 1 7.5 45.50 21.26 Saline sodic from 0.91 for the main canal at 20 km Profile 2 8.6 0.63 35.61 Sodic to 1.16 (highest value) for the main Profile 3 7.4 30.50 15.42 Saline sodic canal at 30 km from the diversion weir Profile 4 7.5 2.00 1.73 None saline-none sodic (Table 5). Thus, based on the criteria *pHe = soil reaction of saturated extract; ECe = electrical conductivity of saturated extract; of the US Salinity Laboratory Staff ESP = exchangeable sodium percentage (1954) depicted in Appendix Table 6, the irrigation water in use had a low Chemical composition and sodicity hazard (Table 6). Moreover, The results obtained in the underlying classification of irrigation the lowest RSC value (0.37 mmolc layers (subsurface) of the uncultivated water l-1) was recorded for the main canal field indicate that although irrigation at 20 km and the highest (0.77 mmolc contributed to the development Chemical composition of irrigation l-1) was obtained for the main canal of salt-affected soil types in the water at 40 km from diversion weir (Table 5). area, it seems that there is also a The result revealed that the irrigation The pH value of the irrigation water natural potential salinity as a result water was low (safe) in residual increased in the order of 7.79, 7.99, of weathering of parent materials sodium carbonate hazard for all water 8.14 and 8.20 for Awash River at (volcanic ash materials naturally rich samples that were below 1.25 mmolc the diversion weir to the main canal in salts and basic cations) and the l-1 (US Salinity Laboratory Staff at 10, 20 and 30 km from diversion accumulation of soluble salts coming (1954) (Appendix Table 6). weir, respectively (Table 5). In line down from the upper catchments with this, the EC of the irrigation water The concentration of B in the irrigation through runoff water during the also increased from 0.256 dS m-1 for water ranged from 0.158 mg l-1 rainy seasons combined with the Awash River at the diversion weir (minimum value at the diversion weir) climate effects (low rainfall and high to 0.274 dS m-1 for the main canal at to 0.200 mg l-1 (maximum value for evapotranspiration). Almost similar 40 km distance from diversion weir. the main canal at 40 km from the factors were described as the major These pH and EC values clearly diversion weir) (Table 5). According causes for the development of salinity indicated that the irrigation water was to B toxicity levels indicated by the and sodicity problems in some soils moderately alkaline with increasing US Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954), of the Dubti area in the Lower Awash salt content along the main canal the concentration of B in the irrigation Valley of Ethiopia (Yohannes, 2010). on the way to the irrigation site. The water was below the threshold value dominant ions in the irrigation water of toxicity level for sensitive crops samples were dissolved HCO3- which was less than 0.33 mg l-1. This and Ca2+, followed by Na+. This implies that the quality of the irrigation indicated that bicarbonates of calcium water was safe for irrigation purposes and sodium ions were the dominant with regard to B toxicity (Table 5 and salts in the irrigation water which Appendix Table 7). 48 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Classification of the irrigation water hazard (US Salinity Laboratory Staff, 1954) (Appendix Table 6). Therefore, the current suitability classes show that Even though EC, SAR and RSC values were in increasing the water was of promising quality for irrigation purposes order, especially along the main canal to the irrigation site, (Table 6). Similar findings were also reported for the Awash all the water samples revealed that the irrigation water was River water at the Melka Sedi-Amibara areas (Gebrekidan, medium in soluble salt concentration (salinity hazard), low 1985) and at the Matahara Sugar State Farm (Abejehu, in sodicity hazard and safe in residual sodium carbonate 1993; Alamirew, 2002) in the Middle Awash Valley Ethiopia.

Table 5.Chemical composition of irrigation water samples of the Fantale Irrigation Project site in the Middle Awash Valley, Ethiopia

-1 -1 Sampling sites Soluble cations (mmolc l ) Soluble anions ( mmolc l )

2- 2- - - SO EC Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ SAR CO HCO3 Cl 4 RSC B 3 pH (dS m-1) (mg l-1) Awash river at diversion weir 7.79 0.256 1.52 0.47 1.06 0.17 1.06 trace 2.52 0.67 trace 0.53 0.158 Mc, 10 km from the weir 7.99 0.259 1.40 0.43 0.87 0.16 0.92 trace 2.32 0.27 trace 0.49 0.164 Mc, 20 km from the weir 8.14 0.261 1.44 0.51 0.87 0.16 0.91 trace 2.32 0.27 0.01 0.37 0.211 Mc, 30 km from the weir 8.20 0.271 1.52 0.28 1.04 0.17 1.16 trace 2.56 0.29 0.05 0.76 0.162 Mc, 40 km from the weir 7.88 0.274 1.40 0.39 1.06 0.18 1.13 trace 2.56 0.30 0.20 0.77 0.200

Mc = main canal; EC = electrical conductivity; SAR = sodium adsorption ratio; RSC = residual sodium carbonate

Table 6. Suitability classes of the irrigation water samples

Sampling sites (RSC EC SAR Salinity hazard Sodicity hazard RSC class mmolc l-1) (dS m-1) Awash river at diversion weir 0.256 1.06 0.53 Medium C2 Low S1 Safe Main canal, 10 km from diversion weir 0.259 0.92 0.49 Medium C2 Low S1 Safe Main canal, 20 km from diversion weir 0.261 0.91 0.37 Medium C2 Low S1 Safe Main canal, 30 km from diversion weir 0.271 1.16 0.76 Medium C2 Low S1 Safe Main canal, 40 km from diversion weir 0.274 1.13 0.77 Medium C2 Low S1 Safe

C2 = salinity class two; S1 = sodicity class one; RSC = residual sodium carbonate

Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 49

Conclusions and Accordingly, Ca2+ and Na+ salts of values of EC 0.256-0.274 dS m-1, recommendations Cl- and HCO3- were the major salts SAR 0.91-1.16 and RSC 0.53-0.77 constituting the high to excessive mmolc l-1, respectively, the irrigation Conclusions salinity and sodicity levels observed water was medium in salinity hazard, in the soils of the study area. The ESP low in sodicity (SAR) hazard and safe To sustain irrigated agriculture in arid values for surface soils of Profiles 1, in residual sodium carbonate hazards. and semi-arid areas where potential 2, 3 and 4 were 21.26, 35.61, 15.42 Even though the current results evapotranspiration exceeds rainfall, and 1.73 percent, respectively. In showed that the irrigation water is controlling salinity and sodicity levels line with this, the dominance of potentially suitable for irrigation, there of the irrigation site is an essential Na+ and HCO3- and increments in is a threat in the future as the EC, activity. Effective control of soil salinity pH values followed almost similar SAR and RSC values were observed requires better understanding on the trends among the soil layers within to increase with the increase in extent, distribution and types of salts. a profile. The presence of CO32- in distance from the diversion weir or This work focused on the recognition measurable quantities also coincided along the main canal towards the of the problem, by characterizing the with pH values in the alkaline range irrigation site as a result of addition physicochemical properties of the (pH values from 8.2–8.7). The rise of salts by dissolving from the sides soils and irrigation water quality in in pH was attributed to the highest of the earthen main canal as well as relation to salinity and sodicity levels concentration of HCO3- and the through washing and inflowing from and suggested possible soil and subsequent increasing contents of the surrounding areas to the main water management options for the residual Na2CO3. Therefore, having canal by runoff during rainy season. sustainable utilization and productivity pH < 8.5, ECe > 4 dS m-1 and ESP of the irrigated land in the locality. Generally, to manage salt-affected > 15 percent in the surface, the soils soils and maintain the salinity and The results revealed that the surface of Profiles 1 and 3 were classified as sodicity levels of irrigation water at or soils of Profiles 1, 2, 3 and 4 were light saline sodic salt-affected soil type, below the current level, it is essential gray, dark gray, pale brown and gray while the soils of Profiles 2 and 4 were to delineate the salt-affected areas in colour (dry) and grayish brown, categorized as sodic and non-saline and reclaim them using chemical dark grayish brown, brown and dark non-sodic soils, respectively. Although amendment integrated with biological gray (moist), respectively. Concerning irrigation is likely to contribute to the management practices. As the site particle size distribution, sand was development of the salt-affected soil is naturally potentially saline, use of dominant, followed by silt fraction types in the area, there is a very salt-tolerant crop species and even with low clay content throughout the natural potential for development varieties, and use of appropriate four profiles. Accordingly, the surface of salinity and sodicity as a result irrigation and drainage methods soils of Profiles 3 and 4 were sandy of weathering of parent materials along with efficient use of irrigation loam, while that of Profiles 1 and 2 and alluvial deposition of salt rich water which takes into account the were loam in texture. The bulk density materials from the upper catchments leaching requirement of the soils values of the soils ranged from 1.02 combined with high aridity of climate should be adopted in order to control to 1.57 g cm-3, with total porosity and high evapotranspiration rates. the rise of the groundwater table and values ranging from 37.9 percent to Concerning the irrigation water to reduce soluble salt distribution 58.8 percent. Due to the presence samples, the pH value ranged from in the site. In addition, undertaking of lithological discontinuity, most of 7.79 to 8.20 which qualified for further applied research investigating the soil physical properties showed moderately alkaline, and the EC improved technologies of salinity and variability in their total contents and/ ranged from 0.256 to 0.274 dS m-1, sodicity control, as well selection and or distribution within the depths of the indicating that the irrigation water is development of salt tolerant crop soil profiles. moderately saline. Both the pH and plant species and/or varieties for the Concerning the soil’s chemical EC were increased with increasing environment, is vital. properties, the soil pH ranged from 7.4 sampling distance from the diversion to 8.7 qualifying for slightly to strongly weir along the main canal on the Recommendations alkaline in reaction, while the ECe at way to the irrigated farmland. The To assure sustainable productivity of 25 oC ranged from 0.63 to 45.50 dS dominant anion and cation in the irrigated drylands, attention should m-1. Both in the soil solution and the irrigation water were HCO3- and be given to preventing the ecosystem exchange site (solid surfaces), Ca2+ Ca2+ followed by Na+. Therefore, from salinity- and sodicity-induced and Na+ were the dominant cations HCO3- salts of Ca and Na were the degradation. To ensure this, the two whereas Cl- and HCO3- were the major dissolved salts present in the items below are suggested. dominant anions in almost all profiles. irrigation water. In general, having 50 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

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Appendix 1: Long-term mean monthly weather data in Matahara areas

Month Evapotranspiration Temperature (0C) Rainfall (mm) (mm) Minimum Maximum Average January 15 130 15 31 23 February 33 127 16 32 24 March 50 128 18 34 26 April 42 123 19 34 27 May 36 124 19 35 27 June 28 113 21 36 29 July 122 109 20 33 27 August 132 115 20 32 26 September 46 119 19 33 26 October 26 126 16 33 25 November 8 128 14 31 23 December 7 130 13 30 22 Annual 553 1472 18 30 25

Source: Dinka (2010).

Appendix 2: Locations of soil profiles and site description at Fantale Irrigation Site

Profile Altitude No. UTM-northing Land use and special features (m.a.s.l.) UTM-easting P1 586877 975043 1020 Irrigated maize field with white salt crust on the surface at Mel-dhiba site P2 589530 981706 1023 Irrigated poor maize stand field with shiny black colour at the surface at Nukusa site P3 589709 981353 1029 Irrigated maize field with white salt crust on the surface at Nukusa site P4 589923 981398 1018 Un-irrigated/uncultivated field or grazing land at Nukusa

Appendix 3: Locations of irrigation water sampling points at Fantale Irrigation Project Site

Sampling site Elevation UTM-northing UTM-easting (m.a.s.l.) Awash river at diversion weir 585320 963581 1183 Main canal, 10 km from diversion weir 585337 964133 1166 Main canal, 20 km from diversion weir 586906 970198 1092 Main canal, 30 km from diversion weir 586183 973818 1059 Main canal, 40 km from diversion weir 589339 980912 1023 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 55

Appendix 4: Classification of salt-affected soils based on their chemical properties

Salt-affected soil ECe at 25 oC Saturation (%) of the pH (H O) Soil physical condition type (dS m-1) CEC with Na (ESP) 2 Saline > 4 < 15 < 8.5 Normal Sodic (Alkali) < 4 > 15 > 8.5 Very poor Saline sodic > 4 > 15 < 8.5 Normal Non-saline non- < 4 < 15 ≈ 7.0 Normal sodic

Appendix 5: Permissible limits (mg l-1) for boron in saturation extract of soils

Class Boron range (mg l-1) Safety level for plants 1 < 0.7 Safe for most sensitive plants 2 0.7-1.5 Marginal for many crop plants 3 > 1.5 Unsafe for most tolerant plants

Source: US Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954).

Appendix 6: Classification of irrigation water based on its salinity (EC), sodicity (SAR) and residual sodium carbonate (RSC) hazards

Salinity (EC) hazard Sodicity (SAR) hazard Residual NaCO3 hazard

Salinity class Salinity hazard EC (dS m-1) Sodicity class Sodicity hazard SAR value RSC class RSC RSC -1 hazard (mmolc l ) C1 Low 0.10-0.25 S1 Low < 10 1 Safe < 1.25 C2 Medium 0.25-0.75 S2 Medium 10-18 2 Marginal 1.25-2.50 C3 High 0.75-2.25 S3 High 18-26 3 Unsafe > 2.50 C4 Very high > 2.25 S4 Very high > 26 - - -

Source: US Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954).

Appendix 7: Classification of irrigation waters based on boron concentration

Boron class Boron Hazard Boron content (mg l-1) for different levels of crop tolerance

Sensitive plants Semi-tolerant plants Tolerant plants 1 Excellent < 0.33 < 0.67 < 1.00 2 Good 0.33-0.67 0.67-1.33 1.00-2.00 3 Moderate 0.67-1.00 1.33-2.00 2.00-3.00 4 Poor 1.00-1.25 2.00-2.50 3.00-3.75 5 Unsuitable > 1.25 > 2.50 > 3.75

Source: US Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954). 56 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

5. Composition and diversity of invasive plant species and their socio- economic impacts on livelihoods of pastoralists in the rangelands of Telalak District, Afar National Regional State, Ethiopia Natnael Demelash 5, Lisanework Nigatu 6 and J. J. Sharma 7

ABSTRACT

Key words: composition, diversity, invasive, livelihood

The study was conducted in Telalak socio-economic impacts, as well as Invasive plant species had an adverse District of Afar National Regional the local people’s perception towards effect on animal production and State of Ethiopia with the objectives the invasive plant species. productivity, crop production, human of: (a) investigating the composition health and the livelihoods of the local Thirty-two invasive plant species and diversity of the invasive plant people. Most of the sampled sites had classified under 18 families were species; and (b) assessing their socio- shown the highest level of invasion in identified and recorded. Of these, economic impacts on the livelihoods of the rangelands. Therefore, necessary 11 were invasive trees and shrubs the local people. Forty quadrats were interventions, like mechanical and and 21 were non-grass herbaceous laid in two parallel transects, each 20 biological controlling mechanisms, are invasive species. The result of kilometres long and one kilometer recommended. In addition, general estimated cover-abundance values apart from each other. In each quadrat improvement of the rangelands in indicates that 80 percent of the the composition, diversity, abundance the sample sites of the study area is sampled areas were invaded by and cover of woody invasive plant recommended. Governmental and rangeland invasive species. There species were recorded. Five sub non-governmental organizations was a significant difference between quadrats in each quadrat were laid should exert the maximum possible invasion levels in coverage within the out and a total of 200 sub quadrats effort to control these destructive same site. The overall diversity index (1m2) were used to assess the and noxious invasive plants so that (H) and evenness (E) of the rangeland abundance, cover, composition and animals, human beings and the invasive plants in the study area were diversity of the herbaceous invasive environment can have a better future. 3.64 and 1.04, respectively. Acacia plants. Socio-economic data were mellifera, A. senegal, A. nubica collected through semi-structured and Grewia villosa were the most questionnaires, group discussions dominant woody invasive species in and visual observations to assess the the study area.

5 Natnael Demelash, College of Dryland Agriculture, Samara University, P.O.Box 132, Semera, Ethiopia. 6 Lisanework Nigatu, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Haramaya University, P.O.Box 138, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia. 7 J. J. Sharma, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Haramaya University, P.O.Box 138, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia. Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 57

Introduction Bush encroachment is the invasion Lantana camara, Acacia mellifera, A. of aggressive and undesired nubica, A. nilotica and Parthenium Rangelands cover about 65 percent herbaceous, thorny and woody hysterophorus (ANRS, 2004). The of the total area of Africa (Friedel species, resulting in an imbalance problem of invasive plants has been et al., 2000) and 62 percent of the of the grass-bush ratio and a very critical to the pastoral and total land mass in Ethiopia (Yemane, decrease in biodiversity and carrying agropastoral communities of Afar 2000). Rangelands are characterized capacity. It causes severe economic National Regional State. However, by semi-arid to arid climatic and ecological losses for pastoral little or no attention has been given conditions with high temperatures communities. Trees and herbaceous to understand, sort out and document and low, unreliable and erratic rainfall. invasive plants usually compete the invading species composition The vegetation is composed of directly for water, light and nutrients and diversity, as well as the socio- graminoids, forbs and woody plant and this also directly affects the whole economic impacts that these species species (Mengistu, 1998). rangeland vegetation (Gupta, 2002). have on the community.

One of the pressing problems of Ethiopia is one of the developing Therefore, this study was undertaken rangeland management is the countries affected by invasive plant with the following objectives: invasion and spread of invasive species over the last three or four rangeland plants and the associated decades and this has been clearly to investigate the composition reduction in forage supply. Annual identified as one of the emerging and diversity of the invasive plant loss of forage production and direct problems facing the country. The species; and loss from poisonous plants severely government has identified a number to assess their socio-economic impacts the range livestock industry of major invasive plant species in the impacts on the livelihoods of the (Harold and Child, 1975). country and declared the need for communities in the study area. their control and eradication (EARO, An invasive species (alien or native) 2002). Poor rangeland management Materials and methods may be defined as a species that in Ethiopia has resulted in serious land causes or is likely to cause economic degradation, reduced biodiversity Description of the study area or environmental harm or harm to and a decline in nutritive values of Location and area coverage human health and does not provide an the native plants and the gradual equivalent benefit to society. Invasive replacement of indigenous grasses The study was conducted in Telalak alien species are species introduced by poorly palatable and unpalatable District, Zone Five, of Afar National deliberately or unintentionally from species (Mengistu, 2004). Regional State, located 480 outside their natural habitats where kilometres northeast of Addis Ababa they have the ability to establish The rangelands have been subjected and 170 kilometres southeast of the themselves, invade, compete with to intense anthropogenic effects regional capital, Semera. It is found native species and take over the new resulting from intensive livestock at 100 55’ 35”N and 400 12’ 28”E environments. pressure and human interferences. and bordered in the south with Dewe Much of the landscapes in the and Gewane Districts, in the west Rangeland invasive plants are the rangelands are heavily degraded with the Amhara region, in the north most underestimated weeds in and are currently experiencing with Mille and Adaar Districts and in tropical rangelands, but they have frequent and prolonged drought, loss the east with the Awash River and influenced the pastoralist’s livestock of land productivity associated with the Somali region. The study district production system through decline decline in soil fertility and decrease covers 141,800 ha of land and has 11 in biomass production and quality in biological diversity. It appears that Pastoral Associations (APADB, 2006) of forage, interfering with grazing, such phenomenon has given room for (See Figure 1). poisoning animals, increasing time both alien and native invasive plants spent for grazing, reducing land value, to spread, dominate and colonize depleting soil and water resources and the rangelands in terms of coverage, reducing plant and animal diversity. composition and diversity (EARO, Invasive plant species alternative 2002). community composition depletes species diversity, affect ecosystem The rangelands found in Afar processes and thus cause huge National Regional State are among economic and ecological imbalances the areas in Ethiopia which are (Thomas et al., 2001). severely affected by invasive plant species, mainly Prosopis juliflora, 58 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

abundance, cover, composition and diversity of the invasive plant species in the study area. It was conducted during August to November 2010 when most of the sampled species were at full flowering or fruiting/ seeding stages.

A transect survey method (Moore and Chapman, 1986) was followed and two parallel transects, each 20 kilometres long running NE-SW, and one kilometre apart from each other, were established. A total of 40 quadrats (400 m2) were randomly laid out along the two transects. In consultation with pastoral respondents The climate of Telalak District is percent water bodies and one percent and available literature, all invasive characterized as arid (15 percent) and stony bare land. The remaining 0.75 plant species that are unpalatable semi-arid (85 percent) agroecology. percent is cultivated and cultivable and toxic or poisonous to any species The altitude of the study district ranges lands (ANRS, 2004). In the district, of animals were identified and between 500-1000 m.a.s.l. The area there are 660 ha of farming land, of collected from each sampled quadrat. has mean minimum and maximum which 260 ha is appropriate for rain- Some of the species collected from annual temperatures of 250C and fed agriculture and the remaining each quadrat were identified in the 390C. The average temperature of 400 ha for irrigated crop production field. For those species that were the area is 300C. The total annual (APADB, 2006). difficult to identify in the field, their rainfall ranges between 300 and 750 vernacular names were recorded, Sampling of invasive plant mm and is characterized by a bimodal herbarium specimens were collected, species in the study area type with erratic distribution. The long securely pressed and transported rainy season (kerma) occurs between Prior to the actual study, a to Haramaya University Herbarium mid-June to mid-September and the reconnaissance survey was for identification. Nomenclature of short rainy season (sugum) occurs undertaken to assess the rangeland the plant species followed the Flora between March and April (APADB, situation of the study area. of Ethiopia (Hedberg and Edwards, 2006). Elders, experienced people and 1989; 1995 and Hedberg et al., 2003) and the Flora of Tropical East Africa Vegetation, soil and land use development agents were involved (Cufodontis, 1953-1972). system in this reconnaissance survey to collect preliminary information on the The vegetation of the study area is rangelands. Sampling of the herbaceous mainly characterized by herbaceous invasive plant species cover Purposive sampling procedures and woody invasive plants and some On each of the 40 main quadrats (ILCA, 1990) were followed to native plants. The woody vegetation (400m2), five sub-quadrats (1m2) identify and select respondents. mainly includes species of the genera were laid in each corner and one Respondents were selected that had Acacia. Forbs and shrubs are also on the centre of the main quadrat reliable information on the types of present. None and slightly palatable to measure the data on herbaceous invasive plants, extent of invasion, woody, herbaceous invasive plants invasive plant species cover. In their impact on native rangeland and noxious weeds are present total, 200 sub-quadrats were laid vegetation, toxicity, and the general (APADB, 2006). The dominant soil for herbaceous data collection. socio-economic impacts of these type in the area is characterized as Cover abandunce of the herbaceous invasive plants on the livelihoods 60 percent fertile, 5 percent clay soil, invasive plant species encountered of local people. Questionnaires 25 percent sandy and 10 percent in each quadrat was recorded using were prepared to gather adequate other soil types (EARO, 2002). The Daubenmire 1959 Cover Class information about the past and study district is comprised of about Method (Wittenberg et al., 2004).The present condition of the area. 89.8 percent rangeland on which method involved visually designating the livestock entirely depend for A field study was undertaken to one of the six cover classes (Table feed, 7.95 percent woodland, 0.5 determine and assess the identity, 19) to each quadrat. Each species Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 59 within the quadrat was assessed separately based on its individual woody invasive plant species (i.e., trees and/ basal cover. The method involved a total estimate based or shrubs) were recorded. For height, all woody invasive on abundance and cover of the species. Following the plant species were measured using locally-available long methods suggested by Chellamuthu et al. (2005), the wooden poles of two and five metres and categorized into sample sites were categorized into two invasion levels: height classes. The number of individual trees and shrubs moderate (< 50 percent) and high (> 50 percent) of the were directly counted. During counting, chalk was used total percent area coverage of invasive plants. to mark shrubs as they had been counted, to ensure that none were missed or double counted. The density of woody Sampling of woody invasive plant species plants (trees and shrubs) were measured by counting the Land covered by tree and shrub invasive plant species number in a sample quadrat and presented as density per identified in the rangelands of the study area was assessed hectare. as canopy cover percentage. Maximum and minimum The percentage of canopy cover was obtained by measuring diameters of each woody species were measured and the maximum and minimum diameters of each tree and calculated. calculated using the formula below (Oikawa, 1985). In each of the 400 m2 quadrats laid out along the parallel Cc = π(Dmax+Dmin)2 ______transects, the identity, abundance, height and diameter 4 (maximum and minimum) at breast height (DBH) of

Cc = canopy cover, Dmax = maximum diameter, Dmin = minimum diameter

Density, frequency, dominance and importance value of invasive plant species

As Wittenberg et al. (2004) recognized, species density was determined by counting the number of individuals in the sample quadrat and converting the count into a hectare basis.

Density of a species= ______Total number of individuals of a species Sample size in hectare

Relative density (Rd) = ______Number of individuals of a species Total number of individuals of all species

Species frequency = ______Number of samples in which a species occurred Total samples surveyed) x 100

Relative frequency (Rf) = ______Frequency of occurrence of a species Total frequency occurrences of all plant species) x 100

Relative dominance (RD) =______Dominance of a species Dominance of all species) x 100

The importance value index (IVI) was calculated using Curtis and McIntosh (1951)

IVI=Rd+Rf+RD 60 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Species composition and the species is distributed among all Statistical analysis diversity the species in the community. The invasive plant species and

The composition of the rangeland s native plants data measured from the invasive plant species were E= -∑ pi ln (pi)/ ln s sampling sites were subjected to SAS i=1 determined by counting the number (2000) Version 9. Analysis of the data

of individual invasive plants measured from the field was done by Abundance or equitability = (herbaceous and woody invasive) using the invasion level as treatment per unit of sampled area. All invasive Where S = the number of species in and the main quadrats as replications. plants were counted and classified as the sample Basal cover means of subquadrats herbaceous/broadleaved and woody (1 m2) were analysed by one way invasive plants. This indicates how equally abundant analysis of variance (ANOVA). each species would be and a high The species composition of the evenness of the weed species is a The various invasive plant species herbaceous and woody invasive sign of a high invasion rate of that information and socio-economic plants were enumerated and recorded plant. impacts that were gathered from the in each of the 1 m2 sub-quadrats sites in the structured questionnaires and 400m2 sample quadrats, Assessing the socioeconomic were subjected to appropriate respectively, stretched along a 20 impacts of invasive rangeland statistical packages for social kilometre-long parallel transect. The plants sciences software (SPSS version diversity of the invasive plant species 16.0). Descriptive statistics were used Primary data were collected within and between the sample sites for analysis of social data that were using structured questionnaires was computed according to Shannon collected by simple survey. administered through face-to-face (1949). The diversity index was interviews by the researcher with the estimated, as shown in the equation The model used for analysis of the help of enumerators and development below (Wittenberg et al., 2004). data: agents. To gather information on The Shannon diversity index takes socioeconomic impacts, as well as the Model:(yij)=μ+Ii+eij local people’s perception of invasive into consideration both the richness Where: and evenness of the species present rangeland plant species in the study within the given land or community. area, data were collected through yij = total data of invasive plant cover, semi-structured questionnaires. μ = over all mean, Ii = invasion level s Two Pastoral Associations from effect H= -∑ pi ln (pi) the first site (Telalak-Abaaro and i=1 eij = error effect Waydolele-Aluu) and two Pastoralist Associations from the second site Results and discussion (Halbin-Wale and Adalel-Dewe) Where: H = species diversity index; (one from a highly invaded area Rangeland invasive plants Ln = natural logarithm and one from a moderately invaded composition and diversity area) were selected randomly. A Pi = ni/N is the proportion of individuals total of 80 households, 20 from A total of 29 invasive plant species found in the ith species (ranges 0 to each Pastoralist Association, were belonging to 18 families were 1); and n = number of individuals of selected using systematic random identified and recorded. These a given species; N = total number sampling techniques. Pastoralists and species were categorized under of individuals found (Shannon and agropastoralists who had information woody and non-woody/herbaceous/ Wiener, 1949). about the past and present situation broadleaved invasive plants. There of the rangeland and the socio- were no invasive grasses or sedge The Shannon diversity index (H) economic impacts of invasive plants species observed in the area. This takes into account the number of were selected with the help of could be partly explained by the individuals as well as the number development agents and the director extensive bush encroachment, of species. High values of H would of the district. Households who were mismanagement practices and be representative of more diverse absent during data collection were overgrazing of the area. Most invasive communities. If the species are replaced with other households. Both plants in the study area had no role evenly distributed then the H value male headed (60 households) and in the livelihoods of pastoralists would be high. So the H value allows female headed (20 households) were except some Acacia species. Nearly us to know not only the number of included in the sampling. all invasive plants adversely affect species but how the abundance of Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 61 animals, human beings and native both humans and animals. Although A. senegal, A. nubica from woody rangeland vegetation. In the sampled invasive plants had the above listed and P. hysterophorus and Barleria area, 11 species of trees and shrubs benefits, the local people preferred parviflora from the herbaceous and 18 species of herbaceous, the former plants, mostly grasses and invasive species had a higher mean non-woody invasive species were legumes that were present 20 to 30 abundance value. In the second identified (Table 1). years ago. site (Halbin-Wale and Adalel-Dewe Pastoralist Associations), with a high Acacia mellifera, A. senegal, A. The result of this study revealed invasion level, A. mellifera, A. senegal, nubi000ca species were used for that in the first site (Telalak-Abaaro A. nubica, Balantes aegyptica, animal fodder, construction, firewood and Waydolele-Aluu Pastoralist Solanumincanum, Adhatoda and charcoal production and as Associations), with moderate and schimperiana, P. hysterophorus were protection from the scorching sun for high invasion levels, Acacia mellifera, the dominant invasive plant species.

Table 1. Invasive rangeland plants and their vernacular names, life cycle and growth habit in the study district

Botanical names Vernacular name (Afar) Family Life cycle Growth habit

Abutilon fruticosum Hayoukito Malvaceae Annual Herbaceous Acacia mellifera Merkhato Mimosoideae Perennial Tree A. nubica --- Mimosoideae Perennial Tree A.senegal Adodoyta Mimosoideae Perennial Tree A. oertota Germto Mimosoideae Perennial Shrub Adhatodaschimperiana Werabikala Acanthaceae Annual Herbaceous Aervapersica Oilayto Amaranthaceae Perennial Herbaceous Asparagus asiaticus Bekiltefre Liliaceae Perennial Shrub Balantesaegyptica Sinkilila Balanitaceae Annual Shrub Barleriaparviflora Bobo Eta Acanthaceae Perennial Herbaceous Calotropisprocera Gelato Asclepiadaceae Perennial Shrub Commicarpusverticillatus Garbeeto Nyctaginaceae Perennial Herbaceous Crotolariaalbicaulis Airogit Papilionoideae Perennial Shrub C. comosa Doetea Papilionoideae Annual Shrub Gallium simense Olumeli Rubiaceae Annual Herbaceous Glycine wightii Halana Papilionoideae Perennial Tree Grewiavillosa Habelita Tiliaceae Perennial Shrub/Tree Hibiscus aponneeurus. Hidayto Malvaceae Annual Herbaceous Hibiscus micranthus --- Malvaceae Annual Shrub Hypoestesforskalei Doeto Acanthaceae Annual Shrub Indigoferaspicata Burhata Papilionoideae Perennial Herbaceous Ipomoea ochracea Agraboya Convolvulaceae Annual Herbaceous Leucasurticifolia Kuntubli Lamiaceae Annual Herbaceous Ocimumcanum Hibaki Lamiaceae Annual Herbaceous Ocimumlamifolium Deartaba Lamiaceae Annual Herbaceous Partheniumhysterophorus Democracy Asteraceae Annual Herbaceous Pileateteraphyla Subahi Urticeae Annual Herbaceous Ruelliapatula Dooto Acanthaceae Annual Herbaceous/Shrub Botanical Names Vernacular name (Afar) Family Life cycle Growth habit Solanumincanum Askena Solanaceae Perennial Herbaceous/ Shrub Tribulusterrestris Bunket Zygophyllaceae Perennial Herbaceous

The results showed that the second site was mainly invaded by woody species, whereas in the first site herbaceous invasive plants dominated. Among the herbaceous invasive plants, P. hysterophorus, Aerva persica, Ipomoea ochracea and Crotolaria albicaulis were dominant in the study area. In both sites, with different invasion levels, the mean abundance value of Acacia mellifera and P. hysterophorus were high (Table 2). 62 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Table 2. Average number of invasive species per quadrat as per invasion levels

Mean abundance values Botanical names Site1 HIL Site1MIL mean Site2 HIL Site2(MIL) mean Abutilon fruticosum 3.9 1.3 2.6 1.8 1.2 1.5 Acacia mellifera 8.9 4.3 6.6 10.9 5.3 8.1 A. nubica 3.6 0.9 2.25 3.6 2.2 2.9 A. oertota 0.8 0.9 0.85 1.9 1.3 1.6 A. senegal 6.1 3.6 4.85 8.4 5.0 6.7 Adhatoda schimperiana 1.3 0.5 0.9 2.3 2.0 2.15 Aervapersica 5.6 2.2 3.9 8.0 5.4 6.7 Balantes aegyptica 3.3 0.9 2.1 5.6 2.2 3.9 Barleria parviflora 6.2 1.3 3.75 2.6 1.2 1.9 Calotropis procera 0.9 1.3 1.1 4.2 0.5 2.35 Commicarpus verticillatus 1 1 1 2.1 0.4 1.15 Crotolaria albicaulis 1.1 0.5 0.8 2.0 1.4 1.7 C. comosa 1.7 0.9 1.3 2.3 1.4 1.85 Gallium simense 2.6 1.2 1.9 1.8 1.2 1.5 Glycine wightii 2.8 1.2 2 1.8 1.5 1.65 Grewia villosa 1.1 1.2 1.15 4.0 1.3 2.65 Hibiscus aponneeurus 1.2 1.2 1.2 0.6 1.8 1.2 H. micranthus 2.8 1.4 2.1 4.9 1.8 3.35 Hypoestes forskalei 0.6 0.9 0.75 3.2 2.1 2.65 Indigofera spicata 2.6 1.1 1.85 4.2 1.5 3.35 Ipomoea ochracea 2.1 1.3 1.7 1.8 3.7 2.75 Leucas urticifolia 5.0 1.1 3.05 1.5 0.8 1.15 Ocimum canum 2.3 0.9 1.6 4.8 1.6 3.2 O. lamifolium 2.9 1.3 2.1 2.5 1.2 1.85 P. hysterophorus 10.9 8.3 9.6 6.4 5.0 5.7 Pileate teraphyla 3.1 1.7 2.4 3.3 0.9 2.1 Ruellia patula 4.1 1.0 2.55 1.8 1.1 1.45 Solanum incanum 1.9 0.8 1.35 6.1 2.9 4.5 Tribulus terrestris 2.1 1.4 1.75 3.5 1.4 2.45 Total 92.5 45.5 69.05 107.9 59.3 84

HIL- high invasion level; MIL- moderate invasion level

Invasive plant cover

Herbaceous invasive plant cover

The land covered by the herbaceous invasive plant species identified in the rangelands of the study area was assessed by basal cover percentage. The results showed that the total land covered or invaded by rangeland invasive plant species was 80 percent. P. hysterophorus and Aerva persica, Acacia mellifera, A. senegal, A. nubica and A. oertota were the dominant species (Table 3).

In the first site with a high invasion level, P. hysterophorus (3.21) and Aervapersica (0.7) had higher cover abundance values. In the second site with a high invasion level, these herbaceous invasive plants were higher in cover abundance values that accounted for 1.77 and 1.01, respectively. This implied that the above listed herbaceous invasive plants were dominantly covering rangelands in both sites (Table 3). Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 63

Table 3. Proportion of each species based on the cover abundance values as per invasion levels

Total cover abundance value of different invasion level Botanical names Site1 (HIL) Site1 (MIL) mean Site2 (HIL) Site2(MIL) mean Abutilon fruticosum 0.42 0.20 0.31 0.16 0.09 0.13 Adhatoda schimperiana 0.34 0.20 0.27 0.29 0.16 0.23 Aerva persica 0.70 0.46 0.58 0.76 0.37 0.57 Barleria parviflora 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.29 0.11 0.2 Commicarpus verticillatus 0.34 0.18 0.26 0.18 0.04 0.11 Gallium simense 0.23 0.15 0.19 0.24 0.15 0.2 Glycine wightii 0.29 0.14 0.22 0.34 0.18 0.26 Hibiscus micranthus 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.22 0.11 0.17 H. aponneeurus 0.44 0.33 0.39 0.29 0.29 0.29 Hypoestes forskalei 0.33 0.15 0.24 0.17 0.14 0.16 Ipomoea ochracea 0.31 0.19 0.25 0.32 0.16 0.15 Indigofera spicata 0.12 0.24 0.18 0.42 0.20 0.31 Leucas urticifolia 0.34 0.31 0.33 0.38 0.27 0.33 Ocimumc anum 0.31 0.22 0.27 0.20 0.18 0.19 O.lamifolium 0.44 0.34 0.39 0.25 0.25 0.25 P. hysterophorus 3.21 1.60 2.4 1.77 1.45 1.6 Pilea teteraphyla 0.33 0.18 0.26 0.46 0.27 0.37 Ruellia patula 0.42 0.31 0.37 0.30 0.24 0.24 Tribulusterrestris 0.43 0.19 0.31 0.30 0.19 0.25 Total 9.35 5.74 7.57 7.34 4.84 6.01

HIL- High invasion level; MIL- Moderate invasion level

As indicated in Table 4, there was a significant difference between invasion levels in cover within the site. There was a significant difference between moderate and high invasion levels. There was higher herbaceous coverage in the high invasion levels of the two sites than in the moderate invasion levels; this is due to the presence of a large number of invasive plants. In the two sites of moderate invasion level, site two was higher than that of site one; this might be due to the presence of young, very small shrubs and bushes that are not growing well.

Table 4. The herbaceous plant cover for the two sites with different invasion levels

Herbaceous cover in different invasion level (%) HIL MIL Site1 (LSM ±SE) 0.625 + 0.034b 0.356 ± 0.017a Site2 ( LSM ±SE) 0.544±0.015b 0.481 ± 0.016a a b c d in the same raw, indicates there is significance difference between the two sites

HIL = high invasion level; MIL= moderate invasion level

Tree and shrub invasive plant cover

The results show that Acacia mellifera, A.senegal and A.oertota were higher in canopy coverage. Generally, those invasive species cover more than 28 percent of the total canopy coverage. The remaining canopy coverage was attributed to other tree and shrub invasive species (Table 5 and Figure 2). 64 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Table 5.The canopy cover of woody invasive species in the sampled area

Type of species No. /Q Area coverage (m2) Acacia mellifera 9.5 97.06 A. oertota 6.0 35.24 A. nubica 3.8 26.60 A. senegal 8.0 87.22 Balantes aegyptica 6 .0 55.23 Calotropis procera 2.7 6.55 Crotolaria albicaulis 2.3 6.54 C. comosa 3.2 7.71 Grewia villosa 2.5 12.87 Hypoestes forskalei 5.0 16.10 Solanum incanum 5.0 0.87 Total 351.99

80 More infestation level Less infestation level 60

40

20

0 Site 1 Site 2 Site 1 Site 2 (Bc) (Bc) (Cc) (Cc)

Figure 2. Basal and canopy cover for the two sites with different invasion within browsing height. The largest proportion (58 percent) levels (percent) of woody invasive plant species was found in the diameter class of < 4 m (Table 6); this might be due to cutting of trees Height classes of woody invasive plant species from the top, stem and their branches for the purpose of The largest proportion (68 percent) of woody invasive plant charcoal production, house construction, farm equipment species in the study area was found in the height class of preparation, temporal bridge construction, fencing and as less than 4 m which, at least theoretically, can be considered fodder for browser animals (camels and goats).

Table 6. Height and diametric coverage class distribution of trees and shrubs in the study area

Height (m) % Diameter (m) % <4 68 1-4 58 4-6 20 4-8 35 6-10 11 8-12 6 >10 1 >12 1 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 65

The very high abundance of small trees and shrubs suggests height of 4-6 m (20 percent); this might be because of the that the rangelands have been exposed to an increment less and/or unpalatable and thorny nature of the plants and of different disturbances and high usage of these plants. measures taken by the Natural Resources Office of the Some tree and shrub species, once defoliated or pruned district. by livestock or humans, could have poor regeneration capacity under the present conditions of the environment Invasive plant species richness and diversity (i.e., greater aridity, low and erratic precipitation and The effects of invasive plant species were not only revealed increased livestock populations) in the study site. on the area coverage. Their greatest impact observed was Selective cutting of taller trees or shrubs, especially for on the distribution of native rangeland plant species that charcoal making, house and local bridge construction, could resulted in general biodiversity degradation. The overall be the main reason for the small proportion (1 percent) of diversity index (H) and evenness of the invasive species in larger height woody invasive species. The height of 1.5 m the study area were 3.69 and 1.043, respectively (Table 7). represents the mean browsing height for goats (Tainton, The diversity and evenness result indicates the abundance 1999). Some areas of the study district had trees with a of different species and the relatively even distribution of the species.

Table 7. Invasive plant species abundance/equitability (E) and Shannon diversity index (H) in the rangelands of Telalak District

Species No/Q Pi=n/N lnPi H lnS E Abutilon fruticosum 12.3 0.04 -3.22 0.13 3.434 0.038 Acacia mellifera 9.5 0.03 -3.51 0.11 3.434 0.03 A. nubica 3.8 0.01 -4.61 0.05 3.434 0.015 A. oertota 6 . 0 0.02 -3.9 0.08 3.434 0.023 A.senegal 8.0 0.03 -3.51 0.11 3.434 0.015 Adhatoda schimperiana 11.4 0.04 -3.22 0.13 3.434 0.038 Aerva persica 15.8 0.05 -2.99 0.15 3.434 0.044 Asparagus asiaticus 12.4 0.04 -3.22 0.13 3.434 0.038 Balantes aegyptica 12.1 0.04 -3.22 0.13 3.434 0.038 Barleriaparviflora 3.8 0.01 -4.61 0.05 3.434 0.015 Calotropis procera 2.7 0.009 -4.71 0.42 3.434 0.122 Commicar pusverticillatus 3.6 0.012 -4.42 0.05 3.434 0.015 Crotolaria albicaulis 2.3 0.008 -4.83 0.04 3.434 0.012 C. comosa 3.2 0.01 -4.61 0.05 3.434 0.015 Gallium simense 11.3 0.04 -3.22 0.13 3.434 0.038 Grewia villosa 2.5 0.008 -4.83 0.04 3.434 0.012 Glycine wightii 12.5 0.04 -3.22 0.13 3.434 0.038 Hibiscus micranthus 11.0 0.036 -3.332 0.12 3.434 0.035 H. aponneeurus. 11.2 0.04 -3.22 0.13 3.434 0.038 Hypoestes forskalei 11.5 0.037 -3.30 0.12 3.434 0.035 Indigoferaspicata 11.7 0.038 -3.27 0.12 3.434 0.035 Ipomoea ochracea 12.4 0.04 -3.22 0.13 3.434 0.038 Leucas urticifolia 12.8 0.04 -3.22 0.13 3.434 0.038 Ocimum canum 4 .0 0.001 -6.91 0.01 3.434 0.002 O. lamifolium 3.6 0.012 -4.42 0.05 3.434 0.015 P. hysterophorus 28.8 0.095 -2.35 0.22 3.434 0.060 Pileateteraphyla 12.0 0.04 -3.22 0.13 3.434 0.038 Ruelliapatula 10.3 0.03 -3.51 0.11 3.434 0.032 Solanum incanum 4.6 0.015 -4.99 0.07 3.434 0.020 Tribulusterrestris 12.0 0.04 -3.22 0.13 3.434 0.038 Total 275.1 ------3.4 --- 0.97

H = 3.4; E = 0.97 No/Q = number of individual species per 400m2; S = total number of species 66 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

The results showed that in the first site, a highly invaded area, quadrats number 9, 10 and 5 are rich in P. hysterophorus, where this species accounts for 25, 20 and 16, respectively. In these same quadrats the species richness was 8, 6 and 12, respectively. This implied that as the number of P. hysterophorus weed increased, the number of other broadleaved and woody invasive plant species decreased in number and abundance (see Figures 3-5). The second site was highly invaded by woody invasive plants mainly in quadrat number 5 (48), 1 (44), 6 (37) in a moderately invaded area and in quadrat number 7 (91), 10 (81), 6 (70) and 9 (69) in a highly invaded area.

Figure 5: P. hysterophorus around a homestead

If the species are evenly distributed then the H value would be high. The H value allows us to know not only the number of species, but how the abundance of the species is distributed among all the species in the community. Diversity indices and equitability/abundance values of P. hysterophorus, Aerva persica and A.mellifera invasive plants were higher. This implied that these invasive plants were found more dominantly than others in the sampled sites and were higher in abundance. Acacia oertota, Crotolaria albicaulis, Calotropis procera, Grewia villosa, Ocimum lamifolium and O. canum were invasive species Figure 3: P. hysterophorus in crop land that had relatively lower diversity indices and abundance values (Table 7).

Woody invasive plants density, frequency and importance value

The density and frequency of the woody invasive plant species recorded in the study sites and quadrats varied considerably among species. The overall mean total density of woody invasive plants in sampled sites was 1,340 (837.5 woody plants ha-1) (Table 8). Mainly Acacia mellifera, A. Senegal and A. oertota were higher in relative density, which accounted for 18, 15 and 11 relative density, respectively. These invasive plants were higher in relative dominance also. Among woody invasive plants, Grewia villosa and Crotolaria albicaulis were lower in relative density (5 and 4, respectively).

Figure 4: P. hysterophorus in rangelands Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 67

Table 8. Rangeland woody invasive plant species and their importance value, density and frequency (percent)

Species N o . / Q D Rd Fr RFr Dom Rdom IV Acacia mellifera 9.5 237.5 18 80 15 26 22 55 A. oertota 6 150 .0 11 38 7 10 9 27 A. nubica 3.8 95.0 7 38 7 11 9 23 A. senegal 8 200.0 15 75 14 32 27 54 Balantesaegyptica 6 150.0 11 63 12 14 12 35 Calotropisprocera 2.7 67.5 5 45 8 1 1 14 Crotolariaalbicaulis 2.3 57.5 4 43 8 2 2 14 C. comosa 3.2 80 .0 6 23 4 3 3 13 Grewiavillosa 2.5 62.5 5 28 5 5 4 14 Hypoestesforskalei 5 125.0 9 50 9 6 5 23 Solanumincanum 4.6 115.0 9 55 10 8 7 26 Total --- 1340 100 538 100 118 100 3.00

No/Q = average number of plants per main quadrat; D = density; Rd = relative density; Fr = frequency; RFr = relative frequency; IV = importance value; Dom = dominance; Rdom = relative dominance

Acacia species constituted more than 60 percent of the total woody invasive plants in the sample sites. A.mellifera and A.senegal was found in almost 90 percent of the quadrats. This may be due to the thorny nature of the plants that are not suitable for movement and entry of animals and are not easily palatable by animals and their drought-tolerant nature. The importance values of some top woody invasive plants in descending order were Acacia mellifera (55), A. senegal (54), A.oertota (27) and Balantes aegyptica (35). The greater the importance value the more competitive is the invasiveness. These invasive plants were also higher in relative dominance and frequency. Generally, the results revealed that the field was dominated with invasive plant species of families: Mimosodeae, Asteraceae and Amaranthaceae. Acacia oertota, A. nubica, Balantes aegyptica, Hypoestes forskalei, Solanum incanum, Crotolaria comosa, C. albicaulis and Calotropi sprocera found in the study area had an adverse impact on the rangeland ecology (Table 8).

Herbaceous invasive plants density, frequency and importance value

In the study area, the dominant herbaceous invasive plants were P. hysterophorus and Aervapersica that accounted for more than 60 percent of the total density of herbaceous invasive plants; of which 20 percent was P. hysterophorus (Table 9).

Table 9. Density, frequency and importance value of herbaceous invasive species in the study area

Species No./Q D Rd Fr RFr Dom Rdom IV Abutilon fruticosum 12.3 307.5 4.4 45 5 2 1 10 Adhatodaschimperiana 11.4 285.0 4 45 5 3 2 11 Aervapersica 15.8 395.0 5.6 80 9.3 18 11 26 Asparagus asiaticus 12.4 310.0 4.4 50 5.8 8 5 15 Barleriaparviflora 10.8 270.0 3.8 30 3.5 6 4 11 Commicarpusverticillatus 10.8 270.0 3.8 30 3.5 5 3 10 Gallium simense 11.3 282.5 4.0 25 3 2 1 8 Glycine wightii 12.5 312.5 4.4 28 3.2 5 3 11 Hibiscus micranthus 11.0 275.0 3.9 5 0.6 2 1 6 H.aponneeurus 11.2 280.0 4.0 38 4.4 3 2 10 Hypoestes forskalei 11.5 287.5 4.1 25 3 4 2 9 Ipomoea ochracea 12.4 310.0 4.4 25 3 6 4 11 Indigofera spicata 11.7 292.5 4.2 38 4.4 3 2 11 Leucas urticifolia 12.8 320.0 4.5 34 4 5 3 12 68 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Table 9. Density, frequency and importance value of herbaceous invasive species in the study area

Species No./Q D Rd Fr RFr Dom Rdom IV Ocimum canum 11.2 280.0 4 30 3.5 6 4 12 O. lamifolium 10.6 265.0 3.8 38 4.4 2 1 9 P. hysterophorus 28.8 720.0 10.2 95 11 28 17 38 Pileatetera phyla 12.0 300.0 4.3 44 5 6 4 13 Ruellia patula 10.3 257.5 3.7 10 1 12 7 12 Tribulus terrestris 12.0 300.0 4.3 25 3 10 6 13 Total 252.8 6320 89.8 740 85.6 136 83 258

No/Q = average number of plants per main quadrat; D = density; Rd = relative density; Fr = frequency; RFr = relative frequency; IV = importance value; Dom = dominance; Rdom = relative dominance

As the result showed, the relative Continuous hand clearing and consumption and social prestige. This density values of P. hysterophorus uprooting of new seedlings of invasive system provided goods for household (10.2), Solanium species (6) and species from farm lands, grazing consumption (milk, meat, butter, Aerva persica (5.6) were higher. lands and around settlements were etc.) and live animals were used in This implied that their abundance in the first option that most respondents transactions, such as exchanges and the study district was higher and the carried out in the study area. The other sources of cash from the market. relative frequency, relative density most effective, but labour and cost The livelihoods of the local people and relative dominance were also intensive mechanical control method, mainly depend on pastoralism, 75 higher for these invasive plants. Lower which was frequently mentioned by percent, followed by agropastoralism, relative densities were recorded the respondents was removing of the 25 percent (see Table 10). Most of in Ruellia patula (3.7), Barleria plant from 10-15 cm below the ground the people interviewed replied that parviflora (3.8) and Commicar and use the land for crop production; pastoralism was the main practice for pusverticillatus (3.8). this was also described by Shiferaw household consumption and income et al. (2004). The importance values of some generation in the study area. top herbaceous invasive plants Livestock production and land The majority of the respondents in descending order were tenure systems revealed that pastoralists and P.hysterophorus (38) and Aerva agropastoralists generate their persica (26). Even though the above Livestock production systems income from livestock and livestock lists were dominant, Leucasurticifolia, The people in the study area kept products. Pastoralists living near Ipomoea ochracea, Pileateteraphyla, multiple species and multipurpose towns, to some extent, earn their Glycine wightii and others were also stock, including camels, cattle, goats income from the sale of charcoal and found (Table 9). and sheep. The proportion of the firewood. Management mechanisms different species of animals varied with employed the vegetation cover of the area. In the Livestock production drier parts of the study area, camels constraints Most of the respondents (88.8 and goats dominated herd composition, percent) revealed that they had with mainly camels dominating the The respondents in the study area tried to control invasive plants, but herds in the most arid areas. explained that livestock production it was difficult even to reduce their systems have been constrained and In the study area, extensive livestock distribution. This might be attributed at present might not cover the family’s was the predominant production to the high seed production capability basic needs. The respondents ranked system which provided subsistence with no dormancy period and fast feed shortage as the main livestock livelihoods for the local communities. growth and regeneration natures of production constraint and drought as Livestock production could be the plants. Some respondents (11.2 the second constraints (Table 10). In characterized as opportunistic percent) said that they did not try to line with the present study, shortage management of rangelands with control the invasive plants, and this of feed as a major constraint for mobile herds. A central strategy was might be due to their poisonous and livestock production was reported in herd size maximization for day to day allergen natures (Table 12). Tanzanian pastoral communities Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 69

Table 10. Livestock production systems and major constraints in the study district, as prioritized by the respondents

Livestock production system Fre (n=80) % Pastoralism 60 75 Agropastoralism 20 25 Total 80 100 Constraints Rank 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th Feed shortage 50 32.5 17.5 - - - - - Drought 7.5 56.2 27.5 8.8 - - - - Bush encroachment 36.3 40 15 2.5 5 - 1.3 - Diseases 5 - 12.5 82.5 - - - - Water shortage - - - 6.3 48.8 15 28.8 1.3 Market problem - - - - 22.5 66.3 11.3 - Land shrinkage - - - - 22.5 13.8 57.5 6.3 Conflict - - - - 1.3 5 1.3 92.4

Fre = frequency; n = number of respondents (Angello, 1996). These constraints were similar and quality. Currently, a few numbers ensure social security. This communal to those reported in other pastoral areas of of pastoralists in the study area were ownership of land was indicated in Ethiopia (Terefe, 2006; Hassen, 2006). practicing crop production on privately- the reports of other researchers, such owned land. Some pastoralists also as Coppock (1994) for the Borana Land tenure systems owned small plots of enclosed grazing rangeland, Debalkie (2006) for Jijiga Respondents explained that in the past area nearby and around their crop land rangeland and Feye (2007) for the they were able to move freely and exploit and homestead similar to that of the Gewane rangeland. the variability in resource availability Somalia region (Hogg, 1995). Respondents said that the communal over wide rangelands. However, now, Nevertheless, up to now, the largest rangelands were controlled by ethnic expansion of large scale agricultural portion of the rangeland was communal. leaders (50 percent), community projects, increases in human and The reasons for communal use are leaders (25 percent), family heads livestock populations, overgrazing, to strengthen their culture of sharing and all users of the area (Table 11). bush encroachment and water scarcity information (daagu) and utilization of However, these communal rangelands have contributed to the reduction of resources based on traditional norms were adversely affected by people who productive rangelands in both quantity and to strengthen their social bonds and violate customary laws.

Table 11. Respondents land tenure system, responsible bodies and primary income sources in the study area

Description Fre (n=80) % Privately owned 10 12.5 Communally owned 68 85.0 Both 2 2.5 Total 80 100 Responsible body Community leaders 20 25 Ethnic leaders 40 50 Family head 8 10 All users 12 15 Total 80 100 Primary income Livestock rearing 40 50.0 Cultivation 10 12.5 Trade 5 6.25 Rearing and cultivation 25 31.25

Fre = frequency; n = number of respondents 70 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Socio-economic impacts of vegetation in the study area: years, there has been a decrease in invasive plants useful grasses and legumes. Instead, decrease in the availability of unpalatable and thorny plants (trees, Impacts on rangeland vegetation grasses and palatable plants, shrubs, bushes and herbaceous increase in poorly palatable and weeds) that are hazardous for animal A major impact of invasive plant unpalatable and thorny plants; production and productivity have species on rangeland vegetation is increased. that palatable and nutritious plants encroachment of native vegetation; have been replaced by less palatable and The pastoralists described some of and unpalatable, useless and competition with locally-important the preferred grass species which poisonous plants. plants for space, light, nutrients, have shown signs of serious decline in terms of biomass production and The respondents (80 percent) pointed and water. area coverage. These included out that problems related to invasive According to the respondents, most plant species in the study district had Chrysopogon aucheri, Cynodon of the valuable species in the areas become severe, along with the harsh dactylon, Dactyloctenium aegyptium, which were suitable for animal grazing and and prolonged drought. Almost all Aristida adscensionis Panicum and browsing have disappeared . In some parts of the respondents agreed that the following coloratum due to the continued expansion of district, these valuable plant species were the major adverse impacts the invasive species. Furthermore, have completely disappeared. of invasive plants on rangeland compared to the last twenty or thirty

Table 12. Some invasive plant species and the type of disorders caused in animal species in the study area

Species Animal affected Disorders P. hysterophorus Cattle, goat, sheep and camel Variety Aerva persica Cattle, sheep and goat Bloating Crotolaria species All except camel Diarrhea Solanum incanum Goat, sheep (sometimes) Pneumonia Solanum species Goat, sheep Pneumonia Tribulus terrestris Cattle Bloating Calotropis procera All except camel Bloating

Impacts on animal production, productivity and Most of the respondents revealed that tree invasive human health species were a major cause of injury and restricted animal movement for feeding. P.hysterophorus, Calotropis Livestock are the primary victims of the adverse impacts procera and Aerva persica were major causes for bloating, of invasive rangeland species. Animal production is constipation, diarrhea and cough in animals. Large the main source of income generation and day to day numbers of animals were lost due to constraints related to consumption for pastoralists. The respondents revealed feed shortages and poisons from different invasive plants that the expansion of P. hysterophorus and encroachment (APADB, 2006). of rangelands by woody and thorny species were the main reasons for reduction in animal productivity. Consequently, Invasive plants were hazardous to human health too, the area has also become more suitable for predators especially P. hysterophorus which was the main cause (hyenas, fox, snakes and other wild animals) and more of skin scratches. Many respondents revealed that difficult for house animals. P. hysterophorus was the main cause for continuous coughing, asthma, bronchitis, lung disease, high fever, Respondents said that meat from livestock that fed on P. allergies and swelling. Supported by Ayele (2007), 50 hysterophorus was lower quality. They further elaborated percent of the respondents said that it causes stomach that when animals were allowed to graze only P. upset in animals and 31.3 percent revealed that it causes hysterophorus nobody likes to drink the milk because it has itching in humans. The respondents (50 percent) revealed a bitter taste or taint. All respondents revealed that they that goat, sheep and cattle were the most susceptible faced problems marketing their milk from such animals, if animals for P. hysterophorus weed toxicity (Table 13). alternatives were available. This idea was supported by Ayele (2007). Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 71

Table 13. Respondents with animal and human health problems associated with P. hysterophorus in the study district

Description Fre (n=80) % Livestock health Diarrhea 20 25 Cough 20 25 Stomach upset 40 50 No problem 0 00 Total 80 100 Animal type susceptible to P. hysterophorus toxicity Goat, sheep, cattle 40 50.0 Sheep and camel 10 12.5 Cattle 10 12.5 Goat and cattle 20 25.0 No problem 0 00 On human health Asthma 15 18.8 Itching 25 31.3 Allergic 20 25.0 Coughing 20 25.0 No problem 0 00 Total 80 100

Fre = frequency; n = number of respondents

Impacts on crop production

Most respondents revealed that crop cultivation in some During 2010-2011, there were 200 hectares of cultivated parts of the district had started five to six years earlier due land in the district. However, in the first week of September to the reduction in animal productivity, presence of arable 2010, all field crops and vegetables were damaged by land and water sources for irrigated agriculture. Sorghum, flash floods coming from the highlands of the country. maize, sesame and cow peas were the principal crops used Flood hazards in the study district were a combined result for cultivation. However, few households were engaged in of its topography, runoff from the highlands and intensive crop production. The major constraints to people being torrential rainfall conditions. involved in irrigation activities were expansion of P. The respondents pointed out that there were four hysterophorus and lack of finances, motor pumps and constraints to crop production: soil erosion due to flash labour. floods was the major constraint (75 percent), followed by Currently crop production and productivity has reduced expansion of weeds (62.5 percent), inadequate rainfall and in most pastoral associations of the district due to the lack of motors for pumping water (56.3 percent) and lack of expansion of P. hysterophorus weeds and flooding. This arable land (52.5 percent) (Table 14). point was supported by (Khosla and Sobti, 1981; Ebssa 2008). 72 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

4. Conclusions, were owned communally; whereas native rangeland vegetation were recommendations and the way most crop lands were privately owned. studied, but their impact on organic forward Invasive plants had adverse impacts on and inorganic components of soil livestock and grain crop production and could be more deeply studied. Conclusions productivity, as well as on human health. Even though the demerits were more The impacts of invasive plants The study site was mainly covered pronounced, invasive plants had some on animal and crop production by woody and non-grass herbaceous merits for the local people. Some forbs were studied simply based on the invasive plants. Acanthaceae, and shrubs have traditional medicinal perception of the local people, but Mimosoideae, Lamiaceae, Malvaceae, value and some trees were used for there needs to be experimental Amaranthaceae and Asterceae were construction purposes, fuel production, research on their production and the dominant invasive plant families in as feed for animals and fencing. productivity. the study area. In the Asterceae family, P. hysterophorus was the dominant The present findings, based on the Some invasive plants produce and a very noxious invasive herb. respondents’ perceptions, clearly toxic chemicals. To understand at showed that the current status of the what time/stage of maturity these The sampled sites (80 percent) were rangeland was highly affected by the plants produce more chemicals covered by invasive plant species. recurrent drought, climate change, and which plants are the most Telalak-Abaaro and Waydolele- overgrazing, bush encroachment, toxic could be studied. Aluu Pastoralist Associations sites natural disasters and encroachment were mainly invaded by herbaceous Socio-economic impacts of invasive of human populations. (P. hysterophorus, Aerva persica, plants were studied, but it needs Ipomoea ochracea, Indigofera spicata To overcome these constraints, priority further social and economic analysis. and Crotalaria albicaulis) and Halbin- needs appear to be community-based References Wale and Adalel-Dewe Pastoralist environmental rehabilitation and Associations were covered by woody conservation of natural resources, Afar National Regional State (ANRS) (Acacia mellifera, A. senegal, A. development of infrastructure and (2004). “Programme of plan and nubica and A. oertota) invasive plants. water systems, improvement of adaptation to climate change in Afar livestock development schemes National Regional State.” Semera. The dominant herbaceous invasive and grazing management systems, pp. 18-30. plants were P. hysterophorus, Aerva enhancement of drought mitigation persica. The results showed that the Afar Pastoral Agropastoral and strategies, volunteer settlements and relative density values of P. hysterophorus Development Bureau (2006). “Baseline income-generation schemes and (0.102) and Aerva persica (0.056) were survey on the potential, constraints and undertaking integrated rangeland and higher than others; this implied that their opportunity on the production system of 29 livestock research. abundance in the study district was weredas of Afar National Regional State.” higher and the relative frequency, relative Recommendations density and relative dominance were Angello, J. M., N.K.R. Musimba and R.S. also higher for these invasive plants. The Invasive plants are found in many Kidunda (1996). “Traditional rangeland results indicated that species richness in parts of the country. Further studies resource utilization in selected pastoral the two sites was different. are highly recommended to gain a communities of Tanzania,” pp. 11-23. clearer understanding of the overall The African Pastoral Forum (APF). Continuous hand clearing and uprooting social and environmental impacts and Working paper, Nairobi, Kenya. of new seedlings of P. hysterophorus their rate of expansion and invasion. weed from farm lands, grazing lands Ayele, Shashie (2007). “Impact and around settlements, removing of the The way forward for future of parthenium (Parthenium plant from 10-15 cm below the ground research hysterophorusL.) on the range and using that land for crop production ecosystem dynamics of the Jijiga The composition and diversity of were the main management methods. rangeland.” MSc thesis presented to invasive plants and their impacts the School of Graduate Studies of The findings of this study indicated on native vegetation were studied Haramaya University, Ethiopia. that livestock production systems in within one season, but these the area, including pastoralism and parameters are spatial and Chellamuthu, A. and T. agropastoralism, are constrained by feed temporal. 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(1995). “Changing land use composition and diversity of the and resource conflict and resources Statistical Analysis System Institute vegetation, soil seed bank flora and conflict among Somali pastoralists (2000). SAS/STAT Guide to personal condition of the rangelands of the Jijiga in the Haud of Ethiopia,” Ethiopian computers, version nine, North Zone, Somali Regional State, Ethiopia.” Journal of Development Research. Carolina, USA: SAS Institute Inc. MSc. thesis, School of Graduate Vol. 17, No. 1. Addis Ababa: Institute of Shiferaw, Hailu and Demel Teketay, Studies, Haramaya University, Ethiopia. Development Research, Addis Ababa Sileshi Nemomissa, Fassil Assefa University. Ebssa, Kuma (2008). “Perceived (2004). “Some biological characteristics socioeconomic impacts of International Livestock Centre for that foster the invasion of P. juliflora Partheniumhysterophorusweed and Africa (1990). “Livestock research (Sw.) 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6.Analysis of small ruminants value chain in Yabello and Shinille Districts, Ethiopia Getachew Legese8 , Aynalem Haile 9, Tadele Dessie10 , Nizam Hussein11 , Sisay Kuma 12 and B. Rischkowsky 13

ABSTRACT

Key words: value chain, shoats, pastoralists

With the objective of increasing teams of researchers from respective proportion of the final price of access of poor pastoralists and regional research centres ICARDA shoats reaching producers and smallholder farmers to meat and and ILRI during November 2012 to poor marketing infrastructures are milk, the International Center for February 2013. some of the major market-related Agricultural Research in the Dry issues needing focused intervention. Several crosscutting issues needing Areas (ICARDA) and the International These and several other important research, development and policy Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) constraints limiting the development interventions were identified in this have initiated a programme known of shoat value chain development at process. Shortages of breeding as ‘More Milk, Meat and Fish by and input supply, production, marketing, rams/bucks, dilution of the genetic for the Poor,’ a CGIAR Consortium processing and consumption stages resource of pastoral areas as a Research Programme (CRP 3.7) have been identified and prioritized result of restocking efforts after targeting the development of the through a series of stakeholder drought, lack of awareness about the small ruminants value chain. CRP consultation forums for focused hazards of inbreeding, shortages of 3.7 is being implemented in various intervention. CRP 3.7 is preparing to clinical equipment, drugs and human countries, including Ethiopia. This implement interventions, including the resources, lack of awareness on study is part of the bigger CRP strengthening of breeding practices of improved shoat feeding practices 3.7 and its major objective was to pastoralists, training of pastoralists, and feed shortages are some of the undertake a rapid assessment of training extension agents and experts constraints identified at the input the small ruminant’s value chain and on improved shoat husbandry supply and production stages of the identify best-bet intervention options practices (breeding, feeding, housing, value chain. The poor bargaining that would be used as entry points health care and marketing), making power of shoat producers, lack of for the programme. The study was market linkages, improving market vertical linkage of producers with conducted in two pastoral districts information systems and others. buyers, lack of market information, (Yabello and Shinille). A rapid value lengthy marketing channels, lower chain assessment was done by

8 Getachew Legese, Value Chain Consultant, ICARDA/ILRI, [email protected]. 9 Aynalem Haile, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), P.O. Box 5466, Aleppo, Syria. 10 Tadele Dessie, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P. O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 11 Nizam Hussein, Yabello Pastoral and Dryland Agriculture Research Center, P.O. Box 085, Yabello, Ethiopia. 12 Sisay Kuma, Yabello Pastoral and Dryland Agriculture Research Center, P.O. Box 085, Yabello, Ethiopia. 13 B. Riskowsky, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), P.O. Box 5466, Aleppo, Syria. Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 75

Introduction Nevertheless, under traditional Implementation of these interventions production systems, the productivity in the districts would enhance Background of Ethiopian shoats is low due to production of best quality shoats slow growth rates and high kid that would meet market demand and Diverse biophysical and agro-climatic mortality owing to inadequate and fetch better prices. This is expected conditions in Ethiopia make the inefficient animal health services to improve household income and country suitable for the production of which will have implications for future increase their access to milk, meat various kinds of livestock. The shoats shortages of marketable animals. and other nutritious foods through (sheep and goats) population of Furthermore, current economic better purchasing power as a result of Ethiopia, including expert estimates trends are significantly impacting the increased shoat production. of the pastoral areas, is about 66 genetic resource base through early million heads (Negassa et al., 2011). disposal of better animals for market. Objectives Shoats provide about 46 percent of Therefore, there is an urgent need the national meat consumption and 58 The main objective of the study was to increase productivity of shoats to characterize the goat value chain in percent of the value of hide and skin through improving the genotype production (Awgichew et al., 1991). order to identify best-bet intervention along appropriate management areas for the development of the Shoats have many advantages over interventions to bridge such gaps large ruminants for most smallholder shoat value chain in the area. Specific and improve household income, objectives of the study were: farmers, including among others: household nutrition and to meet lower feed costs, quicker turnover, the demand of the growing human to identify the natural, technical, easier management and appropriate population for livestock products and financial, legal and institutional size at slaughter (Abegaz, 2002; foreign markets. Clearly, therefore, opportunities and barriers that Donkin, 2005). Shoats also have interventions are needed that target influence development of the greater tolerance to less favourable the improvement of the shoat value shoat value chain; conditions, as they suffer far less in chain starting from developing to identify best-bet research, mortality during periods of drought efficient input delivery systems, development and policy intervention than large ruminants (Galal, 1983). In knowledge-based animal husbandry options for the development of addition, subsistence farmers prefer systems (including feeding, breeding, the shoat value chain in the study shoats as the risk of losing large housing and health care systems) areas; and ruminants is too great (Sölkner et al., and identification and promotion of 1998). cost-effective marketing channels to document important elements Apart from subsistence, livestock and coordinated supply chains that and modalities of market play economic and cultural roles. reduce the transaction costs among strategies to develop the shoat In the system of the study areas, actors along the supply chain. value chain. shoats have a very important role in This calls for an understanding of Organization of the report contributing to food security as well as input delivery, production, processing in mitigating environmental risks due and consumption systems. It The report is organized in five sections. to their unique adaptation to arid and also requires an understanding Section one introduces the report. semi- arid areas. Shoats are primarily of market performance, conduct, Section two presents the research used for milk and meat production for function, business linkages and methodology used. An overview of home consumption. Shoats are the constraints and opportunities along results obtained through the rapid major source of income for farmers the value chain, as well as forward value chain assessment of sheep and and pastoralists to meet the immediate and backward linkages with the goats in Yabello and Shinille Districts, cash needs of the household. With target areas. The purpose of this including the core functions and the increased drought cycle and study was to assess the constraints their characteristics, is presented in environmental degradation because and opportunities along the small Section three. Section four discusses of the effects of climate change, the ruminants value chain in Yabello the constraints and opportunities pastoral community is expanding and Shinille Districts, respectively of identified along the value chains. shoat production as an adaptation Oromia and Somali Regional States, Section five concludes the report and strategy. The increase in international Ethiopia, in order to come up with recommends interventions. demand for meat in general and the best-bet research, development and high demand for shoat meat in Middle policy intervention options that would Eastern countries is another incentive facilitate development of the small for increased shoat production in ruminant’s value chain in the area. Ethiopia. 76 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Methodology of trade and a small amount of crop this study were experts in livestock production in the southern part. The extension, livestock marketing and Description of the study areas altitude of Shinille District ranges cooperatives promotion, as well as Yabello District between 950 and 1,350 metres abattoir managers, traders, meat above sea level. There are two rainy supermarket managers, butchers, Yabello District is located in Oromiya seasons, gu and karan, both of which livestock researchers, transporters, National Regional State about 565 are almost equally important. The gu veterinarians and non-governmental kilometres south of Addis Ababa on falls between late March and late May, organizations. A total of 40 key the main road from Addis Ababa to while the karan season is between informants were interviewed during Moyale in the Borana rangeland. late July and late September. In recent the field data collection period. Borana rangeland is semi-arid with years, the karan has shown better highly variable rainfall that ranges reliability. Annual rainfall is between Method of data analysis between 300 and 900 mm per annum, 500-700 mm. Rainfall is higher in the The data collected from the field with highly spatial and temporal southern foothills and much lower through focus group discussions, key variability. The main rainy season in the northern central plains. In the informant interviews and personal extends from March to May, whereas extreme north and northwest, rainfall observations were analysed using the short rainy season lasts from is much below this range. a thematic analysis approach. October to November, followed by a Quantitative data were analysed long dry season. However, the actual Methods of data collection and sources of data using descriptive statistical analysis length of the rainy season is getting techniques to calculate the distribution shorter and shorter with time, and Both primary and secondary data of costs and margins along the shoat the area is prone to frequent drought. were used in this study. Combinations value chain. The short rains are unreliable. The of techniques were applied when predominant soil types of the area collecting the data required to analyse Conceptual framework include red soil, black soil, white or the shoat value chain in Yabello and The ‘value chain’ describes the full gray soil and sandy soil. In most Shinille Districts. Participatory Rural range of value-adding activities cases, the soil is well-drained, red, Appraisal (PRA) tools, focus group required to bring a product or service sandy loam. Livestock production is discussion, key informant interviews through the different phases of the mainstay of the Borana people, and visual observation were used to production, including procurement who live in pastoral and agropastoral collect primary data. Secondary data of raw materials and other inputs, areas. The major livestock reared by were collected from district offices. assembly, physical transformation, the Borana are cattle, camels, goats Relevant literature and documents acquisition of required services, such and sheep. The average stocking rate were also reviewed to provide as transport or cooling, and ultimately in Borana rangelands is approximately theoretical background. Each of the response to consumer demand 15.6 TLU/ km2 (Cossins and Upton, tools used for data collection are (Kaplinsky and Morris, 2001). As 1988). Although livestock production described below. such, value chains include all of the is the dominant mode of production, vertically linked, interdependent crop production is also practiced in Focus group discussions processes that generate value for the area. Crop production practice Focus group discussions were the consumer, as well as horizontal is gradually expanding from the conducted with groups of men linkages to other value chains that agropastoral to the pastoral areas. and women in each of the kebeles provide intermediate goods and Shinille District (the smallest administrative unit, services. Value chains focus on value equivalent to a neighbourhood). A total creation – typically via innovation in Shinille District is one of the nine of four kebeles (two per district) were products or processes, as well as administrative zones of Somali selected for this study. Four focus marketing – and also on the allocation National Regional State. Lying in group discussions (two per district of the incremental value (Webber and the northernmost tip of the region, it or one per kebele) were conducted Labaste, 2010). borders Djibouti in the north, Somalia in January 2013 with a total of 45 A value system contains value chain (Somaliland) in the northeast, Jijiga participants. The groups in each of actors, value chain service providers Zone on the southeast, Dire Dawa the kebeles were composed of 10-12 and the institutional environment. and Oromia regions to the south men and women shoat producers. and the Afar region on the West. Value chain actors are those actors The population’s livelihood mainly Key informant interviews who exercise ownership of the product depends on livestock production. or its value addition, thus bearing the The key informants identified for There is also a significant amount risk in handling the commodity. On Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 77 the other hand, value chain service institutions (Gereffi , 1995). chain. Value chain development is providers are those that provide about implementation of upgrading The key to the concept of the value service to value chain actors, either at interventions (Anandajayasekeram chain is the idea of value addition. cost or for free (e.g., a public extension and Gebremedhin, 2009). This is what distinguishes the service). In some cases, a value value chain from ‘market chains’ or chain actor may be providing service Key fi ndings and discussions: ‘supply chains,’ which focus on the to his/her own operation (e.g., a value Results of the value chain logistical aspect of the transfer of the chain actor may use his own transport analysis commodity (Webber and Labaste, service or processing facility). In such 2010). Value chain analysis will Mapping the core functions cases, the service becomes part of undoubtedly identify many potential the value chain actor activities. Both The core functions in shoat value upgrading strategies. The goal, value chain actors and value chain chains of Yabello and Shinille Districts however, is to identify a few points service providers operate under a consists of input supply, production, (nodes) of intervention which, in the given institutional environment. The marketing, processing and literature, are called ‘leverage nodes’ institutional environment consists consumption (Figure 1). The major or ‘leverage points.’ These are nodes of both formal institutions (written activities under each core function which, if addressed, will have the laws and regulations) and informal and actors are illustrated below. highest impact in upgrading the value

Input Supply Production Marketing Processing Consumption

Supply of: Feeding Transporting Slaughtering Slaughtering Breeding stock Herding Selling Chilling Chilling Veterinary services Housing Buying Packing Packing Credit services Breeding Collection Cooking in Cooking in Feed (sometimes) local dishes local dishes

Pastoralists, Pastoralists Collectors Hotels/ restaurants Individual YPDARC Small traders Butchers Consumers Private clinics Big traders Supermarkets Pastoralists Government and Brokers Export abattoirs Foreign consumers non-government organizations

Figure 1: Core functions, activities and actors along the shoat value chains in Yabello and Shinille Districts

Input supply Restocking programmes after culture known as busa gonofa. In this drought seasons are also important system, highly affected households Supply of breeding stock sources of breeding stock for the will be selected after each drought pastoral community. These breeding season and given a certain number The breeding stock in the study areas stocks can be bought either from of replacement stock of goats, cattle are obtained from pastoralists within markets within the affected pastoral and other species of animals that are the same community, markets outside area or neighbouring agropastoral contributed by relatively less affected the study areas and research centres. areas with different agroecologies households. The other sources of The pastoralist buys breeding and breeds of animals (e.g., Konso breeding stock are research centres stock from the surrounding pastoral and Guji). Hence, different breeds of (Yabello and Jijiga). These centres markets or maintains female shoats animals could be introduced into the provide 50 percent Boer and 50 as replacement stock. The important rangeland in this process. The Borana percent Dorper cross bucks to the thing here is that pastoralists always community has a self-rehabilitation pastoral community. go for their own local breeds. 78 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Feed supply household has problems that require pastoralists in the area do not cash, they fi rst sell shoats. The practice controlled mating for goats Shoat production in the study areas major production activities are briefl y since bucks always stay with the relies on grazing of natural pasture described in this section. fl ock. For sheep, controlled mating is and browses. Though there are practiced by the pastoralists. But this efforts made to supply supplementary Breeding controlled mating is not for breeding- feeds, such as hay, straw, wheat bran/ It is expected that pastoralists select related reasons, rather it is because middling and oil seed cakes, to the breeding bucks/rams for their herd the pastoralists do not want sheep rangeland during severe droughts, and manage these bucks properly. to reproduce during dry seasons as these feeds are targeting saving the However, information obtained feed scarcity may cause abortion and lives of cattle, not usually shoats. from focus group discussions with death of lambs. However, as goats Since water shortages do not allow pastoralists reveals that Borana are browsers they can survive even pastoralists to grow forages, supply pastoralists do not select bucks when feed is not available. Similar of forage seeds is not a common for their goat herds and there is a to the pastoralists in Yabello District, practice in these areas. shortage of rams. This is because of a knowledge about inbreeding and its Veterinary inputs and services high demand for yearling, uncastrated drawbacks is limited among Somali male goats in the market at better pastoralists in Shinille District. Animal health services in the study prices. Pastoralists take yearlings Feeding areas are provided by public veterinary with good physical appearance to the clinics in the district capital and small market rather than maintaining them Production of shoats in pastoral towns, health posts, community as bucks/rams in the herd. Moreover, areas relies on grazing of natural animal health workers, private vet one buck serves for over four years in pasture and browse species and the clinics, private veterinary pharmacies a herd. This in turn brings problems availability of these feed resources and informal veterinary drug sellers. of inbreeding. However, pastoralists depends on availability of rainfall. The quality of services provided indicated that they do not have any There are two rainy seasons in and challenges in service provision knowledge about inbreeding. Since Yabello District: the long rainy season vary with region. For instance, drug bucks are herded mixed with does, (March-May) and the short rainy shortages were not reported from there is no attempt to control mating. season (September-November). Yabello District, which has a revolving There is only one long rainy season There is a different scenario in Shinille drug fund, while drug shortages are (March-August) in Shinille District. As District. Pastoralists in this area the major problem in Shinille District. indicated in Figure 1, browses and indicated that they select sheep and All the health posts in Yabello District pastures are more abundant during goat breeding stock by considering are functional, while only four out of the long rainy season as compared to physical appearance, drought 16 health posts in Shinille District are the short rainy season. functional. The common problems tolerance and milk yield. However, among the two districts are shortages of vaccines, veterinary equipment and personnel. The private clinics 100 5 and pharmacies in the areas provide complementary services to the public 80 4 ones. The price of the private service providers is higher than that of the public clinics. However, the pastoral 60 3 community uses private services 18 30 36 when they cannot get some of the 40 42 2 items from public service providers. 20

Feed Availability Feed Availability (%) 32 Rainfall Score (0-5) 20 42 1 Production 24 30 18 20 8 Pastoralists rear shoats to sell as 0 0 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. sources of income to meet the household’s immediate cash needs, Browsing Grazing Rainfall (score 0-5) for milk production and to slaughter at home. Shoats also protect the Figure 2a: Seasonal distribution of feed resources relative to the rainfall pattern in Yabello District selling of other household assets by generating income. When a Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 79

100 5 and converted to butter for sale. Milk production and productivity of shoats 80 4 in the study area is affected by the

60 3 availability of rain. During rainy season pastoralists obtain an average of

40 2 0.25-0.33 litres of milk per animal

Feed Availability Feed Availability (%) Rainfall Score (0-5) per day. Milking and milk marketing 20 1 is undertaken mainly by women. The majority of shoat milk is consumed at 8 0 0 home, mainly by children, because Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. pastoralists believe that goat milk has Rainfall (score 0-5) Browsing Grazing very good nutritional value for children.

Figure 2b: Seasonal distribution of feed resources relative to the rainfall pattern in Shinille District Processing

Pastoralists in Shinille District house Processing of shoat meat in the study Grasses rejuvenate immediately mature does and ewes together, but areas is mainly carried out by hotels after the fi rst rain shower and the they separate kids, lambs, bucks and and restaurants. Hotels and restaurants availability of feed improves within rams. They separate the rams so that use shoat meat in a variety of dishes, a short period of time, as long as unwanted mating and reproduction of including key wat (stews), tibs (roasted there is a rainfall. The grasses and sheep will not occur when there is no meat), dulet (fi ne chopped offal and red browses grown during the rainy grazing pasture. meat mixed with spices and butter) and season will support livestock for some wesla (a traditional Borana arrosto). months after the rain stops. However, Health care Yabello District is one of the major this feed resource cannot support sources of slaughter goats for export The most common sheep and goat livestock year round; consequently, abattoirs in the Bishftu and Modjo diseases in the study areas are pastoralists use mobility as the major area. The export abattoirs slaughter cholera, Pest Petites Ruminant, coping mechanism for feed and water the shoats, remove the skins, chill copper defi ciency and parasites, such shortages. This happens during the carcasses, wrap the carcasses in as fasciola, ecto-parasites and shoat the months when feed and rainfall cotton fabric and transport the meat to poxes and bovine brucellosis. Effi ciency availability is almost nil (See Figures the airport since exporters usually sell of animal health service delivery varies 2a and 2b). freight on board (f.o.b) at Bole airport. in the two areas. It is reported to be very In addition, the export abattoirs export Housing weak in Shinille District as compared to organs, such as testicles, penis, brain, Yabello District. Whenever animals get Shoats in the study areas are usually intestine, kidney and liver, to other sick, pastoralists in Shinille District have kept in fences that do not have countries. There are fi rms specializing in two alternatives. The fi rst alternative is to roofi ng. In Yabello District, all types of the processing and export of intestines go to private pharmacies and purchase animals, except kids, are kept in one to other countries. The butchers in the common drugs with which they house which is usually a fence with Addis Ababa, Hawasa and other big are familiar, such as Oxytetracyclin, no roofi ng. Pastoralists build separate towns slaughter Borana goats and Albendazole, Diazinone, etc., and treat houses for kids and lambs known as sell either the fried or raw meat in their their animals by themselves. Or they dhokoba in Borana areas. Kids and premises or the carcasses are sold as practice traditional treatment methods lambs are kept in the dhokoba in order take away to individual consumers. The which are usually done using fi re. These to protect them from being trampled supermarkets in Addis Ababa slaughter pastoralists believe that traditional and damaged by other animals, Borana goats and sell either the whole treatment is less effi cient as compared including bucks and does. Since carcasses to hotels and restaurants or to modern treatment of animals, but pastoralists are producing shoat milk, cuts of shoat meat, packed in various they are compelled to use it as they do it is also a mechanism to isolate the sizes. In Shinille District, shoats are not have access to adequate veterinary kids and lambs to prevent suckling so mainly bought by Dire Dawa hotels, services. that pastoralists can harvest milk in restaurants and individual consumers. the mornings. Households with small Milk production Since Shinille District is closer to the goat herds (an average of fi ve) keep border than to the centre of the country, their goats within the main house of Milk is produced from both sheep and shoats from there are channeled to the the household in order to protect them goats, but only goat milk is consumed informal cross-border livestock trade from predators and theft. and marketed. Sheep milk is churned rather than export abattoirs. 80 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Consumption A common feature of the extension Pastoral community credit and saving system in both districts is its gap in cooperatives are established by Shoat meat is consumed by domestic livestock marketing. Extension agents community members. The source of and foreign consumers. Ethiopian are lacking market information and their finance is members’ contributions shoat meat is exported mainly to knowledge to support the pastoralists. as share capital. Some non- the Middle East and North African Thus, pastoralists rely on their own governmental organizations supporting countries. Because of the limited knowledge and experience, rather the community also provide seed money processing capacity of Ethiopian meat than expert advice in marketing their to such cooperatives. These community exporters, only chilled carcasses animals. credit schemes are more flexible in and organs are exported to these serving the community as compared to countries, targeting the lower-income Credit services OCSI and other institutions. However, immigrant groups. This is mainly Pastoralists in Yabello District the schemes usually have a shortage because well-off people in Arab obtain credit from three sources: of capital to address the credit needs of countries prefer better quality meat the Oromia Credit and Saving their members. that is either freshly slaughtered on Institution (OCSI), the Household the spot or imported from Australia The most important issue with regard Asset Building Programme (HABP) and other countries. Domestic to rural credit services is the level and their own credit and saving consumers buy either raw meat from of understanding of the community cooperatives. However, there was no butcheries and supermarkets or buy about the terms and conditions. Since micro-finance institution reported to live shoats and slaughter at home. the credit institutions do not have serve pastoralists in Shinille District. Domestic hotels and restaurants sufficient staff, they could not reach The OCSI offers group-based loans serve domestic consumers with the community and make them aware that pastoralists take by forming dishes made from shoat meat. of the terms and conditions. Hence, groups of three to seven households. most of the pastoralists are not clear Support services However, the terms and conditions of what types of credit are available this credit do not consider the nature Extension services and what is required to get access to of animal production activities that credit services. need a longer grace period compared The Oromia Pastoral Area to crops. The maximum amount a Development Commission has zonal Transportation services pastoralist can get from this source is offices in all the pastoral areas of 2,000 Ethiopian birr in the first round. According to the World Organization for the region. Being one of the pastoral This amount increases by 20 percent Animal Health (OIE), animals should districts of the Borana zone, Yabello if the pastoralist repays the first loan be transported in designated trucks has a district office for pastoral without any problem. The interest on that do not impede good handling. development. This office has strong this loan is 15 percent. Animals should be provided with rest, human resources relative to other food and water while in transport. pastoral districts. Each kebele also HABP credit is a type of credit Timely veterinary inspections and has three extension workers. There extended to beneficiary households euthanasia (killing) should be done in are animal health assistants and upon graduation from a Safety Net a manner that minimizes the suffering community animal health workers Programme to enable them to create of sick and injured animals. However, supporting the pastoralists in assets. This credit is administered by this is not respected in Ethiopia. A awareness creation, provision of financial institutions, such as OCSI, large proportion of the livestock reach vaccines and treatment of diseases. with close follow-up by the pastoral markets by trekking all or most of the The livestock extension workers development offices. In order to be way (Kano, 1987). Thus, supply of provide technical support to the eligible for HABP credit, the pastoralist live animals from the producers to the pastoralists, but focus more on cattle should produce a business plan with different categories of markets (primary, and less on small ruminants. the support of the extension agent. secondary and terminal markets) The credit will be approved after the and slaughterhouses in the country is Shinille District also has a crop and approval of the business plan by mainly carried out either by trekking or livestock development office at the the district steering committee. The trucking or a combination of both. woreda office. The number of staff maximum amount of money that a at the kebele level is similar to that pastoralist can get from the HABP Trekking is the predominant means of of Yabello District, and pastoralists credit programme is 4,000 Ethiopian transporting animals from farm gates are receiving technical support from birr and the interest on this loan is 10 to the next nearby or primary markets. these workers. percent per annum. Though the primary livestock markets Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 81 are the closest markets to the powerful voice and incentive for change. increases from time to time. This producers, the distance varies from End market buyers are important demand is highest during religious place to place. In some places, the sources of demand information, can holidays, such as Easter, Christmas, producers trek one to three hours to transmit learning, and in some cases New Year’s and Ramadan, and it arrive at the primary markets to sell are willing to invest in firms further decreases during specific seasons their animals. Most of the animals down the value chain (Campbell, of the year, such as the major fasting sold at the secondary markets 2008). End markets for shoats could seasons for followers of Orthodox are transported to the terminal be broadly classified as domestic and Christianity at which time livestock markets and slaughter houses by export markets. The characteristics of markets totally close in the highlands. truck. Ordinary trucks are the most each of the major actors in the shoat widely used means of transporting value chain are discussed below. Export markets live animals from the secondary Domestic markets Analysis of data from the Ethiopian markets to the terminal markets and Revenue and Customs Authority slaughterhouses. However, such Domestic market demand can be shows that Middle Eastern countries trucks are not suited for loading, categorized into demands by individual (12 countries) are the major market unloading and transporting of animals. consumers, hotels, shoat butchers outlets for meat and live animals Market information services and supermarkets. An important exported from Ethiopia. Among development in the Ethiopian shoat these countries, the lion’s share Though the Ethiopian Livestock Market value chain is the opening up of shoat of meat volume was exported to Information System was tested and butcheries and the retail of shoat meat Saudi Arabia and the United Arab launched two years earlier, this system in supermarkets of major towns. Goat Emirates. Other destination markets could not be sustained because of meat was usually consumed in the for Ethiopian meat are Egypt, Yemen, the weak institutional arrangements lowland areas of the country, while Kuwait, Oman, Bahrain, Congo, for data collection and transmission to highlanders used to focus on lamb. the Democratic Republic of Congo, the central system. The system was However, the shoat butcheries in Turkey, Vietnam, Angola, Comoros initiated and developed with support Addis Ababa, Adama, Hawasa and Islands and India. Egypt, Angola, from externally-funded projects, and other big urban areas have started the Democratic Republic of Congo, data collectors and transmitters were serving goat meat. This is expanding Congo and Comoros Islands are recruited from government offices. to smaller towns too. This offers a very beef markets, whereas Vietnam and The projects were making additional good opportunity for goat producers Turkey are destinations for offal. payments to data collectors and since it creates continuous demand In general, although quality transmitters on top of their regular for fattened goat. The price of goat requirements vary, the shoat export government salaries as added meat is up to 160 Ethiopian birr/kg in market generally requires animals incentive. However, this could not be butcheries, while it is 90-95 Ethiopian having the following characteristics: sustained after the project phased out birr/kg in supermarkets. The higher male, young (1-2 years) and with a and data collection and transmission price in butcheries is because of cost live weight of 12-30 kg. The export activities ceased and the system is for the service and the freedom to market prefers non-castrated shoats no longer functional. If the system is select the parts to be cut depending with good body fat coverage, whereas to be re-started, there are issues that on the consumer’s preference. the domestic prefers castrated males should be considered in terms of the Supermarkets are also retailing shoat or female animals (Getachew et al., dissemination of market information. meat in pre-packed bundles. Both 2008). As indicated above, the most That is, it has to be disseminated in the butcheries and supermarkets are important markets for Ethiopian chilled local dialects using FM radios to make slaughtering fattened male shoats. shoat carcasses are the United Arab it accessible to the pastoralists of the According to discussions held with Emirates and Saudi Arabia. These area. It is also important to consider the a meat supermarket owner and markets have specific requirements, time of dissemination to be sure that manager, Addis Ababa consumers still especially in terms of carcass weight. pastoralists can give it due attention. prefer mutton to goat meat and the supermarkets slaughter more sheep. The United Arab Emirates market Marketing analysis of end needs goat carcasses of 5-10 kg; markets The major consumers of sheep this means the slaughtering animals and goat in Ethiopia are domestic should be 13-25 kg live weight. On the End markets determine the individual consumers. With the other hand, the Saudi Arabia market characteristics, including price, quality, increase in population and improved needs larger shoat carcasses (7-12 quantity and timing of a product or household income, demand for kg), which in turn requires slaughtering service. End market buyers have a shoat meat by individual consumers shoats of 16-30 kg live weight. 82 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Marketing channels Marketing of shoats in the study areas Despite the challenge of repeat trade A marketing channel is an organized starts with the collection of goats bans, the Gulf States are currently the network of agencies and institutions of different classes and ages from primary target destinations for Ethiopian which in combination perform all the production areas moving on to the end meat exports. Within these countries, activities required to link producers with markets (Figure 3). In the process, competing exporters include Australia, consumers to accomplish marketing animals pass successively through Brazil, India, New Zealand and tasks (Bennet, 1988; as cited by Jaleta, a variety of market actors before Pakistan. Ethiopian meat sells at the 2011). Only a small portion of goods reaching the end users. The number lower end of the market in the importing and services is consumed at the point and type of market participants differ countries. The market is segmented of production and only a small fraction along the different market channels. according to incomes, with higher- of any output is purchased by the The various channels represent the income populations preferring freshly ultimate consumers directly from the available outlets in the areas through slaughtered meat, while lower-income final producers (Jaleta, 2011). Thus, which sheep and goats move. populations (particularly low-income a marketing channel is a marketing Fourteen major shoat marketing expatriates) opt for low-cost meats that process that performs several functions channels are identified for animals are usually frozen. This is the segment by bridging the gap between production originating from the study areas. of the population that consumes chilled and consumption. The analysis The major marketing channels for Ethiopian shoat carcasses. of marketing channels provides a animals from the study areas could be systematic knowledge of the flow of categorized into three groups: goods and services from their production areas to the final market or end users.

Major marketing channels for domestic consumers: Channel 1: Producers → Local hotels

Channel 2: Producers → Collectors → Local Hotels

Channel 3: Producers → Producers (for breeding purposes)

Channel 4: Producers → Collectors → Individual consumers

Channel 5: Producers → Collectors → Small traders → Supermarkets and butchers

Channel 6: Producers → Collectors → Cooperatives → Individual consumers

Major marketing channels for shoat meat exports: Channel 1: Producers → Collectors → Small traders → Big traders → Export abattoirs

Channel 2: Producers → Collectors → Small traders → Export abattoirs

Channel 3: Producers → Collectors → Big traders → Export abattoirs

Channel 4: Producers →Small traders → Export abattoirs

Major marketing channels for live goat exports: Channel 1: Producers → Collectors → Small traders → Big traders → Live shoat exporters

Channel 2: Producers → Collectors → Small traders → Live shoat exporters

Channel 3: Producers → Collectors → Live shoat exporters Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 83

Enabling Environment Land tenure Export bans Climatic condition Security

Foreign Farmers/ Consumption consumers Individual consumers pastoralists

Live animals exporters Supermarkets Hotels Butchers

Export Processing abattoirs Live animals

Big traders Cooperatives Marketing

Small traders Collectors

Production Small holder Shoat producers

Veterinary services Extension Breeding Credit Services Feed supply Input supply (Private and Public) Services stock

Figure 3: Value chain map for shoats produced in the selected intervention areas 84 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

The marketing channels are further since the consumption pattern of Channel 1: Producers → described below. individual consumers is seasonal Collectors → Small traders → according to religious holy days, Big traders → Export abattoirs 1) Major marketing channels for individual consumers usually buy from domestic consumers collectors. This is because collectors This is a channel whereby some export abattoirs provide premium Channel 1: Producers → Local are able to bring a substantial number prices to big traders that can supply hotels of the required types of animals at these times. thousands of animals a week. Big Local hotels and restaurants are one traders in such cases establish of the few actors that have a chance Channel 5: Producers → huge networks of small traders and to buy live goats from the pastoral Collectors → Small traders → collectors in all corners of the country, producers. They can either buy at Supermarkets and butchers including Borana markets, and collect Yabello/Shinille market or go to rural as many shoats as they can. Small Some supermarkets in Addis Ababa markets in search of animals. Both traders hand over animals to big have permanent suppliers from producers and the hotels would benefit traders since they cannot receive a Borana markets. These suppliers from this transaction. Since there is premium price if they supply directly are small traders that usually supply no involvement of intermediaries, to the abattoirs because of their animals to export abattoirs. These this is the shortest possible channel smaller quantities. suppliers buy bigger shoats with good and the margin that could have been body conditions for supermarkets. Channel 2: Producers → taken by the intermediaries would be They also supply similar animals to Collectors → Small traders → shared by the two parties. butchers in bigger towns, including Export abattoirs Channel 2: Producers → Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa and Hawasa. This is the channel in which export Collectors → Local hotels Channel 6: Producers → abattoirs buy from any supplier that In this channel, collectors are Collectors → Cooperatives → can supply at least a truck load of involved in selling goats to hotels, Individual consumers animals at the factory gate. In most either in the market or at the hotel cases, two or more small traders buy Shoat slaughter cooperatives in gates. Collectors can make 20 – 50 goats and share an ISUZU truck to Shinille town are buying sheep and Ethiopian birr in this transaction. Their take their animals to the abattoirs. goat from producers and collectors, marketing cost is mainly the tax paid There is no premium price in this slaughtering them and retailing the at the market gate if they buy animals channel since abattoirs have to deal shoat meat in their retail outlets. This in the market. with a number of small traders. is an important source of meat for Channel 3: Producers → the community living in and around Channel 3: Producers → Producers (for breeding Shinille town. Collectors → Big traders → purposes) Export abattoirs 2) Major marketing channels for As indicated in the input supply section, goat meat exports Some big traders in Yabello District have a network of collectors that buy the pastoralists get replacement stock These marketing channels are only goats on a commission basis and from the market. Pastoralists usually for Yabello District. According to supply thousands of animals a week buy from producers whom they know information obtained from focus to export abattoirs. These traders are so that they can get the history of the group discussions with pastoralists also buying for live animal exporters. animal. After the drought seasons, and key informant interviews with Big traders provide advance payment collectors and small traders also traders in Shinille District, the area to collectors so that they can collect collect animals that could be used for does not supply animals to export large numbers of animals at a time. restocking purposes and sale them to abattoirs. This is related mainly to The collectors working for these non-governmental organizations that competition from the informal cross- traders are usually relatives and long- will distribute them to pastoralists. border livestock trade, since the area standing customers that have built is closer to the border than the export Channel 4: Producers → trust through honest performance abattoirs and the informal market pays Collectors → Individual with traders. consumers better than the formal channels. The major marketing channels serving Channel 4: Producers → Small Individual consumers in the study goat meat exports are: traders → Export abattoirs areas also have a chance to buy directly from producers. However, Pastoralists sell about 37 percent Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 85 of their marketed animals directly to Actors in the shoat value chain outlets for their meat in Addis Ababa. small traders. These traders sell 16 However, their major outlet is the percent of their goat trade volume According to the value chain analysis export market. In order to encourage to export abattoirs. As indicated in framework, the actors in the value their suppliers, export abattoirs channel two above, two or more of chain refer to those individuals or provide transportation services at cost such traders fill a truck and send the entities who engage in a transaction for animals that are supplied to their animals to export abattoirs. which moves a product from plants. This is using ordinary ISUZU inception to end use. Actors must trucks. The time of payment varies by Major marketing channels for exchange money (or an equivalent abattoir; some pay immediately, while live goat exports service) as well as a product, which others pay within two weeks. generally increases in value with Channel 1: Producers → each transaction (Campbell, 2008). Live animal exporters Collectors → Small traders The primary actors common to the → Big traders → Live shoat Live animal exporters sell sheep and livestock value chains in the study exporters goat mainly to Saudi Arabia during areas are producers (farmers), the Arefa season for sacrifice at the brokers, collectors, small- and large- This is the longest channel to live hajj ceremony. For this purpose, live scale traders, hotels, supermarkets, shoat exporters with the involvement animal exporters need male, un- butchers, export abattoirs and of many intermediaries. Some live castrated shoats. Unlike the export individual consumers. Analysis of animal exporters establish a network abattoirs, live animal exporters need the characteristics of these actors of collection in different parts of the animals of larger live weight. The live and their marketing strategies helps country assigning all traders and animal exporters collect such animals in designing intervention measures collectors. This is used to collect the from all corners of the country and suitable to overcome the major causes required number of animals within a export them mainly through the port of high transaction costs and other very short period of time. Since the of Djibouti. Since the temperature factors that depress the proportion operation is usually to collect animals in Djibouti and all along the way to of the final shoat price that reaches that will be used for sacrifice at the Saudi Arabia is very high, live animal producers. The characteristics of hajj ceremony, exporters have to exporters need animals from lowlands each of the actors are described collect a huge number of animals for that can tolerate high temperatures. below. the event. Thus, pastoral and agropastoral Channel 2: Producers → Export abattoirs areas are the major sources of Collectors → Small traders → animals for live animal exporters. Yabello District is one of the major Live shoat exporters The collection of animals from these sources of goats for export abattoirs. areas is through a network of traders Some small traders that have These abattoirs are located at and collectors reaching to remote sufficient capital and a strong network Bishoftu and Mdjo towns. Five out areas that are far from markets. Such of collectors buy the animals on their of the seven export abattoirs found traders and collectors can go into the own and supply them to live animal in the country are located in these borders of neighbouring countries, exporters. This involves more risk towns and these five abattoirs are such as Kenya, in search of export since the traders keep the animals buying animals at the factory gate. quality animals. However, their work with themselves and there is high Their suppliers are mainly small and is seasonal since Arefa is celebrated incidence of mortality. However, the big traders. However, abattoirs buy only once a year. small traders can benefit if they keep from any person that can supply a animals for a longer number of days minimum of 100 goats at a time. In Cooperatives and there is weight gain. order to deal with fewer suppliers and There is a slaughter cooperative to encourage supply of large number operating in Shinille town. This Channel 3: Producers → of animals per trader, some export cooperative has a modern slaughter Collectors → Live shoat abattoirs provide premium prices house and meat retail shops that exporters to their customers that can supply have been built with assistance thousands of animals a week. Each of Live animal exporters also establish from USAID with the purpose of the export abattoirs slaughters 2,000 their own network of collectors in encouraging marketing of safe meat goats a day on average and exports addition to the animals they buy from to the surrounding community. This chilled shoat carcasses to Middle small and big traders. project has also supported creation Eastern and North African countries. of employment opportunities for Some of them have opened domestic 86 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

members of the cooperative and of cooperatives in pastoral areas. Two types of butchers are operating better market opportunities for shoat Members of cooperatives are usually in Dire Dawa town (the major producers. The slaughter cooperative pastoralists organized willingly by consumer of Shinille goats). The first slaughters shoats in its own slaughter contributing share capital. However, is the one serving the high-income house and retails the raw meat. It is there are collectors that have better groups of society. This type of butcher the major supplier of meat to Shinille entrepreneurship qualities than slaughters fattened male goats and town. This cooperative purchases other cooperative members. Such serves both fried and raw goat meat 80 percent of its slaughter animals people are the ones that usually on their premises. Since butchers (shoats) from pastoralists and the become leaders of the cooperative. have to rent houses in business remaining 20 percent from collectors. At the initial stage they tend to run centres to be accessible to most of When there is a shortage in the the cooperatives smoothly and their customers and they have to hire supply of shoats, the cooperative members become convinced in their labour to provide the service, they collects animals from different areas, work. However, as time goes on charge higher prices. The other group like Shinelle, Bisle, Harey and Ali Gur. and they get better linkages, some of butchers are found in a market management members start doing place called Melka Chebtu. There According to information obtained their own business in the name of are hundreds of butchers in Melka from the Yabello District office of the cooperative. This channels the Chebtu serving raw goat meat to cooperatives promotion, there are benefits of the cooperative to individual lower income groups. These butchers 90 primary cooperatives in Yabello pockets while the cooperative takes slaughter any type of sheep and goat District, out of which six are livestock all the marketing risks. Moreover, and the price is lower, as compared to marketing cooperatives. These since cooperatives lack flexibility the first group. cooperatives are organized based and their operation costs are very on the willingness of members using high compared to individual traders, Supermarkets members’ contributions as share cooperatives are less competitive capital. Some of them receive small Supermarkets are mainly found in big in the market. Several government cities like Addis Ababa. Apart from amounts of money (up to 30,000 and non-governmental organizations Ethiopian birr) as a revolving fund shoat meat, supermarkets sell beef, operating in pastoral areas have chicken, pork and dairy products. from some non-governmental created market linkages between organizations. These cooperatives They slaughter animals of different export abattoirs and pastoral livestock live weight depending on their are marketing shoats, cattle and marketing cooperatives. However, camels, depending on the size of their customers’ needs. Supermarkets none of the cooperatives were found mainly slaughter male sheep of 40- working capital and the availability of to be competitive and they could not demand for the species of animals. 45 kg. In addition to packed meat, continue in the business of supplying supermarkets sell carcasses to They buy both from members and non- shoats to export abattoirs mainly members. Some of these marketing restaurants and hotels on a contract because of the above mentioned basis. Their prices are usually less cooperatives tend to be actively problems. involved in restocking programmes than the butcher’s price, but they by supplying replacement stock from Butchers increase according to the carcass markets. There were efforts to engage weight needed by their customers. the cooperatives in commercial Butchers both in the study areas and Supermarkets charge higher prices destocking of animals during drought bigger cities, such as Addis Ababa, for carcasses of larger weight. They seasons. However, it was not a Dire Dawa, Hawasa, Shashemene usually sell carcasses of over 12 kg to successful operation because of and Adama, slaughter goats and sell restaurants. raw meat or roasted take-away meat. financial arrangements and other Supermarkets slaughter animals Butchers prefer fattened, castrated administrative issues. in municipal slaughter houses and goats of 40-45 kg body weight. do the cutting and packing on their The activities of cooperatives are They do not slaughter female goats premises. Since meat cutting and run by the committee elected from because of their higher fat coverage packing demands special skills, they members rather than employed that makes their meat lighter relative hire one or two skilled persons (in professionals. Thus, lack of to meat from male goats since they cutting and packing for retail outlets) entrepreneurship skills, poor market sell based on weight (kg). Butchers and let them train other workers. linkages and non-transparency in buy animals from small traders and Supermarkets have cold rooms, management are their major problems. retailers and the number bought at a deboning and packing facilities. Heterogeneity of membership and the time varies according to their market resulting conflict of interest is another size. problem hindering development Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 87

Hotels and restaurants buy young female shoats for breeding collect up to 20 animals at a time and and sell male yearlings, old does and sell them to small and big traders. Hotels and restaurants in the study ewes and fattened shoats to other Collectors usually earn a margin of areas and in bigger towns and cities value chain actors. 50 to 100 Ethiopian birr per animal, buy mainly female goats and process depending on the place of purchase During normal seasons, pastoralists them into a variety of dishes. Hotels and season. Collectors get higher sell shoats to meet their immediate and restaurants usually buy old ewes margins if they buy animals from need for cash and to maintain larger and does because they perceive that remote areas that do not have access animals. However, the reverse is such animals have larger proportions to markets. During Ramadan and true during drought seasons or when of meat (Legese et. al, 2008) and are Arafa, collectors get better margins they expect drought. In such cases, cheaper. Hotels and restaurants in and have a higher market turnover pastoralists first sell young cattle Yabello town buy from pastoralists because of the high demand for meat (young bulls, steers and heifers) since and collectors and slaughter male in Middle Eastern and North African these animals are the most affected yearlings to process them into wesla countries. (the Borana traditional arrosto). by drought. Goats are maintained Hotels and restaurants outside of to be sold during a severe drought Small traders production areas buy mainly from season to buy food for the household Small traders are those market actors small traders and retailers. Some and feed for larger animals. that supply hundreds of animals every hotels and restaurants in Addis Ababa Market information is scarce week either to big traders or to export buy carcasses from supermarkets on among pastoralists. In order to get abattoirs. Small traders also supply a contractual basis. market information, at least one to hotels, butchers and retailers in Individual consumers person, either from the family or the Addis Ababa. They have their own neighbour, has to go to the market. network of collectors. The number of Individual consumers are livestock Though it is not reliable, pastoralists small traders is smaller than that of market actors that buy either live try to get information from collectors collectors and larger than that of big animals or meat for their own (that are usually pastoralists). Though traders. Small traders usually operate household consumption. Individual collectors go to villages to buy shoats, using their own capital and sometimes consumers buy live shoats from the preferred buyers for pastoralists receive advance payments from their traders, collectors and pastoralist are small and big traders. If possible, buyers (big traders). Most of the small producers. They buy raw meat from pastoralists try to go to the market traders in Yabello District are doing butchers and supermarkets on a and sell directly to traders since they shoat trading as a sideline business. kilogram basis. believe that traders offer better prices They are involved in cattle trading and than collectors. other business activities in addition Individual consumers buy live shoats to shoat trading. Small traders go to slaughter for Ethiopian New Collectors to primary and secondary livestock Year, Christmas, Easter, Ramadan markets and buy from pastoralists and some other special occasions. Collectors are important livestock and collectors. The supply agreement Though it varies with household market actors who collect animals between small traders and collectors income, they usually prefer fattened from their own areas and from remote is on a trust basis, with no formal male shoats (mukit). Colour is an pastoral areas, reaching as far as the contract signed between the two important criteria for individual borders of neighbouring countries. parties. consumers when selecting shoats in Collectors are usually pastoralists the market. Most consumers prefer themselves and collect animals as a Big traders a white-brown colour, whereas black sideline business activity. The have is less preferable. There is a price better social ties with pastoralists Big traders are those livestock market difference of up to 100 Ethiopian birr relative to other traders and also serve actors that supply thousands of shoats per animal based on colour. Individual as sources of market information to export abattoirs a week. Big traders consumers usually want to buy from for pastoralists. However, they may operate using their own capital and producers because they know that distort the information for their own are permanent suppliers to abattoirs. the price of animals is lower when personal benefit. In order to ensure a continuous buying from producers. In the bigger supply of a very large number of Collectors operate using their own cities, individual consumers buy from quality animals, some export abattoirs capital. However, they usually face any seller. offer a premium price to big traders. financial constraints and try to get This encourages the abattoirs to deal advance payments from small and Pastoralists are both the buyers and with a few large suppliers rather than sellers of shoats. Pastoralists usually big traders (their customers). They 88 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

many small traders and simplifies their animals for live animal exporters system continuing as it is. administrative activities. Big traders in during the hajj season. The relationship between collectors turn arrange a supply network with and small traders, collectors and many small traders and share the Brokers hotels, collectors and butchers has premium price with them so that small Brokers mediate transactions some sort of complementarity since traders supply to big traders getting between buyers and sellers. The there is a kind of long-standing their normal price plus part of the activity of brokers varies from place to mutual relationship between them. premium that big traders are getting. place. In weight-based transactions These relationships are based on This creates a win-win situation for of male yearling shoats, mostly in the trust without any formal contract. all three parties (abattoirs, big traders Borana area, their task is to channel Collectors can sell shoats on credit and small traders). greater numbers of sellers to a given to small traders and hotels and also Big traders simply stay at Modjo buyer. In such cases, brokers do not take advance payments without any (a town 70 kilometres from Addis have a role in influencing the price formal signature. This strengthens Ababa, where there are a number of of a kg of live weight of animal for their relationship and also provides export abattoirs) and communicate individual sellers. On the other hand, an opportunity for all actors to expand with small traders, transfer money in Somali markets, where brokerage their business activity. to their suppliers (small traders and is based on the clan structure of collectors) through banks, receive society, brokering plays a pivotal role Horizontal linkages in livestock marketing. In such areas, animals from different corners of the Horizontal linkages, both formal as country, let the animals rest for two or no transaction takes place without the involvement of brokers. In these well as informal, between firms at all three days and then hand them over levels in a value chain can reduce to the abattoirs. They go to secondary markets, apart from their influence on the price of animals, brokers transaction costs, create economies of markets to coordinate the activity scale and contribute to the increased of their suppliers. They provide provide a guarantee to buyers of the trustworthiness of the seller and will efficiency and competitiveness of an market information to their respective industry. In addition to lowering the suppliers about the prevailing market take responsibility if the animal is found to be stolen. cost of inputs and services, horizontal price, type of animals and number linkages can contribute to shared required. Relationships skills and resources and enhance product quality through common There are also big traders in Yabello Vertical linkages town that have a network of small production standards. traders and collectors that operate The general pattern in shoat markets The livestock marketing cooperatives throughout Boranaland. The big of the study areas is for producers to in the study areas are the basis traders in Yabello town supply goats sell to different traders each time they for the horizontal linkages among both to live animal exporters and go to the market, and for animals to pastoralists. These cooperatives are export abattoirs. They also trade change hands up to six times by the meant to boost the bargaining power cattle and camels, depending on time they reach the final consumer. of pastoralists and safeguard their the availability of market demand for Thus, there is no vertical linkage members. However, because of their these species of animals. Big traders between producers and any buyer in weak financial position, shortage in Yabello stick to shoats trading the shoat value chain. Even the most of business skills and the lack of because of a continuous unsatisfied frequent buyers in the shoat markets transparency among most of the demand for goats by export abattoirs. do not have any contractual supply cooperatives, they could not achieve Some traders that we talked to during agreement with producers. Thus, their intended targets. Cooperatives the field survey indicated that some there is no strong relationship and are not strong enough to satisfy the of the export abattoirs delay their trust between buyers and producers. interests of their members. Since they payments and this holds up their This is mainly because the production do not have good business skills, operating capital. However, they system is not market oriented and cooperatives are not competitive continue supplying to such abattoirs pastoralists are not following market with individual traders. For instance, mainly because these abattoirs demand and the quality requirements several of the cooperatives in the accept animals of lower quality as of important market actors. This area signed agreements with export compared to others. challenges the competitiveness of abattoirs but could not supply the entire meat industry. As a result, slaughter animals as per the terms of Most of the traders in Shinille town are there is low level of transfer of skills small traders that supply shoats to the the contract while individual traders and knowledge from the buyers to were able to do so. Dire Dawa market. They also collect producers. This keeps the production Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 89

While there is a vertical linkage types of animals to be supplied and since nobody is monitoring the issue. among traders in the shoat value prices of products. Since the nature chain, a limited level of horizontal of animal production in pastoral Shortage of veterinary equipment linkages are found among the communities is not based on market and drug supply export abattoirs and small traders. demand and marketing is driven by Oromia Regional state has allocated The export abattoirs have an immediate demand for cash rather a revolving fund for drug supply association, the Ethiopian Meat than market signals, pastoralists to each of its districts. This fund Producer-Exporters Association. This remain price-takers, as compared to is serving its intended purpose in association is the common platform traders. Yabello District. Since the revolving for export abattoirs that protects fund does not include a budget for their interest. The association fixes Constraints along the shoat value chain procurement of clinical equipment, floor export prices, lobbies for better there is a serious shortage of budget services at the airport and for policy This study has identified natural, to procure equipment in Yabello changes and communicates with the technical, economic, legal and District. In Shinille District, there is government. The export abattoirs also institutional constraints hindering the no revolving fund for veterinary drugs share air cargo space, which would development of the sheep and goat and clinical equipment and a shortage be prohibitively expensive if they had value chains in the study area. These of these items. to individually charter cargo planes in constraints will be described under Thus, health posts and clinics in their current scale of operation. On each stage of the value chain. the other hand, export abattoirs are the study areas are suffering from competing with each other in terms Constraints at input supply stage shortages of drugs and clinical of supply of slaughter animals and equipment. More specifically, buyers. Shortage of breeding bucks shortages of clinical equipment in Yabello District is the major source Yabello District and that of both The horizontal linkages among of slaughter animals for export vet drugs and clinical equipment in small traders are primarily the use of abattoirs. Young, un-castrated male Shinille District. common trucks for transportation of shoats having good body condition shoats to the next market level. Since Shortage of vaccines are the most important animals for small traders collect low numbers of this purpose. Such animals fetch Vaccination is one of the most shoats from different markets, it is better prices for the pastoralist. As important activities of district not economical to hire a truck on an a result, pastoralists sell vigorous veterinary service units. District individual basis. Thus, small traders male yearlings that could be used veterinary services provide vaccines share trucks to transport shoats to for breeding purposes and the herd for diseases, including Contagious either Modjo or Bishoftu. This reduces is usually left without breeding rams Caprine Pleuropneumonia, Pest their transaction costs and improves and bucks. Since male yearlings fetch Petites Ruminant and goat pox. their efficiency. better prices and sell immediately, However, the amount of vaccines Governance in shoat value weaker rams and bucks are left in the allocated for the district is not covering chain herd. Pastoralists borrow rams and the number of animals in the district. bucks from their neighbours. One ram This implies that the vaccination The major buyers of shoats in or buck is expected to serve several programme cannot meet its intended pastoral areas are traders supplying does. objective. This could be because of animals for export abattoirs. These the volume of vaccines produced abattoirs buy specific types of animals No selection of breeding bucks at national level or a problem in the for a variety of markets. Thus, product Though pastoralists in general have distribution system. quality, volume and price are all a wealth of experience in livestock determined by these export abattoirs Problem in maintaining cold chain breeding, they give less attention to and they in turn are governed by their for vaccines and provision of dead goat breeding. Pastoralists do not customers in Middle Eastern markets. vaccines select breeding bucks for their herds, Export abattoirs increase prices when do not understand the problem of The vaccines used in the study they need to supply huge volumes of inbreeding and will let one buck serve areas are transported for about 575 meat within a short period of time, like a herd for over four years. Bucks of kilometres and are supposed to be during the Ramadan fasting season. unwanted colour, body size and those maintained in the cold chain until Thus, market power concentrates from mothers of low milk yield and low given to animals. However, due at the higher end of the value chain prolificacy are maintained in the herd to various reasons, including the (export market) and influences the 90 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

quality of equipment used for this when animals are very sick and cannot Lack of awareness on purpose, veterinary professionals walk to the health post, the pastoralist improved shoat production and in the area expressed worry about requests a health assistant to come management practices the problem of maintaining the cold to his domicile to help the animals. chain of vaccines. This needs further However, since health assistants do Despite the wealth of experience investigation to identify the exact not have transportation, they fail to they have in livestock production causes of the problem and in order to provide mobile services. If the health and management, pastoralists take appropriate action. assistants try to reach some places are still using traditional methods. on foot (since most areas do not have The extension system does not Vaccines provided for access to public transportation), it provide any training on improved unidentified strains takes them a very long time and this shoat production and management practices. This is one of the major To ensure the efficacy of vaccines it is influences the regular services at the challenges in developing shoat value important to first properly identify the health posts. chain in the study areas. strain of a disease before providing Problems with flexibility of terms, the vaccines. The veterinary group collateral and loan size Lack of a practice to provide professionals consulted during the supplementary feed to shoats, field survey indicated that the strains As indicated in the input supply even in times of drought of the diseases were not being section, credit is available to the properly identified. Vaccines provided pastoralists in Yabello District through Shoat production in the study areas without pre-identification of the strains the Oromia Micro Finance Institution relies on grazing of natural pasture have a high chance of failure. and Household Asset Building and browse species. Though Programme (for safety net beneficiary supplementary feeding is becoming a Poor enforcement of veterinary households). However, to get credit common practice for cattle, especially service regulations from a micro finance institution one during drought, this does not apply for shoats. Shoats are not provided with Though informal selling of veterinary needs to have group collateral and any supplementary feed, even during drugs is forbidden by government most pastoralists do not want to drought seasons. regulations, it is common to see enter such an arrangement. This is informal drug sellers availing drugs in order not to repay for defaulters High incidence of diseases and in the study areas. The problem with in the group. Moreover, the amount parasites this system is that such sellers do not of money obtained from this source feel responsible and sell the drugs to is not enough for livestock activities. According to the information obtained anybody. The efficacy of drugs sold The repayment modality of this though discussion with district via this channel is another challenge. system also does not provide enough offices of pastoral development Since the sellers are not professionals, of a grace period for livestock rearing and private veterinary service they can sell drugs from an unknown activities. providers, there is a high incidence of diseases, such as Contagious source and with an unknown level of Constraints at the production stage efficacy to pastoralists. Such drugs Caprine Pleuropneumonia, goat pox, are sold in ordinary commodity shops, Feed shortages in times of Senorosis and parasites, such as human pharmacies and in an open drought ticks, lice, mengmites and hemoncus. market around the livestock markets. The incidence of these diseases and In a nutshell, there is a problem The pastoral livestock production parasites in the area contributes with the enforcement of government system relies on grazing pasture to the low productivity of shoats. regulations on the informal sale of for cattle and sheep and browsing The government is putting many drugs. of bushes for goats and camels. resources into supporting the pastoral Pastoralists practice traditional feed community to protect their livestock Shortage of transportation conservation practices, such as from these diseases. However, given facilities for vet service providers preservation of standing pasture for the magnitude of the problem, more calves and lambs during the drought still needs to be done. One veterinary health post is built to season. However, they do not harvest serve three kebeles and one health these feed resources for use during Poor animal housing assistant is assigned to each of critical drought seasons. Thus, Pastoralists in the study areas use these health posts. Since the kebeles feed and water shortages during open top houses and fences for are geographically large, some drought seasons are very critical and their animals. Shoats are housed pastoralists have to travel up to three pastoralists need external supplies of mixed with other animals. This pre- hours to reach a health post. In cases feed during such times. Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 91 disposes them to be trampled on by High transaction costs due to small and big traders on a live weight larger animals and to be physically distance to markets basis. The issue here is that when damaged. It also has an impact on the buying, collectors try to suppress the productivity of shoats. Livestock markets are found scattered price as much as possible to keep it over pastoral areas. As a result, below the price received when selling Short shelf life of milk due to pastoralists have to trek their animals on a live weight basis. This impedes poor handling and management, for over three hours to reach the the transmission of price incentive lack of improved or standard livestock markets. This causes weight from the end market to producers. milk containers and equipment loss and fatigue in their animals. This in turn reduces the price of the Clan confl ict Sheep and goats are both milked, but animals. only goat milk is marketed. However, Pastoral areas are home to different the handling and management Non-uniform methods of selling clans and ethnic groups. Confl icts during production and marketing (weighing scale vs. visual usually arise because of competition of milk are poor in terms of hygiene estimation) over resources, such as the limited and standards are lacking. Plastic grazing land and water. Whenever jerricans are used as milk containers, Both visual estimation and weight- there are confl icts, markets get which are very diffi cult to thoroughly based transactions are used in shoat disrupted and the supply of animals to clean inside. These things combined markets. Weight-based transactions the markets decreases dramatically. cause shoat milk to have a short shelf are used for male yearlings that are On the other hand, buyers feel life and be of poor quality. sold to export abattoirs while other insecure going to such markets. categories of animals are sold using Figure 4 below compares shoat Constraints at the marketing stage visual estimation. The problem with transactions recorded in Borana using a weight-based transaction is markets during a period with clan Lack of formal livestock market that it is not uniformly used throughout information confl ict (July to December 2006) the value chain. Collectors buy using and a period without confl ict (July to Pastoralists in the study areas do visual estimation and sell the animal to December 2005). not have access to formal sources of livestock market information. Livestock market information used to be collected from Harobeke and Elweye markets and the database was accessible through sms messaging. However, this has been discontinued due to problems with institutional MOJO arrangements for data collection and dissemination. The district offi ces of pastoral development did not take this as their main task. The data LUNA used to be collected by experts in the same offi ce who were paid a fee for their extra effort for data collection Export abattoirs and transmission. However, this ELFORA could not be sustained because the projects supporting this activity phased out. In addition to data collection and dissemination, the 0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 mode of data dissemination needs to be reconsidered. Pastoralists may not Number of animals purchased in year be able to use sms messages to get market information. With conflict Without conflict

Figure 4: Comparison of shoats transactions during a period with clan confl ict (July to December 2006) and without confl ict (July to December 2005)

Source: Legese et al., 2008 92 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

During the period with clan conflict, there customer to whom they sell their of the animals flowing to the informal was a drastic decrease in the number animals. They also do not have a cross-border trade. of animals procured from the Borana relationship of trust with any of the livestock markets as compared to the market actors. Traders do not consider Constraints at the processing same period a year earlier in the same pastoralists as important partners stage markets without conflict. The difference in the markets. They hide market Low level of food preparation can be over a 50 percent reduction information from pastoralists and try to skill in the hotels and in the number of animals procured suppress animal prices, even if there restaurants of the area by some of the export abattoirs. This are increases in the terminal markets. shows the damage of clan conflicts on The major problem of hotels in the livestock markets and the livelihoods of Weak horizontal linkages study areas is lack of expertise in the pastoral communities. among shoat producers preparation of dishes. Since the area is far from urban centres, skilled cooks Pastoralists share market information Shortage of supply of export are reluctant to go to such places. quality shoats to the market and support each other in several ways, especially in the restocking of herds Backyard slaughtering and poor Most of the export abattoirs are after drought seasons. However, they slaughtering skills that spoil the operating at less than 50 percent of are not well organized in marketing their quality of the meat and skin their installed capacity. One of the animals. Though there are marketing major excuses for operating under cooperatives in some places, these Though there are rules and capacity is a shortage of export cooperatives are not strong enough regulations prohibiting backyard quality animals. On the other hand, to serve their intended purposes of slaughter of animals, this practice pastoralists complain about the lack strengthening the negotiation power is the most dominant in the country. of market for their animals. This of pastoralists. Pastoral livestock This regulation is enforced only on shows the existence of an information marketing cooperatives still do not butchers. Hotels, restaurants and gap between suppliers of live animals have the capacity to influence the individual consumers still practice (pastoralists) and the export abattoirs market. Most of them have gaps backyard slaughter of animals. about what types of animals are in entrepreneurship skills, financial Moreover, since animals are needed, the number of animals shortages that preclude being actively slaughtered by people that do not needed and when they are needed. involved in the market and do not have have any training in slaughtering and a transparent management system. meat handling, this has a big negative Seasonality of supply and impact on the quality of the meat and demand for shoats Flow of animals to informal skins. cross border trade There is seasonality in the supply and Constraints at the consumption demand for shoats. Pastoralists sell One of the justifications that export stage their animals when there is a drought abattoirs mention for the shortage either to save them from the damages of supply to their plants is the flow Non-standard base meat price of the drought or to buy food for the of animals to neighbouring countries Meat prices in Ethiopia in general, household and feed for larger animals. through informal cross-border trade. and in the study areas in particular, They normally do not sell their animals Several assessments confirm the flow are determined without consideration during the rainy season unless they of Ethiopian livestock to countries for the quality of the meat. Since have a compelling financial need or such as Kenya, Somalia and the grades and quality standards for there is a very attractive price. On the Puntland. The latter two countries are meat and live animals are not clearly other hand, demand increases during re-exporting Ethiopian animals and disseminated to the public and are the Ramadan fasting season and the it is estimated that about 65 percent not enforced properly, nobody worries Arafa holiday. These peak times of of their 3.5 million heads of annual about following these regulations. demand and supply of animals do not live animal export every year through Prices are usually fixed in bigger usually overlap. Berbera and Bosaso ports is sourced cities, such as Addis Ababa. Other from Ethiopia through informal cross- towns, including those in pastoral Lack of vertical linkages of border trade (FEWSNET, 2010; areas where there is a better supply shoat producers to the other COMESA, 2009). In 2011, Ethiopia of animals, follow these urban prices market actors exported less than 784,000 heads of without consideration of the added livestock through the formal export When pastoralists go to the market, costs of transportation of live animals system. This means the formal they sell their animals to any willing to the bigger towns and the lower system is exporting only 22 percent buyer. They do not have a specific price of animals in their own area. Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 93

Opportunities along shoat value sources of animals. Thus, pastoralists potential of the original local breeds in chain in the intervention areas have a better terms of drought tolerance and other market demand for their animals important traits. These problems have Government’s commitment and relative to pastoralists in other areas. resulted in low productivity of animals support to increase the export in the pastoral areas. There is a need of meat Construction of new export to look into focused interventions abattoirs to improve the production and In its five year growth and transformation marketing practices of pastoralists. plan, the Government of Ethiopia In addition to the existing five abattoirs, The research system also needs to aims to increase meat exports to the construction of two new export look into development of appropriate 110,000 tons in 2015. The government abattoirs is being finalized in Modjo breeding strategies to maintain the envisages earning one billion US and Bishoftu areas. This will create genetic potential of indigenous breeds Dollars from the export of meat and more demand for shoat produced in of sheep and goats in the study areas. live animals by this time. Thus, the the intervention areas. government is committed to supporting Recommendations the private sector involved in export of Conclusions & recommendations these commodities. The government Conclusions The study has identified the is assessing the constraints along the core functions, actors, channels, meat export value chain and is ready Pastoral areas are endowed with opportunities and constraints along to take all necessary measures to huge livestock resources, including the shoat value chain in Yabello increase the supply of live shoats to sheep and goats. These areas are the and Shinille Districts. The following export abattoirs and the export of meat major source of shoats for the export recommendations are forwarded according to the target set in the growth abattoirs and highland markets. based on the findings the study. and transformation plan. This should The market (especially the export For simplicity of understanding, the create better market opportunities for market) needs a continuous supply recommendations are categorized shoat producers. of male, uncastrated yearlings with into breeding, health care, marketing, good body condition. However, the transportation, etc. Increasingly high demand for pastoralists could not continuously shoat meat in export markets supply animals of the required quality Support improvement in goat breeding because of the short drought cycle practices through the interventions The demand for Ethiopian shoat meat and traditional production practices below. has dramatically increased following that could not cope with the system. focused market promotion activities by Strengthen traditional breeding Shoat production is based entirely development projects that have been practices by establishing close on grazing of natural pasture and working in close collaboration with relationships with communities browses. No supplementary feeds are the government. This has created an to understand their systems and provided to shoats, even in drought opportunity for shoat producers to sell identify gaps. conditions. Thus, animals taken to the greater numbers of shoats at better market during dry seasons are skinny. Train pastoralists on the need prices. Meat export performance of Thus, they do not fetch attractive for appropriate breed selection the country has increased from 870 prices for the producers either in the and maintenance of breeding metric tons in 1991 to 18,000 metric domestic or export markets. rams and bucks, the dangers of tons in 2011-2012. Over 80 percent of inbreeding and basic selection this is goat meat (Legese et al., 2008). Recurrent droughts threaten the techniques. genetic base of pastoral animals Accessibility of the intervention in general and small ruminants in Improve the animal health delivery areas to export abattoirs and particular. Pastoralists are losing system through the interventions central urban markets most of their animals (shoats) either below. One of the intervention areas, Yabello by selling to procure food for their Encourage and support regional District, is located on the main Addis households and feed for larger governments to hire more - Moyale road and is accessible to animals or because of mortality veterinary technicians for health export abattoirs (Modjo and Bishoftu during drought seasons. Restocking posts in order to resolve the areas) relative to other pastoral programmes collect breeding stock current shortage of human areas. This implies that there is lower from neighbouring areas and provide resources at health posts. transportation costs for animals them to the affected pastoralists. procured from these areas. All the Introduction of non-local (for example, Establish revolving funds at export abattoirs are targeting this non-Borana breed goats to Yabello) woreda level for procurement of study area as their first priority for to the rangeland is diluting the genetic veterinary drugs. 94 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Allocate more funds for procurement establishment of rural credit Improve the livestock marketing of veterinary equipment for clinics and saving cooperatives in environment through the and health posts. the intervention areas through interventions below. training of leaders in cooperative Establish and operationalize more management and provision of Support the establishment of health posts on a kebele basis in seed capital. primary livestock markets with order to increase accessibility of all necessary facilities in needy veterinary services. Improve availability of feed and the remote pastoral areas in order feeding practices of pastoralists to increase the off-take of shoats Identify the precise strains of through the interventions below. from remote pastoral areas that do diseases for effective vaccination not have easy access to markets. and treatment. Promote conservation of locally- available feed resources through Promote a uniform method of Allocate sufficient doses of training of extension agents and shoat transactions (live weight vaccines to the districts to ensure pastoralists and demonstration or visual estimation based) full scale vaccination in the of best practices and facilitate throughout the value chain. districts though proper planning introduction of marketing of such and consultation with the National feeds in the rangeland. Train pastoralists on the quality Veterinary Institute. requirements of the different Promote the use of drought- buyers of shoats in the market Provide cold chain facilities that tolerant browse, such as cactus (export market, hotels and can enable longer shelf life of and acacia. This should also be restaurants, butchers, etc.) and vaccines, including alternative supported with demonstrations, how to attain them. energy sources. supply of planting materials and promoting the marketability of Organize regular, multi- Provide transportation facilities such feed in the area. stakeholder platforms to discuss (motorcycles, mules and bicycles) the major shoat marketing for animal health technicians at Train extension agents, subject problems, find common solutions health posts and clinics. matter specialists and the and create market linkages community in shoat production Train extension agents, between pastoral producers and and management with a special pastoralists, community leaders other actors. focus on animal husbandry and and managers of respective feeding using locally-available Strengthen and establish shoat offices in shoat disease prevention feed resources and efficient water producer/marketing cooperatives and control. utilization. in terms of management capacity Support enforcement of the and market linkages and finance. Support awareness creation of government rules and regulations improved shoat housing through Support implementation of policy on informal trade of veterinary training and demonstration. and development interventions drugs. that can reduce informal cross- In collaboration with other Improve pastoralist’s access to credit border trade. development partners, resolve services through the interventions problems hindering the smooth Improve goat slaughter and below. operation of national livestock meat processing skills in the Support the establishment of market information systems area through the following rural micro-finance credit and saving through the interventions below. interventions: institutions in pastoral areas that do Institutionalize data collection A) support town administrations so not have such services (e.g., Shinille). and transmission from livestock that they will create awareness Facilitate discussion forums markets in districts, making it the of hotels and restaurants to use between credit service providers responsibility of the district office qualified chefs; and (Oromia Credit and Saving Institute), of marketing and trade. B) organize unemployed youth political leaders, community members Link the district with national in groups and train them in and other stakeholders to resolve livestock market information slaughtering techniques and link problems of access of the pastoral systems. them to municipal abattoirs. community to credit services.

Support strengthening and Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 95

Support the popularization and Innovation Systems Perspective and participation and outlet choices in enforcement of meat and live animal Value Chain Analysis in Agricultural Western Oromia, Ethiopia,” MSc quality and standards through the Research for Development: Implications Thesis. Wuhan, China: Huazhong interventions below. and Challenges.” Improving Productivity Agricultural University, p. 127. and Market Success (IPMS) of Ethiopian Kaplinsky, Rafael and Mike Morris In collaboration with the Ethiopian Farmers Project Working Paper 16. (2002). A Handbook for Value Chain Quality and Standards Authority, Nairobi, Kenya: International Livestock Research. IDRC. www.ids.ac.uk/ids/ popularize the use of Ethiopian Research Institute (ILRI), p. 67. live animals and meat quality global/pdfs/VchNov01.pdf. standards through electronic and Awgichew, K. and G. Gebru, Z. Legese, G. and D. Hordofa (2011). printed media. Alemayheu, N. Akalework, I. C. “Value chain analysis of small Fletcher (1991). “Small ruminant ruminant sub-sector in Oromia and Train live animal and meat production in Ethiopia: Constraints and Southern Nations, Nationalities and graders. future prospects,” in the proceedings Peoples Regional States (SNNP).” of the 3rd National Livestock Lobby for the establishment and Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Berhan and Improvement Conference (NLIC), 24- assignment of an appropriate Associates Consultancy P.L.C., p. 47. institution to enforce the available 26 May 1989, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Legesse, G. and H. Teklewold, D. grades and standards. Donkin, E. F. (2005). “Sustainable Alemu, A. Negassa (2008). “Live livestock development in Africa: How Support the new institution in animal and meat export value chains for do we help Africa to feed itself?” SA the enforcement of grades and selected areas in Ethiopia. Constraints Animal Science 2005, Vol. 6, www. standards. and opportunities for enhancing sasas.co.za/Popular/Popular.html. Encourage quality-based meat meat exports. Improving market pricing in order to avoid unnecessary Galal, E. S. E. (1983). “Sheep germplasm opportunities,” Discussion Paper hikes in meat prices regardless of in Ethiopia,” Animal Genetic Resources No. 12. Nairobi, Kenya: International the quality of meat. Information Bulletin, 1/83:4 – 12. Livestock Research Institute (ILRI).

References Gereffi, G. (1995). “Global Webber, C. Martin and Patrick Labaste Production Systems and Third World (2010). Building Competitiveness in Abegaz, S. (2002).”Genetic evaluation Development,” in B. Stallings (ed.), Africa’s Agriculture: A Guide to Value of production, reproduction and Global Change, Regional Response: Chain Concepts and Applications. survival in a flock of Ethiopian Horro The New International Context of World Bank. sheep,” PhD thesis. South Africa: Development. New York: Cambridge Session on institutional and policy University of the Free State. University Press, pp.100-142. issues in the conservation and Anandajayasekeram P. and Berhanu Jaleta, F. (2011). “Determinants of sustainable utilization of drylands Gebremedhin (2009). “Integrating smallholder farmers’ cattle market 96 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

7. The impacts of development interventions on the customary institutions of forest resource management: the case of the Borana Oromo of Southern Ethiopia Halake Dida Gobessa14 and Tadesse Woldemariam Gol15

ABSTRACT

Key words: common-pool resources model, customary institutions, forest resource management, pastoral development programmes, state structures

This paper deals with the impacts data were collected through review of and decreased the Borana land, of development interventions on related literatures. To analyse those leading to competition over forest customary institutions of forest data, the theory of common-pool resources and deforestation. resource management among the resources was used. Therefore, it is recommended Borana Oromo of Southern Ethiopia. The results of the study depict that that customary institutions of In Borana, two major categories most of the ceremonial grounds and forest resources management for of land are badaa (forestland) holy trees of the Borana are found conservation and sustainable use and gammojjii (lowland dryland). inside the forest areas. The mobile of forest resources are recognized. Customary institutions give due ritual villages of the Borana usually For this, there is a need to integrate attention to both dry and forestlands. reside inside the forests to perform customary forest management This study primarily focuses on the various cultural practices and thus, structures and /systems with state forestland. The study was initiated as a the belief systems attached to the structures and /approaches at the result of observations on deforestation forest grounds are the basic means local level. This involves participatory of the Borana forestlands. The aim of of forest management. Moreover, planning and management, building the study was to assess the impacts different customary institutions at on the good practices of community of development interventions on various levels and their members are institutions, with the technical customary institutions of forest responsible for forest management. support on up-to-date similar forest resource management and socio- However, development interventions management practices provided by cultural aspects of the community such as urbanization, state local state agencies. In such a way, best attached to forestlands. structure and pastoral development practices for resource management Qualitative methods based on programmes and policies ignored should be promoted. Participatory primary and secondary sources were these customary institutions of development approaches should used in data gathering for the study. resource management and used top- be employed at all stages, including The primary data were generated down development approaches. The problem identification, planning, from observation, in-depth interviews, impacts of inappropriate development implementation, monitoring and focus group discussions, case studies interventions weakened customary evaluation. and informal discussions. Secondary institutions, changed range ecology

14 Halake Dida Gobessa, Borana Zone, Yabello, email: [email protected]. 15 Tadesse Woldemariam Gole, Environment and Coffee Forest Forum, Addis Ababa, email: [email protected]. Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 97

Introduction bound together by some common environmental degradation and the purpose to achieve objectives.” Jha declining of livelihoods (Hogg, 1993; Background (1999) defines institution as “standard Coppock, 1994; Oba, 1998, cited in ways of doing things which consists Watson, 2001). Like many other pastoral societies of three major components: norms In Borana, two major categories of land in Africa, the Borana have been serving as goal, roles constituted are recognized: badaa (forestland) commonly sharing and managing by norms and pattern of behaviour and gammojjii (lowland dryland). Most natural resources such as pasture, attached to norms and roles.” water and forest for ages. In line studies in the past focused primarily with this, they have established well- Many scholars have distinguished on inappropriate development organized customary institutions, between formal and indigenous policies that led to rangeland (lowland such as the gadaa - one of the institutions. For instance, in Ethiopia, dryland) degradation and its effects renowned indigenous African formal institutions are those backed by on livelihoods of the Borana society. institutions that deal with almost all official legislature, such as ‘Peasant’ Less attention was paid to the aspects of human society: economic, Association and Service Cooperative, impacts of development interventions political, ritual and military (Legesse, and state legislature determining on customary institutions of forest 2000). Under gadaa, various access to land and water (Watson, resource management, interaction actions are taken at different levels 2001). However, Watson argues that between forests and people and for the sustainable utilization of although theoretically the Borana interaction between state structure resources. The upholding of resource customary institution, gadaa, can be and the customary one. This research, management is achieved through included under informal institutions, therefore, attempts to fill these gaps. vigorous structured assemblies. Bassi practically they are not informal, as (2005) maintains that Borana are a the Borana officially come together to Objective society of assemblies that purposely elect leaders of their institutions. The principal objective of this study engage in numerous meetings (e.g., Since informal institutions are part of was to investigate the impacts clan meetings, pastoral coordination indigenous ones that constitute all of development interventions on meetings, ritual meetings, general structures and practices that determine customary institutions of forest assemblies, etc.) at various levels access to, type, degree and time resource management among the to peacefully resolve issues related of utilizing resources and arbitrate Borana Oromo of Southern Ethiopia. to social, economic, religious and resource-based conflicts, policymakers, political affairs. Furthermore, since Materials and methods researchers and developers reached a Borana indigenous institutions have consensus that indigenous institutions a wealth of skills and capacity to Description of the study area are key tools to be employed in regulate access to resources, much The study was conducted in and development programmes to maintain literature depicted that the Borana around Arero Forest in Borana zone of sustainable resource management rangelands represent a case of the Oromia National Regional State, (Richards, 1985; Ostrom, 1990; an exceptionally efficient and well- Ethiopia. It is located in the southern Fairhead, 1992 and Chambers, 1997 managed dryland area (Watson, 2001 part of the state (between 3°36 – cited in Watson 2001). and 2003). 6°38’ North latitude and 3°43’- 39°30’ However, since incorporation of the East longitude) and borders Kenya. Such efficient resource management Borana into the Ethiopian State, the Yabello is the capital town of the can be attributed to the existence of a successive Ethiopian governments Borana zone and lies 570 km south of strong customary institution (gadaa). have been putting pressure on the Addis Ababa. The zone covers 48,360 Conceptually, institutions include customary structure and weakening km2 of which 75 percent consists of organizations, rules and regulations it by intervention of the state lowland and is frequently exposed to that determine the access to natural structure in operations at different droughts. It is inhabited by almost one resources. They define the individuals’ levels (Arsano, 1997; Bassi and Adi, million people. rights to a resource and the kind 2007). Subsequently, the classical and extent of use of that resource. Arero forest is found in the middle of top-down development approaches There are also established practices Boranaland, about halfway between practiced by government and non- of environmental management Negelle and Yabello. The capital, governmental organizations in (Watson, 2001). North conceptualizes Matagafarsa (Arero) town, is located the pastoral areas of Borana land institutions as ‘the rules of the game’ at 660 km from Addis Ababa. The overlooked the customary natural and ‘players of the game’ (North, altitudinal range of the forest part is resource management systems, 1990, cited in Watson, 2003). This is between 1,500 and 1,740 m.a.s.l., which finally resulted in severe to mean that “groups of individuals 98 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

with annual rainfall of about 800 Figure 1. Map of the study area, with details of in the course of the research. mm. The forest is one of the most community conserve areas and forest priority southern high forests of Ethiopia, areas Data analysis and interpretation with well grown Juniperus procera The forest is functionally connected to There are various theoretical models trees. Other common trees include other forests and lowland rangelands that deal with natural resource Podocarpus falcatus, Prunus management. Among others, Africana, Olea europea ssp in Borana that are traditionally managed as integrated parts of Borana theory of common-pool resources cuspidata, O. welwelchi, Croton is employed in this research for macrostachyus, Fagaropsis land. The forest provides several economic, cultural and ecosystem data analysis. It deals with common hildebrandtii and Ochna insulata, services. It protects the watershed on property resources, such as forests, among others. The forest is heavily the highlands, which contributes to the pasturelands, irrigation systems and populated and is connected to recharge of groundwater communally fisheries. expanding urban centres by road. used in lowland areas. The forests Scholars have posited that the Arero is an important forest area for are also used seasonally for grazing management of these resources can both the conservation and livelihood of through regulated management be controversial as it leads to problems the population in the area. Arero forest arrangements. Traditional ritual of collective action. Ostrom et al. is important for its population of Prince and cultural sites of the Borana are (1994) in Cox (2008), for instance, find Ruspoli’s Turaco, one of the key located in the forest. problems of resource appropriation range-restricted bird species found in Study methods and provision. An appropriation the area. Other globally threatened problem can result in overconsumption species include Salvadori’s seedeater. The method used to collect the of a subtractable resource in which The area is home to 43 Somali-Masai necessary data for this research was an individual benefits from personal biome bird species, which represented a qualitative method that includes consumption at the expense of the 44 percent of species restricted to this primary and secondary sources. The community and the condition of biome. Many mammal species occur primary sources were individuals the resource. A provision problem in the area, including bushbuck, dikdik, and events that have been consulted can result in under provision of the warthog, wild pig, vervet monkey, through observation, focus group infrastructure needed to appropriate a black and white colobus monkey, discussions, informal discussions, resource. Since it is difficult to exclude black-backed jackal, squirrel, leopard, case studies and in-depth interviews. free-riders from benefiting from the lion, hyaena, porcupine, Abyssinian The secondary sources were a variety efforts of contributors, a provision hare and civet (EWNHS, 1996). of related literature that was reviewed problem can occur. Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 99

According to Hardin`s (1968) ‘tragedy of the world. That is, many empirical The right to ownership of rural of the commons’ theory, a set of studies have recognized that local land and urban land, as well pastoralists inevitably will overuse users themselves have constructed as of all natural resources, is their pasture. This concept was for viable institutions to use their natural exclusively vested in the State many years considered typical for resources sustainably (Berkes, 1989; and the peoples of Ethiopia. common-pool resources not owned Ostrom, 1990; Baland and Plateau, Land is a common property of privately or by a government. Since 1996; Hanna et al., 1996 cited in the Nations, Nationalities and Hardin theorized that users would Gibson et al. 2005). As Basurto and Peoples of Ethiopia. be trapped in their tragic overuse Ostrom (2009) quoted (NCR, 1986; of a resource, he advocated two McCay and Acheson, 1987; NCR Furthermore, according to solutions to prevent future tragedies: 2002; Dolsak and Ostrom, 2003; Proclamation No. 456/2005, Art state control and individual ownership Basurto, 2005), traditionally, many 5(3), the Ethiopian Government’s (Basurto and Ostrom, 2009). This smaller groups that use common- ownership of rural land and communal type of thinking, in many cases, led pool resources have developed a rural land holdings can be changed to to common property resources being diversity of norms and rules that have private as may be necessary (Bassi ignored until the mid-1980s, and enabled them to solve problems of and Adi, 2007). traditional resource property regimes overharvesting. Empirical studies also However, according to Borana were given over to state control and revealed that mere blueprint solutions custom, land in the Borana territory private ownership in different parts of imposed by external authorities is the common property of all the world. cannot solve problems of resource Borana people. Nonetheless, management and many other central the government`s Department of Under this theory, overharvesting of problems of development; rather Agriculture claims state ownership resources frequently occurs when participatory resource management and responsibility for the management resource users are totally anonymous, is needed (Pritchett and Woolcock, of forest resources (Tache and Irwin, do not have a foundation of trust and 2003). Furthermore, once formal 2003). In this paper, thus, the model reciprocity, cannot communicate institutions expropriated ownership of of common-pool resources and its and have no established rules. forests from local people, the people complexities were used to investigate Such a situation generates a highly perceived the forest as property the impacts of interventions on the predictable, finite supply of one type of the government, rather than as role of customary forest resource of resource unit (for example, forest local common property. Thereafter, management among the Borana produces only hardwood timber) in local communities developed a loss Oromo of Ethiopia. each relevant time period, whereas of ownership, which is considered users are assumed to be homogenous one of the reasons for escalating Key findings and discussions in terms of their assets, skills, discount deforestation processes worldwide rates and cultural views. This theory (Messerschmidt, 1983; Jodha, 1986; Borana customary institutions universally assumes that anyone Poffenberger, 1990; Arnold and Broadly speaking, the Borana can enter the resource and harvest Stewart, 1991, cited in Ostrom, 1999). resource units. Users are viewed customary institutions have been as able to gain property rights only According to data collected by a categorized into two forms: micro to what they harvest. The resource network of scholars associated and macro institutions. Both could be is assumed to be an open-access with the International Forestry further divided into many branches. property (Ostrom 1999). Resources and Institutions Research Each of them has a responsibility Programme, a successful outcome for natural resource management This theory was commonly applied in when using common resources can and other societal issues at various situations of common-pool resources, come through identification of multiple levels. For the purpose of this study, regardless of the capacity of resource factors, such as characteristics of the the macro institutions to be discussed users to communicate and coordinate resource, characteristics of the group, are gadaa and qaalluu. The micro their activities, until the work of the institutional arrangements and the institutions include warra, maggaa, National Academy of Sciences` external environment (Gibson et al., ollaa, ardaa, reera, madda and Panel on Common Property (National 2000; Foteete and Ostrom, 2004). dheeda. All these institutions have Research Council, 1986) strongly their own leaders and members who challenged this approach. In Ethiopia, the Constitution of the have divisions of labour to manage Federal Democratic Republic of natural resources, including forests. Since that time, the conventional Ethiopia, 1995, Art 40(3), states the theory of common-pool resources has right to ownership of land as follows: been challenged from various parts 100 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Members of these institutions, such body of the Borana Oromo. The terms moggaa/soloola/ as herders, firewood collectors and shanacha/labata are used even a passerby, have to report Micro institutions interchangeably, with a slight to their close supervisor when Borana settlements are randomly difference to indicate a section in they observe anyone committing distributed throughout their territories. a village that comprises a family illegal exploitation of their common Settlements are not based on the or usually more than that. For resources. Then the supervisor gives family unit or clan corporate; rather instance, the moggaa is often one balanced judgment on the case in they are based on social organizations to two families, whereas soloola and accordance with customary laws. If for resource sharing (Helland, 1991; shanacha (which are synonymous) it is not settled at supervisor level, Hogg, 1993; Arsano, 1997; Watson, are used to indicate a combination s/he will take the case to the next 2000). This section describes the of a number of extended families or administrative body. For this reason, different micro institutions of the other unrelated families. there is no independent body that Borana and how they interact with one The most determinant point for the oversees forest management; rather another in dealing with societal affairs people in this section is that they management of natural resources and resource management. These commonly share a single cattle needs a collective action. institutions are, of course, hierarchal enclosure. They are collectively structures of the gadaa institution The Borana residence can be herding and watering livestock, which are situated in different separated into yuuba and yaa`a. sharing household furniture and localities of Boranaland. Selection Yuuba comprises the majority of the food, if necessary. That is why the of leaders of these institutions is Borana people who reside in different Borana say, “Ollaan mana walti conducted informally by the members places in the Borana territory. Yaa`a aanu” (The best villagers are those of their respective units with reference are relatively few people who are who share neighbouring houses). to the ability of persons to play leading frequently mobile and reside in ritual Abbaa moggaa/soloola/shanacha roles. places until they finish their term (head of a section in a village) is an of office. The Borana yaa`a can be Warra (nuclear family) immediate neighbour who is in charge categorized into yaa`a gadaa, yaa`a of the section in any social affairs. He qaalluu, yaa`a raabaa and yaa`a A warra is often the minimal unit in a may be selected on the basis of his old gadaamojjii. Those who reside in village that includes a nuclear family age, wealth, knowledge of customary the yuuba will often join a yaa`a in (a father, a mother and unmarried systems or leadership position in the one way or another; those in a yaa`a children). It is sometimes extended customary system. must be graduated to the yuuba families, such as a father and his after a specified time period. For married children. When it refers to A head of a section in a village instance, one who is outside of a extended families in the village, it represents members of his section at mobile ritual village may join one of usually serves as a section, which village level. He also resolves conflicts these villages through election to be will be discussed under the next unit in the section. If not settled there, he a gadaa councilor, to assist a gadaa (moggaa). The head of this unit is will take the conflict issue to a fellow councilor of his respective clan in their called abbaa warraa (head of family); village head. From the day when a gadaa office, or to perform certain and the family named as warra ebeluu village encamps in a given area, the ceremonies with members of the (family of so and so). head of the section is responsible to ritual villages. Members of a mobile manage land in his territory with its The head of the family manages ritual village usually have a fixed adjacent area outside the village. No the household properties and other period to complete their term of office one is allowed to use trees from those issues pertaining to his household. and then re-join those outside of their areas without his knowledge. Even A family member has to report to residences. the village head has no right to allow the family head when s/he comes a newcomer to encamp in a section of Any disputable issue of the Borana is across illegal exploitation of a forest his village without consulting the head first dealt with by the jaarrota (council resource. Then a family head takes of that section. of elders) and lichoo jaartii (the the case to his close supervisor. The past gadaa councilors) at different family head also has responsibility to Ollaa (village) geographical units of the yuuba. If not conserve trees in or around his cattle An ollaa (village) is the collection of resolved at that level, it will be judged enclosure and house compound. sections when the village is big, or procedurally at the ritual villages, and it can be a section when it is small. then finally will be resolved at the Moggaa (families sharing a cattle Abbaa ollaa (head of the village) is Gumii Gaayoo (general assembly of enclosure) often the most popular man among the Borana), the supreme legislative Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 101 his villagers in terms of his charisma villages. When it is occupied by a of the community is responsible to organize, analyse and manage cluster of villages, it may be termed to manage the forests, the head things according to aadaa Borana a reera (described in more detail of the cluster oversees whether (Borana custom). But sometimes below). An ardaa is a small grazing management goes according to wealth and ascribed status, especially territory in which its residents can customary systems. from father to son, are considered. commonly share water, pasture and As part of the fieldwork for this paper, other resources within the context The ollaa is a territorial organization the principal researcher took part of aadaa seera marraa-bishaan whose members help each other in a pastoral coordinating meeting Booranaa (Borana customary during crises (disease, famine, war, at Dureettii wells on 14 January laws of pasture and water). Elders etc.) and during happy occasions, 2010 inside Areero Forest. At the from a village or villages usually such as weddings, child birth, naming meeting, misuse of water wells and hold residential meetings on how and other events. Members of a settlements inside the forest were to manage and share resources in village can also help each other with reported by water caretakers and their territory. Members of an ardaa problems related to herding and other community members. The also help each other with burial, watering. For instance, if someone meeting was facilitated by the head name-giving, wedding and other faces a shortage of labour for herding, of the Dureettii cluster. Finally, the ceremonies. The head of the ardaa is the person will be allowed to affiliate participants decided on removal of the village head when it is composed with fellow villagers. Furthermore, the illegal settlements from the site of only one village; and he is head if someone encounters problems within a week and re-arranging the of the cluster when it is inhabited by getting access to water for a clan watering quota system. Thus, a head several villages. that does not have water wells over of a cluster is responsible to settle a given area, the Borana custom of Reera (cluster of villages using the conflicts that are not addressed at water sharing systems will allow the same water source and grazing village level and others within his person to join villagers and use water grounds) territory. If the case is not resolved, from their clans’ water sources. In he reports it to the elders of the next cases when livestock is missing in A reera is the cluster of villages that territorial unit. the bush or at a water point, fellow are found in a specified site, or two or villagers can again help each other to more close sites, inhabited by people Madda (wider territorial unit with a search for it. who can use water from the same permanent water source) sources and their herds can use the The head of village is the immediate same grazing grounds. It is where The madda is a wider territorial supervisor of natural resources found the inhabitants usually limit carrying unit than the reera and its concept in the territory of his village, herding notification of deceased persons and is derived from a permanent water source. It is made up of a combination grounds and watering sources. The other messages. The abbaa reeraa of clusters, which often surround a village head also represents his fellow (head of the cluster) is a famous water well at its centre. A villagers at important occasions. For man or, if possible, an ex-gadaa madda is administered by a council of elders instance, if a person or a village wants councilor selected from the members drawn from different clusters of that to join his village or to settle nearby of each village in the reera area. He his village, he should be the first represents the members of his fellow madda. In other words, the council person to be consulted. cluster at the next larger territorial of elders is composed of the heads of all clusters surrounding a permanent unit, the madda. People in the same After all, any Borana can freely move water source. They usually meet at cluster also have regular meetings out from his or her old village and water points to discuss how to share to consolidate the natural resource join a new one. But reasonable pre- water and pasture among residents management systems in their unit. discussions and agreements have to in their unit, or with other newcomers be made with the heads and villagers The head of the cluster arranges a who come from other madda in of both villages. This is mainly because smooth grazing relationship between search of better resources. At such the resources in both communities are his cluster and neighbouring clusters. meetings, relevant topics, such as common properties that need pre- For instance, between adjacent the number of cattle kraals and where discussions to reach on consensus. clusters there are usually common the newcomers should encamp and grazing lands which are not allowed water their cattle, are identified and Ardaa (village or cluster of villages for settlements and need continuous affirmed. If the new arrivals are over with a small grazing area) discussions among the users. Even the capacity of a particular madda, An ardaa is a particular site that is though each water source has its own they should agree and let others use inhabited by a village or cluster of caretaker and an individual member resources from another madda. 102 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Conflicts not settled at the madda cases to the gumii (assembly of the has its own independent leader. level will usually be taken to multitudes). Thus, there are three mobile ritual neighbouring madda or to mobile villages and three gadaa leaders in The qaalluu and the gadaa ritual villages of qaalluu, raaba or one gadaa period. Of these, Gadaa institutions have their own mobile gadaa found nearest to the contested Arbooraa is the senior one and its ritual village. Each one of these madda. In principle, issues not leader is a leader of his class, as well villages is mobilized periodically resolved at madda can be appealed as the leader of all Borana during to ceremonial grounds located in to mobile ritual villages of qaalluu → his office term. The name of the different forest areas of Boranaland to raaba → gadaa →abbaa seeraa/ Borana gadaa, particularly Gadaa celebrate various ceremonies. These gumii gaayoo. Arbooraa, is always recalled using ceremonies are performed to deal the name of its leader. For instance, with the integrated affairs of Borana, Dheeda (combined units based if a gadaa leader is Guyyoo such as politics, religion, economy, on grazing lands) Gobbaa, that gadaa will be recalled etc. Kassam and Megerssa (1994) as Gadaa Guyyoo Gobbaa; The dheeda is a wider unit than confirm that the political, juridical and whereas, Gadaa Koonnituu and a madda. In most cases it blends economic aspects of the Borana are Gadaa Hawaxxuu are named several maddas that are managed not separated from their religious after the name of their clans. Both independently by a council of elders beliefs, which fundamentally structure Koonnituu and Hawaxxuu gadaas drawn from different maddas. and unify their way of life. Nor is were autonomous gadaa branches The word dheeda literally means nature excluded from this worldview. given to Hawaxxuu and Koonnituu “grazing.” Boku (2000) categorizes Thus, Borana manage their forests clans of the goona moiety by the Boranaland into seven major micro- through religious practices attached Borana in the gadaa period of Bulee climate zones, or dheedas. They are to nature, politics, economics and law. Dhaddachaa (1769-1777). Both Goomolee, Malbee, Golboo, Dirree clans were given this opportunity and Wayaama in Dirree region of Gadaa for the sake of intra-Borana conflict Boranaland and Golba and Diida in Gadaa is a system of generation resolution and to defend peripheral Liiban region of Boranaland. classes that attributes almost all land they were occupying against Macro institutions human aspects such as military, neighbouring groups. political, economic and ritual The leading macro institutions of (Legesse, 1973). Borana gadaa Each class in power has three types the Borana are the gadaa and the has five generations of classes that of hayyuu (gadaa councilors) who qaalluu. Each plays independent succeed each other after eight years are formally elected by the members roles among society. The gadaa leads of a gadaa period (Bassi, 1994). That of Borana society every eight years. the political role of the Borana and the is, individuals are enrolled in the class They are Hayyuu Adulaa, Hayyuu qaalluu leads religious affairs. The five positions below their father`s Meedhichaa and Hayyuu Garbaa. major role of the institution of gadaa class. Thus, one gadaa period is These hayyuus are elected for each is to lead the Borana as a whole. eight years, whereas a gadaa cycle mobile ritual village of gadaa. For To do this, the Borana gadaa has takes forty years. Borbor Bulee, a instance, out of six adulaa councilors established various institutions that famous Borana oral historian, recalls for one gadaa period, four members have their own leaders at different the names chronologically of the are elected for Gadaa Arboora and lower levels. Power in the gadaa seventy one gadaa leaders with their one each for Gadaa Hawaxxuu system is highly decentralized and is terms of office. He further states that and Koonnituu. From a total of 14 exercised from periphery to centre, Gadayoo Galgaloo (1457-1465) was members of Hayyuu Garbaa, six are rather than from centre to periphery the first gadaa leader of Borana elected for Arboora and four each (Bassi, 2005). Therefore, leaders of Oromo after the gadaa had been for Hawaxxuu and Koonnituu. Out of various territorial units have full power interrupted for seventy two years. six members of Hayyuu Meedhichaa, to manage forest resources and Although he did not recall their terms three each are elected for Hawaxxuu other societal affairs. If they cannot of office, he can recite the names of and Koonnituu. Therefore, the resolve contested issues on resource six gadaa leaders before the gadaa number of hayyuus in one gadaa management at their levels, they had been interrupted. period is 26. procedurally manage the cases until There is hierarchal power among they reach the mobile ritual village In one gadaa period, there are the gadaa branches in effecting of gadaa. It is there where final three branches of gadaas: Gadaa Borana concerns. For instance, if the decisions are given, unless the gadaa Arbooraa, Gadaa Hawaxxuu and councilors of a mobile ritual village councilors intentionally postpone Gadaa Koonnituu. Each branch of Gadaa Koonnituu cannot settle Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 103 conflicts, they will take the cases to ceremony (anointing ceremony). councilors of the qaalluu ritual village the mobile ritual village of Gadaa Borana believe that the origin of will be responsible to deal with the Hawaxxuu. If not resolved there, the these two senior qaalluus has a divine case before councilors of the gadaa councilors of both Hawaxxuu and source. The remaining three belong ritual villages. Koonnituu gadaas take the cases to the Maxxaarrii clan are given to the mobile ritual village of Gadaa this position due to respect of the Natural resource management is Borana towards the members of the Arbooraa. Gadaa Arbooraa The Borana rangeland has mainly often where final decisions of Borana Maxxaarrii clan in various ceremonial been categorized into lowland drylands concerns are made. Yet, there are very occasions. (gammoojjii) and forestlands few cases which cannot be resolved At the (baddaa). Its categorization is based at Gadaa Arbooraa and appealed muuda ceremony, a group consisting of a large number of men on weather condition, soil type, plant either to Gumii Gaayoo or to comes with a gift of young cattle for species, water availability and so on. consultations of a father of law (senior the Forestlands have evergreen plants, ex- leader). For instance, if qaalluu and in response the gadaa usually thornless tree species, cool the three incumbent leaders qaalluu provides his blessings. gadaa weather even during dry seasons, soft do not agree on the implication of a The qaalluu also serves as an and tall grasses, shallow wells, moist law, a father of law will be consulted, intermediary between God and man weather in June and July (after the and there is no more reconsideration (Bassi, 2005). main rainy season), tall and big trees after decisions given by him. Or, if the In addition, the qaalluu village is with undergrowth, black brown soil, appealed cases are very serious and one of the mobile ritual villages of mounted-land, etc. Due to the cool the is going to be held Gumii Gaayoo Borana, which periodically moves weather conditions and prevalence in the near future, a leader of gadaa to different sacred grounds found in of small flies in the forestlands, will deliberately defer the Arboora many places in the Borana forests especially during the rainy seasons, cases to the so as Gumii Gaayoo to perform rituals. According to the grazing inside these areas are to publicize them and let others learn Borana belief system, these rituals favourable in the dry months. from measures taken at the gumii. in the forests are conducted for The lowland drylands possess hot Qaalluu the psychological wellbeing of the Borana people, their livestock and weather, deep wells, dense grass, The position of qaalluu is through environment. For this reason, every scattered big trees, thorny bushes, a hereditary system. Qaalluu is Borana respect the rules pertaining to green coverage during wet seasons considered a ritual leader. There forest management. and dusty soil. Grazing inside the are five qaalluus of Borana drylands is more preferable during The Oromo: Qaalluu Odituu, Qaalluu qaalluu ritual village has the wet seasons when seasonal Karrayyuu, Qaalluu Garjeedaa, four councilors whose members groundwater is available and Qaalluu Kuukkuu and Qaalluu are drawn only from qaalluu moderate weather is attractive enough Karaaraa. Each of these qaalluu is lineages. These groups have no for livestock to flourish. Therefore, named after the name of their clans political position in gadaa ritual both lands are complementary to one or subclans. For instance, Odituu villages. These councilors have another. and Karrayyuu are names of Borana decision-making power on resource According to Bassi and Boku (2008), clans, whereas Garjeeda, Kuukkuu management, conflict resolution the natural resources of the drylands and Karaara are subclans of the and other societal issues, like other and forestlands are conceived by Maxxaarrii clans of the sabbo moiety. hayyuus. For instance, if a conflict the Borana community as strongly Of these, the Qaalluu Odituu and related to resource management or other societal affairs is not resolved complementary. They are the shared Qaalluu Karrayyuu are the seniors at a micro institution level found heritage of the whole community. who extend their blessings to all the in a nearby This is communicated through the Borana and beyond at the muuda qaalluu ritual village, following extract from a prayer: 104 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Liibanii Dirreen nagaa; Peace for Liiban and Dirree;

Liiban Golbaa Diidii nagaa; Peace for Golba and Diida of Liiban;

Dirree tulaan sallan nagaa; Peace for the nine tulaa wells of Dirree;

Baddaan sadeen nagaa; Peace for the three forest grounds;

Malbee golboon nagaa; Peace for Malbee and Golboo;

Booqqee sadeen nagaa; Peace for the three Booqqee;

Baddaa gammoojjiin nagaa; Peace for the forest and the drylands;

Areero Gooroon nagaa. Peace for the hill lands of Areero.

Boranaland has two broad regions: In Ethiopian Boranaland, there are the Borana people in various ways: Liiban and Dirree (see Figure 1). Liiban four major forest grounds: trees benefit them for construction region is further categorized into golba of houses, fencing of livestock (dryland area more attractive during 1) Manquubsaa Forest: situated in enclosures, ceremonial purposes, the wet season) and diida (forest area the Liiban region of Boranaland in sources of food and firewood. often used in the dry months). Dirree the Guji zone; Forestlands serve as sacred grounds, region has three forest systems, 2) Areeroo Forest: in Areero District refuge in times of war, diseases Areeroo, Oobda and Gaamadu, of Borana zone; and droughts, home for wild game which possess various ceremonial and a source of water and pasture. grounds and other resources. Dirree 3) Oobda Forest (sometimes called The roots, leaves and bark of some also has nine clusters of deep wells Baddaa Goomolee): covering trees serve for the preparation of and three creator lakes of rock- the all northern parts of Yaaballo medicines. The forests also serve to salt, which are found in the dryland. District; and maintain climatic conditions as they Malbee-golboo is a wet season release cool weather and receive 4) Gaamaduu Forest (sometimes grazing area located along the Ethio- adequate rain. For these reasons, referred to as Baddaa Gooroo Kenyan border. All these have been life of the Borana community highly Fugug): embraces some parts categorized into forest and drylands. depends on forest resources. of Dirree, Dilloo, Miyoo and So the above prayer extract depicts Mooyyale Districts of the Borana For the Borana, the above mentioned that the drylands and forestlands of zone. uses of forest resources for the Borana have their own substantial commercialization purposes are resources that benefit the Borana These forest systems are all natural not allowed as in market-oriented people and their livestock in different forests and are where the Borana societies; they are rather implemented ways during different seasons. For often perform cultural practices. in the form of communal need this reason, the Borana give due According to an Oromia Forest and (Kassam and Megerssa, 1994). Thus, attention to both types of land and Wildlife Enterprise officer in Areero this latter kind of exploitation does not their resources. District, except the Gaamaduu affect the sustainable management Forest which covers a vast territory, Forest management of these resources. For instance, the other three forests are included firewood is usually collected from under Ethiopian National Forests. Forestland has numerous resources dried parts of certain trees, such as Particularly since proclamation No. that can benefit its users in various dried branches, dried small sticks or 225 and 227 of 1965, both natural ways. Some of these resources from dead and fallen trees. Livestock and plantation forests of Ethiopia are wildlife, water, pasture, trees, enclosures are built out of thorny came under state ownership (Eshetu, place of worship and so on. Among bushes or branches of thorny trees; 2006). other things, pasture, water and houses are constructed out of poles trees are the most important forest Forest resources belong to all of thin trees and covered with grass. resources for the life of the Borana Borana and are communal among In relation to this, Borana custom people. Thus, for the purpose of this the Borana, though water resources prohibits the cutting of all branches of research, management of resources ownership have been given to certain a big tree, cutting a tree at its lower such as forest, water and pasture clans, which will be discussed later. stem, or uprooting a tree. Borana will be highlighted in the following Customarily, forest resources benefit have a belief system that enables discussions. Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 105 people to stick to this custom. They Symbolic value of forests sacrifices of he-goats, bullocks and believe that bad fortune will befall the old cows. Sacrifices of these livestock descendants of anyone who violates Forestlands are blessed with are done in the shade of a tree, near this rule. There is a saying among ceremonial grounds. For the Borana, a water well, near a stone and so on. the Borana, “Extinction of one`s forest grounds can fully serve The term dhibaayyuu, is formed from descendants will be the result when as wayyuu (holy places). This is two Oromo words dhiba and bay`uu, s/he cuts all the branches of a big because God naturally blessed them which means “trouble/problem/ tree.” Golo (1996) states that Borana with evergreen cover, cool weather, difficulty” and “to save or to protect rules about forest conservation, which a long rainy season, shallow water from danger.” Thus, the dibaayyuu were promulgated to the 37th Gumii wells or ever-flooded spring water ceremony is conducted to protect Gaayoo, are as follows: and multiple natural resources that can allow permanent settlement against problems. There are two types “The Borana aada rules against of the people. That is why almost of dhibaayyuu: one done at a water cutting big trees without leaving all the ceremonial grounds of the well and the other one done at a tree some branches, because they die Borana people are situated in the (Leus, 2006). The dhibaayyuu in the when all their branches are cut down. forest areas, particularly those for shade of a tree is usually performed Moreover, the land loses its adommen mobile ritual villages. According to the by members of gadaa ritual villages (beauty) without trees. Without trees Borana psychological makeup, the and that near a water well is done we cannot have shelters and shade materialization of these ceremonies by members of gadaammojjii and to protect ourselves and our livestock attributes fertility, good health, peace other community members outside of from danger and sultry. Parts of and prosperity for their people, ritual villages. A particular water well what we use at our homes are made livestock, land and environment. used for the dhibaayyuu ceremony is of wood. Trees may be cut down known as an eela dhibaayyuu (well of whenever there is genuine need for The Borana mobile ritual villages dhibaayyuu). Concerning this, Kuraa them. The bushes that suppress the of gadaa, raaba, gadaammojjii and Adii, a Borana elder and son of an growth of grass should be cleared qaalluu have their own ceremonies, ex-gadaa leader, recited the following away. The GGA has, therefore, which are performed seasonally extract from a dhibaayyuu prayer that prohibited cutting big trees at roots or at different sacred grounds in the is celebrated in the shade of a tree without leaving branches on them.” forestland. Each of these ceremonies by members of mobile ritual gadaa cannot be described in this work. Some villages: of the major ones are dhibaayyuu and

Dhibba sa`ayyoo horii; Be prosperous with hundreds of cows;

Oo oyyoyyoo jilaa; Because of the glorious ceremony

Dhibba namayyoo horii; Be prosperous with hundreds of people;

Oo oyyoyyoo jilaa; Because of the glorious ceremony;

Horaa nagayaan galii; Safely come home from the watering point;

Oo oyyoyyoo jilaa; Because of the glorious ceremony;

Horiin daara ba`ii; Be clothed with the sale of livestock;

Oo oyyoyyoo jilaa. Because of the glorious ceremony. 106 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

The prayer demonstrates how Borana Garbii (Faidherbia albida): This Waddeessa (Cordia africana): life relies on livestock. During this forest tree is used for a shrine, and In Boranaland, the natural ceremony, all gadaa councilors, sacrifices of bullock and he-goat waddeessa forest tree is only including gadaa leaders and their are undertaken in its shade. It is found in the Miyoo Forest of the assistants, wear traditional dress and also used as a qaallicha (sacred Gaamaduu Forest system. Its carry miyyuu (milk-pot full of milk) and shrine) where sacrifices of an old branches are used as a holder go to the holy tree. cow are carried out. of the maxxaarrii (a ritual stick used for the odaa ceremony). Its There are some forest trees that are Birbirsa (Podocarpus falcatus): branch is also used as a ritual used for specific ceremonies and as This tree is only found in the stick cut for a father for the name- holy trees. Others are taken to be a forest and used as a shrine with giving ceremony of his first born member of certain clans. First and sacrifices of bullock and he-goat. son. Thus, a Waddeessa stick foremost, the Borana belief systems symbolizes father of a son. that are attached to forest trees help Canaa (Haplocoelum foliolosum): protect the forest and its resources Mostly grown in forestland and Daannisa (Apodytes dimidiata): used as a shrine for sacrifices more than any other places. Guyyoo This tree is found in all four forest of bullocks and he-goats. It is a Gobbaa, an incumbent Borana gadaa systems of Boranaland. A Borana shrine used by the delegates of leader (2009-2017), and other Borana married male carries a Daannisa a gadaa to take baallii (“power”) elders, narrated the ceremonial and ritual stick on the day of birth of his from the outgoing gadaa leader symbolic values of certain trees as sons, during the dhibaayyuu and by sacrificing a bullock and to rest follows: odaa ceremonies. When a Borana for a while on the way coming male carries a Daannisa staff and Hindheensa/Jiruu-kuraa (Juniper home. The incumbent gadaa ties a turban on his head, other fellow procera): - A common and leader who takes over the gadaa Borana automatically can tell that dominant forest tree in each of the power spends three days of his so and so’s wife gave birth to a son. forest systems of Boranaland, this confinement in the shade of this So, the Daannisa symbolizes one`s tree is euphemized particularly tree. Canaa is also used as a tree son(s). during ceremonial occasions and shrine at which the official election named jiruu-kuraa (“life-salt”). of Borana gadaa councilors is Ejersa (Olea europea ssp This is because it has a longer declared. cuspidata): This is the second life span than other trees in the largest dominant plant species found Borana forest. It is also never Dambii (Ficus thommingii): This in the forest systems of Boranaland. It attacked by termites even when tree usually grows in sources is a forest tree used for a shrine where it is dead and buried underground of water. It can be found in the sacrifices of bullock and he-goat are for ages. Since it grows gray hair bush and forestlands and is used carried out. Its branches are also like old people, it symbolizes during the odaa ceremony. The used as a bokkuu (ritual stick with a old people and is respected odaa ceremony is organized by knobbed head) of gadaa councilors as old people are respected. the outgoing gadaa leader in his that signifies authority. Qoraan olkaa, Its branches and gray hair are eighth year of gadaa office. The a very short ritual stick used during collected for various hulluuqqoo ceremony is organized to present songs sung by the raaba grade and ceremonies (rituals performed to gifts of cattle to the qaalluu gadaa ritual villages during the olka pass through disasters such as and in turn to take his blessing. ceremony, is cut from the branch of war, disease, drought, fire, flood, It is considered a graduation this tree. etc.). It is also used as a pole ceremony for the outgoing gadaa on which the Borana wave their class. During this ceremony, an Dhaddacha (Acacia tortilis). This flag on the election day of senior interested individual Borana who tree is grown both in bush and gadaa councilors. is outside of gadaa ritual villages forestlands. It is a shrine tree can join to take the blessing where sacrifices of bullock and Gaddaa (Fagara chalybea): This of the qaalluu (Leus, 2006). A he-goat are carried out. Borana tree is found in both bushy and ceremonial hall which was built meetings are usually held in the forested lands. It is used for the during the election of senior gadaa shade of a big Dhaddacha tree. doorpost of ceremonial halls of councilors is only built out of this Even the Gumii Gaayoo Assembly gadaa. The sacrifices of bullock tree, except for the doorpost, is held in the shade of this tree. and he-goat take place in its which is made out of the Canaa shade. tree. Interestingly, Borana associate some trees with members of certain Borana Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 107 clans. For instance, they associate the As a result of the above belief Furthermore, if people want to kill Dhaddacha tree with members of the systems, Borana take forestlands wildlife for certain ritual and social digaluu clan of the sabbo moiety. as holy grounds where most places reasons, they will wait until it comes They also associate the Harooressa of worship are found, and therefore out from the forested ground. Then, tree (Grevia bicolour) with members cutting a forest tree without good killing is culturally permitted. In cases of the harooressa submoiety of reasons and killing wild animals that when a wild animal is wounded the goona moiety. The Fulleessa dwell in the forest contradict the seera outside of a forest and runs into the tree (Acacia drepanolobium) is aadaa Borana (Borana customary forest, it will never be pursued as it associated with members of fulleelle law). Even when the need for cutting reaches its sacred home. submoiety of the goona. Since the a branch of some forest trees are Because of its holiness, if a crime is members of these clans consider essential for ritual reasons, a cutter committed in a forest area, a guilty these trees as their own members, wears ritual clothes, carries tobacco person can be fined with a curse or the Borana belief system prohibits and goes to the forest. When s/he qakee (a fine of thirty heads of cattle) them from using these trees for the finds that sacred tree, s/he pours out and other penalties according to purpose of firewood and misusing the tobacco on the ground under the customary laws of forest management. them for any other purpose. These tree so as to save it and cuts branches For instance, in the group discussion, trees symbolize human beings and from other trees of the same species. elders narrated the following cases the Borana as a whole treat them as Pouring out of tobacco symbolizes the pertaining to misuse of a tree in their own members. begging for forgiveness as that tree general and forest tree in particular. and its territory are sacred beings.

Case-1 Aseebo was a famous Borana man. He belongs to the Karrayyuu clan of the sabbo moiety, and he was head of a cluster that used to live in Galchat, Yabello District. He made a law known as butaa Aseeboo (“pull of Aseebo”).

Under this law, when a wrongdoer was cut down branches of trees with their Since Aseebo fined guilty people investigated, s/he was laid on their seeds instead of merely collecting under his coordination with this back and dragged on gravel stones. them. So, from that day onward, special law until the days of his This law was initiated when members Aseebo started punishing people by retirement, his community members of Aseebo`s pastoral coordination unit pulling them over gravel. used natural resources wisely. 108 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Case-2 Halakee Bonayyaa belongs to the Karrayyuu-Aabbolee of the Borana clan. He cut down branches of the Qaallicha Miyoo (the holy tree of Miyoo), which is found in Gaamaduu Forest system.

The tree stands around the gadaammojjii ritual ground at Miyoo. The case was reported to customary leaders and Halakee Bonayyaa was fined with thirty heads of cattle. The Borana elders confirmed that the qakee fine of thirty cattle is equivalent to the blood price for a murdered body.

Qaallicha is where the gadaammojjii areas where holy trees exist are labour mostly reside in forest system ceremony takes place every eight sacred grounds. Not only the power areas. years. The naming ceremony of of holiness is invested in the sacred Borana water tenure systems vary on dabballee (the first gadaa grade), the trees, but also the enactment of the basis of categorization of water grandsons of gadaammojjii grade, customary laws protects the trees as sources. Compared to other natural is carried out under this holy tree. well as the forest areas where these resource tenure systems, water During the ceremony, those who do trees are found. resources are relatively semi-private, not have a child pray to God to give with the exception of river water (Oba, them children. Water management 1998). River water is an open access Borana lands customarily possess According to Borana elders, qaallicha resource. The remaining water four main sources of water: adaadii trees symbolize prominent Borana sources have rules and regulations to (shallow wells), tulaa (deep wells), prophets that lived in the old days, be followed for anyone to get access haroo (ponds) and galaana (rivers). such as Jiloo Nuuraa Dooyyoo. to them. For each of these water But there are other small water Qaallicha Nuuraa and Qaallicha sources there is an abbaa konfii sources, particularly available during Dooyyoo, the prominent holy trees (konfii owner) and abbaa herregaa the rainy seasons (Boku, 2000). that are located in the Liiban region (water caretaker). Ownership of Adaadii water wells are mostly found in of Boranaland, are named after these ponds and adaadii wells in certain forest areas; whereas haroo and tulaa prophets. areas of Borana territory is restricted are found in drylands. Water in the to the coqorsa system, which will be A curse is usually placed when a forest systems is considered among discussed at length later. wrongdoer is not investigated or s/he the Borana to be bishaan haadha fails to accept his/her fault. This kind hiyyeessaa (“water of an orphan Tulaa (deep wells) of cursing is often led by an abbaa child`s mother”), because harvesting In areas where there are tulaa wells, gadaa. In Borana cultural beliefs, this water needs less investment than a capable and interested Borana the curse of a holy tree itself when tulaa water. Adaadii water naturally clan is allowed to possess more one misuses it is more effective than springs up from swampy areas under than one water well over a specified the people`s curse (Bartels, 1994). stones and is available throughout the area. Although initial excavating of According to Borana customary laws, year where a single herder manages the ground is started by the abbaa cursing is the worst fine. It includes to water cattle, or its spring may be konfii, material and human resources social outcaste, such as alienation found above 2 metres in depth in dry, used in the course of excavation from resource sharing, cultural sandy rivers. However, tulaa water and management of tulaa wells is practices, political and any kind of is found on average at 14 metres mobilized by members of a well social affairs. under the ground and requires much more labour to harvest. Thus, Borana alliance clan. As a result of this, Because the Borana believe that households that possess limited most of the tulaa names possess the Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 109 name of their respective clan, and the Dida (2012) states that adaadii symbolizes seniority and perpetual water sharing system is among the wells in forest systems have high ownership of water. It is also carried fellow clan members. This does not yields of water year round that can along with a ritual stick during various restrict other Borana who have social accommodate a huge number of ceremonies. bonds with members of this clan from users, whereas those in plateau areas Coqorsa ownership can be approved getting access to it. For instance, a have less water and can benefit only a in many ways. First, coqorsa is sunsum person, who usually belongs few harvesters. During the dry months approved to a given clan to defend to another clan, culturally waters his adaadii wells in plateau areas often a part of Boranaland from their cattle at laagaa (next to the abbaa serve for domestic consumption. konfii`s cattle) on the watering day neighbours when a large number of the abbaa konfii. Moreover, other According to most informants, adaadii of this clan accidentally occupies social bonds like friendship, in-laws water is used before tulaa water. This areas at the boundary of Boranaland. and village affiliation can permit one is because the Borana first lived in Gomolee land, which is coqorsa of to use water outside of his/her clan. forestlands, where adaadii water is the hawaxxuu clan of the goona This often happens when there is naturally generated. Over time, the moiety, is an example. Second, a scarcity of water resources, or a Borana people expanded their lives when a person discovers a source of scarcity of manpower to lift up water into the gammojjii lands which have water at a forest site before anybody from the wells among a fellow clan. underground water that needs more else, the remaining sources in that resources to establish and manage. system belong to the coqorsa of According to Boku (2000), tulaa wells his respective clan. Adaadii wells have three watering days headed by Ownership of adaadii wells is traced in the Areero Forest, which are three different people: the first day is through the konfii or coqorsa the coqorsa of Digaluu-Tiittii clan, termed guyyaa konfii (“watering day systems. The konfii system of belong to this category. According to of the konfii owner”), the second day adaadii wells was established a informants Moluu Soraa and Moluu is called guyyaa olaa (“watering day long time ago. When a person Guyyoo, elders of Digaluu-Tiittii, of the well alliance clan”) and the last belonging to a certain Borana clan Adaadii Tiittisaa, the first wells in the day is known as guyyaa qara goree first discovers a source of water Areero Forest that were investigated (“watering day of other members of which has never been investigated by by their own clan are called tiittile. the clan owning a tulaa well”). On anyone else, ownership is approved Following that, coqorsa ownership each watering day, the head person only when the discoverer lights fire of many clusters of wells in different of the watering day is responsible to at the source with the presence of areas of this forest was given to their manage all the watering rules on his witnesses. Then, konfii ownership clan. The third method of receiving respective day, under supervision of is given to the founder and passed coqorsa ownership is when two the water caretaker. down to his descendants, and the Borana clans have a dispute over well’s owners are his clan members, ownership of a water source. In The caretaker of the tulaa well of course. Coqorsa ownership is this case, when the ownership of is a free servant and an honest, when a particular geographical unit a contested source is given to one formally appointed individual from of land is officially given to a specified clan, then the other clan may be clan members outside of the konfii. Borana clan. Once the coqorsa title is given another area as coqorsa as He must be a willing person who recognized, ponds and adaadii water a mechanism of conflict resolution. comes on each watering day to sources found in that catchment area, The coqorsa of Hara Hawaxxuu was supervise and has to have indigenous even those investigated or created by given to the Hawaxxuu clan as a knowledge of water sharing systems members of another clan, belong to result of conflict resolution between among the Borana in general and his the coqorsa-owning clan. Recognition the Hawaxxuu and Digaluu-Nuurtuu own clan in particular. Apart from this, of coqorsa ownership is conducted clans over the ownership of Hara there are elderly people of the same by the Borana assembly, headed by Digaluu. clan who usually oversee whether the gadaa leader. the management of the caretaker is There are three Borana clans that progressing in a logical manner or Coqorsa is literally a type of have been given coqorsa ownership: not. evergreen grass grown over swampy the Hawaxxuu, Karrayyuu- areas and has deep roots that cannot Walaabuu and Digaluu-Tiittii. The Adaadii (shallow wells) easily be removed. According to coqorsa owner of the Digaluu-Tiittii the Borana, coqorsa is senior to Adaadii wells are often found clan covers all areas of the Areero all grasses. It is mostly found at the along the watershed of the forested Forest; the Hawaxxuu clan have source of adaadii and tulaa wells. mountainous and plateau areas. ownership of Goomolee land, which Therefore, in this context, coqorsa runs from northeast of Areero District 110 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

down to the Sagan River; and the clan can be assigned as caretaker. A Adaadii and tulaa water wells have area between east of Areeroo Forest caretaker should be one who knows not only supplied water for livestock and Diida Haraa location belongs to about customary water management and domestic consumption, but they the Karrayyuu-Wallabbuu clan. systems and is good at coordination. also serve as sacred grounds where If he is different from the well owner various ceremonies are performed Like tulaa wells, utilization systems clan, he should be delegated by elders for the well-being of people, livestock of adaadii are facilitated by a chosen of the well owner`s clan. Although and the environment. Among others, water caretaker. The water caretaker adaadii wells over a certain area are Kuraa Adii recites the following songs usually comes from a clan of a source owned by a single or few Borana during the dhibaayyuu ceremony near owner. But sometimes, if the elders clans, other fellow Borana have rights wells: from the owner clan are not found in to use water from that sources. that locality, an elder from any Borana

Fororee

Oo fororee; Oh, there is abundance;

Fororsaan roobe; It has rained in abundance;

Robee laga yaase; The rain has flooded along the dry river;

Ilmee laguu baase; Creatures are saved from the time of risk;

Madda gabbise; There is plenty of water in the water source;

Diqqaa guddise; The immature beings have grown up;

Guddaa gaamarse. The matured beings have lived well.

Roobaan Sii Gale

Oo rooban sii galee; Oh, I come back home with rain;

Waareen gannaa misaa; Pre-milking dawn grazing of the main rainy season is with plenty of fresh grass;

Ta bonaa furmaataa; That of dry season is with reviving showers;

Furmaatii roobinnaa; Be the reviving showers rain;

Roobee lolaassinna. Be the showering makes flood.

Furmataa is one-three days of rain to the dhibaayyuu well; whereas, depicts the seeking of abundant rain showers in the dry season before the roobaan sii gale is recited while and how significant rain is for living main rain comes and that reduces the coming back home. Dhibaayyyuu beings. It also shows the importance shortages in the dry time Waaree is is often conducted near water wells the Borana belief system attaches to pre-milking grazing at dawn during during dry seasons when the rains wells. the rainy season when there is an are coming late, or after the rainy Haroo (ponds) abundance of fresh grass. season, to officially open the water wells for public use. When performed Like the tulaa wells, ponds are dug This is a type of dhibaayyuu before the rain comes, it is a prayer in different parts of the gammoojjii performed near water wells by for rain, and when it is after rainy lands of the Borana. In the vicinity of members of the community and season, it is to give thanks for the many Borana rural villages, there is at gadaammojjii ritual villages. abundant water in the well and so least one pond. It is originally initiated Fororee is a dhibaayyuu prayer that it will be blessed. Thus, the song by a man either to obstruct ongoing recited by members while walking Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 111 flood-water while raining or to build officially closed until to the next dry Pasture management a dam along a dry river during non- season. Closing and opening of a rainy time, in order to catch water pond is conducted through consensus Borana clans are not territorial based. during the rainy season. Once a reached at community meetings. They are rather distributed throughout pond is initiated, Borana have well- Boranaland. Thus, pasture in any part Before the opening of the ponds, established customary systems for of Boranaland is communal property. a pastoral coordination meeting is the expansion of the pond. That is, That is why even though the Borana summoned to identify the number of forcing any user of that pond to dig of Kenya and of Ethiopia are mobile, beneficiaries of the ponds. If there the pond for expanding its capacity they can easily manage to share this are many ponds, those that will be while s/he is using it for domestic scarce resource in a harmonious reserved for dry herds (herd units or livestock purpose. Likewise, the manner. During the field research, a that consist of bulls, oxen, young users are not only pushed to expand large number of Kenyan Borana and cows and dried cows usually kept the pond, but they are also obliged others on the Ethiopian side took their at satellite camps), lactating herds to remove sediment that enters the livestock inside the Areero Forest and (herd units consisting of milking cows pond as a result of runoff. Disobeying its adjacent areas for grazing. The and one or two bulls kept at the main this rule is failure to maintain access Kenyan Borana told the researchers camps) or and domestic consumption to water from any source throughout that other Kenyan Borana have are located, or the number of Boranaland. been allowed to graze in Mooyyale- beneficiaries allocated to each pond Ethiopia, Dilloo, Dhaas, Yaaballo, The pond maker and his extended is identified. If there is one pond in the Dirree, Miyoo and Taltallee Districts family are the konfii owners, and the area of the main camps, the dry herd of the Borana Zone, as pre-arranged ownership of the pond belongs to is usually allowed one or two watering with the Ethiopian Borana. the pioneer`s clan. Most ponds are days. Then they have to move to named after the person who initiates another place with another water However, harvesting of this resource them, whereas some are named source. In other words, that pond will has its own common rules to be after certain clans. This latter naming be reserved for lactating cows and followed. Any Borana who wants to usually happens when several ponds domestic consumption. join other fellow Borana residing in are established at a specified site by another territory of Boranaland due to When the amount of water in the pond individuals of the same clan. various factors has to communicate goes down substantially, and the rainy with the existing residents A caretaker of a pond can be from time is not close, another pastoral beforehand. For instance, he sends any Borana clan who respects his coordination meeting is organized an abuuruu (an “investigator”) to own assignments and commits fairly to discuss the issue. Then the assess the availability of pasture to his duties and responsibilities in remaining water is reserved for small and water, the physical and health accordance to customary laws. The livestock and domestic consumption. condition of livestock and the number caretaker is selected and dismissed According to seera-aadaa haraa of users over a new area. If the by the members of that community. (customary laws of ponds), when the condition of the new area is better Ineffective management of a pond pond is close to dry, the water that is than his residence, the man informs may result in changing the caretaker left is reserved for domestic use. the pastoral coordinating elders of at a community meeting No one the area and explains the condition of In general, an individual Borana has has the right to access a water his area and the need to move to the the right to get access to any water source without the knowledge of the new area. Borana customary use of source of the Borana in the name of caretaker. pasture allows a new-comer to share being Borana. But there are rules that pasture resources in any territory Although any Borana has the right to enable some people to claim priority of Boranaland. But what matters is get access to water from a pond of his use rights. For instance, if the amount that the prior settlers are responsible fellow Borana, there are some special of water in a source is getting low, the to decide where the new-comers modalities to be taken into account. livestock of the gadaa councilors should be settled. This is because in Since ponds do not have natural (incumbent and previous ones), any residential unit, there are areas springs that feed them all the time, ritual leaders, customary healers, reserved for small stock, wet and dry the Borana have special rules for blacksmiths and other respected seasons grazing, and satellite and the management of the water of the persons in society are given priority main camps (Boku, 2000). ponds. For instance, when rainwater use rights. Others must move to comes into the ponds, there is plenty another source. This is mainly Like water management, when the of groundwater available from other because these people often provide amount of pasture is declining due to means. Thus, ponds are fenced and free services to the community. a long dry season or overharvesting 112 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

by a high concentration of livestock towns (Oba, 2013). These settlements In addition to firewood collection, on a grazing unit, the Borana usually resulted in deforestation. In line with the urban residents introduced organize a community meeting in this, Taddesse Berisso (1995) states logging of forest trees, particularly order to let the dry herds, together that the objectives of the existence juniper trees, for house construction with other herds, move to another of towns in the conquered areas of in towns in the Borana zone. As location. southern Ethiopia were as follows: urban centres are expanded in many Borana places, logging of forest trees Impact of development interventions Menilek`s policy upon conquering and commercializing of them are on customary resource management an area in the south was to increasing. In addition, urban dwellers establish garrison towns at and poor peri-urban immigrants This topic deals with various intervals throughout the region. development interventions and their with agricultural backgrounds have These towns housed soldiers commenced making farmlands inside impacts on customary resource needed to maintain control of management systems of the Borana the forests. This unwise exploitation of the region, along with officials forests has brought about degradation Oromo during successive Ethiopian such as tax collectors, judges regimes. The Borana Oromo were and deforestation of forestlands in and local governors. His effort the vicinity of these settlements. In conquered and incorporated into to promote urbanization was the Ethiopian State by the army line with this, Bishaw (2008) reports motivated by military and political the main causes of deforestation in of Menelik II in the 1890s (Borbor factors and, therefore, the Bulee, interview, 4 February 2010; Ethiopia are expansion of agricultural development of towns was not a land, overgrazing, firewood collection, Bassi, 2010 and Oba, 2013). Before genuine drive to build an urban this incorporation, the Borana gadaa logging of poles for house construction system. Consequently, his effort and increased populations. system was an independent system did not aim to create cities that that governed the people and their were economically viable; rather State structures territory. it left a legacy whereby a new Gadaa had been the only governance Following the conquest, each type of economically oriented institution of the Borana Oromo successive Ethiopian government has urban system was superimposed before Boranaland was conquered established its own structures and on the traditional structure. and incorporated into the Ethiopian superimposed them on the Borana These towns were thus highly state under Menelik II. Under the customary institutions of resource dependent on the exploitation of gadaa system, there were, and still management. Among other things, the peasant produces for their are, several structured institutions at urbanization, state structures, and survival and on the surrounding different units of Borana territories. pastoral development programmes forests for firewood and wood for It was through the manifestation of and policies interfered with Borana construction. Since there were these governance structures that all systems and institutions. Since these no policies to regulate forest use, affairs of the Borana, including social, actions did not consider the local towns had been, and still are, a political, economic and ritual issues, context for managing people and their threat to the surrounding forests. used to be regulated. resources, they caused tremendous As so far discussed, Borana value changes in socio-cultural aspects and However, Amae (2005) states that their forestlands as sacred grounds the environment of the Borana (Boku after the Menelik conquest, the and as such they have norms and and Irwin, 2003; Bassi, 2010; Oba, gadaa lost its government status at systems to control these lands. But 2013). the national level and subsequently the highland immigrants, as well as was relegated to the Borana Oromo the conquering army of Menelik, did Urbanization “traditional” institution in the eyes of not have the same value to control historians, politicians, anthropologists Many of the old Borana towns, such use of forested areas. Therefore, they and sociologists. Despite this, as Nageelle-Booranaa, Yaaballo, created new exploitation systems the Borana Oromo still elect their Meegga, Mataa-Gafarsaa and inside the forests. These systems customary leaders through the gadaa Hiddii Lolaa, are located inside the caused deforestation and obstructed system every eight years. However, Borana forest systems. Boku and access to ceremonial grounds and Legesse (2000) suggests that the Irwin (2003) note that these towns other forest resources for local roles of the gadaa institution are were established as garrisons for communities. For instance, in and eroding over time due to colonization the conquering army of Menelik. This around Mataa-Gafarsaa, Meegga, pressures, though its functions are conquest was followed by settlement Yaaballo and Nageelle towns there still active among the Borana Oromo. of immigrants from the Ethiopian are clusters of water sources that the highlands in and around the garrison Borana were obstructed from using. Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 113

The imperial period (1890s-1974) of the qaalluu lineage”) because the community level were to assign and power of qaalluu is hereditary and collect taxes, deal with conflicts and The Borana were subjugated by resembled the imperial system of the handle the election of customary Menelik II’s army and incorporated Ethiopian state (the power of balabat leaders, including the gadaa into the Ethiopian state during the was likewise hereditary). Whereas councilors. However, the election of gadaa period of Liiban Jaldeessaa the traditional gadaa system elected gadaa councilors and the governing whose term of office runs from 1889 their leaders and a person`s term of of various institutions at lower levels to 1897 (Borbor Bule, interview, office changed every eight years; this were mainly the authority of the 2010). Immediately following the was considered inconvenient by the gadaa institution rather than the incorporation, the state established imperial rulers. qaalluu institution. its own structure which was quite different from the Borana structure. The state structures working in the Even though they were assigned Oba (2013) states that Borana community were the balabat, the by the state structure, many of the governance power was shared inderasee, which is corrupted by the community leaders of those times equally among the two major moieties Borana as andarasee, the qoroo were elderly people who had good of Borana, Sabba and Goona. The and the harka. The balabat is a high knowledge of the values and norms of Qaalluu of Odituu (goona) and the post given to very few people who customary systems. Thus, customary Qaalluu of Karrayyuu (sabbo) were represent the central government at resource management systems in given the Ethiopian title of balabat the community level. Andarasee is a various geographical units, such (an imposed system of the empire). post given to those who represent the as the ollaa, reera, madda and Accordingly, under this newly imposed balabat in a certain geographical unit. dheeda, of Boranaland were to system, Annaa Boruu of Odituu and Qoroo is a lower post than balabat some extent running along customary Geedoo Jiloo of Karrayyuu and which is appointed by the government systems. But this does not mean their descendants represented the to govern one or two maddas. Harka that there was no state intervention Borana. is a lower post that represents the in customary systems of resource qoroo in his absence. management. For instance, Moluu Borana informants assert that the Soraa and Moluu Guyyoo narrate state gave representation of the During those days, the main roles the following case: Borana to the warra qaalluu (“people of the state representatives at

Case-3

The Areero District governor of the imperial time was a Borana, belonging to the Digaluu-Eemmajii subclan of the Digaluu clan of sabbo moiety. He had a car and many herding units of cattle.

He controlled the management of all Qaamphee Diidoo, of the Warr-jiddaa the Areero Forest uniformly dried up water wells found in the Areero Forest, clan which has an inter-clan belief for some time. Finally, the governor which belonged to the coqorsa owner relationship (sunsuma) with the owner himself confessed his fault and went of Digaluu-Tiittii, another subclan of clan, to access the Areero wells. Then to Qaamphee`s residence carrying the Digaluu clan. both moved to other Borana water cultural objects according to Borana sources, outside of the district. custom to request forgiveness. He assigned water caretakers only Qaamphee accepted the request and from his own subclan and monopolized Thereafter, since this rule breaks the the wells became full of water again. some wells to be used only by his Borana belief that allows a man free cattle and others to wash his car. One use of water from his fellow sunsuma`s The result reveals that the Borana day, he denied the previous gadaa source and that allows a gadaa leader resource management systems believe leader, Taadhotee Adii, who belongs to access water from any water that violation of the systems may harm not to a clan that owns Areero wells, and source of the Borana, all the wells of only the wrongdoer, but also nature itself. 114 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

The military period (1975-1991) respective Pastoralist Associations Boranaland. Even inter-Pastoralist with reference to their ability to take Association mobility for harvesting The military period in Ethiopia on a leadership position and their water and pasture was not allowed commenced with a proclamation of knowledge of customary systems. without showing supportive letters land reform and the ‘Development Since the formation of the Pastoralist from one`s respective Pastoralist through Cooperation Campaign” of Associations, non-governmental Association. Thus, these conflicts 1975-1976 that intended to transform and government development hindered the mobility of the Borana the old order and the oppressive programmes would reach the pastoralists to certain territories of administrative arrangements of community only through consultation their land. the imperial era (Helland, 2000). with Pastoralist Association leaders, It marked the end of the balabat without considering the potential of The period post-1991 system and the beginning of a new indigenous knowledge. The framework of external divisions territorial-based government political of Borana territories into Pastoralist structure known as the kebele, During the military regime, some Associations remains unchanged which is equivalent to the present changes were made in the election under the current administrative day Pastoralist Associations. The of customary leaders and customary structure. But the internal structures Ethiopian state has established resource management systems. and ways of assigning leaders have Pastoralist Associations since 1978, Among others, the leading role changed. For instance, Pastoralist with the specific aim of facilitating of electing customary leaders, Association leaders in different active resource management to particularly gadaa councilors, which geographical units are selected on avoid environmental damage and was snatched from the gadaa the basis of their participation in the providing services to pastoralists as leaders under the balabat system, ruling party. This is quite different cheaply and as efficiently as possible was restored to the hands of gadaa from selecting customary leaders (Helland, 1997). In Boranaland, the leaders at Gumii Gaayoo in 1980 at various territorial units based Pastoralist Associations replaced the (Borbor Bule interview, 29 January on one`s ability to manage things. customary units of land called madda 2010). Thereafter, issues pertaining Pastoralist Association leaders may (Hogg, 1993). to election of gadaa councilors were also be young people who are too fully administered by the customary immature to take leadership positions Still, this system did not incorporate leaders of the gadaa institution. at the community level, according to the customary leaders of resource Although the Pastoralist Association Borana custom. management at different units. The leaders were different people from system had executive, controlling customary leaders, in the early The role of many customary institutions and social court committees and period of this regime, resource (ollaa, reera, madda, etc.) and their other various subordinates at management at different units was leaders and the role of elderly people different administrative levels in the conducted relatively in accordance and ex-gadaa councilors have been community. Particularly, the secretary with the customary system. But, ignored through misrepresentation in of the executive committee was toward the end of this period, the the new government structure. For drawn from those who could read and divisions into Pastoralist Associations instance, the following customary write and the remaining were elderly brought about resource-based inter- structures were overlapped with people from among community Pastoralist Association conflicts parallel government structures: members. In most cases, the leaders along the imaginary borderlines of were selected by members of their various Pastoralist Associations in

Customary structure Government structure

Shanacha Gooxii

Ollaa Garee

Reera Zoonii

Madda Ganda Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 115

Ganda is an Oromo term used leader is young, a member of the a class in power. The government instead of Pastoralist Association, ruling political party and selected by his has also ignored the roles of various and zoonii in this case refers to a fellow party members at a Pastoralist lower level customary institutions cluster of villages. Garee comprises Association meeting. He represents at different units. So, this is quite about 25-29 households and gooxii his village at different affairs. One of different from the gadaa structure. is another administrative unit within the key informants was an ex-gadaa Customarily, it is not a single person garee. These government structures councilor and head of his village in or a single institution, but rather the institutionally and functionally replaced the customary way. According to his harmonization of different institutions the customary ones. This is confirmed view, he is fully consulted on the issues that constituted the gadaa system as by an extract from a statement made of his respective clan, but rarely on a whole. at an action-research workshop of the common resource management and In addition, many of the Pastoralist Borana Conserved Landscape on 22 resolving conflicts. He emphasizes that Association leaders consider July 2007, in which Yaaballo says, “… the leaders of government structures natural resources in their respective in Ethiopia there is no clear distinction at the Pastoralist Association level do administrative areas as their own between the roles and mandate of no respect customary leaders as other private property rather than communal government and the roles of customary fellow Borana do. property. For instance, some of them institutions, and that in our territory the In comparison with previous Ethiopian illegally provide farmland to private government structure is replacing the governments, the current government owners, intervene in the role of water customary structure at all levels down seems to have a positive attitude caretakers, inhabit the buffer areas to the village, and in many sectors, towards the gadaa institution, but the between two adjacent Pastoralist including the management of natural way the government is treating gadaa Associations which are not allowed to resources,” (Bassi and Adi, 2007). is eroding the customary system. For be settled, and construct private kaloos The customary structure of ollaa and its instance, from the different types of (range enclosures). Once such case is leader still exists, but the government councilors of the three mobile ritual narrated by informants to support these has established garee instead of ollaa. villages in a gadaa office, the state views, as follows: The garee has its own leader, different structure is now giving due attention from the head of the village. A garee only to a gadaa leader who is leading

Case-4 Midanuu is a buffer zone found at the border of the Halloona Pastoralist Association in the Arero District and in the middle of the Diida Haraa and Weeb Pastoralist Associations of the Yaaballo and Areero Districts, respectively.

A rich man and Pastoralist Association issue was, according to procedure, successful due to the dropping out leader from the Halloona Pastoralist reported to the gadaa, and district and of expected participants and then the Association settled in that area 10 zonal offices. His settlement has not meeting was postponed to another years earlier and established a large, yet been removed. time. Some of the elders who were private kaloo. At several community present told researchers that the On 14 January 2010, during the field meetings, the participants decided objectives of the meeting were to work, the lead author attended a to dissolve his settlement. But, after discourage inappropriate settlements pastoral coordination meeting held accepting the decision, he did not and private kaloos in Areero District. at the gadaa ritual village of Arboora. put it into practice and provided Of many cases, the above case was Unfortunately, that meeting was not groundless reasons. Finally, the included. 116 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

However, this does not mean that the gadaa structure is totally passive in managing natural resources in its environment and in settling conflicts over those resources. For instance, on 14 March 2010, the lead author also attended a meeting on an inter-Pastoralist Association resource-based conflict which was held at gadaa Arbooraa, and a summary of the case that was narrated follows:

Case- 5 Maddoo Abbameegaa is located between the Qaawaa Pastoralist Association of Areero District and the Danbalaa Baddanaa and Hiigo Pastoralist Associations of Dirree District.

Maddoo Abbameegaa is an open Pastoralist Association conflict and commercialization and change grazing area reserved for the how people tend to take the side of (Sandford, 1983, cited in Coppock, settlements of these Pastoralist their own Pastoralist Association 1994). Sandford further states a Associations. But four years earlier, without referring to customary prevailing view of some outsiders that a village from Qaawaa Pastoralist resource management systems. It the livestock of pastoralists are thought Association camped in this area. The also indicates that the gadaa structure to cause a great threat by degrading elders, past gadaa councilors and is still playing its role, regardless of the rangeland environments because of Pastoralist Association leaders from superimposition of state structures. the apparent reluctance of pastoralists the three Pastoralist Associations to market animals and destock. organized meetings and discussed Pastoral development Pastoralists constitute 12 percent of the illegal settlement of the village. programmes the total Ethiopian population and But they disagreed on the situation, The pastoralist population of the occupy the arid and semi-arid regions as members of the Pastoralist world is estimated to be 30-40 million, located at the peripheral zones of the Association with the settled village of which Africa shares about 15- country. They comprise 29 different supported its settlement and others 20 million (Sandford, 1983, cited in ethnic groups. Pastoralism provides took the opposing side. Then, the Yigezu, 1996). Yigezu also suggests direct employment and livelihood to case was reported to the gadaa that about 60 percent of the African over 7.7 million people and pastoral Arbooraa and the gadaa organized a continent is estimated to be arid and territories are home to 42 percent meeting on 14 March 2010. semi-arid areas where people depend of the national livestock population At that meeting, the gadaa councilors on pastoralism for their livelihood. (Coppock, 1994, cited in Adi, 2007). listened to both sides. After holding Regardless of their contributions Despite these contributions to the a long discussion, they persuaded to the continent’s affairs, many socioeconomic value of the country, those who supported settlement of developers have undermined pastoral very little consideration was given to the village in the open grazing reserve production systems. That is, many Ethiopian pastoral areas until the mid- that the village was not in the right past pastoral development policies 1960s (Desta, 1996). From the 1960s place and that it had to be removed set for many African pastoralist onward, many development activities from that area. They all agreed that societies were inappropriate, as have been undertaking to improve the the village must leave the area within they did not fully consider customary infrastructures of pastoral communities. two months. Finally, the incumbent resource management systems. For However, as noted above, many gadaa councilors gave a mandate for instance, researchers, policymakers development interventions in pastoral the next process to the past gadaa and developers viewed pastoralism areas of Ethiopia have not taken into councilors from both disputants. as traditional strategies for livestock production and land use so that account customary systems of resource This shows the prevalence of inter- it is an inappropriate to promote management. Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 117

Past rangeland development Pastoral development concentrations of human populations interventions of Ethiopia were based programmes in Borana areas around water points (Coppock, 1994; on the theory of “tragedy of the Oba, 1998). All these, finally, resulted commons” which advocates that As noted above, several pastoral in invasion and domination of the grazing lands are used communally, development projects were rangeland by woody species and while livestock are owned individually implemented in Boranaland to increasing human dependency on (Angassa and Adugna, 2006, and improve pastoral production systems relief and rehabilitation (Coppock, Berisso, 2006). As was already since the 1960s. First, in 1965, a pilot 1994; Hogg, 1996; Berisso, 2006 and mentioned in the theoretical project was initiated by the Ethiopian Angassa and Adugna, 2006; Oba, framework of this paper, this theory government in collaboration with 1998). These projects failed to achieve implies that every user of the USAID in the Diida Haraa Pastoralist their objectives because the planning common-pool resources has access Association of Yaaballo District. and implementation approaches to a resource, but nobody takes A second livestock development used had little participation of the care of it. It was also believed that project was funded by the World Bank local people and did not adequately pastoralists wanted to maximize their and initiated in 1973. A third major consider customary natural resource herds at the expense of communally- project in this series – called the management systems (ibid). The owned grazing lands, which resulted Southern Rangelands Development following research findings show the in land degradation. Angassa and Unit (SORDU) – operated between impacts of the above development Adugna further state that since policy- 1975 and1984 with donations from interventions. makers had preconceived concepts the World Bank and the African In Boranaland, 82.2 percent of the of settlement and ranching, they did Development Bank (Angassa and rangelands are threatened by a not adequately consider features Adugna, 2006; Berisso, 2006; Boku, combination of bush encroachment, of customary pastoralist livestock 2000; Hogg, 1996; Coppock, 1994 unpalatable forbs and shrubs. Only management, which was based on and Desta, 1996), and continued 17.2 percent of the rangelands were splitting and moving herds between until recently with funding from the free from either bush encroachment wet and dry season grazing lands. Ethiopian government. or invasion by unpalatable forbs. Bush In addition to this, Berisso (2006) The objectives of these development encroachment is in climax stages in states that ‘Unilineal Evolutionary’ and programmes were to improve the 24.1 percent of the rangelands. In 25.9 ‘Cattle Complex’ theories influenced status of animal health and bolster percent of the rangelands, changes in pastoralist-area development market outlets to effect dramatic the herbaceous layer were caused by interventions in Ethiopia, in particular, increases in cattle off-take for unpalatable forbs (Oba, 1998, cited in and Africa in general. The Unilineal domestic consumption and export. Angassa and Adugna, 2006). Evolutionary theory assumes that This was supposed to lead to higher In addition to natural population economic development advances incomes and an improved standard of growth trajectories, other factors have from hunting and gathering to living for the Borana and to enhance contributed to the rapid growth of horticulture and pastoralism and their contribution to the national human and animal populations among then to agriculture and finally to economy. The main activities of these the Borana. The most influential industrialization (ibid). In other words, programmes were construction of among these are an improvement human society develops from simple ponds, improvement of infrastructure in human health services since the to complex technologies in a unilineal (roads and livestock markets), Ethiopian revolution of 1974 and that manner. So in the case of Ethiopia, improvement of veterinary services of livestock since the introduction of pastoral economies had to develop and oppressing customary rangeland the above projects (Helland, 1991). toward agricultural production. burning systems to control bush invasion. Although the proposed ideas According to the Cattle Complex Gurroo Diidaa, a Borana elder, for live animal off-take for domestic theory, pastoralists possess vast confirms that the above development consumption and export were not herds for cultural and social values interventions have brought radical practically carried out, the remaining instead of economic and ecological changes to the Borana rangeland activities were indeed implemented. rationales (ibid). The Borana ecology and their pastoralist way of rangeland has been one of the Ironically, although spending millions life. He narrates the following case areas in which pastoral development of dollars on these programmes, the from his experiences on the impacts programming has been focused in the net impacts of these interventions of development interventions in the country. were larger populations of cattle Diida Haraa Pastoralist Association of that degraded the land and high Yaaballo District of Borana zone: 118 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Case-6 Diida Haraa Pastoralist Association is situated 30 km east of Yaaballo District. It covers large areas along the Areero- Yaaballo road.

It was one of the prominent wet He concludes by noting that the traditional pastoralist modes of season grazing areas of the livestock of inhabitants of Diida Haraa production, but rather to transfer it to Borana rangeland before the above now must depend on other grazing agricultural modes of production in interventions. Gurroo remembers that areas of Boranaland, particularly the order to sedentarize the pastoralists. Diida Haraa used to be a home for Goomolee area (part of the Oobada Furthermore, the rangelands used many wild animals, such as ostrich, Forest) and the Areero Forest. This is by the newly-established permanent oryx, hartebeest, gazelle, zebra, creating pressure on the forests and ponds were overstocked, leading to lion and so on. In the course of the competition over forest resources severe ecological degradation (Oba, SORDU development programme, between Borana and their neighbours, 1998). eight big ponds were built in as well as intra-Borana competition. According to a Borana Zone Water Diida Haraa. Then, many Borana Resource Development officer, pastoralists who resided around the Water development programmes the establishment of motorized tulaa wells came and settled around in Borana areas water points is to attain the national the ponds. He also remembers that Many water development consensus for water development that the SORDU programme held annual programmes have been implemented calls for potable water to be available vaccination campaigns for livestock in Boranaland by the Borana within 1.5 kilometres in rural areas and constructed many roads. themselves and by government of the country. This is, however, not The veterinary campaigns eliminated agencies and non-governmental in line with Borana customary water the outbreak of cattle diseases, such organizations. The focus here is development systems that consider as rinderpest, lung disease and on those which have had a serious the various territorial settlement units. others. The construction of the ponds effect on customary resource Customarily, Borana can have at increased the number of livestock and management systems. Accordingly, least 30-40 kilometres between two human populations became sedentary machine-built ponds and motorized permanent water sources, particularly around the ponds. He further recalls bore-holes established by the tulaa wells, to incorporate the effective that many of the settlements currently government and non-governmental management of pastureland into the found in Diida Haraa have been there organizations are the major ones. water management system. for about 30 years. Consequently, Development of big ponds was Management of these new water wild animals, like lion, oryx and aimed to reduce concentration of points is quite different from the Borana hartebeest, are extinct in the area. populations around dry season customary systems of water use. In Overpopulation caused rangeland grazing areas by establishing water the Borana custom, ownership rights degradation that resulted in bush ponds in wet season grazing areas. to water points are given to identifiable invasion. He bitterly remembers that This policy overlooked the seasonal clans, under which their management in the past, inhabitants of Diida Haraa mobility of pastoralists due to the is supervised. No user pays for access had a hard time finding enough thorny arid nature of their environment that to the customary water ponds. But bush for fencing livestock enclosures helps with effective management of access to the motorized water points is and collecting firewood. But now, the rangeland degradation. As Berisso a pay-for-use system. This payment is disadvantageous bush has invaded (2006) suggests, the implication collected for the purchase of gas-oil and all areas and displaced grass. of this policy was not to build on Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 119 replacement of spare parts. Besides, development programmes in pastoral affected by the drought. According to because the newly-established water areas of Boranaland, it will be feared informants from this resettlement, they points have never belonged to any that the impacts of this project will be were resettled there because the forest Borana clan, developers usually the end of pastoralism in Boranaland. is wet enough for crop production, and handed them over to the respective to this day they continue to cultivate Pastoralist Association leader. Then Farmland expansion activities in inside the forest. But this has had the Pastoralist Association leader Borana areas negative effects on the forestlands. formed a committee or caretakers The Borana predominantly depend According to a forestry worker at Areero who closely supervised the systems on a livestock economy and their District, the density of the forest areas under his management. Since this livelihood and sources of wealth are adjacent to this settlement is getting system did not link to customary water traditionally measured by the number thinner and thinner due to illegal logging management systems, the water points of cattle available (Boku and Oba, of commercialized timber. established by developers usually 2010). However, crop cultivation has According to Borana customs, however, failed to achieve their objective. In been expanding in pocket areas of the bottomlands are usually reserved line with this, Watson (2003) narrates the semi-humid zones of Boranaland for grazing of small livestock and the hereunder the case she quoted from a since the Menelik conquest. The forestlands are reserved for dry season development worker in Borana Oromo introduction of agriculture commenced grazing. Moreover, cutting down of of Ethiopia: when Menelik`s soldier-settlers and big trees and cultivating crops along Interviewer: What does it mean highland immigrants settled around the the forests edges are in contradiction when you say you work with garrison towns (Helland, 2000). Helland to Borana customary law for forest ‘the community’? states that much of the agricultural resource management and doing so, land around these towns belongs to in the past, used to be stopped through Development worker: We the descendants of these settlers. the enforcement of customary law. For support traditional institutions He further states that farming is also instance, Oba (1996) states that many and organizations like the practiced by neighbouring groups, such Borana violated these customs and ‘gadaa.’ Peasant Associations as the Konso and the Burji, who settled started cultivating in the forest; then were imposed during the Derg in Boranaland. The Borana informants Daawwee Gobboo, a gadaa leader regime (1974-1991) and bypass confirm that much of the farmland at the (1697-1705), organized a group of people traditional institutions and the foot of the Areeroo Mountains belongs to punish those who had cultivated in elders…They cause problems to town dwellers that originally came the forest by burning their crops and and make people destitute... from other areas of the country. customary leaders, like the hayyuus There is evidence to show (gadaa councilors), were strangled. that ‘tradition’ still works. For The informants also said that the Ethiopian example, the traditional deep government has been implementing crop After all, agriculture in Boranaland is wells are still working, whereas production policies in Borana pastoral unsustainable due to the aridity of the the modern ones are mostly areas for rural development programmes land. According to the Borana elders, broken. since the downfall of the imperial regime. those Borana who practice agriculture Today, those Borana who reside around might benefit from its production once Moreover, there is a huge ongoing the forests and along the bottomlands in six years due to the unreliable rainfall. water development project being run by have picked up agricultural practices to For this reason, farmland is considered the Oromia Water Enterprise Agency diversify their livelihoods. an issue of rangeland encroachment, in pastoral areas of Boranaland. The Establishment and consolidation of competition over resources and plan is to establish motorized bore- villagization and resettlement schemes deforestation. Regarding farmland holes at different points. Then these were among the Ethiopian government’s expansion, Coppock (1994) suggests systems will be joined together through strategies implemented to strengthen that about 2-3.4 percent of Boranaland pipelines and cover about 2,000 the socioeconomic structures of rural is under cultivation. Grain per capita in kilometres. Some Borana informants people since the socialist revolution of farm households met only 26 percent have little knowledge about this project, 1974 (Berisso, 1995). As one of these of the annual requirement per person, whereas others are reluctant to share programmes, the government resettled equivalent to three to four months of their views on it. Is it really the project about 300 households at Bokdha, self-sufficiency per household (Boku aimed to improve pastoralism or to inside the Areero Forest, following the and Oba, 2010). Not only has crop encourage sedentarism? Not clear. severe drought of 1984-1985. These cultivation not enabled self-sufficiency, If the objectives and implementation resettlers were drawn from different according to Boku and Oba, but it has of this project do not consider the areas of Boranaland that were highly also resulted in fragmented grazing reasons for failure of past water lands. 120 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Case-7 Badhaasa is a part of the Areeroo Forest found in the Haroo Diimtuu Pastoralist Association of Areeroo District.

Badhaasa was where the mobile district administrator settled the case ritual village of Gadaa Arbooraa according to Borana custom. (Yaa`a Guyyoo Gobbaa) was situated This portrays how the expansion of during the field work for this study. farmland inside forests hinders the On 14 January 2010, the lead author settlement of the mobile ritual villages attended a meeting at the Areeroo which, according to Borana customs, District Administrator’s Office at which reside in the forests. It also reveals the members of the ritual village of how the change from a communal land Arboora were accused by people from tenure system to private ownership Haroo Diimtuu because their cattle creates conflict among communities. entered the accusers` farmlands. The

The Participatory Forest namely Negeelle, Areero and Development Bureau. During an early Management Project Yaaballo Forests. The project was phase-out of the project, SOS Sahel implemented from 2003-2007. handed over the Participatory Forest Before the incorporation of Management Project groups to the Boranaland into the modern Ethiopian According to an SOS Sahel field relevant government offices. After state, the Borana managed their worker in Areero, under the project, the government had done a structural forests using customary leaders many forest management groups adjustment for forest management, based in various territorial units. were formed at different administrative the agreements were also made After the incorporation, Boranaland, levels: community, madda level between local communities and the together with its resources such as elders, block level elders, district level District Forest and Wildlife Enterprise the forests, was nationalized. At that elders , justice, police and district Office. point, management of forests was administration officers; Pastoralist taken away from communities and Association level development agent, The Areero District Forest and given to forest guards assigned by elders and gadaa representatives) Wildlife Enterprise expert informed a government agency. Under this and the General Assembly. These the researchers that the approaches arrangement, overexploitation of management groups were formed used to organize technical training for forest resources was accelerated due after a stakeholder’s analysis had the Participatory Forest Management to urbanization, selling of timber and been undertaken and were created group members had some problems. firewood, and expansion of farmlands by building upon customary resource For instance, during the life span of the and settlements inside the forest. management systems. project, when training and quarterly forest management meetings were It was under this pressure that SOS The Participatory Forest Management organized, the participants were Sahel, a national non-governmental Project groups received a legal paid incentives by SOS Sahel. That organization, developed a certificate in the form of an agreement incentive enabled the groups to Participatory Forest Management made between the communities and establish fair management systems Project. This project took place in their respective District Pastoral and, hence, the forest condition was three national forests of Boranaland, Development Office, on behalf of improved during the life of the project. the Oromia Agriculture and Rural Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 121

After the phase-out of the project, the from Pastoralist Association on devastated forests in the country, government faced a budget shortage administrations reduces the desire of the Areero District Forest and Wildlife when organizing monitoring meetings. some members of the Participatory Enterprise expert replied that what The groups were reluctant to attend Forest Management groups to matters is how to utilize forests; not meetings without payment. expose illegal extractors of timber the existence of the organization. and other misuses of the forest. Thus, He added that the objectives of If a member of a Participatory Forest sustainability of the Participatory this agency are to manage and Management group observes illegal Forest Management system is conserve existing forests, enhance exploitation inside the forest, the under question unless other options development of government and member reports to the group in the are formulated. Finally, the current community forests, maximize income, respective area. If the case cannot condition of the forest is far below utilize forests in a sustainable way, be resolved at that level, it will be the status of when the Participatory and expand activities for social and taken to court. But the court system Forest Management Project was economic development. does not work effectively for forest operational. management. Pastoralist Association Nuuraa Diidaa, a Borana elder, leaders also interfere in the role of When asked about the paradox narrates how state interventions Participatory Forest Management behind the name of the new forest affected the forest resources in groups. Thus, ineffective judgments agency, Oromia Forest and Wildlife Boranaland as follows: of the courts and interference Enterprise, which was established

Case-8 Immediately following the incorporation of the Borana into the modern Ethiopian state, some Somali pastoralist groups and others from the highlands of Ethiopia who are culturally different from the Borana came to reside in Boranaland.

As urbanization increased, these to use the forest ground for crop Only very recently, after a significant immigrant people started to cultivation. portion of the forest is gone, has the overexploit the forests for the selling of government started a discourse about Nuuraa bitterly remembers the timber and firewood to town dwellers. participatory forest management deforestation processes as follows: On top of this, the government systems. The local people explain “Forest resources I used to know administration ignored the customary this with a proverb: “Waraabessa in the Borana forests during my resource management systems and dabree sareen dutti” (A dog barked early childhood had gone away: nationalized land ownership and its after a hyena had left.) In summary, Lattuu Liiban (’chat’ of Liiban) which resources, particularly the forests. the main causes of deforestation was a natural forest only found in Since customary institutions were are commercialization of timber and Manquubsaa Forest system, and denied their power of protecting firewood, weakening of customary used on gadaa ceremonial occasions; the forests, overharvesting of forest institutions and cultivation inside the rhino, buffalo, elephants, giraffe and resources gradually increased. For forestlands. so on are now extinct from our land.” instance, some people were licensed 122 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Conclusions and management, while the state leadership in Borana.” Research structure provides technical Report, Addis Ababa University. recommendations support, in order to come up with Bassi, M. (2010). “Customary institutions a viable state of sustainable forest Conclusions in contemporary politics, Borana Zone, management that benefits all. Oromia, Ethiopia,” Research Paper, Forest resources are the collective To control population pressures, African Studies Centre, University of property for the entire Borana and measures like family planning Oxford. thus, each member of the society for humans and livestock, early is responsible to manage them. Bassi, M. (1994). “Gada as an integrative off-take and limits for livestock Forestlands were and continuing to factor of political organization,” in populations in line with land be the sacred grounds for the Borana Borkensha, D. (ed.), 1994, A River of holding capacities ought to be people. The Borana holy shrines Blessings: Essays in Honor of Paul set, along with improved health and ritual places for the mobile ritual Baxter. New York: Syracuse University. services. villages are found inside the forests. Bassi, M. (2005). Decisions in the For the sake of belief, any kind of Settlement and crop production Shade: Political and Juridical Processes mistreating the forest resources inside the forests which leads to among the Oromo-Borana. Asmara: is culturally prohibited. Thus, the overutilization of forest resources Red Sea Press, Inc. Borana belief systems attached to should be discouraged. forest lands are more effective than Bassi, M. and Sora Adi (2007). “The anything else for sustainable forest Participatory development Borana conserved landscape.” management. approaches should be employed Action-Research Workshop Report, for development projects, GPDI and SOS SAHEL, collaboration However, development interventions starting from the identification with GEM-CON-BIO (CENESTA). such as urbanization, state of the problem, to planning, structure and pastoral development implementation, and through to Bassi, M. and Boku Tache (2008). programmes and policies ignored the the monitoring and evaluation “The Borana conserved landscape, customary institutions of resource phase. Ethiopia,” in Amend T., Brown J., management and used the top-down Kothari A., Phillips A. and Stolton S. development approach. 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Tache, Boku and Ben Irwin (2003). poverty driving Borana herders in Watson, E. E. (2003). “Examining the ‘Traditional institutions, multiple southern Ethiopia to crop cultivation?” potential of indigenous institutions stakeholders and modern perspectives Department of International Environment for development: A perspective from in common property: Accompanying by and Development Studies (Noragric), Borana, Ethiopia,” Development and change within Borana pastoral system.” Norwegian University of Life Sciences. Change, Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 287-309. Securing the Commons, Working UK: Blackwell Publishing. Watson, E. E. (2001). “Developing Paper No. 4, IIED, SOS Sahel. institutions in post-conflict situations: Yigezu, Tamene (1996). “A case study Tache, Boku (2000). ”Individualizing Preliminary research findings from with particular reference to the Borana the commons: Changing resource Borana, Ethiopia,” in Natural Resource pastoralist system in Ethiopia,” in Sue tenure among Borana Oromo of Management in Ethiopia, proceedings Edwards and Tafesse Mesfin (eds.) Southern Ethiopia.” MA Thesis in Social of the workshop organized by the Forum 4-6 February 1993, Conference on Anthropology, Addis Ababa University. for Social Studies in Collaboration with Pastoralism in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa: the University of Sussex, 9 February MoA. Tache, Boku and G. Oba (2010). “Is 2001. pp. 105-136. Addis Ababa. Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 125 126 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia Annexes Annex 1: The Borana Kinship Systems The Borana Moiety Systems

Borana

1.Goona Moiety II. Sabbo Moiety

a.Fulleelle b.Harooressa

1. Daaccituu 1. Arusii 1. Digaluu

2. Maccituu 2. Hawaxxuu 2. Maxxaarrii

3. Odituu 3. Qarcabduu 3. Karrayyuu

4. Galaantuu 4. Halchaayyaa

5. Siraayyuu 5. Warr-Jiddaa

6. Bachituu 6. Malliyyuu

7. Koonnituu 7. Danbituu

8. Noonituu Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 127

Annex 2: Glossary of local terms This list does not include words used once in the paper and their meanings given in brackets. The meanings of the following words are according to contextual usage. Aadaa custom, tradition Abbaa father, head, owner Adaadii Shallow water wells Adulaa senior gadaa councilors Baddaa Forestland Balabat local state representative during the Imperial period Coqorsa ownership title given to certain Borana clans over a portion of land with its water sources Gadaa generational classes assuming political, ritual and economic responsibilities Gadaammojjii senior elders (ninth gadaa grade) perform special rite of passage that enables them retired from political leadership GammoojjiI dryland Gumii assembly of multitudes Hayyuu gadaa councilor Kaloo pastureland enclosed for calves Konfii digging stick of a deep well used by an initiator of that well at the first step of digging; it symbolizes ownership title of water source. Qaalluu hereditary ritual leader come down from heaven Raaba can be raaba doorii (senior raaba, sixth gadaa grade) and raaba didiqqaa (junior raaba, fifth gadaa grade). It is one of the mobile ritual villages at preparatory grade to succeed the incumbent gadaa leader Seera customary law Sunsuma reciprocal respect and fear among certain Borana clans Tulaa deep water wells Yaa`a residences of mobile ritual villages Yuuba residences outside of mobile ritual villages 128 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Annex 3: Community conserved areas and indigenous conservation (Source: Boku and Bassi, 2008.) 8. An assessment of the land tenure system and conflict resolution: Tendaho Irrigation Project case study, Lower Awash Basin, Ethiopia Desale Kidane16, Amanuel Mekonnen17 and Demel Teketay18

ABSTRACT Keywords: agropastoralist, Asaita District, conflict resolution mechanisms, Dubti District, land ownership

This study was conducted to assess and pastoralists have occurred over cattle inside the sugarcane farms and the land tenure system and conflict the last decade in Dubti District. setting fire to the sugarcane crops. resolution mechanisms related to the The root causes of the conflicts are Limited participation of pastoralists Tendaho Irrigation Project, in Asaita inappropriate land compensation in decision-making processes and and Dubti Districts, northeastern payment systems, alienation of the project itself has led to the Ethiopia. Questionnaires, semi- pastoralists and enclosing of their damage of the farms and properties. structured interviews, focus group grazing land, inequitable share of As a solution, social committees discussions and field observations compensation payments among drawing from among clan leaders, were used to collect data. A total of community members and damage pastoralists, district officials and the 70 respondents were sampled for the on the state irrigation farms caused court system have been formed to questionnaire survey. According to by agropastoralists. Consequently, resolve the conflicts. The government key informants, 14,532 hectares are many disagreements between the is working with the committees currently irrigated by the state. The local community and the state and and local authorities to ensure the land tenure system in Dubti District damages to expensive irrigation participation of pastoralists at every is based on state ownership, while equipment have occurred. Pastoralists stage of the project and to strengthen in Asaita District land is owned both have frequently expressed their existing community-based peace- privately and communally. Recurrent grievances by diverting irrigation building processes. conflicts among the state, clan leaders canal water to the desert, letting their

16 Desale Kidane (MSc) Watershed Management, Samara University, Semera, Ethiopia, email: [email protected]. 17 Amanuel Mekonen (MA) Environment and Development, Samara University, Semera, Ethiopia, email: [email protected]. 18 Demel Teketay, Botswana College of Agriculture, Department of Crop Science and Production, Private Bag 0027, Gaborone, Botswana. Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 129

Introduction arise from differences in perceived communities and the government priority of management objectives to aggressively pursue irrigation Millions of rural poor people in between local people and central development (Bekele, 2010). developing countries depend on governments. natural resources for their livelihoods. The Tendaho Irrigation Project, which The effective use of these resources Since the middle of the twentieth is found within the lower Awash to raise up from poverty often century, the Afar National Regional River Basin, northeastern Ethiopia, depends on the institutions that State has been an arena of natural is one of the major large-scale govern the resources and the land resource-based conflict between local development projects designed to tenure systems (Dick-Meinzen and communities and the state, mainly achieve the government’s strategic Gregorio, 2004). Land tenure systems over the control of irrigable land and policies of Agricultural Development are diverse and complex, and can water resources (Bondestam, 1974, Led Industrialization (ADLI) and the be formal or informal, statutory or Said, 1997, Aredo, 1999, Rettberg, Growth and Transformation Plan. The customary, permanent or temporary, 2010). In particular, the fertile lands Tendaho Irrigation Project is expected private or of common property. Thus, along the Awash River have been to supply the raw material required many national and local systems a bone of contention between Afar for sugar factories, which are going to are made up of a multiplicity of over clans, agropastoralists and the state. be established under the Growth and lapping tenure systems that govern With the establishment of large- Transformation Plan. Apart from this the rights of people to use, control scale cotton and sugarcane farms by macro-scale development objective and transfer land (IFAD, 2008). Such successive Ethiopian governments of the Tendaho Irrigation Project, it multiple and overlapping tenure since the 1960s, traditional communal will also play a large role in reducing systems have implications on the grazing areas have been transformed unemployment, poverty and food livelihoods of local people associated for commercialized irrigation insecurity, facilitating the permanent with natural resource-based conflicts. agriculture and pastoralists have settlement of nearby pastoralists and This is due to the fact that land tenure been increasingly displaced (Kassa, promoting the supply of agricultural rights are embedded within the broad 2001). products and other cash crops that spectrum of human rights and the further enhance the successful Reducing poverty and food livelihoods of people. Issues of food linkage between agriculture and deficiency by improving agricultural security, sustainable livelihoods, industry. Hence, the project is hoped productivity occupies a central place coping strategies and environmental to be a promising development in the strategies of the Ethiopian security are closely linked to land for nearby agropastoralists and government. The government has tenure systems (ECA, 2004). pastoralists (local communities) and committed itself to the reduction According to Dick and Nkonya (2005), the country at large. of poverty by half through the land tenure rights are directly related endorsement of the Millennium Even though its importance is to efficiency and equity. Hence, Development Goals (MoWR, 2001, uncontested, this project has been tenure insecurity results in resource- MoWR, 2002). Expecting a great under continuous pressure from based conflicts. If these conflicts are degree of agricultural production natural resource-based conflicts not properly addressed, they can intensification under formerly rain- between the state and local clan escalate into violence, disrupt projects fed dryland farming systems, the leaders and agropastoralists due to and undermine livelihoods. government now pursues irrigation contested land tenure right issues In Africa, as in many parts of the development as one of the strategic and unfair distribution of benefits and developing world, centralized control interventions in achieving the compensation costs associated with over natural resources persists. Millennium Development Goals, as the project farmland (Bondestam, In some cases, trends point more well as the recently declared Growth 1974, Said, 1997, Aredo, 1999, towards centralized consolidation and Transformation Plan. Hence, Rettberg, 2010). According to of the right to use and allocate over recent years, tremendous GebreMichael (2011), the success of valuable resources, such as land, efforts, involving huge financial and a large-scale irrigation development water, wildlife and timber (Dick and labour investments, are underway project like Tendaho depends highly Nkonya, 2005). Due to this, natural to promote large-, medium- and on the absence of conflicts related to resource-based conflicts between small-scale irrigation schemes. The land tenure and the benefit sharing local groups and other more powerful current Tendaho, Kessem, Fentale derived from the project as well as land actors, including state agencies and and Koga irrigation projects and compensations costs associated with private investors, remain widespread major construction projects making it. Appropriate land tenure systems across the continent and is, often, rainwater harvesting ponds are and tenure security enhances the intensifying. Furthermore, conflicts evidence of the commitment of successful management of natural 130 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

resources and reduces conflict (ECA, plain are the most important dryland Figure 1. Map showing the study 2004, Dick and Nkonya, 2005). resources in Ethiopia. areas

The overall objective of this study, The Tendaho Irrigation Project The Tendaho Irrigation Project site therefore, was to assess implications catchment area is characterized by is located within an area known as of the land tenure systems and lowland plains and is a very hot area ‘Tendaho’, which forms the centre of conflicts between the state and located in the arid zone of Ethiopia. the Afar triangle. Tendaho is a low lying agropastoralists on irrigable land The mean maximum temperature area of land, where the East African, resources in the Tendaho Irrigation ranges from about 32 to 42 °C and the Red Sea and the Gulf of Eden Project. The specific objectives were the mean minimum temperature from rift systems converge. This area is to: (i) evaluate the impact of the land about 16 to 25 °C. The hottest months filled by various types of sedimentary tenure system on conflicts among are March to October and the coldest deposits ranging from clay to gravel, pastoralists, clan leaders and the months November to February. Mean volcanic tuffs and hot spring deposits. state over the use of irrigable land monthly rainfall ranges from 4 to 58 The Pleistocene age sediments in the resources; (ii) asses the causes of mm. March, April, July and August area consist of marine and lacustrine conflict among and between the state, receive the most rainfall. Destructive clays, silts, sandstones, siltstones, clan leaders and pastoralists over high-level winds, accompanied with mudstones and conglomerates. The the use of irrigable land resources; dust, are very common every day bedrock underlying the sedimentary and (iii) assess the consequences of in the afternoon. As a result, Afar rocks are Pleistocene age flood these conflicts and conflict resolution National Regional State is one of basalts belonging to the Afar group of mechanisms. the drought-prone areas with major the Ethiopian volcanic series. shocks and hazards associated with Afar, Amhara and Tigray are the ethnic Materials and methods the recurrence of drought that disrupts groups in the study area. The majority Study area the livelihoods of communities.

The study was conducted in the Tendaho Irrigation Project catchment area, which is situated in the Lower Awash Valley of Afar National Regional State, northeastern Ethiopia. The project is located about 600 kilometres from Addis Ababa. It is situated 11° 40’ 77’’ N and 40° 57’ 49 ‘’E, between Dubti and Asaita Districts, at an altitude of 402 m.a.s.l. (Figure 1). It is a man-made dam constructed mainly for the purpose of irrigation of sugarcane plantations. The project is designed to irrigate about 60,000 hectares of land in the Dubti, Dat-Bahri, Asaita and Afambo areas for sugarcane plantations. The project is expected to benefit nearly 35,000 families living in the catchment basin through irrigated pasture development and availability of animal feed from sugarcane by- products. During the implementation process, a number of job opportunities have been created. It is fed by the Awash River, one of the longest perennial rivers originating from the highlands of Ethiopia. The vast irrigable land resources, grazing land, bushlands and the Awash River flood Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 131 of the sampled population belongs speak the local language (Afarif) were Data processing and analyses to the Afar ethnic group. Traditional recruited. Training on the content of the livestock production, rain-fed and questionnaires, including where, when To analyse the data, both qualitative irrigation agriculture and selling of and how to conduct the interviews with and quantitative data analyses tools charcoal are the principal sources of agropastoralists, was conducted in were used. The triangulation method livelihoods for most of the people. They advance for these enumerators. was employed to analyse and cultivate mainly maize, tomato, cotton, evaluate the validity of the information Secondary data were obtained from cabbage, onion and sugarcane. Cattle, collected using the different methods. the Agricultural Offices and Natural camels, donkeys, sheep and goats are The collected data was coded, entered Resource Units of the selected districts, the main livestock types raised in the into a computer, analysed, interpreted Afar Region Land Administration area. The Tendaho Irrigation Project and synthesized using software called Bureau and Tendaho Sugar Factory is initiated and run by the Sugar Statistical Package for Social Sciences Project Office. Corporation of the Federal Democratic (SPSS) Version 17. Accordingly, the assessment of land tenure systems Republic of Ethiopia. Interviews and conflicts between the state and Data collection Semi-structured interviews were local community was analysed using simple descriptive statistics. Sampling procedure and conducted with Tendaho Irrigation Project officials, clan leaders, sample size determination Results and discussion agropastoralists, development Multi-stage sampling was used agents, officials of Afar National Demographic characteristics of to select agropastoralists to be Regional State and officials of respondents interviewed. The first stage involved district land administration offices. a purposeful selection of Kebelle19 The interviews with clan leaders and The age of respondents ranged Peasant Association administrations agropastoralists were carried out between 21 and 64, with an average age under the Tendaho Irrigation Project using the local language (Afarif). At the of 40 years. The overwhelming majority sites from Dubti and Asaita Districts. beginning of each interview, the aim of the population are young, implying The second stage involved the of the interview was clearly explained that the pressure on the land is on the selection of agropastoralists from lists to informants to invoke clear and increase. The average household size of households in the selected Kebelle objective responses. This technique was five, which is similar to other areas Peasant Associations. A total of 70 enabled the tapping of indigenous in Ethiopia and Afar National Regional respondents were sampled, of whom land administration systems and State. Nearly all the households were 35 were from Asaita District and 35 state-community interactions over nucleated families. from Dubti District. Furthermore, irrigable land resources. The level of education was low as almost thirty households were purposefully all of the respondents (94.3 percent) selected based on their knowledge Focus group discussions were illiterate (Table 1). According to the as recommended by the local people Focus group discussions with individuals respondents, since the people in the study (mainly elders) and development from the Kebelle Peasant Associations, areas are agropastoralists, it is difficult to agents for the focus group discussions clan leaders, agropastoralists, expand education services for people and interviews. development agents and community with no fully permanent settlement, which Questionnaire survey representatives were carried out. The explains the high level of illiteracy. The discussions were held at the irrigable levels of education and training have A structured questionnaire (open- fields. Proportionally three focus group implications on the capability of households ended and close-ended) was discussions, one in Asaita and two in to manage their resources and receive developed to address the contributions Dubti, were made. Each group had extension services. The livelihoods of of the Tendaho Irrigation Project to 10 participants, composed of women, the respondents are dependent on crop the improvement of the livelihoods of elders and youngsters. To facilitate the cultivation, livestock production and selling agropastoralists. The questionnaire discussion under each group, a check of fuelwood and charcoal. Hence, the was tested before implementation for list was prepared in advance. The socioeconomic status of the respondents its consistency, logical flow, coding and collected data helped to triangulate the was measured in terms of the size of length, and amended. Enumerators information obtained under different agricultural land and the number of heads who had completed preparatory school approaches. of livestock they own. and college and who understand and

19 The lowest administrative unit in Ethiopia. 132 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Table 1.Education, wealth status & social position of the respondents that is short in duration and erratic. Informants noted that the majority of land in the study area is used for grazing

Variable Total by pastoralists and agropastoralists. Water resources and livestock, such as camels, goats, sheep, donkeys and Frequency Percentage (%) cattle, are the most abundant resources in the study area Education (Bekele, 2010). Pastoralists use customary systems of illiterate 66 94.3 tenure in which land is common property and managed by primary education 3 4.3 the recognized leaders of the community. Hence, individual read and write 1 1.4 ownership is either rare or unknown. Wealth status Table 3.Land use types in the study areas low 51 73 medium 17 24.3 Land use types Response Frequency Percentage(%) high 2 2.9 Irrigation agriculture Yes 54 77.1 Social position No 16 22.9 clan leaders 12 17.1 Rain-fed agriculture Yes 52 74.3 pastoralists 58 82.9 No 18 25.3 Grazing land Yes 50 71.4 Most of the respondents (73 percent) were classified No 20 28.6 as low income. The majority of the respondents were agropastoralists (82.9 percent) and the remaining are clan leaders. The low income level of the respondents was The livelihood of the people depends mainly on crop and attributed to not only the displacement of agropastoralists livestock production. Agriculture is mainly irrigation and from their grazing lands, but also to the inappropriate rain-fed, with annual crops being dominant. The major administration of compensation payments by clan leaders crops grown in these districts are maize, tomato, onion, (see the detailed explanation on the cause of conflicts). Crop cabbage, sugarcane and green pepper. Fruits, such as cultivation using irrigation agriculture, animal rearing and lemon, papaya and banana, are also cultivated (Kassa, selling of fuelwood and charcoal offer good opportunities 2001, MoWR, 2001, MoWR, 2002, Rahmato, 2007, Bekele, for improvement of the livelihoods of agropastoralists (Table 2010, GebreMichael, 2011). 2). In particular, the agropastoralists of Asaita District are Land tenure system highly dependent on irrigation agriculture to sustain their daily lives. Land tenure refers to rules and norms and institutions that govern how, when and where people access land or are Table 2. Means of income generation to improve the livelihoods of excluded from such access. Four types of land control - agropastoralists namely state, communal, joint and private - were recorded in the study areas (Table 4). The majority of irrigable land Sources of income Response Frequency Percentage(%) in Dubti District is controlled by the state and communities, Crop cultivation Yes 66 94.3 whereas private and communal control is very common No 4 5.7 in Asaita District. There are often disagreements in Dubti Animal rearing Yes 62 88.6 District. Some of the respondents noted that sugarcane No 8 11.4 farms in Dubti District are controlled jointly by the state and the communities. The average land size for individual plots Selling fuelwood Yes 40 57.1 and charcoal in the study area was three hectares, which is quite large No 30 42.9 by Ethiopian standards.

Land is public property in Ethiopia. The Constitution of the Land use types Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (December 1994) proclaimed that ‘Land is a common property of the nations, More than70 percent of the informants confirmed that there nationalities and peoples of Ethiopia and shall not be are three major land use types in the study area, which subject to sale or to other means of transfer (Bishaw, 2001, play a large role in the livelihoods of agropastoralists (Table Gebreselassie, 2006, Dercon and Ayalew, 2007, Crewett 3). According to the key informants, 14,532 hectares of et al., 2008, Elhadary, 2010). Despite the fact that land is land is irrigated by the state in Dubti District and a vast the basic source of livelihoods in rural Ethiopia, it has been amount of land is irrigated by the agropastoralists in Asaita under state ownership since the 1975 national land reform. District. Smallholder agropastoralists in Asaita District also use rain-fed agriculture, which is characterized by rainfall Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 133

Since then, there have been many land redistributions and livelihood improvement (Assegid, 2001, ECA, 2004, and readjustments in an attempt to accommodate newly Dick-Meinzen and Nkonya, 2005, Maxwell and Wiebe, forming households (Bewket, 2003). Traditionally, land is 1999).The Tendaho Irrigation Project contributes its part to a communal resource in the Afar National Regional State. the achievement of the vision of the Ethiopian government Accordingly, the clan is the lowest social unit to which to develop a green economy by providing raw materials to communal property rights over land and other natural the bio-fuel industry. Informants from Dubti District indicated resources are defined. Land is, therefore, divided among that the Tendaho sugarcane farming is owned by the state. all clans in the Afar National Regional State as a function The state is using the irrigable land resources and, in of resource potential and the dominance of a clan (either return, individual agropastoralists receive compensation in number or political power). Clan land often comprises payments from the government. The compensation strategic resources, such as grazing areas, including dry payment is made to the clan leaders through the Sugar season retreats, browsing resources and water points Corporation Authority (SCA) without the involvement of (Bishaw, 2001 and Gebreselassie, 2006). agropastoralists. However, clan leaders share very small amounts of the money with agropastoralists, and some clan Table 4. Land tenure types in the study areas leaders do not even share any money with their community members. Hence, frequent conflicts arise among the state Land tenure types Response Frequency Percentage(%) and agropastoralists and, even, between clan leaders and private Yes 48 68.6 agropastoralists. No 22 31.4 In agreement with this study, various reports from state Yes 46 65.7 elsewhere in Ethiopia (Wood, 1993, Nari, 2000, Edossa No 24 34.3 et al., 2005, Unruh, 2006, Rahmato, 2007, Kimani, 2008, communal Yes 28 60 Wakhungu et al., 2008) explained that land in the Awash No 42 40 Valley was expropriated without compensation or with only joint Yes 35 50 token compensation, which usually went into the personal No 35 50 pockets of clan leaders. Pastoralists were excluded from the sugar plantations in the Awash Valley and had no Access to land is an important issue for the majority access to either flood or irrigation waters available in of Ethiopians who, in one way or the other, depend on their locality (Koraro, 2000, Holden and Bekele, 2002, agricultural production for their income and subsistence. Rahmato, 2007). Various authors have further described Hence, the government has embarked on new measures that important seasonal grazing areas and transit corridors to promote greater tenure security and, partly, address the were closed off to herds and herders, forcing many to serious food crises that the country continues to face in spite change their herding strategies and travel longer distances of increased food aid and new agricultural development in search of pasture and water (e.g., Bogale, 2006, Gomes, programmes. These measures include land certification 2006).This in turn indicates the need to develop strategies and registration and resettlement (Assegid, 2001, Holden which support and develop pastoralist herding. and Bekele, 2002 and Rahmato, 2007). Actors in the conflicts However, as noted above, until this time, the pastoralists have Eighty percent of the respondents stated that customary land rights, which are based on a combination of agropastoralists are in conflict with the government for groups and individuals. The customary land rights system led different reasons. Around 71.4 percent of the respondents to inequitable appropriation of land compensation payments agreed there was frequent conflict between pastoralists by the clan leaders. The questions now are: how can land and clan leaders due to inequitable utilization of the tenure be secured; how can pastoralists benefit from their irrigable land compensation payments received from the land; and how can government development projects Sugar Corporation. The remaining respondents revealed proceed safely without conflicts with pastoralists? Here one that repeated conflicts happened among agropastoralists can understand that whatever strategies are selected, the due to lack of proper communication between themselves central concern of the government and the relevant bodies and the state. is to strengthen socially acceptable, economically viable and ecologically sustainable land use, which minimizes chaos The majority of the pastoralists perceived no benefits from and reduces poverty. the Tendaho Irrigation Project. However, a small number of pastoralists, especially those who have been employed Land compensation payments or participated in the project and obtained benefits through Appropriate land tenure systems and tenure security infrastructure facilities and payment of land compensation, enhances the successful management of natural resources believed that the project has multiple advantages for the 134 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

region and for the country at large. Tamrat, 2002, Tafesse, 2008). This farms caused by agropastoralists (75.7 For this reason there were conflicts has meant alienating and enclosing percent), alienation of pastoralists between pastoralists. Exposure to valuable flood land by commercial and enclosing of their grazing land social unrest poses substantial risks interests and the government and (71.4 percent) and an inequitable in the attainment of development excluding pastoralists from access to share in benefits (71 percent). The projects. Hence, for the success their traditional dry and wet season key informants also confirmed that of large-scale sugarcane farming grazing areas. the government allocated appropriate projects, such as the Tendaho Irrigation compensation payments for land As a result of these changes in land Project, smooth communication taken from agropastoralists, which use in the Awash Basin, pastoralists and mutual understanding between was delivered through the Sugar in Afar National Regional State have the local community and the state Corporation Authority. As confirmed by lost rights of access to their customary is very important. Otherwise, land the majority of informants, the lack of grazing lands, which, in turn, have owners may become mistrustful and a transparent compensation delivery severely disrupted their traditional develop suspicions about the merits system, which is the major cause of livestock management strategies. As of the project (UN, 2004, Asperen conflicts between pastoralists and a result, most communities blame and Mulolwa, 2006, Hagmann and state and clan leaders, needs to be the government for the intrusions Mulugeta, 2008, Wakhungu et al., resolved and corrected. of investors and government 2008). development projects into their The findings of this paper are in Various findings (e.g., Nari, 2000, territory and the loss of their land and agreement with a scenario reported FAO, 2003, Herrera et al., 2006, Meur water resources. The outcome has by the Food and Agriculture et al., 2006, Kimani, 2008, Adisa placed pastoralists in deep crisis. Organization of the United Nations et al., 2010, Elhadary, 2010) show According to the key informants, (FAO) (2003) that follows. An FAO that effective sharing of information many Afar clans have been forced to report explained that an international on polices, laws, procedures and move their livestock further into the development agency had provided project objectives can enhance the highlands where they have also come support to rehabilitate and improve success of programmes and projects into conflict with crop cultivators. a traditional hand-dug well controlled and reduce conflict. For instance, by a single local clan. The agency The unfair delivery system of payment villagers destroyed a water piping insisted that landowners sign legally- for land compensation, coupled with system because they believed that binding documents to ensure that the alienation of pastoralists and the system would reduce water flow the improved well was for use by all enclosing of their valuable flood plain to their community. This destruction community members. However, the grazing land and water points, has occurred despite the fact that land holding clan dissuaded others displaced pastoralists from accessing hydrological studies indicated the from using it by invoking customary such resources. This has brought system had no threat to the water law. The same is true in the case conflicts between the state and supply. The planners and project staff of the Tendaho Irrigation Project; pastoralists. need to effectively communicate this therefore, to sustain the Tendaho information to the local communities, Primary causes of conflicts Irrigation Project and expand its land to create awareness about the merit coverage and activities as planned, of the project and maintain a healthy Natural resource conflicts have been awareness must be raised about the relationship with pastoralists and a constant in human history due, in project’s merits to the locality and to agropastoralists. part, to the multiple and competing the national economy and the state demands on resources (Anantha et must give due attention to improving Rahmato (2007) also confirmed al., 2000, Warner, 2000, Humphreys, the livelihoods of pastoralists by that the alienation and enclosure of 2005, CHF, 2006, FAO, 2009). providing alternative grazing lands, extensive land and water resources Conflicts can arise if user groups appropriate compensation payments in the Awash River Basin is the exclude others from participating and secured land rights. underlying factor responsible for in natural resource utilization and the conflict in the basin today. management. Most respondents are Rate of conflicts Development here consists of large familiar with irrigated land-related The form and intensity of conflicts vary irrigation and agro-industrial schemes conflicts in their surroundings. The widely in space and over time within that rely almost exclusively on the main causes of these conflicts are any community. Conflicts manifest waters of the Awash River. According an inappropriate delivery system themselves in many ways, ranging from to a recent estimate, over 150,000 for compensation payments (82.3 breaking rules to acts of sabotage and hectares of land have been brought percent), damage on state irrigation under such development (Flintan and violence (Kimani, 2008, FAO, 2009, Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 135

Takeuchi and Marara, 2009, Elhadary, resources utilization and management. interventions. Hence, the state 2010). Almost all of the respondents Thus, involvement of pastoralists at selected 60 facilitators or social replied that conflicts over the use of every stage of any project is paramount. committee members from clan irrigable land resources have been leaders, pastoralists and district common since sugarcane farming Consequences of conflicts officials who are working as mediators began in the Tendaho area. Moreover, Conflicts arise when different interests between the state and pastoralists the majority of key informants stated and needs are incompatible or when and resolving conflicts. The court that there were frequent conflicts among the priorities of some user groups are system is also used when the intensity the state, clan leaders and district not considered in policies, programmes and severity of conflicts were beyond administrators as well as between and projects (Adams, 2001, Castro and the capacity of the facilitators. agropastoralists (64.3 percent). Some Nielsen, 2001, IFAD, 2008, Kimani, Participation of pastoralists at every of the respondents indicated that there 2008, FAO, 2009). Such conflicts of stages of the project and promoting were rare (22.9 percent) and medium interest are inevitable features of all existing community-based peacebuilding disagreement (12.9 percent) in the last societies. Currently, the scope and processes by merging customary law eight years, respectively. Though the magnitude of natural resource conflicts with formal state institutions was found Tendaho Irrigation Project contributed have increased and intensified. These convenient for conflict resolution. A case considerably to the livelihoods of the conflicts, if not addressed, can escalate study conducted by Castro and Nielsen communities of Dubti District, conflicts into violence, cause environmental (2001) revealed that co-management occurred year after year between degradation, disrupt projects and agreements among indigenous people, disadvantaged pastoralists and the undermine livelihoods. The majority state agencies and other stakeholders state. As a result of these, the majority of the key informants indicated that offer substantial promise as a way of of pastoralists of Asaita District strongly because of conflicts, agropastoralists dealing with natural resource conflicts disagree with the expansion of the project and pastoralists frequently diverted the in a participatory and equitable manner. to their district because they do not want water canal to the desert, distracting Ingles et al. (1999) and Khalkheili similar problems as experienced by expensive irrigation equipment (e.g., and Zamani (2008) also noted “the communities in Dubti District. hydro-flumes and motors) of the promotion of collaborative management The state and development agencies Tendaho Irrigation Project, let their is based on the assumption that effective should address the problem with the cattle in the sugarcane farm and set fire management is more likely to occur existing delivery system of compensation to the sugarcane crops. Key informants when local resource users have shared payments. That requires the participation and focus group discussions reported or exclusive rights to make decisions of pastoralists and promoting awareness similar consequences. about and benefit from resource use.” creation for clan leaders with regard to Tenure security, coupled with community In the case of inter-ethnic and pastoralist- developing and putting in place a fair participation in natural resource state conflicts, the design of projects and transparent compensation delivery management and utilization, could should involve all land owners (Holden system. By so doing, the rate of conflicts reduce conflicts and result in meeting a and Bekele, 2002, Koraro, 2000, Herrera may be reduced. range of local needs. A report by a World and Passano, 2006, Blench, 1996, Various studies have shown that Conservation Union Working Group Maxwell and Wiebe, 1998, Sørli et al., conflicts over natural resources occur also confirmed that “in many countries, 2005, Aredo and Ame, 2006) and efforts at various levels and involve a variety community involvement is proving to must be geared towards developing of actors (Koraro, 2000, Holden and be a cost-effective, socially-just and an integrated approach to conflict Bekele, 2002, Herrera et al., 2006, environmentally-sound approach to management (Humphreys, 2005, Opiyo Baribeau, 2012). These include conflicts stabilizing natural forests” (Gebre- et al., 2012, Grimble and Wellard, 1996, among local men and women over the Mariam,1994). Thus, participatory Tesfay and Tafere, 2004, FAO, 2006, Roe use of trees, neighbouring communities approaches have demonstrated their et al., 2009, Ikejiaku, 2009). Huggins disputing control of woodlands and value and viability. et al. (2005) and Theron (2009) also villages, and community-based Conflict management and highlighted the importance of reforming organizations, governmental and non- resolution mechanisms institutional (including policy) and governmental agencies in conflict over judicial systems related to resolving the use and management of large According to the key informants, land conflicts. Also, the management forest tracts (Castro and Nielsen, 2001, the state believed that indigenous of irrigable land resources needs to be Wood, 1993, Kimani, 2008, Wakhungu institutions and local knowledge was decentralized, flexible and consistent. et al., 2008). As noted above, conflicts of paramount importance in conflict can emerge if user groups are excluding management and should be given Conclusions and others from participating in natural due emphasis in peacebuilding recommendations 136 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

Conclusions could be achieved through genuine farmers in North Central Nigeria,” local community participation. Journal of Human Ecology 30: 1-9. Results indicated that the irrigable land of the Tendaho Irrigation Project Land compensation payments made Anantha, K. and G. Ikiara, M. Manundu, is controlled by the state, which pays by the state should be distributed to W. Nyangena and R. Sinange (2000). alternative compensation to pastoralists all community members and must “Land tenure, land use, environmental that have customary ownership rights be supported by repeat training and degradation and conflict resolution: a of the land. However, clan leaders have awareness creation about the merit PASIR analysis for the Narok District, received payments on behalf of their of the project and other livelihood Kenya.” Working Paper No 33. communities, but failed to distribute it options. International Institute for Environment fairly. Thus, pastoralists lost their precious and Development, London and Institute To secure the project’s expansion grazing land and water points without any for Environmental Studies, Amsterdam. and development (which is now compensation. Consequently, frequent irrigating about 25 hectares, but has Aredo, Dejene (1999). “Property conflicts have occurred between the state been designed to irrigate about 90 rights in land: Theory and evidence and pastoralists and, hence, irrigation hectares of land), the national land from rural Ethiopia,” Ethiopian Journal tools and equipment, water and time have tenure policy has to be implemented of Development Research 21: 1-61. been lost or wasted and project expansion by the state in the pastoral and programmes have been severely affected. Aredo, Dejene and Abdurahman Ame agropastoral areas like the tenure (2006). “Indigenous conflict resolution To resolve the ongoing conflicts, the implemented in Amhara, Tigray and in pastoral areas of Ethiopia: The case state has set up social committees with Oromia regions. study of the well council and arara of members from clan leaders, pastoralists Borana.” Addis Ababa: Organization and district officials. In addition, the court Acknowledgments for Social Science Research in Eastern system is used when the intensity and The various forms of assistances and Southern Africa (OSSREA). severity of conflicts goes beyond the that were received from many capacity of the social committees. people in the course of our research Asperen, V. P. and A. Mulolwa (2006). are gratefully acknowledged. We “Improvement of customary tenure Meanwhile, the Tendaho Irrigation thank the clan leaders, pastoralists security as a pro-poor tool for land Project has been playing a significant and agropastoralists of Asaita and development: A Zambian case study.” role in improving the livelihoods of many Dubti Districts for their unreserved Promoting Land Administration and of the surrounding people. Therefore, response to our questions and help Good Governance, 5th FIG Regional it is concluded that any intervention in during our stay in the field. We are Conference (8-11 March 2006), FIG conflict resolution and peacebuilding also grateful to the entire staff of the Working Group 4.3 – Administrating should give due emphasis to building Tendaho Sugar Factory Project, the Marine Space, Accra, pp.1-15. the capacities of various peace and Afar Region Land Administration and conflict-resolution committees and local Assegid, Yirgalem (2001). “Challenges, Environmental Protection Bureau institutions that can facilitate dialogue opportunities and prospects of common and the Asaita and Dubti Agriculture and create awareness about the merits property resource management in and Livestock Development offices. of the project and land ownership rights the Afar pastoral areas.” Shared Lastly, we thank Samara University among clan leaders and pastoralists. management of common resources for financial support for this work. programme. Farm Africa, Addis Ababa. Recommendations References Baribeau, G. 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Annex 4: Opening Speech 9. Opening Speech of the Vice President, Afar Regional State

HE Ato Awel Arba

Officials of the Federal Government and Other Regional Along with broad government interventions, a number of States of Ethiopia; UNDP and other partner organization projects are being implemented with the support of different Representatives; Officials, Experts and Community partners and non-governmental organizations. One such Representatives from Afar National Regional State, project is the Afar Integrated Dryland Management Project (AIDMP), financially supported by the Government of Ladies and Gentlemen, Norway, and technically supported by UNDP and the First of all, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to federal Ministry of Environment and Forest. The AIDMP have you all at this high level policy forum discussing the has benefited pastoralist and agropastoralist communities management of drylands in Ethiopia. It is well known that and built their adaptive capacities to climate change, our regional state is the hottest and driest of all regional improved local livelihoods and made valuable contributions states in Ethiopia and we appreciate the organizers for to development initiatives in the regional state. choosing Semera as a venue for this high level policy However, given the extent and complexity of problems forum. and development challenges that prevail in the region, the Ethiopia is the tenth in the world and the first in Africa in current interventions are not adequate. Hence, we strongly terms of livestock population. Most livestock are found in request continued and increased support from donors, pastoralist-dominated regional states, of which Afar is one government and non-governmental development partners. of the most important regions. Our regional state is also We expect that this forum discusses lessons learned from endowed with a number of perennial rivers suitable for the AIDMP, research papers are presented on various irrigation development, large areas of arable land, a myriad topics and good practices are exhibited here and that this of wild animals, mineral resources and different natural generates a number of policy ideas that are relevant to attractions, like active volcanoes and salt pans. address the problems of dryland management in the region and the rest of the country. I would like to confirm that our Ladies and Gentlemen, regional government welcomes the outcomes of the forum for policy uptake and practical implementation. We also As you all know, Afar is where our ancestors and modern welcome all support of development partners to this end. human beings first lived on the Earth. Hence, it has been exploited by human beings for much longer periods than Ladies and Gentlemen, any place on the Earth. This long period of exploitation has led to land degradation, natural resource depletion, Finally, I would like to thank the Royal Norwegian Government human and livestock disease outbreak and desertification, and the people of Norway for generous financial support, which is further exacerbated by current trends of climate UNDP and the Ministry of Environment and Forest for change. These problems are the major challenges to technical support and follow-up of project implementation making economic progress in the region and also hold and the Ministry of Finance and Economic Development back the regional state from contributing its share to the for enabling smooth financial flows and monitoring that development of the country. enabled successful implementation of the project. The project would not have been implemented without the Our people have lived in this challenging environment dedicated and relentless efforts of regional and woreda level for centuries, relying on indigenous natural resource implementing sector institutions of the Afar Regional State, management practices. Given the current trends in climate particularly staff members of the coordinating Environmental change, the national plan for accelerated economic growth, Protection and Land Use and Administration Authority. On and high population growth, however, the indigenous behalf of the Afar Regional Government, the people of Afar natural resource management practices alone cannot and myself, I would like to thank all those who contributed be sustainable. Hence, the Government of Ethiopia has to the successful implementation of this project. I wish you given special attention and adopted policies, strategies successful deliberations during these two days of the high and programmes for integrated development of pastoralist level policy forum discussion and declare that the workshop and agropastoralist areas and have already launched is officially open. implementation on the ground. Thank you. 140 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

10. Welcome Speech of the State Minister, Ministry of Environment and Forest

Ato Kare Chawicha

Presented by Ato Berhanu Solomon

Your Excellency Ato Ismael Ali Sero, President of Afar development of the CRGE and its operational modalities, National Regional State, Invited Guests, Ladies and while Norway is one of the pioneer development partners Gentlemen, to make commitments of financial support for the facility. We expected this partnership to last long, and to support It gives me great pleasure to be here with you at this High us in reaching our economic development goals faster, Level Policy Forum on Integrated Dryland Management following a sustainable and green growth path. workshop. In this workshop, the outcomes of the Afar Integrated As you all know, drylands cover a large part of our country. Dryland Management Project are expected to be Such areas are increasingly becoming hotspots of a number showcased. In addition, the findings of researchers on of economic development activities in our country, like the thematic areas relevant to integrated dryland management Tendaho Sugar Project in Afar. Drylands are also frontiers are expected to be presented, alongside exhibitions of of desertification, where mismanagement of natural good practices. resources leads to degradation of their potential to provide goods and services vital for economic use. In addition, I am confident that you will come up with a number of ideas drylands are the most vulnerable areas to the effects of for policy uptake and good practices to scale up integrated climate change. Given the size, economic importance and dryland management in all parts of Afar and the rest of the vulnerability of the drylands, the Government of Ethiopia country. I wish you fruitful deliberations during the workshop. has given due attention to mainstreaming integrated The Government of Ethiopia welcomes recommendations dryland management in all development interventions. of sound scientific research and best practices in the field to implement its long-term development strategies like The Government of Ethiopia works closely with different the CRGE on the ground. I expect that the outcomes are development partners on integrated development of documented and communicated to our ministry for policy drylands that arrests desertification while adapting to uptake. climate change. A good example is the Afar Integrated Dryland Management Project (AIDMP) being implemented Excellency, Ladies and Gentlemen, by the Afar National Regional State and UNDP, with Once again, I wish you fruitful discussions in this workshop, financial support from the Government of Norway. The and look forward to your policy and development-relevant project is expected to contribute to: (1) building institutional recommendations. capacity for integrated dryland management; (2) promoting sustainable dryland management practices; (3) supporting Thank you and good luck! livelihood diversification activities; and (d) disseminating information on integrated dryland management so that good practices are scaled up in other parts of the region and the country. The project can contribute to our efforts to combat desertification and achieve a Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy.

Your Excellency, Ladies and Gentlemen,

As you all know, Ethiopia has developed the CRGE strategy, with the goal of reaching middle income economy status by 2025. The Government of Norway and UNDP have been key strategic partners in developing and operationalizing the CRGE strategy. UNDP has played key roles in Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 141

11. Welcome Speech of the Head, Afar Environmental Protection, Land Use and Administration Agency

Ato Elema Abubeker

Your Excellency Ato Awel Arba, Vice President of the Afar Your Excellency Vice President, Ladies and Gentlemen, National Regional State, Senior Officials of our regional Implementation of integrated natural resource state and the federal government, UNDP and donor agency management is the only viable option to overcome these Representatives, Invited Guests, Ladies and Gentlemen, pressing challenges. This requires building on lessons First of all, I would like to welcome you all to the capital of learned from good practices and research findings. Over Afar National Regional State, Semera. Our regional state the past eight years, UNDP and the Federal Government is characterized by dry and hot weather conditions. The were supporting us to implement integrated natural topography also includes areas below sea level, like the resource management in our regional state. The project Dallol Depression, vast flat and gentle areas, steep slope started as a pilot at Mille and scaled up to five woredas and mountains. and was implemented as the Afar Integrated Dryland Management Project (AIDMP). The project focused on four The livelihood of our people is mainly pastoralism, with key outputs: (i) institutional support for integrated dryland some agropastoralism, agriculture and trade. Irrigated management; (ii) strengthened capacity for sustainable agriculture is expanding along the main rivers, like Awash dryland management; (iii) livelihood diversification and Kesem. activities support; and (iv) sustainable land management Your Excellency Vice President, Ladies and Gentlemen, communication and information dissemination.

As you all know, our regional state is endowed with several The project has produced encouraging results. We have natural and historical tourist attractions. Archeological sites gained experiences through visits of neighbouring regional where remains of human ancestors like Lucy are found states and Uganda. in Afar. The presence of natural attractions like Erta Ale, At this high level policy forum, good practices of the natural parks and wildlife reserves like Awash, Yangudi community, lessons from project implementation and Rasa, Ali Dege, Gewane and Mille Serdo in our regional research findings on different thematic areas are presented. state also shows how rich it is in terms of biodiversity. I am glad to welcome you all again and hope that you This demonstrates that our region not only is the origin of will generate important ideas for policy and development human ancestors, but of many plant and animal species. practices during this workshop. However, current climate trends, population growth, agriculture, urbanization and other socio-economic changes are serious challenges for sustainable natural resource management. 142 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia

12. Speech of the Country Director, United Nations Development Programme

Dr. Samuel Bwalya

Presented by Sinkinesh Beyene

His Excellency Ato Awel Arba, Vice President of the Afar of climate change-induced hazards (particularly drought, National Regional State, Senior Government Officials, unseasonable floods, disease outbreaks, expansion of Development Partners, Ladies and Gentlemen, invasive bush species) is growing fast and the magnitude of damages from such climatic and other natural hazards I would like to warmly welcome you all to this policy forum continues to rise. on the management of drylands in Ethiopia. Building trust and achieving positive development Climate change is a global problem that requires a global outcomes takes time. Pilot projects must be evaluated, solution grounded in national actions. Tackling the root replicated if successful, and scaled up to have significant causes of drought and climate change requires a long-term impact. Changing policies and laws and building institutions approach both from national authorities and development takes longer than a short project cycle. Strong partnerships partners. There is an urgent need for stepped up efforts between the government, civil society and development to adapt to and mitigate the effects of climate change. It partners, national ownership and leadership, capacity is my hope that this forum will help advance this important development – these are not only theoretical principles agenda by highlighting the important contributions that of effective development cooperation; they are also key dryland management can make to this end. elements of achieving results and success on the ground.

Distinguished Guests, Your Excellency, Invited Guests,

Drylands occupy 41 percent of the earth’s land surface We at UNDP aim to provide technical expertise, practical and are home to 35 percent of its population. Such is policy advice and programme support for poverty the magnitude of dryland populations that failure in the reduction and development in the drylands of Ethiopia drylands will mean failure for the global community. The and particularly the Afar region. From January 2010 to benefits of conservation in dryland ecosystems can December 2013, UNDP supported the Afar Regional make a major contribution to achieving the Millennium Government in implementing the Afar Integrated Dryland Development Goals. Management Project in five districts of the regional state.

The responses to uncertainty of people living in drylands The project sought to improve the livelihoods and coping  and their successes and failures in managing pressures mechanisms of the pastoral communities in these districts. on their ecosystems  are relevant in a world in which the This was done by enhancing the capacity of the organized future of these ecosystems is uncertain. People living in communities to sustainably manage and use natural drylands are likely to suffer disproportionately from the resources. The communities were supported financially impacts of climate change engendered mainly by the and technically to build mud-brick houses, to establish developed world. fodder banks, to engage in soil and water conservation As the driest areas of the region, the drylands of East Africa activities and to use solar panels. These are just a few face unique challenges, which affect lives and livelihoods of examples of successful capacity development. their residents. However, these areas also have significant The existing adaptive capacity of the dryland communities, potential, which can be converted into beneficial economic assisted by appropriate policies and research, can offer opportunities with the right mix of policies, investments in viable pathways to development. The notion that standard infrastructure and access to credit and markets. development policy can adequately address risk and Ladies and Gentlemen, vulnerability in drylands must yield to emerging approaches that build on local and customary practices. For transformational change, institutional structures and capacities for dryland management need to be Ladies and Gentlemen, strengthened. So far, efforts in Ethiopia to respond This all demonstrates the urgency of addressing climate to the problem of growing climate change-induced change through initiating effective and realistic adaptation hazards in pastoral areas have been promising and are plans that primarily focus on utilizing and scaling up locally- expanding over time. Despite this, the scale and intensity available adaptation practices and building institutional Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia 143 capacity in the hazard-prone pastoral areas of the country. Looking forward, I likewise believe that the international community will see the importance of enhancing Life in drylands requires inhabitants to be continually assistance and support — financial, technical and human dynamic in response to their changing environment. — to sustainable dryland management. Resilience-focused approaches offer opportunities to build development from the bottom up, from a concern and a Distinguished Guests, deep respect for the people who are the most resilient in The objectives of today’s policy dialogue are threefold: the face of crisis – those who are facing and confronting it. first, to identify the policy gaps for scaling up best practices New approaches to dryland development aim to harness and creating awareness among the general public about the expertise of dryland communities and apply it more the economic importance of drylands; second, to share broadly. The success of these approaches, particularly experiences with the various stakeholders on the benefits at the local level, is vital to the delivery of more effective, of sustainably managing and utilizing drylands; and third, inclusive and sustainable outcomes. to explore avenues for mobilizing additional resources to Crucially, policy planning should merge dryland issues scale up best practices of the Afar Dryland Management into broader development frameworks. This will require a Project and other similar programmes and projects on systemic process to integrate drylands into policies, laws, drylands. institutions and governance structures. The potential of the I hope this policy dialogue will serve us as a forum for drylands will be unleashed through the participatory and learning, a successful exchange of ideas and a clear country-led development and implementation of strategies way forward for conducive policies on conservation and that improve the well-being and resilience of dryland people sustainable dryland management. and ecosystems through both targeted and mainstream development initiatives. Thank you. 144 Integrated Drylands Management in Ethiopia United Nations Development Programme Ethiopia

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