Indian Education at the Crossroads

PRAKASH LOUIS

ducation is a cultural construct meant to socialize the citizen; transmit knowledge from one generation to another; and generate new knowledge to bet- Eter all generations. The education system is supposed to contribute to indi- vidual growth and social transformation. In the same way, society and polity are supposed to determine the framework of the educational system and to help maintain the educational superstructure. In course of this interaction, conflict and crisis arise. The crisis leads to the formulation of policy frameworks, which introduce debate on education and promote societal reconstruction. In a poor country like India, illiteracy of the location on education was spent to improve majority continues to pose a serious challenge. education of scheduled castes and tribes. Many The central and state governments have prom- factors, however, operate to deny the weak sec- ised to wipe out illiteracy and have engaged in tors of their right to education and to prevent many projects to achieve that goal. The ruling them from fully participating in various educa- establishment has sought local and international tional efforts. The introduction and impact of financial support to eradicate illiteracy. While the New Education Policy needs to be exam- the policies and pronouncements have been amined from this background.2 bitious, many marginalized communities have Many educationists argue that a class-divided gone from bad to worse. system of education has played a central role in The framers of the Constitution were well molding the patterns of uneven development aware of the debilitating effect on society of dis- and disenfranchisement in postcolonial India. crimination against the weak. Thus, they made In much of urban India, there are two systems constitutional provisions to remove all forms of education—English medium (the upper tier of such centuries-old discrimination. Article 14 of English-medium schools in cities) and ver- of the Constitution provides: “The State shall nacular medium (often state run). At the indi- not deny to any person equality before the law vidual level, English-medium education has or the equal protection of the laws within the been a ticket to vertical mobility in Indian soci- territory of India.” Article 46 mandates: “The ety. At the societal level, English-medium edu- State shall promote with special care the educa- cation has played a critical role in producing tional and economic interests of the weaker sec- what Kothari calls a modernized techno- tions of the people, and, in particular, of the managerial elite that continues to have dispro- Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, and portionate influence in shaping the discursive shall protect these from social injustice and all terrain of development and the policies that af- forms of exploitation.”1 fect the social fabric. Less visibly, English-me- In the last five decades, attempts have been dium education widens fractures in society by made to improve education for all and for the creating and reinforcing a social, cultural, eco- weak sectors in particular, to improve their economic, and discursive divide between the En- nomic and social standing. Over 30% of the al- glish educated and the majority. This is not to

135 136 • HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN ASIAN SCHOOLS say that the vernacular medium is egalitarian or vested interest. The Ambani-Biral Report on free of political agenda.3 Education,6 submitted to the trade sector of the Prime Minister’s office, is a clear indication of Indian Education Today the growing nexus between the ruling establishment and the business class. State intervention in education is closely asso- Among socially conscious citizens, the cause ciated with, if not anchored on, the distinction for concern is not just the attempt to tinker with between producing leaders who will contrib- the educational system, but the objective of the ute to nation building and engaging the masses forces behind it. The Sangh parivar, or the in rural reconstruction. While education con- right-wing Hindutva force, is hell-bent on in- tinued to favor the urban rich, some public pro- troducing change in the educational system nouncements were made for the rural masses. with the stated objective of “Indianization, na- Anil Sadgopal argues that the Kothari Educa- tionalization, and spiritualization.” The right tion Commission (1964–1966) advocated the wing will attempt to manipulate and alter the common school system along with the trans- basic structures of society and polity to serve its formation of schools—government, aided, or objective. The corporate sector wants a steady private—into neighborhood schools, which market and is hobnobbing with the ruling class will be open to all children residing in a given to fundamentally change education. In the long area, irrespective of their socioeconomic back- run, these changes will uphold and maintain ground. The common school was a policy im- the hegemony of the dominant caste, the up- perative in the first National Policy on Educa- per class, and retain a skewed, hierarchical, and tion 1968 (NPE 1968). Parliament twice made patriarchal social order. This process seems to a commitment to the goal of building a com- be gaining upper hand, but citizens and civil mon school system—first in the 1986 policy and society are trying to work for a democratic, plu- again in the revised version in 1992 (NPE ral, egalitarian, and just social order. 1992). This commitment was violated twice by In 2001 another trend was observed in edu- the 1986 policy itself—first, through its pro- cation. On 28 November, Parliament passed the posal to set up the Navodaya Vidyalaya (New 93rd amendment, making education for the Enlightenment Schools) as a layer above the 6–14 year age group compulsory. This step has government school system for the rural elite; been widely welcomed, but the amendment has and second, through the establishment of an- shortcomings that may work against those other layer of nonformal centers below the gov- who have till now been excluded from schools. ernment school system for child laborers.4 A large number of child laborers are denied A careful look at the education reveals two not merely education but also their right to dominant trends from 1998 onward. First is childhood. the ongoing process of communalization of The amendment makes education compul- education in the name of “Indianizing” or na- sory but not free, and imposes on parents a fun- tionalizing education. “Casteization” of edu- damental duty to send their children to school cation is also on the agenda under the slogan while not obliging states to invest in making of spiritualization. Although noble ideals are education accessible to all. The minister for projected, the ultimate aim is to thrust upon human resource development says the states will the citizens the agenda of Hindutva force, or be encouraged to make such investment in the the right-wing Hindu nationalist force.5 5-year plans. Another trend is the “marketization” of edu- Allocation for education, especially at the cation. Neoliberal agents, or market forces, have primary level, is biased against the rural poor. been trying to highjack education for their own Geetha Nambisan analyzes the financial alloca- Indian Education at the Crossroads • 137 tion for educational activities: “Financial allo- Education Discussion Group cations for important programs of elementary education funded by the central government are A group of educationists, academicians, activ- revealing. In 1992–1993 the budget estimates ists, and concerned citizens met and discussed for Non-Formal Education (NFE) include— the issues that ail the education system, and centers (US$9 million), NFE for girls (US$6 formed the Education Discussion Group million), and grants to voluntary agencies to (EDG) in September 2001 to discuss, debate, set up centers (US$4 million). This works out and evolve strategies to address the current cri- to around 32.3% of the total allocations for ele- sis in school education. EDG held its First Na- mentary education estimated for 1992–1993. tional Consultation on Education in Delhi in Allocations for NFE are almost equal to that December 2001. Participants from 10 states for Operation Black Board, which is meant ‘to included teachers, social activists, educationists, provide minimum essential facilities to all pri- and policymakers. While the immediate focus mary schools in the country.’ Much-publicized of the consultation was on the communaliza- programs such as the Bihar Education Project, tion of education, the running theme was the Lok Jumbis, and World Bank-assisted projects need to evolve a broad perspective. also have sizeable nonformal components and The participants identified regional issues in receive considerable external assistance.”7 education and decided to focus on them, while These facts again raise questions about the EDG agreed to be a national watchdog. To reality and the government’s rhetoric on edu- advance the discussion and evolve alternative cation. Vaidyanathan and Gopinathan discuss long-term state-level and national strategies, the education policy pronouncements and imple- group decided to hold a more intensive con- mentation: sultation in April 2002. Three broad themes were identified for the Eradication of poverty and illiteracy fig- consultation: ured prominently in the political rhetoric of • monitoring of textbooks to see how much the Indian nationalist movement even before they reinforce gender hierarchies, social in- independence. Achieving universal elemen- equalities, and communalism; tary education within 10 years was included • ways and means of ensuring equal access as one of the Directive Principles of State to education; and Policy in the Constitution of Indian Repub- • issues related to pedagogy in curriculum lic. The rhetoric continues but the goal re- formulation and teacher training. mains elusive even after 50 years of planning. Governments, both at the center and in the The response was overwhelming. Three days states, irrespective of their ideology, have not of intense, heated discussions raised awareness pursued this objective seriously and with of the educational crisis. Wide-ranging, stimu- vigor. Resources allocated to education have lating presentations persuaded participants that been woefully inadequate and, with higher this exercise would be a long-term process, not education absorbing a rising proportion of a sporadic event. They agreed that they should allocations, elementary education has re- build networks of communication to exchange mained on a semi-starvation diet. The idea ideas, share experiences, develop short-term and of making elementary education legally com- long-term strategies for educational interven- pulsory for all children has not evoked much tions, and engage in dialogue and debate. enthusiasm. Some states have enacted the The national consultation focused on the is- necessary legislation but none has exerted it- sues raised by the National Curriculum Frame- self to get the law enforced.8 work (NCF), released by the National Council of 138 • HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN ASIAN SCHOOLS

Educational Research and Training (NCERT) sultation, discussion, or debate; suppression of on 14 November 2000,9 as a “gift” to the chil- dissent; and presentation of a fait accompli. The dren of India. The participants felt that on In- government extended this process to education, dependence Day the values enshrined in the which was not surprising as the Bharatiya Janata Constitution should be reaffirmed so that fu- Party10 was the only political party with a deep ture generations can realize the long-cherished interest in education, with a network of 26,000 dreams of true independence. schools all over the country. Unfortunately, virtually all political parties, National Consultation including Congress and the left, put low priority on education. The Ministry of Human Re- The national consultation began with a lecture sources Development portfolio is not a prized by Krishna Kumar of Delhi University, who fo- ministry, unlike defense, external affairs, or fi- cused on the implications of state education nance. Although the National Policy on Edu- policies. He raised fundamental issues, empha- cation (1986) was drafted under the Congress sizing the need for continuous enquiry and government, it showed no interest in imple- evaluation of state policies, and for interven- menting its own policy. Past appointments to tions. He pointed out that the government, in- educational bodies (NCERT, UGC, ICSSR, stead of upholding constitutional provisions, etc.) had been based on getting people who was violating them in a variety of ways, most were willing to do the bidding of political obviously in handling the carnage in Gujarat, bosses. Thus, the interest of the nation and citi- and in the formulation of NCF. zens of the country was mortgaged for party interests. Major Issues in the First Session In the 1950s and 1960s, the education policy was committed to generating a scientific spirit. NCF evoked widespread criticism, discussion, In the 1970s, the vision was one of common and debate among educationists, teachers, and schooling and education in the mother tongue. parliamentarians. Instead of taking their All these have been relegated to the back- concerns into account, NCERT went ahead ground. As time went on, the educational sys- and issued syllabi in line with NCF in January tem was brought under the purview of politi- 2002. cal vested interests. The Central Advisory Board of Education Four major commissions have inquired into (CABE), which includes representatives of all education since Independence. Of these, the states, was not consulted in formulating NCF. Secondary Education Commission, (1953) and A few eminent concerned citizens appealed to the Prof. Yashpal Commission (1990–1992) the Supreme Court, through a public interest raised issues on curriculum and pedagogy. They litigation, the first ever pertaining to curricu- suggested that curriculum must be grounded lum. The petitioners argued that NCF violated in the world of the student, to lend the lessons constitutional provisions that guaranteed secu- a vibrant reality, since it is in the classroom that larism and democracy, including equal oppor- children imbibe morals, values, and skills. tunities. Ironically, most teachers and principals Examinations are regarded as the end of all were just concerned with immediate problems, education. Worse, teachers’ unions are dis- including lack of textbooks. united. The program on universalizing primary The participants also made reference to wider education has produced the so-called para- political scenario. In a sense, there was a paral- teacher, who is paid a pittance. Para-teachers, 6 lel in the way the policies of economic liberal- hundred thousand today, are not well equipped ization were adopted in the 1990s—no con- to educate. Indian Education at the Crossroads • 139

Teachers have virtually no role in writing text- Major Issues in the Second Session books and are, at best, given token representation in the process, which is usually undertaken The second session was devoted to an analysis by experts who have no experience in classroom of textbooks. The participants raised issues of realities. Often, textbooks are simply stuffed stereotypes, including stereotyping of gender with facts. As the writer R.K. Narayanan said, roles, caste, and tribal or indigenous identities, education has become the national sport of communal identities, and treatment of class. teaching children facts they cannot digest. Focus was on social science books and language Most poor children are thus severely disad- books, including Hindi, Sanskrit, and Bengali. vantaged while middle-class children have ac- Although the discussion was meant to be on cess to information. For poor children, going textbooks, a number of participants raised to school becomes a demeaning experience, important issues of context, including the na- and fear of failure often forces them out of the ture of educational institutions, leading to a rich system. discussion. The quality of textbooks is shocking. While The crucial question raised was how are men government reports are printed on art paper, and women represented in textbooks? schoolbooks are printed on newsprint, and not M.K. Subramaniam said that textbooks in for lack of resources. Even states such as Karna- Tamil Nadu did not show a gender bias, an as- taka, which try to project themselves as “mod- sertion that others questioned, pointing out ern,” use poor-quality books. that few women are represented. Even where they NCF emphasizes values education. The val- are shown, they are rarely the main characters. ues are supposed to be derived from religious Women’s issues are virtually never discussed. traditions, not from the Constitution. Values In language, the terms used for men are education thus undermines the constitutional markers of respect, while those used for women values of secularism and democracy. Histori- (and lower castes) are less formal, suggesting a cal records bear testimony to this fact. In 1939, clear-cut hierarchy. Illustrations accompanying when Gandhiji was questioned in Wardha as the text show women to be passive and men to to why his Nayi Taleem did not mention val- be active. The Sanskrit books used in the Delhi ues education, he pointed out that values could region reinforce gender roles and stereotypes not be taught, they could only be acquired by praising girls who cook, clean, etc., suggest- by seeing how others practiced them. Thus, ing that they will be rewarded. This type of for- values education attempts to impose one reli- mulating textbooks reinforces gender bias. gion in a country historically known for its Seema Ghosh pointed out that the Bengali pluralism. books used in Assam lay down the norms for What the future holds for students, parents, girls. They “grow up” when they are 4 or 5, educationists, and society is a big question. The must stop playing when they are 8 or 9, and participants of the First National Consultation must obey rules when they are 10 or 11. Boys on Education have become painfully aware that of the same age are at liberty to play football. educationists are contemplative rather than ac- Females are shown to be nervous, while males tivist, regardless of the deep national crisis. Any are shown to be in control of any situation. The attempt to rework the curriculum must address role models for women are Sati, Savitri, Gargi, the problem of a nation in tatters, where the and Mother Teresa. minorities and the marginalized face the grav- A teacher from Madhya Pradesh pointed out est threat to their existence since Independence. that Sanskrit books present Sita as a role model The ability to envision a different future must for girls, with special emphasis on her loyalty be retained. to Ram until the very end, when she disappears 140 • HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN ASIAN SCHOOLS into the bosom of the earth. Through such “modern” backgrounds, and that the students models, the qualities of subservience, self- of khariji madrasas may be backward but they effacement, and sacrifice are inculcated among are not fundamentalist. Mr. Rauf also pointed girls. out that secondary school textbooks in West In Hindi books from Uttar Pradesh, women Bengal contained stereotypical notions about figure in approximately 25% of the lessons. In Islam and jihad, although they were written by more than half of these, women are shown as “progressive” leftist scholars. He suggested that mothers of “great men.” Even when “great this was because most of these scholars were women” such as the Rani of Jhansi are men- upper-caste Hindus, biased against Muslims, tioned, they are shown as having greatness whom they regard as low-caste converts. thrust on them, unlike the men who are shown Poorva Bhardwaj drew attention to the im- to be born great. Even when women are non- plicit communalism in Sanskrit books used in conformists, they are depicted as conforming Delhi. Sanskrit is referred to as dev bhasha, the to norms. For instance, Durgavati married language of the gods. Besides, metaphors and against her father’s wishes, but this is depicted analogies are drawn from Hindu mythology, as a marriage in which all rituals were observed. and dates that are identified as important are Women are portrayed as materialistic, selfish, drawn exclusively from the Hindu calendar of and scheming. Roop Rekha Verma mentioned festivals. This type of exclusivism deeply affects Hamare Purvaj (Our Ancestors), which up- the mental make of the children. holds the ideal of Savitri, who is depicted as a Dipta Bhog and Archana Dwivedi focused chaste Hindu woman, and demands that on Hindi books in Uttar Pradesh, pointing out women adhere to “customs and traditions,” how they were concerned with “history,” es- while men are free to do as they wish. pecially constructing a glorious Hindu past, and The Constitution envisages a secular state, emphasized patriotism. Even the two Muslim but the participants raised questions on the characters represented in more than 90 lessons secular credibility of the textbooks. Many were shown as patriotic in spite of their reli- schools prescribed a weekly for supplementary gion. Muslim rulers, such as Akbar, are repre- reading that serialized the story of Mughal rul- sented as outsiders, and the battles with them ers, who were represented in a very poor light. as “national struggles.” This type of distortion Even in textbooks, most characters are given of history contributes to the spreading com- Hindu names. Use of Christian or Islamic munal crisis. Other religious traditions are ap- names is rare. The only festivals discussed are propriated and brought under one religion. For Hindu. While books in the formal school sys- example, Buddhism and Sikhism are portrayed tem in West Bengal tend to be secular, the ex- as mere offshoots of Hinduism. istence of Vidya Bharati schools in a number of Damayanti Modi pointed out an attempt to districts points to ominous trends, which the create a glorious Hindu past in social science state government has not addressed. books in Gujarati. Thus, the Arthasastra is pro- Abdur Rauf focused on the question of jected as a text that is unique in the entire world, madrasas, or Muslim educational centers, in and Rana Pratap is now projected not simply West Bengal, of which there are three kinds: as a Rajput but as a Hindupati (Lord of the those that follow state curriculum, await rec- Hindus). ognition, and khariji madrasas, which impart The iron grip of the caste system is unaltered. religious instruction. The last type is often ste- The attitude of the dominant castes toward the reotyped as breeding ground for terrorism. lower castes, as spelled out in textbooks, rein- However, it was pointed out that the funda- forces the exploitative nature of the system. mentalists or communalists usually come from Rama Panchali pointed out that in Madhya Indian Education at the Crossroads • 141

Pradesh Sanskrit books predominantly focused religious rather than political is simplistic. How- on Brahmins and their rituals, and represented ever, this perception is reiterated and projected the so-called lower castes as unworthy of a dig- in textbooks. nified existence. Participants pointed out that Other general trends identified in textbooks most book characters continue to be upper • Textbooks present the nation as homoge- caste Hindus. In West Bengal, however, lower- neous rather than diverse. References to caste characters are now represented in social differences and conflicts are suppressed. science and mathematics books. This could lead to monocultural tendency Dipta Bhog and Archana Dwivedi pointed among children and could affect the scope out that the Hindi books used in Uttar Pradesh for pluralism. contained a biography of Dr. Ambedkar,11 but • This trend is not only observed in the so- even this did not address the issue of caste dis- cial sciences but also in the language, math- crimination. The problems he faced were pro- ematics, and natural sciences books. jected as arising out of backwardness or ortho- • There are clear indications of communal doxy. They argued that the refusal to discuss bias in many books, which is against the caste system, caste discrimination goes to state Constitution. that the political establishment deprives the stu- • Representation of marginalized sections of dents of the information about the logic be- society, whether women, minorities, dalits, hind as well as the historical reasons for pro- or tribal people, is grossly inadequate. If viding reservation or affirmative action for the ever, they are represented derogatively, or weaker sections. Roop Rekha Verma drew at- as a segment of the population that needs tention to the fact that “great men” are often to be brought into the mainstream. defined as those who show reverence to Brah- • Generally, the distinction between myth mins, and are supposed to be from the priestly and reality is blurred, preventing a critical class within the Hindu social order. examination of the past. Warfare and mili- The presentation of tribal or indigenous tarism are glorified, contributing to accel- peoples in textbooks also shows bias. Ritu Bala eration of social conflict. surveyed Hindi textbooks used in Jharkhand, • While lip service continues to be paid to Rajasthan, Haryana, and Delhi. She found ste- democracy, secularism, and equity, the im- reotyping particularly apparent in visual repre- ages in textbooks do little to nurture these sentations of tribal peoples, who are almost in- ideals among children, and even produce variably depicted as dancing, while nontribal the opposite results. people are shown engaged in more “serious” occupations such as teaching, medicine, and The participants suggested that regional engineering. Tribal peoples are also shown as variations be examined and information ex- backward, ignorant, and even cannibals. The changed about attempts to tinker with educa- bias against the tribal population in textbooks tion. Anita Ghai, an activist working for the reflects the same bias by the political establish- rights of the physically challenged, drew atten- ment. The government has refused to acknowl- tion to the fact that the disabled as a margin- edge that the tribal population is similar to in- alized group had not been considered in the digenous peoples in other parts of the globe, exercise. She emphasized the immediate need thus thwarting attempts by indigenous peoples to analyze the treatment, or invisibility, of dis- to build international solidarity. abled people in schoolbooks. Participants also The projection of Shivaji as a Hindu nation- highlighted the importance of language: how alist grossly simplifies and distorts history. The there is a hierarchy, with Sanskrit being pro- projection of his conflict with the Mughals as jected as a divine language, Hindi as San- 142 • HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN ASIAN SCHOOLS skritized, and the languages of marginalized stage of learning, which can be done if language groups such as the dalits and tribal people as is integrated in the planning of educational less developed. curriculum. Abhijit Pathak made a passionate plea to en- Issues of Pedagogy vision learning as a dynamic, aesthetic process by transforming the learning process. At least The national consultation also addressed the three critical problems exist: question: Do we need values education in our • Education has reproduced and reinforced schools? Umakant Chandra Shetty, from social inequality instead of reducing or Sholapur, described how his organization, contesting it. Guruji Pratishthan, tried to impart values • What is regarded as worth knowing is through story-telling workshops. The govern- closely related to the political economy. ment of Maharashtra had introduced a 30- Commerce is thus preferred over science. minute session in schools on values education, • The process of learning, or the pedagogy, which had become a mere formality. Guruji is oppressive, regimented, and deeply con- Pratishthan envisions inculcating values such as servative. It is not emancipatory as envi- peace and gender equity among students. sioned by Tagore, Gandhi, or Tolstoy. The participants were open to explore the place and role of values education in schools, but Dr. Pathak drew attention to the need to con- there were a lot of questions. For one, promot- nect education with other struggles. For in- ing values education had become a new mantra, stance, Gandhi’s vision of decolonization was a new slogan to enforce ones views. For another, linked to an alternative vision of education. there is a need to know what values are to be Tagore’s vision of education was related to a inculcated, and for whom? Are textbooks de- cosmopolitan ideal that went beyond narcissis- void of values? Can values be imparted through tic nationalism. Freire envisaged dialogic edu- textbooks? Are values caste or class neutral? cation as a means to create an egalitarian soci- Another question raised was, Is our school- ety. He advocated daily, continuous innovation ing system conducive to democracy? Pradip in the classroom. He suggested that teachers Borthakur argued that the schooling system is move beyond the text to enable the child to inherently authoritarian. Knowledge is pre- question its sanctity. Teachers should be em- sented by teachers, with little scope for dialogue powered to develop a symbiotic, dialogic rela- or reasoning. Democracy rests on dialogue, and tionship with students, instead of the mindless schools do not equip children to develop skills brutality of most classroom situations. Learn- and abilities to engage in dialogue and evolve a ing can be a joyful, aesthetic experience instead consensus. Since “managing” or “administer- of a source of oppression. ing” the school is the overarching concern, dis- cipline leads to authoritarianism. Third Session: Exploring Alternatives Lachman Khubchandani emphasized that the medium of instruction, content, and acces- The National Consultation also explored alter- sibility were related issues and could not be ex- native forms of learning, preparing, and pre- amined in isolation. Language is vital in com- senting curriculum and syllabus, and of mak- munication, and it is important to emphasize ing education responsive to society and society plurality and diversity. Language policy since accountable for the educational system. Some Independence has been elite-centered. The par- of the experiments that were examined as alter- ticipants also discussed the importance of pro- natives to the present educational system are as viding centrality to mother tongue in the early follow: Indian Education at the Crossroads • 143

• The Ekalavya Experience grams through which common people were im- C.N. Subrahmaniam, from Ekalavya, Ho- parted scientific temper. The emphasis has al- shangabad, shared the experience of trying to ways been on using the mother tongue. KSSP develop and transact an alternative curriculum. has 40,000 members, and 2,000 units through- The experiment began about 30 years ago, in out Kerala. the Hoshangabad Science Teaching Pro- KSSP envisaged education as means to lift the gramme (HSTP). This was initiated by a group poor out of the trap of exploitation, and rec- of scientists who approached the Madhya ognized the value of political links with the left Pradesh government with a proposal to develop parties. KSSP took part in the Total Literacy alternative materials for teaching science in gov- Campaign, and worked on health, women’s ernment-run schools. This experiment contrib- development, and environmental issues. KSSP uted immensely to the creation of a space for led the campaign to declare the Silent Valley a nongovernment initiatives. However, it has protected area and was involved in micro-level never been replicated. Even the space for this planning exercises in development work. kind of initiative has been shrinking. KSSP focused on developing communication The Eklavya effort was an innovative experi- materials such as literacy magazines, etc. It pub- ment to bring about an interaction between the lished books, primarily based on KSSP’s re- state, curriculum designers, and teachers. The search and development activities, worth objective of HSTP was to stimulate children’s $257,000. KSSP has three education research curiosity instead of simply providing informa- units and environment centers. It has a huge tion, to relate science to daily life rather than let mass base, from where it draws its strength and it remain an abstraction. The project consisted resources to run science education programs. of a package, including textbook design, teacher KSSP does not accept foreign funds. training, and continuous academic support. It KSSP worked intensively to develop child- meant discussing issues that teachers and chil- centered and child-friendly curriculums in co- dren found problematic, irrelevant, or boring. operation with the District Primary Education It also meant changing the evaluation system. Programme (DPEP) to inform it of interven- In social science, the aim is to familiarize chil- tion processes and, thus, make it more child- dren with social structures through an interac- centered. Thus, KSSP and the program were tive process of contextualization to understand involved in preparing school curriculums, which how situations impact differently on different were ready for classes 1–7 and under process social groups. This would help students under- for class 8, when the government suddenly stand the struggles for a just and equitable so- changed. It withdrew the KSSP curriculums and cial order, and develop basic skills of analysis. brought back the old syllabi. Only a few schools now use the KSSP curriculums. • Kerala Shastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP) KSSP sees a major impact of globalization Krishnan Kutty presented the aims, experi- on education. An example was the “black or- ences, and activities of the KSSP (The Kerala der” announced by the Kerala government Literary Society), a people’s initiative to bring withdrawing support for 2,644 government education closer to home. KSSP started in schools for being uneconomical, as they had 1962 with the objective of establishing an less than 100 students. These schools are now egalitarian society through educational inter- being handed over to private institutions, which ventions, including an emphasis on the scien- charge high fees. KSSP agitated against this tific approach and the development of a ratio- order and is still struggling to force the gov- nal attitude toward social norms. People were ernment to recall it. The government, however, organized and mobilized through cultural pro- has turned a blind eye to these concerns and is 144 • HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN ASIAN SCHOOLS adopting policies that prioritize the upper class Lokshala process. It involved not only scholars and castes. but also people who belonged to a specific geo- cultural area. Policy analysis is a complicated, • The Lokshala Experience constant process of inquiry and learning, in- Lokshala, or people’s center, is an alternative volving, among other things, accurate transla- to patshala, or center of learning. The presen- tions of documents. It indicates, for instance, tations about Lokshala involved two levels: that emphasis on nonformal education actually broad policy issues and specific experiences. aids and abets child labor. A brief history of Lokshala. In 1991 the Policy analysis also shows that the govern- Bharatiya Gyan Vigyan Jatha (The National ment tends to use education and literacy as syn- Knowledge and Science March) or BGVJ saw onymous terms, which must be questioned. the coming together of groups working on This was apparent in the way in which the com- education, environment, health, and technol- mitment to free and compulsory education for ogy under the leadership of Prof. Yashpal, with all children up to age 14, guaranteed in Article Prof. Anil Sadgopal as convener. This was 45 of the Constitution, had been diluted. Al- closely connected with the All India People’s though India accepted the Jomtien Declaration Science Jatha, which involved 50,000 villages on Elementary Education as a right, this is now and several towns. As a follow up, the National being diluted and projected as a commitment Brainstorming Conference, with over a thou- to nonformal education. sand delegates, was organized in May 1994. Ms. Jharsu summarized the experience from This led to the initiation of the Lokshala pro- Nagaland, where there has been an attempt to cess in 1995, with focus on developing an al- create an awareness of education issues among ternative vision of school education based on people. Mr. Surjeet shared his experience from indigenous experiences. BGVJ organized a Meghalaya, emphasizing on how the Indian meeting of 6,000 persons, including education- college studies seemed alien to the realities of ists, academics and field activists. It adopted the his region. He tried to interact with local teach- perspective of working toward a synthesis be- ers, but with limited success. His attempt to set tween academics and activists, and working to- up Science Clubs was not very effective. He ward institutional transformation as part of a highlighted the difficulties in conducting in- wider social change. vestigations, where people told him what he Several community development blocks were expected to hear instead of the truth, and this adopted as field laboratories. These included made him realize that he needed to work with Jahanabad in Bihar, Dhubri in Assam, and the community and learn from it rather than blocks in Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mahrashtra, expect quick results. This led to the crystalliza- Orissa, Manipur, and Jehangirpuri (Delhi). tion of a group that discussed where Meghalaya Each field laboratory was unique and developed figured in the overall educational policy of the its own pace and style of functioning. People’s country. What is evident from his account is that perceptions were taken into consideration in there are no short cuts and easy answers. identifying priorities, and this provided the ba- Akshay shared the experience of undertak- sis for intervention. The emphasis was on de- ing Lokshala in Jahanabad, Bihar. The group centralization and on learning from each other’s worked on the premise that no effective inter- experience. vention would be possible without understand- Elaborating on the ‘Importance of Policy ing the political and socioeconomic context. Analysis,’ Dr Janaki Rajan pointed out how They also underscored the need to win the sup- policy analysis formed an integral part of the port of the community and to build an inter- Indian Education at the Crossroads • 145 face between ground realities and educational tive was taken about textbooks used in the lo- ‘experts.’ Jahanabad is a district particularly cality. In the Shishu Bharati school, for instance, prone to violence because of radical peasant textbooks showed Akhand Bharat to include movements. There was a police presence in most Pakistan and Bangladesh, and suggested that schools, which was hardly conducive to their war be waged to recover these lands. Children functioning. One initiative taken by the group raised questions about the exclusion of local led to the removal of policemen from schools. history from their textbooks. There were also Local young men were encouraged to work on efforts to raise questions on the nonenrolment a project documenting local history. Some ini- of girls, who were working as bidi-makers. tiatives were also taken to raise questions on the Vandana Sonalkar pointed out that the appointment of para-teachers. This had some strength of the Lokshala process lay in its flex- impact on policy makers. ibility. It was not bound by any single formula, Perhaps more important were the long-term and did not attempt to replicate the same pat- changes in attitudes and ideas that had been tern everywhere. Instead, there was an aware- generated by these activities. Education is now ness of specificities. Yet, these were analyzed recognized as a political issue in the area and within an overall vision, which inspired action. has generated a lot of debate within the com- Mr. Abu Baker, another educationist, con- munity. People now understand the difference cluded the session by pointing out that the between education and mere literacy, and can biggest contribution of Lokshala was in mak- raise these issues with their political represen- ing the government accountable to its prom- tatives, like Members of Parliament, and Mem- ises. While the government opened schools, it bers of Legislative Assembly. Social activists have was not interested in changing the situation developed a deeper understanding of the po- radically. While the children of the poor litical context and have created a space for criti- crowded into schools, the middle-class moved cal analysis of the existing situation. This pro- to set up its own institutions like hospitals, cess has opened up avenues to search for alter- colonies, schools, etc. and thereby appropriated native educational strategies in a region, which more power in its hands. The government, in is undergoing violent eruption. keeping with this trend, whittled down its Mr. Ray discussed how Lokshala in Orissa commitment of providing education to children began with a state-level workshop. Rice and 5 to 8 years old and attempted to move the poor mangoes collected from the community gener- to nonformal education. Thus, the marginalized ated the finances for this workshop. The block received only poor education. Policy makers selected was Ranpur. It took about three months and even Dalit leaders have colluded in this op- to convince the volunteers to work without pressive process to deny the poor and mar- money. When the volunteers visited the area, the ginalized of their right to a life-oriented educa- villagers were convinced that they were politi- tion. Only the people can change this, and the cal activists. They could not believe that the vol- change shall have to be at the structural level, in unteers were working on education. Soon re- the pedagogy and in the curriculum. However, tired teachers became interested, and village Lokshala also needs to reflect on the fact that youths started teaching in some schools despite this attention cannot be confined to the school. objections from the government. Lokshala is in crisis today, and the advocacy One issue taken up by the members of strategy may have to be looked at. It is possible Lokshala was the cramped space in schools that political parties need to be the focus of while clubs and other entertainment centers in advocacy. the area occupied a lot of land. Another initia- 146 • HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN ASIAN SCHOOLS

Initiatives of the Government (Supreme Court) declared education to be a fundamental right. However, the government decided to circumvent this through the 93rd Impact of DPEP Amendment, which ostensibly guaranteed the The government introduced the District Pri- right to education but reduced the accountabil- mary Education Programme (DPEP) in early ity of government to children. The government 1990 with a loan of US$434 million, of which also ignored the requirements of children 0–6 24% was spent on infrastructure alone. Another years, who are within the purview of Article 45 sizeable amount of money was allotted for of the Constitution. As in other sectors, the teacher training, but no money was allocated government abdicates its responsibility in edu- for the appointment of teachers. As a result, cation for this category of children. there has been a dependence on untrained, poorly paid para-teachers, threatening the Threat of privatization school structure. This was the national scenario. Meanwhile, the Bihar Education Project and More and more government schools are be- the DPEP in Bihar were supposed to provide ing handed over systematically to private insti- alternative systems of comparable standards to tutions. The government, as it does with “sick the disadvantaged groups.12 units” of the industry, declares government It is worth noting that the loan under DPEP schools to be economically unviable and con- was only 4.5% of the total central government veniently hands them over to private compa- budget on education, yet this tiny contribution nies. Recently, 12 schools were shut down in of foreign funds has harmed school education. Indore, Madhya Pradesh, and the children The way DPEP was introduced was also sig- transferred to other schools. The land where nificant. The three apex bodies supposed to the schools were was transferred to a commer- discuss and determine education policies— cial complex. In Andhra Pradesh, schools are CABE, Parliament, and NCERT—were not being closed down and the emphasis is shifting consulted. This major intervention in educa- to nonformal education. tion was simply introduced as a project. Even In Delhi, elite private schools have been vol- the District Institute for Educational Training unteering to run government schools, which and the State Council of Educational Research hold classes for only 3 hours in the afternoon. and Training were kept out of the scheme. Attempts are being made to shift the students Instead, the project was handed over to Edu- from formal school to the open school stream. cational Consultants India Limited for manage- After school hours, the premises will be used ment. Some academics, including university for commercial purposes. This situation has teachers, were co-opted into the project for resulted in a steady drop in the enrolment of teacher training and material development, girls. Thus, the most vulnerable segment of the leading to a further divide between those who population will lose even a limited opportunity participated and those who did not. In spite of to get an education and make a living. With girls all the hype, DPEP did not help increase the dropping out, society will be trapped in a web enrolment of children. of illiteracy and ignorance.

Constitutional Amendment Pointers for the future The introduction of the 93rd Amendment The national consultation generated a great also came under scrutiny. The participants re- deal of discussion and debate, and the partici- called that in 1993 the Unnikrishnan judgment pants felt the need to ensure that some of this Indian Education at the Crossroads • 147 became part of an ongoing process. The con- In the 1970s civil society launched an initia- sultation identified several areas of concern: tive. Education for our People, advanced by po- • Evolving systems for networking. The litical activist Jayaprakash Narayan, who called starting point was a mailing list of all par- for a “total revolution,” suggests seven points ticipants, but two other possibilities were to bring about an egalitarian society:13 envisaged: a newsletter and the organiz- • Transform unegalitarian social and wage ing of consultations at regional level. structures and pursue program of simul- • Focusing on ways and means to ensure taneous and complementary social and equal access to education through analy- educational reforms. sis of alternatives, discussions on policy, • Shift the emphasis from teaching to learn- and interaction with the community and ing, stressing the incidental and nonformal all concerned groups. channels of education, involving the en- • Textbook analysis focusing on content, lan- tire community in the educational pro- guage, classroom transaction, class, caste, cesses rather than depending exclusively on gender, community, and the physically and professional teachers, and making the sys- mentally challenged. tem decentralized, diversified, elastic, and • Entrusting EDG with the preparation and dynamic. publication of an education digest on vari- • Start a movement of education workers ous issues affecting the educational system. and activists to radically reform the educa- • Establishing a resource center. Materials tion system from within and from outside. related to education (textbooks, govern- • Give high priority to changing the ethos ment circulars, policy statements, evalua- of the entire system so that hard and dedi- tion reports, etc.) will be collected from cated work to pursue knowledge, excel- all the states, and a resource center will be lence, and social transformation becomes built at the Indian Social Institute under a way of life. the supervision of EDG. • Make hard political and academic decisions • After a year (March–April 2003) a national to make the system purposeful and effective. consultation will be organized to review the • Emphasize the primacy of work among the progress made and to plan for next 2 years. people at the grassroots level. • Underscore the significance of a mass Overall, the participants felt a pressing need movement in solving the day-to-day prob- to involve more teachers in the process, through lems of the common people and in help- the newsletter and teachers’ associations, being them come into their own. Only such sides working for greater interaction between a movement will generate the socioeco- schools and the community. Another long-term nomic forces needed to provide good edu- goal was to evolve alternative curriculums. Par- cation. The educational effort will streng- ticipants agreed to exchange and share ideas and then mass mobilization to improve the to discuss them with a much wider audience, quality of life. to continue with the exercises that had been initiated, and to evolve more in-depth critiques Endnotes and alternatives. Education Update, the newsletter, is just a beginning of this dialogue. It is 1. See Kothari Commission Report, 1968. This com- hoped that, irrespective of the lack of person- mission, headed by D.S. Kothari, was created to assess nel and money, EDG will continue to work to the entire educational scenario of India. It worked during make the education system democratic, egali- the 1964–1966 period. For more details refer to Atma tarian, and pluralistic. Ram, India 50 Years of Independence: 1947–1997—Sta- 148 • HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN ASIAN SCHOOLS

tus, Growth, Development. (Delhi: B.R. Publishing Cor- 8. A. Vaidyanathan and P.R. Gopinathan Nair, eds., porations, 1998). 2001, Elementary Education in Rural India: A Grassroots 2. Louis Prakash, Literacy, Education and the Weaker View (New Delhi: Sage Publications) p. 21. Section in Bihar: Issues and Perspectives, Journal of the 9. Murali Manohar Joshi, minister of human resource Council for Social Development. Forthcoming. development of central government, chose to release the 3. David Faust and Richa Nagar, 2001, Politics of National Curriculum Framework on the day when the Development in Postcolonial India: English-Medium Edu- country remembers Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the cation and Social Fracturing, Economic and Political country’s first prime minister, whose birthday is celebrated Weekly, 28 July, p. 2878. as Children’s Day. 4. Anil Sadgopal, 2001, Political Economy of the 10. The Bharatiya Janata Party is the largest party in Ninety-Third Amendment Bill, Mainstream, 22 Decem- the ruling coalition of the National Democratic Alliance ber, p. 47. at the national level. 5. It is not argued here that tinkering with educational 11. Dr. Ambedkar hailed from the lower castes and system is a Sangh Parivar pastime. A similar exercise was was discriminated against in spite of his being equal in all carried out by the Congress Party when it was in power. respects with his contemporaries. He struggled hard and From early 1970 onward in Maharashtra, there were at- became the main architect of the Constitution. tempts to introduce changes in the textbooks. In Uttar 12. For more on this, refer to Ministry of Human Pradesh consistent attempts were made to reduce the Resources Development, Government of India, 1992, importance of Urdu by the Congress government right Annual Report 1990–91, New Delhi. after Independence. 13. Citizens for Democracy, 1978. Education for our 6. Ambani-Birla Report entitled “A Policy Framework People: A Policy Frame for the Development of Education for Reforms in Education” submitted to the Prime (1978–87) (Mumbai: Allied Publishers). Minister’s Council on Trade and Industry, April 2000. 7. Geetha Nambissan, 1996. Equity in Education? Schooling of Dalit Children in India, Economic and Po- litical Weekly, Vol. XXXI. No. 16–17, pp. 1011–1022.