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Education for Liberal Democracy: Fred Clarke and Educational Reconstruction in England 1936-1952 Hsiao-Yuh Ku Institute of Education, University of London Thesis for the degree of PhD 2012 Abstract This thesis explores the connection between the democratic ideas of Fred Clarke (1880-1952), an English educationist, and his contribution to educational reconstruction in England in the 1940s. By drawing on biographical method and documentary research, this thesis demonstrates that Clarke's democratic ideas reflected the ideals of liberal democracy and ways in which his ideas informed his positions on various issues of the educational reform and his actions or activities towards them, which constituted his substantial contribution to the reform. Three general themes in this thesis support the main argument. First, Clarke's ideas about the distinction between community and the State, his conception of equality, and his emphasis on free personality and moral qualities of all citizens found their roots in the ideals of liberal democracy, especially those of developmental democracy. Second, Clarke's ideas of democracy underlay his positions on educational issues such as the reorganization of the central authority; the public schools; the administrative system, selection and organization of secondary education; further education; teacher education and the teaching profession; and adult education. Third, Clarke contributed himself to the reform primarily through arousing and guiding public opinion by means of his speeches, writings, cooperative actions, engagement in professional organizations, and the publication of the first report of the Central Advisory Council, School and Life (1947), which were also in accordance with his ideas of democracy. Clarke also exerted his influence on cultural elites through discussion groups and on policy-makers and key figures through memoranda, private meetings and correspondence. Given these findings, this thesis helps fill a significant gap in the current knowledge as to Clarke's democratic ideas, his contribution to educational reconstruction in the 1940s, and above all, the intimate link between them. Moreover, it sheds some light on the nature and tensions of the major educational reform of this period. 2 I hereby declare that, except where explicit attribution is made, the work presented in this thesis is entirely my own. Word count (exclusive of appendices and bibliography): 88,751 words. 3 Acknowledgements Among all the people who contributed to the accomplishment of this thesis, the greatest debt I owe is to my supervisor, Prof. Gary McCulloch. He inspired and guided me all the way through the journey with his professional knowledge and enthusiasm about history of education. Over the past three years, he encouraged me to keep pushing my limits and helped me to build up my confidence in writing and speaking English. His patience and tolerance to all my weaknesses are the things I am the most grateful for. Without him, I would never have had such a rich and wonderful experience of learning in the UK. I also have to thank my examiners of upgrading exam, Dr. Tom Woodin and Dr. Judith Suissa, and my internal reader, Prof. Hugh Starkey, who offered invaluable criticisms and constructive suggestions for further development and the final revision of this thesis. In addition, my examiners of viva, Prof. Wendy Robinson and Prof. Michael Young, pointed the way to a better thesis and journal articles which are expected to be published in the near future. I am very grateful to them too. It has been a privilege to be part of such a supportive community as the History of Education Society. It generously provided me with bursaries to present my work at its annual conferences and summer school in Birmingham in which I obtained precious feedback and developed my ideas during my research. Also, the seminars regularly held at the Institute of Education and the Senate House also helped to expand my horizons in respect of historical knowledge and historiography. 4 I am also very grateful to Prof. Richard Aldrich, who kindly shared his transcription of interview with me. My gratitude must also go to many archivists who have been very helpful for my research, including those of the National Archives, the Conservative Party Archives, the Bristol University Archives, the University of Edinburgh Archives, and in particular, the Institute of Education Archives. I am very privileged to be able to work at the Institute of Education Archives almost every day for one year and obtained great help from the archivists, Rebecca Webster, Jessica Womack, Sarah Aitchison, and Kathryn Hannan. I also have to thank the Ministry of Education in Taiwan, which offered three-year scholarship to me so that I can realize my dream, that is, study my favorite subject, history of education, in the UK. In addition, I have been receiving great support and encouragement from my teachers in Taiwan, including Prof. Kuang-Hsiung Huang, Prof. Yu-Tee Lin, Prof. Yu-Wen Chou, Prof. Hsiu-Jen Lin, Associate Prof. Yu-Ching Cheng, and Mr. Shih-Tsung Chang. Additionally, my friends, Chun-Ying Tseng, Yu-Quin Kao, Shui-Yun Liu, Flavia Motoyama Narita, Sara Brown, Neal Can, Kaji Ash, Susan Burdelski, Helena Lopes, Prof. Roy Lowe, Pin-Ju Tsai, Yun-Ting Wang, Ching-Pey Lin, Tzu-Ching Liu, and Ren-Jie Lin accompanied me to go through all the difficult times. I am very pleased to acknowledge a special debt to them. Last but not least, I should also like to acknowledge my own profound debt to my family. Their selfless love and consistent caring supported and sustained me over the past years. I sincerely thank them by dedicating this thesis to them. 5 Table of Contents Abstract 1 Acknowledgements 4 List of Figures 9 Abbreviations 10 Chl Introduction 11 1.1 Background to the Research 11 1.2 Research Focus and Questions 18 1.3 Rationale for the Research 20 1.4 Methodology 28 1.4.1 Biographical Method 28 1.4.2 Primary Sources 31 1.4.3 Analysis and Interpretation 37 1.4.4 Ethical Issues 41 1.5 The Content of the Thesis 43 Ch2 Theories of Liberal Democracy 46 2.1 Protective Democracy 47 2.2 Developmental Democracy 52 2.2.1 Forerunner of Developmental Democracy: J. S. Mill 52 2.2.2 Developmental Democracy: British Idealism and New Liberalism 56 6 Ch3 An English Democracy: 1911-1935 75 3.1 South Africa: 1911-1929 75 3.1.1 Pursuing a Democratic Education in South Africa 76 3.1.2 Some Observations on English Education and Tradition 85 3.2 Canada: 1929-1934 93 3.2.1 Planning in Democracy? 94 3.2.2 Equality or Egalitarianism? 99 3.3 Returning to England: 1935 103 Ch4 Democracy in Crisis: 1936-1939 112 4.1 Can We Hold On? 113 4.1.1 Free Personality 114 4.1.2 Democratic Citizenship 120 4.1.3 The Distinction between Community and State 123 4.2 Democratic Planning in Education 129 4.2.1 Karl Mannheim's 'Planning for Freedom' 130 4.2.2 Clarke's Educational Plan: Education and Social Change 136 Ch5 Towards Reconstruction in Education: 1940-1943 152 5.1 Main Fields of Educational Reconstruction 157 5.1.1 Reorganization of Central Authority 158 5.1.2 The 'National' Public Schools? 162 5.1.3 Secondary Education for All 175 5.1.4 Compulsory Part-time Continued Education 186 5.1.5 Other Fields 190 5.2 Preconditions for Educational Reconstruction 192 7 Ch6 A New Deal in Education: 1943-1944 198 6.1 The White Paper: An Agenda for Democratic Debate 200 6.2 The Education Bill: A Great Opportunity 214 6.3 The 1944 Education Act: Towards a Truly Democratic System 228 Ch7 The Task Before Us: 1945-1952 241 7.1 A Sense of Urgency: the Implementation of the 1944 Education Act 246 7.1.1 Central Advisory Council 246 7.1.2 Secondary Education 248 7.1.3 County Colleges 273 7.2 Guardians of Freedom: Teachers and Professional Organizations 276 7.3 The Price of Democracy: Adult Education 281 Ch8 Conclusion 292 Bibliography 309 Appendices 322 8 List of Figures Figure 1 An Example of Fred Clarke's Speech Note 33 Figure 2 Map of speeches of Fred Clarke (1940-1943. 07) 157 Figure 3 Map of speeches of Fred Clarke (1943.07-1944) 200 Figure 4 Map of speeches of Fred Clarke (1945-1951) 245 9 Abbreviations AEC Association for Education in Citizenship ATCDE Association of Teachers in Colleges and Departments of Education ENEF English New Education Fellowship IAAM Incorporated Association of Assistant Masters LEAs Local Education Authorities NALT National Association of Labour Teachers NUT National Union of Teachers PEP Political and Economic Planning TUC Trades Union Congress WEF World Education Fellowship 10 Chl Introduction This thesis aims to explore the connection between the conception of democracy promoted by Fred Clarke (1880-1952) and his contribution to educational reconstruction from the mid-1930s to the 1940s in England. This link has been neglected by historians of the period either focusing on his educational ideas or paying attention to his involvement in educational reform. This introductory chapter will provide a brief illustration of the background, key focus and questions, rationale, and methodology of this research, as well as the content of the thesis. 1.1 Background to the Research In history, war events inevitably brought about great crises and massive damage to human society. However, they also provided crucial opportunities for educational reform and reconstruction. One cannot deny that it was exactly the case in the English history of education, especially from the second half of the nineteenth century onwards. As H. C. Barnard argues, 'It is not without significance that the Education Acts of 1870, 1902, 1918, 1944 were passed in a time of war; and it would seem that men's minds, in a revulsion against the folly and waste and false values of war, turn to education as the one hope for the future....'1 No doubt, the 1944 Education Act, enacted in the war years, was intended to prepare for post-war educational reconstruction.
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