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Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies

Volume 17 Article 5

January 2004

Core Issues of Hindu-Christian Dialgoue: Idol-, Cow- Protection and Conversion

J.K. Bajaj

M.D. Srinivas

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Recommended Citation Bajaj, J.K. and Srinivas, M.D. (2004) "Core Issues of Hindu-Christian Dialgoue: Idol-Worship, Cow- Protection and Conversion," Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies: Vol. 17, Article 5. Available at: https://doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1314

The Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies is a publication of the Society for Hindu-Christian Studies. The digital version is made available by Digital Commons @ Butler University. For questions about the Journal or the Society, please contact [email protected]. For more information about Digital Commons @ Butler University, please contact [email protected]. Bajaj and Srinivas: Core Issues of Hindu-Christian Dialgoue: Idol-Worship, Cow-Protection and Conversion

Core Issues of Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Idol-Worship, Cow-Protection and Conversion

J. K. Bajaj and M. D. Srinivas Centre for Policy Studies, Chennai

MAHATMA Gandhi epitomised the ideal there - those of them of a believing Hindu in modern times. He who are given to . proper was deeply read in the classical literature of deliberation, who are adept in the Indian civilisation that constitutes the perfonnance of their , who considerable scriptural corpus of . are not under the direction of others, But he did not derive his from this who follow the straight path and source alone. His beliefs and practices were who are solicitous for - do derived at least in an equal measure from in that context. what the common Hindu of his time believed and practiced. In this respect also In contexts that pertain to routine day­ he was following the classical discipline. to-day living, to the ordinary vyavahara of I~ Hinduism the prevailing belief and the world, the in fact shifts away practice among the people is taken to be the from the Brahmanas to the Sudras and valid source of dharma. Thus, the \ Women; being responsible for the proper Taittiriyopanishad says: 1 conduct of vyavahara, they are the repository of valid authority in this domain. Whenever you are in doubt about The Paramacharya of Kanchipuram, a the action or behaviour proper to personage deeply seeped in classical any context, then do what the Hinduism and entirely devoted to following

Dr. J K. Bajaj is currently Director of the Centre for Policy Studies in Chennai. He has a Ph.D. in Theoretical Physics from Punjab University in Chilndigarh and has taught and conducted research in various places in . He is a Member of the Indian Council for Social Science Research, the Governing Body of the National Council of Rural Institutes, and the Advisory Board of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. He is editor of Ayodhya and the Future India. (Chennai: Centre for Policy Studies, 1993) and co-authored with A. P. Joshi and M D. Srinivas Religious Demography of India (Chennai: Centre for Policy Studies, 2003). Among other works co-authored with M D. Srinivas is Timeless India Resurgent India: A Celebration of the Land and People of India (Chennai: Centre for Policy Studies, 2001), of which a Hindi version is in press.

M D. Srinivas is Founder Chairman and Senior Fellow of the Centre for Policy Studies in Chennai. He has a Ph.D. in Theoretical Physics from the University of Rochester. He is or has befm a Member of the Advisory Board on History of Science (Modern Period), INSA; the Indian National Commission for History of Science, INSA; and the Central Board. He is also Vice Chairman, Governing Body; of the Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Shimla. Along with co-authorship of the above books, he has written Measurements and Quantum Probabilities (Hyderabad: Universities Press, 2001) and co-edited with M S. Sriram and K. Ramasubramanian 500 Years of Tantrasangraha: A Landmark in the History of Astronomy (Shimla: lIAS, 2002).

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the classical discipline, advised a questioner 1. to ask the Sudras and Women about proper practice and conduct in all contexts of engages in his continuous ordinary vyavahara. The Paramacharya was and varied dialogues with his own people as echoing the advice given by the highly well as with others from his secure anchor­ regarded dharma text, the Apastamba age in sanatana dharma. To understand his Dharmasutra, which says:2 position in various contexts, therefore, it is necessary to understand what being a Stribhyah sarvavarnebhyascha follower of sanatana dharma means for dharmaseshan pratiyat ityeke ityeke him. One should learn the remaining Mahatma Gandhi offers one of the most ,I Dhannas from women and people of succinct definitions of the basic tenets of !i all varnas, so say some, so say being a follower of sanatana dharma in an ,II 'I some. article that he wrote following his visit to

1 Madras and other places in south India I I Mahatma Gandhi was well versed in this during the latter half of September 1921. It tradition apd discipline; he conscientiously was during this visit to the heartland of and consciously followed it; he deliberately Hindu that Mahatma Gandhi took tried to model his thoughts and responses on upon himself the further penance of wearing those of an ordinary pious Hindu. This only a loincloth to cover his body. In a makes him the ,appropriate authority to speech at Madurai on September 22, consult when trying to understand what the Mahatma Gandhi took the vow "to discard ordinary of our time feel and believe at least up to the 31 st of October my topi about dharma, how they react when\ and vest and to content myself with only a confronted with other beliefs and practices, loincloth and a chaddar whenever found what they find necessary for protection of my body.,,3 The acceptable in the latt~r and what they find to single loincloth became the regular dress of be beyond the pale. Mahatma Gandhi from then onwards, and Mahatma Gandhi proclaimed himself to thus he came to resemble even more a bea Sanatan~ Hindu, a Hindu who believed traditional Indian man of religion and and followed the timeless discipline. Yet he diviriity. engaged in a continuous and prolific During this visit to south India, dialogue with Christians at all levels. The Mahatma Gandhi repeatedly asserted his dialogue began in childhood and continued claim to being a Sanatani Hindu and throughout his life. All throughout he perhaps meditated much on the meani~g of remains steadfast in his respect for being a follower of sanatana dharma. and the person of Christ; but he Immediately following the. visit, he wrote an' is equally steadfast in refusing to accept the article in Young India of October 6, 1921 uniqueness of the Christian experience or defining his conception of a Sanatani Hindu. the Christian , and he vigorously denies The definition he gave then surpasses his the legitimacy of Christian criticism of usual succinctness and simplicity of Hindu beliefs and practices and their right to language. He wrote:4 convert others to their faith. It is perhaps wise to read this dialogue of Mahatma I call myself a Sanatani Hindu Gandhi as representative of the largely because: unarticulated dialogue ordinary Hindus have 1. I believe in the , the been having with Christianity. , the and all that goes by the' name of Hindu

https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs/vol17/iss1/5 DOI: 10.7825/2164-6279.1314 2 r Bajaj and Srinivas: Core Issues of Hindu-Christian Dialgoue: Idol-Worship, Cow-Protection and Conversion Core Issues of Hindu-Christian Dialogue 5

scriptures, and therefore in avataras II. and rebirth, 2. I believe in the varnashrama We have mentioned Mahatma Gandhi's dharma in a sense in my opinion perception of Hinduism because it seems to strictly Vedic but not in its present us. that the dia~ogue between ordinary popular and crude sense, Hmdus and theIr conscientious leaders 3. I believe in the protection of the seems to have floundered on the bedrock of cow in its much larger sense than precisely the four beliefs that he lists to be the popular, of the essence of being a Hindu. 4. I do not disbelieve in idol-. These four beliefs and practices arise worship. from the fundamental understandino- of ~induisn: about creation and man's pla~e in These four beliefs and practices that It. For Hmdus all creation, both sentient and Mahatma Gandhi defines to be fundamental insentient, is manifestation ofthe divine and to being a Sanatani Hindu form the basis of . man is a mere part of this divine cre;tion. the religious commitment and life of an , Mahatma Gandhi at another place illustrates ordinary Hindu. All the four seem to conflict this Hindu atti~de by referring to the first with the beliefs and practices of Christianity. verse of Isopamshad, which says that In fact, during Mahatma Gandhi's time, even those of the Hindus who were educated Isavasyamidam sarvam yatkincha in the Christian-inspired education system of jagatyam jagat India would have found it difficult to accept God pervades everythino- that is to these four tenets. In the educated Indian be found in the Universe. I:> discourse of Mahatma Gandhi's time, belief in Hindu scriptures, varnashrama dharma, ~ahatma Gandhi calls this "one incredibly sanctity of the cow and idol-worship had SImple mantra of the Isopanishad" to be the become problematic if not disreputable, "essence of Hinduism. ,,5 largely under the influence of Christianity. Hindus, thus, tend to see and experience Some of the religious refortn movements ~ divinity in what, in other cultures and that arose in India in response to the especially in Christianity, is defined ~s the perceived threat from Christianity, like the ordinary secular world. There has been Brahmo Samaj, etc., forcefully rejectedrone much metaphysical and theoloo-ical or the other of these. discussi~n and debate on these diff:ring However; with the passage of time since perspectIves of the Hindus and Christians. the first cOJ;ltact with Christianity and witll The issue has been debated at various levels the establishment of Indian rule after of ~ophistication. and scholarship, and from Independence, the rejection of these beliefs vanous perspectives. In .this essay, we do from within the Hindu fold has gotten ~10t l.oo~ at the theo.logica1 or metaphysical muted· educated Hindus have begun to at ImplIcatIOns of thIS core differentiating least t~lerate and understand, if not actually feature of these two great cultural and practice, these four tenets of Mahatma religious traditions of the world but only at Gandhi. And even Christians have begun to what this difference has m~ant to the grant some merit and meaning to the Hindu ordinary people of India and their high scriptures, though they continue to finnly representatives. reject the other three elements ofthis list. III.

A:t ~h~ la~ level, th.e Hindu attitude of seeing dlvlmty m the ordmary world finds its most

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striking expression in idol-worship. For the IY ordinary Hindu, and indeed for the high savants of Hinduism like the great Adi Worship of the cow, seeing a special Shankaracharya himself, idol-worship is sanctity in her, and striving for her fundamental to religious practice and protection is another and perhaps a highly experience. Through such worship, Hindus exalted fonn of idol-worship. Mahatma realise and experience for themselves some Gandhi holds cow-worship to be the symbol part of the truth about the unity of all of whatever is best in Indian civilisation. In creation that the high texts of Hinduism talk the article on the discipline of a Sanatani about with such intensity and the different Hindu that we have quoted above, he schools of Indian darsana try to propound explained the position of the cow in and explain with great sophistication. Hinduism thus: 6 It is true that there have been so-called nirguna sampradayas within Hinduism that The central fact of Hinduism have tended to visualise a formless god and however is cow-protection. Cow­ rejected idol-worship. But that rejection has protection to me is one of the most often been from a fundamental stance that wonderful phenomena in human since the whole world is the home of God, it evolution. It takes the human being is erroneous to see His presence in a beyond his species. The cow to me spatially and temporally circumscribed idol. means the entire sub-human world. These nirguna sampradayas in fact give a Man through the cow is enjoined to more intense meaning to seeing divinity in realize his identity with all that the world; they ask their followers to lives. Why the cow was selected for worship not a specific idol at a specific time, is obvious to me. The but to worship every aspect of creation with cow was in India the best every breath. Being aware of these schools companion. She was the giver of of Indian thought, Mahatma Gandhi plenty. Not only did she give milk, carefully fonnulates his position regarding but she also made agriculture idol-worship; he does not say that a possible. The cow is a poem of pity. Sanatani Hindu necessarily practices idol­ One reads pity in the gentle animal. worship - he may be practicing worship of She is a mother to millions of Indian the formless nirguna god - but that he /'does mankind. Protection of the cow not disbelieve in idol-worship". . means protection of the whole dumb For Christians and other non-idolatrous creation of God. The ancient seer, people, h~wever, idol-worship ofthe Hindus whoever he was, began with the is the grossest manifestation of error; it is cow. The appeal of the lower order the visible symbol of their state of error, of of creation is all tl1e more forcible the fact that the light of truth has not yet because it is speechless. Cow­ been brought to them. Christians and others protection is the gift of Hinduism to refer to idol-worship by the pejorative term the world. And Hinduism will live of "idolatry;" and they feel a sense of so long as there are Hindus to revulsion against "idolatry." On the other protect the cow. hand, Indians seem aesthetically and ethically violated by the contempt and The other two elements of Mahatma disregard shown by others to what they Gandhi's list of essential disciplines for a worship. Hindu are also deeply rooted in the essential Hindu understanding of creation and man's place in it. Belief in varnashrama dharma and the' Vedas and other classical literature

https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs/vol17/iss1/5 DOI: 10.7825/2164-6279.1314 4 • ., Bajaj and Srinivas: Core Issues of Hindu-Christian Dialgoue: Idol-Worship, Cow-Protection and Conversion Core Issues of Hindu-Christian Dialogue 7

of Indian civilisation is essential to the ministers cntIcIse us let them maintenance of the Hindu way of life in the remember this: If all India stands up world. For Christians and other outsiders and takes all the mud that is at the such beliefs were as loathsome as the bottom of the Indian ocean and worship of idols and the cow. throws it up against the Westem countries, it will not be doing an V. infinitesimal part of that which you are doing to us. This philosophical, aesthetic and ethical conflict over fundamental beliefs and Even a person like Mahatma Gandhi, disciplines of the Hindus seems to have whose tolerance of others is 'legendary, obstructed an open and fruitful dialogue recalls his early encounter with missionary amongst Christians and Hindus at every teaching with dislike. Describing his stage, especially after Christianity began to childhood experience during school at be widely presented to the Indian people Rajkot, he writes:8 from around the beginning of the seventeenth century and much more In those days Christian missionaries intensely from the mid eighteenth century. used to stand in a comer near the The missionaries who began large-scale high school and hold forth, pouring evangelisation in the wake of the imperial abuse on Hindus and their . I conquest ofIndia tended to heap uninhibited could not endure this. I must have insults at all aspects of Hinduism, but stood there to hear them once only, especially on the four tenets listed by but that was enough to dissuade me Mahatma Gandhi and which the Indian from repeating the experience. people held in high reverence. The Church records in India are full of graphic details of And, referring to the conversion of a how the missionaries of different well-known Hindu to Christianity, he says:9 denominations vied with each other in reviling the idols of Indian gods, abusing the It was the talk of the town that, cow, vilifying the system of varnashrama ~ ( when he was baptised, he had to eat dharma and maligning the Vedas and other . beef and drink liquor, that he also sacred texts of India. had to change his clothes and The reviling was so extensive and deep thenceforward he began to go about that even thOse of the Indians who were in European costume including a well-versed, in the fundamentals of other hat. These things got on my nerves. and had an attitude of reverence Surely, thought I, a religion that and 0pelli1ess for the religious experiences compelled one to eat .beef and drink of other people seemed to have been liquor and change one's clothes did repelled. Thus was not deserve the name. I also heard forced to exclaim during his visit to the USA the news that the new convert had in 1894:7 already begun abusing the religion of his ancestors, their customs and You train and educate and pay men their country. All these things to do what? To come over to my created in me a dislike for country to curse and abuse all my Christianity. forefathers, my religion, and everything. They walk near a temple Ordinary Indians did not have the and say, 'You idolators, you will go resources or courage to express their to hell.' ... And whenever your resentment the way Vivekananda or

Published by Digital Commons @ Butler University, 2004 5 Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies, Vol. 17 [2004], Art. 5 I 8 1. K. Bajaj and M. D. Srinivas III I' Mahatma Gandhi could. They perhaps took religion to listen, without moving a ! the missionary revilement of their faith as muscle, to all the attacks you· can some eccentricity that did not deserve make against him: serious reflection, but they were exposed to this revilement even in the holiest and the Church records in India are replete with most public of their places. Louis Rousslet, similar images of missionaries abusing and a French traveller to India, writing in 1876, reviling all that the Hindus considered described the scene near Baba Vishwanath revered and sacred; of these the most temple ofVaranasi thus: lO graphic images are probably of the highly regarded William Carey and other And in what country could such a Serampore preachers standing on the streets spectacle 'be witnessed as that which reviling and abusing Jagannatha, the Lord of met my eyes that day in this square the Worlds, ,against whom the missionaries of Benaras? There, at ten paces from in India had launched a veritable campaign all that the Hindoo holds to be most· across the icontinents.ll sacred in religion, between the Ordinary Indians may not have had the Source of Wisdom and the idol of inclination or the energy to protest such Siva, a Protestant missionary had desecration of what they regarded to be the taken his stand beneath a tree. most sacred. But it certainly left them deeply Mounted on a chair, he was violated. The impression that an ordinary preaching in the Hindostani pious Hindu fonned of Christianity was that language, on the Christian religion of a system of impious practices far and the errors of . I heard removed from what they considered to be his shrill voice, issuing from the religiosity. depths of a formidable shirt-collar, eject these words at the crowd, VI. which respectifully and attentively surrounded him - You are idolators; Even though the Hindus in general do not that block of stone which you seem to have strongly protested against the worship has been taken from a desecration of the images of their gods and quarry, it is no better than the stone the reviling of their sacred texts, they did of my house. indeed repeatedly and strongly pwtest the The reproaches called forth no insistence of Christians, as also of , murmur; .the mIssIonary. was to kill and eat cow in a fairly demonstrable listened to immovably, but his and public manner. Those of the Muslim dissertation was attended to, for rulers who wanted to evolve some kind of every now and then one of the modus vivendi with the Hindus and retain audience would put. a question, to some level of public harmony placed which the brave apostle replied as restrictions on public killing of the cow. best as he could. Perhaps we should Under the British rule, which in the eyes of be disposed to admire the courage of ordinary Indians was but Christian rule, the missionary if the well-known cow-killing became rampant and slaughter toleration of the Hindoos did not houses were opened in the public places defraud him of all his merit; and if is under state protection. This led to a protest this tolerance that most disheartens movement which kept the British Empire in the missionary, one of whom said to India unsteady for more than a decade me - our labours are in vain; you during the relatively quiet period between can never convert a man who has the defeat of the' First Indian War of sufficient conviction in his own Independence of 1857 and the emergence of

https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs/vol17/iss1/5 DOI: 10.7825/2164-6279.1314 L6 > Bajaj and Srinivas: Core Issues of Hindu-Christian Dialgoue: Idol-Worship, Cow-Protection and Conversion Core Issues of Hindu-Christian Dialogue 9

an intense nationalist movement under the today, recalling this Christian religious leadership of Mahatma Gandhi around 1915. attitude of care for the rest of creation is The anti-kine-killing movement essential in order to restrain the intrinsic encompassed the whole of north India; urge of unfettered exploration and constant everywhere it was led by religious leaders of alteration of nature that resides at the core of diverse sampradayas, and everywhere it modem science and technology. However, reflected the exasperation of the ordinary for acquiring a sense of respect for nature Indians with alien religions that were and her autonomy, it is perhaps essential to making the public sphere of India impious in look· up to the Indian attitude of seeing their eyes. 12 The ultimate suppression of this divinity in all creation. movement, without in any way addressing This is a larger issue, which need not be the Indian grievance, seems to have further discussed in further detail here. But, what is alienated the Indian people from significant is that the modem scientific Christianity. It also perhaps created a attitude towards nature, which to a great permanent assocIatIOn in their minds extent is rooted in Christianity, seems not between beef-eating and Christianity, which only strange, but also incomprehensible and was so wide-spread that even Mahatma somehow unwise to even a modem Gandhi seems to have imbibed it in his scientifically trained Indian. The attitude boyhood, as we saw above. would have looked even stranger to ordinary Indians of the eighteenth and nineteenth VII. century, when Christianity began to be offered to Indians at a widespread level. The Indian attitude of experiencing divinity And, it would have further obstructed any in the ordinary secular world, which is meaningful dialogue between ordinary epitomised in idol-worship and respect for Indians and Christianity. the cow, is also reflected in an attitude of respect to all aspects of nature.· The VIII. Christian insistence on looking upon nature as secular, as devoid of all divinity, is at the The Christian insistence on proselytising, on root of the 'modem scientific attitude that bringing others to what they believe to be looks upon nature as an adversary whose the' uniquely true faith, is another major secrets man must unravel in order to control cause of concem regarding Christianity in and conquer it. The attitude was described in India. Indians do indeed move from one graphic language by Francis Bacon, who is sampradaya to another, even to widely considered the first philosopher of sampradayas which sometimes claim to be modem science. Laying down a detailed outside the Hindu or Vaidika fold. But such programme for the conquering of nature, he movements are seldom seen as conversions; advised man to systeluatically torture nature these are in the nature of efforts made by a to force her to yield her secrets, "put nature seeker to move towards a more intense on the rack and compel her to bear religious experience and practice without witness.,,13 relinquishing his inherited cultural or Modem Christianity to some extent spiritual heritage. But conversion to attempts to modulate this adversarial attitude Christianity or is seen as an act of towards nature, by positing that man is repudiation of the heritage. This is so created in the image of the divine and has repugnant to the Indian way, that even been appointed vice-regent of God on earth; someone like Mahatma Gandhi, who was as the vice-regent he has the responsibility the epitome of tolerance, found it to look after and care for the rest of creation, intolerable.!5 to be a good husbandman. 14 For the West

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r! I ii,'", Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies, Vol. 17 [2004], Art. 5 10 J. K. Bajaj and M. D. Sri:p.ivas

The insistence of Christianity to convert 2. Apastamba Dharmasutra restricts the possibility of dialogue at all 2.29.15. levels. This makes Christianity, in the eyes of Indians, not another sampradaya with 3. The Collected Works of which you can discuss and debate, but a Mahatma Gandhi, New Delhi: threat about which you need to be vigilant. Publications Division, Gov. of It is true that in the Indian subcontinent India, Vol 21, p.181. These Christianity has not won converts in any have been published 111 a sizeable numbers, except in certain specific hundred volumes, the first of pockets and amongst specific communities. which appeared in 1958 and the But, the effort and urge to convert makes last in 1994. For a somewhat even the most benign aspects of Christianity more detailed exposition of suspect in the eyes of ordinary Indians, and Mahatma Gandhi as a follower blocks dialogue. of Sanatana Dharma, see J. K. Bajaj, "Relevance of Mahatma IX. Gandhi and His Thought 111 Modem Times," mimeo, June It is not that the Christians have not been 2000. aware of the fundamental difference between the Indian and the Christian 4. The Collected Works of approach towards the ordinary secular Mahatma Gandhi, VoL 21, world. Some of the high Christian p.246. missionaries 111 India have tried to circumvent the problem by raising some of 5. The Collected Works of the Indian idols to the status of Christian Mahatma Gandhi, Vol. 64, . And, in several instances this has p.289. indeed led to Christianity becoming and looking like another Indian sampradaya. 6. The Collected Works of The popular worship of Annai Velankanni in Mahatma Gandhi, cited above, South India is one of the most obvious VoL 21, p.248. examples of this. Perhaps this IS the direction 111 which Christianity needs to 7. Swami Vivekananda's discourse move to ensure a deeper dialogue. on "Hinduism and Christianity" Unlike in the case of idol worship where 111 The Complete Wor[cs of Christians in India have sometimes tried to Swami Vivekananda, Mayavati accommodate the Indian point of view, and Memorial Edition, Calcutta have occasionally succeeded; they have 1989, VoL8, pp.211-212. refused to compromise on their right and duty to convert. Christianity shall probably 8. The Collected Works of have to find a way of giving up this Mahatma Gandhi, Vol. 39, p.32. insistence also, if it is to become a normal religion, of the Indian people with which 9. The Collected Works of they can have an open and uninhibited Mahatma Gandhi, VoL 39, p.33. interaction. 10. Louis Rousslet, India and its Notes Native Princes, published 111 1876; cited here from Ram , I' 1. Taittiriyopanishad 1.11 Goel, History of Hindu­ Christian Encounters (AD 304

https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs/vol17/iss1/5 DOI: 10.7825/2164-6279.1314 8 Bajaj and Srinivas: Core Issues of Hindu-Christian Dialgoue: Idol-Worship, Cow-Protection and Conversion Core Issues of Hindu-Christian Dialogue 11

to 1996), New Delhi: Voice of 13. For a detailed discussion of India, 1996, second edition, pp. Francis Bacon's character­ 94-95. ization of the attitude of modem science towards nature, see, J. 11. Incidentally, the of K. Bajaj, "Francis Bacon: The Independent India issued a First Philosopher of Modem postage stamp on Dr. William Science," in A.Nandi (ed.), Carey in 1993 to mark the Science Hegemony and bicentenary of his arrival in Violence, Delhi: Oxford Univ. India. This is perhaps a measure Press, 1990, pp. 24-67 of the split that has taken place between the perceptions of the 14. F or a Christian articulation of State and the Society in India. this response, see Fr. Casimir See Introduction to 1. Bajaj (ed.) Gnanadickam, "Building Ayodhya and the Future India, Bridges," in Ayodhya and the Chellnai: Centre for Policy Future India, pp.119-149. Studies, 1993, pp.1-46. 15. F or an exhaustive compilation 12. For a collection of selected of Mahatma Gandhi's extended documents on the Anti-Kine- dialogue with Christianity on Killing Movement see the issue of conversion, see Sita Dharampal and T. M. Ram Goel, HistOTY of Hindu­ Mukundan, The British Origin Christian Encounters (note 10 of Cow-slaughter in India, above). Mussoorie, 2002.

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