University of Alberta From Borderlands to Bordered Lands: The Plains Metis and the 49th Parallel, 1869‐1885 by Katie Pollock A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Department of History and Classics ©Katie Pollock Fall 2009 Edmonton, Alberta Permission is hereby granted to the University of Alberta Libraries to reproduce single copies of this thesis and to lend or sell such copies for private, scholarly or scientific research purposes only. Where the thesis is converted to, or otherwise made available in digital form, the University of Alberta will advise potential users of the thesis of these terms. The author reserves all other publication and other rights in association with the copyright in the thesis and, except as herein before provided, neither the thesis nor any substantial portion thereof may be printed or otherwise reproduced in any material form whatsoever without the author's prior written permission. Examining Committee Gerhard Ens, University of Alberta, History and Classics Robert Irwin, University of Alberta, History and Classics Chris Anderson, University of Alberta, Native Studies David Mills, University of Alberta, History and Classics ii For Mom and Dad iii Abstract The following study is an attempt to comprehend the impact that the Canadian‐United States border along the forty‐ninth parallel had on the Plains Metis between 1869 and 1885, and how members of this community continued to manipulate the border to meet their own objectives. From the 1860s to 1880s, state definitions of Metis status, as well as government recognition and non‐recognition of Metis identity, had a profound impact on the Plains Metis. Imposed state classifications and statuses limited the choices of many to enter treaty, be recognised as a citizen, or reside in a particular country. The implementation of these status definitions began after 1875 when the enforcement of the international boundary began in earnest, and it was this enforcement that represented the beginnings of the colonisation of the Plains Metis. iv Acknowledgments This project would not have been possible without the help of many people and institutions. First, I would like to thank Canada’s Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council for providing graduate funding that aided me in the completion of this project. The Department of History and Classics at the University of Alberta was also very supportive. And a special thanks to my examining committee, their feedback has undoubtedly resulted in an improved final product. To Morris Mott, Jim Nayor and Lynn Mackay from Brandon University, who were never ending sources of encouragement throughout the latter half of my undergraduate degree. A special thanks to Sterling Evans, now at the University of Oklahoma, who introduced me to the idea of borderland studies. Also, to Doug Pople at Brandon University who taught me there is much more to Metis history than I had previously been ‘told’, and provoked me on a number of occasions to ask the tough questions. Once at the University of Alberta, a number of people helped see this project to its conclusion. First and foremost, my supervisor, Gerhard Ens who invested countless hours of time and encouragement throughout this entire process. It is this dedication and support that saw this project through to its conclusion. Thank you so much. Beverly Lemire, whose enthusiasm and encouragement challenged me to consider new materials, and David Johnson, who taught me there is more to history than the North American Great Plains. To Melanie and Jim, thank you for your patience and understanding ‐ and for proof reading countless drafts without throwing your hands in the air. To Shannon and Sean, whose cooking and house visits kept me grounded during some of the harder days. My fellow ‘supervisor‐cohort’ ‐ thanks for the laughs and much appreciated insight. And a special thanks to my own graduate cohort of 2006 – the wine and game nights kept us all sane and taught us the importance of maintaining human contact. To Erik Lizee, who not only provided me with the support and encouragement to see this through, but taught me to laugh at myself and that its v okay if you don’t sweat the small things – ‘it could always be worse’. For my little brother, Clayton. Thanks for believing in your big sister – your encouragement always made me smile when times seemed particularly tough. And last, to my mom and dad. Thank you for your unwavering support that began by moving me across the prairies when I decided to embark on this adventure. We’ve been through it all together, and without you, this project would not have been possible. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Examining Committee Page ……………………,,…………………………………………………………. ii Dedication ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… iii Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. iv Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………………………………….… v Table of Contents ……………………………………………………………………………………………... vii List of Figures …………...…………………………………………………………………………………….. viii INTRODUCTION ………………...…………………………………………………………………………….… 1 CHAPTER ONE Plains Metis Historiography and a Borderlands Approach …………………………………… 8 CHAPTER TWO The Plains Metis of the Borderlands ……………………………………………..…………………… 30 CHAPTER THREE Nationalising the Borderlands …………………………………………………………………...……... 49 CHAPTER FOUR Borderland Metis Communities, 1870s – 1880s: A Turtle Mountain Case Study ………………………………………………………….………….……. 74 CONCLUSION ………………………...……………………………………………………………………….. 106 BIBLIOGRAPHY ………..…………………………………………………………………………………….. 110 APPENDICES …….……………………………………………………………………………………………. 122 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Sketch Map 1 of Milk River Borderland Region …………………………..… 50 Figure 2. Sketch Map 2 of American Army scouting expedition to locate Metis camps along Milk River…………….....……….. 59 Figure 3. Sketch Map 3 of American Military scouting expedition to locate Metis camps along Milk River ……………………….. 60 Figure 4. Sketch Map 4 of Turtle Mountain Region ……………………………………… 75 viii Introduction The Canadian‐United States border that divides the western half of Canada and the United States along the forty‐ninth parallel is entirely political in origin. Aboriginal groups utilised this bioregion for decades with little thought of the supposed claims of British and American sovereignty. This border intersected the territory of many aboriginal groups who competed, cooperated, traded, fought with, and hunted across this arbitrarily drawn line. When the American Army and North West Mounted Police began enforcing the boundary in the 1870s, many of these groups were forced to choose a nationality and had their cross‐border movements restricted by both American and Canadian governments, irrevocably changing the meaning of the forty‐ninth parallel by 1885. The international boundary superimposed on the Northern Plains had a profound impact on the traditional territorial claims of aboriginal groups, including the Plains Metis. These nation‐making policies of both the Canadian and American governments in the 1870s restricted their aboriginal populations from traversing the border and subsequently affected their national identities. Despite these directives, the persistent movement of the Plains Metis across the international boundary continued to frustrate both governments. Indian agents, bureaucrats, War Departments and diplomats expressed growing frustration with the Plains Metis who refused to cease their movement across the Northern Plains. For many officials, continued crossing of the forty‐ninth parallel frustrated the attempts of both governments to relegate their aboriginal population to reserves/reservations 1 where they would be nationalised, counted, and financial responsibility for each group designated. In particular, the Plains Metis succeeded in frustrating the nationalising efforts of both governments, as many Metis claimed the Northern Plains as their traditional hunting and wintering territory. The following study is an attempt to comprehend the impact that the Canadian‐United States border along the forty‐ninth parallel had on the Plains Metis between 1869 and 1885, and how members of this community continued to manipulate the border to meet their own objectives. From the 1860s to 1880s, state definitions of Metis status, as well as government recognition and non‐recognition of Metis identity, had a profound impact on the Plains Metis. Imposed state classifications and statuses limited the choices of many to enter treaty, be recognised as a citizen, or reside in a particular country. The implementation of these status definitions began after 1875 when the enforcement of the international boundary began in earnest, and it was this enforcement that represented the beginnings of the colonisation of the Plains Metis. During this period of aboriginal incorporation on both sides of the border, the attempts at forced nationalisation required many Plains Metis to rethink their perceptions of their known world. Whereas the Metis had manipulated the border well before 1870, it now served to reorder their very existence. To discuss these profound changes that occurred in the last half of the nineteenth century, the Plains Metis borderland identity, defined by their relation to the border, has been divided into two phases; the first prior to the mid‐1870s when the Metis were not impinged by the boundary and gave little thought to the border and crossing it, and the second 2 from the mid‐1870s to mid‐1880s