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Home , Black Magic Woman, Euzhan Palcy, Mami Wata, Tanya Hamilton, Tragic mulatto

Notes

Introduction From ‘Tragic ’ to Black Magic Woman: Race, Sex and Religion in Film

1. L.A. Rebellion is a term used to describe a set of African and African American film students at the University of California, Los Angeles during the late 1960s and early 1970s, who committed themselves to the study of non- Western third cinema and who focused their film work on socio- political ideologies similar to that of Latin American and African third cin- ema films. 2. “Third Cinema” primarily produced during the late 1960’s and 1970’s in Latin America, the Caribbean and Africa is the political filmmaking focused on forging postcolonial national identities. 3. Ò. s.un (Oshun, Ochùn) is the female Yorùbá river deity believed to rule love, fertility and female sexuality. 4. O. ya (Oya) is the female Yorùba deity of war, winds, lightning and change. 5. Yemoja (Yemaya, Yemanja) is the Yorùbá female deity, ruler of the sea, fish, hurricanes and symbolises maternity; the Great Mother who cares for all children. 6. A chain of islands off the coast of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. 7. Escaped slaves in [ and other locations] and their descendants. 8. The real social phenomenon of black people going visibly unnoticed in white society and thereby accessing white privilege was considered too shocking for American audiences. 9. ‘’ is the often perceived as derogatory term used for African- based religions in Jamaica. 10. Herskovits’ own 1941 text, The Myth of the Negro Past, establishes the inter- connectedness between West African and African American cultures. 11. This statement is a quotation from ‘The Changing Face of Black Religions’ by Tanu Henry on www.africana.com (Accessed on October 2003). 12. According to Teresa Washington, ‘àbíkú’ means ‘born to die’ in Yorùbá language (2005:283). It is the baby who dies yet whose spirit is continually reborn in the next child to the same woman only to physically die again. This curse gives spiritual meaning to stillbirths and sudden infant deaths.

1 Womanism and Womanist Gaze

1. Quotations are from “Conversation with Alice Walker” by Marianne Schnall on feminist.com (accessed December 2009). 2. Gloria Steinem’s definition of ‘womanism’ and the unique socio- political positionality of black women in the U.S. are accessible on the website www. feminist.com (accessed December 2009).

185 186 Notes

3. The Tontons Macoutes were the Haitian special police force under the direct rule of François ‘Papa Doc’ Duvalier. 4. In 1946, France established as an overseas French département, a subregional administrative area, and gave many in Martinique the hope that greater assimilation into the French nation would eliminate racial discrimination. 5. Haseenah Ebrahim’s essay, “‘’: Re- reading race, class and identity in Zobe’s La rue cases- nègres” was originally published in Literature/ Film Quarterly, online at www.highbeam.com (accessed 7 July 2010). 6. Cric? Crac! is a refrain or invocation used in Afro- Caribbean storytelling. 7. Thomas’ quotations are from “Womanist Theology, Epistemology, and a New Anthropological Paradigm”, online at www.crosscurrents.org (accessed May 2010). 8. Ibid. 9. Steven Spielberg’s quotations regarding The Color Purple are from “Steven Spielberg Says He Softened Lesbian Sex in The Color Purple”, by Jeremy Kinser for www.advocate.com, 5 December 2011.

2 Beauty as Power: In/visible Woman and Womanist Film in Daughters of the Dust

1. Restricted fishing among coastal communities in Accra, is based on stories commonly heard during my years living in Ghana from 1998– 1999 and 2003. 2. Recounting Yorùbá creation narratives as explained to me by Nigerian informants including Dr Abiodun Agboola on my trips to Ile- Ife and Osogbo, in 2001– 2002. 3. Indigo was used during for dyeing clothing but also holds signifi- cance in Yorùbáland, Nigeria associated with Ò. s.un. 4. In Yorùbá- Atlantic, Afro- Cuban Santería, individuals possessed by the spirit of a deity such as O. ya may wear a beaded mask crown covering the face, which signifies that the òrìs.à itself is present. 5. Rainbows are symbolic of O. ya as referring to this deity’s association with rain and the beauty that comes after the storm. 6. The term ‘Voodoo’ is heavily contested as a stereotypical construct devised by Hollywood horror to describe African- derived religions as practised in the United States. Certain scholars and practitioners use the words ‘Vodu’ and ‘Vodun’ as these terms link the religion to its Haitian and Dahomey () origins and connect it to the Fon, Ewe and Yorùbá. However, the term ‘Voodoo’ is used in this research to distinguish between American, Haitian and West African practices. 7. The Underground Railroad was a complex system of escape for runaway slaves to travel to the American North or Canada seeking freedom. Assisted by white abolitionists and former slaves, Harriet Tubman was famous for helping over 300 slaves to freedom, either by leading them herself or others following her path. Tubman is known as the “Moses of her people”. 8. Although white and yellow are colours often associated with Ò. s.un in the , according to Dr Abiodun Agboola in Yorùbáland, Nigeria, indigo is a significant colour linked with Ò. s.un. Notes 187

9. Egungun is the masquerade within Yorùbá culture and religion that embod- ies the collective spirit of the ancestors. 10. In April 2012, Swedish Minister of Culture, Lena Adelsohn Lijeroth, was heavily criticised and called to resign after video clips on World Art Day showed her laughing with other arts patrons as they cut up an installation of a cake shaped as an African woman’s naked body. Lijeroth and fellow patrons cut a chunk of the cake’s clitoris, while screaming as if mirroring female genitalia mutilation. 11. Linda B. Thompson in Beyond the Black Lady discusses Daughters of the Dust and Eve’s Bayou in terms of the historical treatment of gender and sexuality within the black middle class, with black chastity as signifying black human- ity for the striving black middle class. 12. Gwendolyn DuBois Shaw describes the satirical artwork of Kara Walker as encouraging viewers to “see the unspeakable” in terms of the history of rac- ism and sexism in America (2004:9). 13. This assertion regarding Agfa- Gevaert film stock and black skin is similar to the assessment by many black independent filmmakers who prefer Japanese- manufactured Fuji film because of its superiority in photographing non- white skin. 14. Cinema audiences being encouraged to be ‘active participants’ rather than passive consumers is a principle of postcolonial ‘third cinema’ theory.

3 Strange: Voodoo Queens and Hollywood Fantasy in Eve’s Bayou

1. The play Desdemona was performed in 2011 in several cities, including Vienna, Brussels, Berlin and New York, and in 2012 in London. It was a collaboration between Morrison and director Peter Sellars with the play featuring Malian singer Rokia Traoré as the lyrical presence of Desdemona’s African nurse. 2. Passing Strange is a rock musical written by African American musician Stew. The play premiered off- Broadway in 2007 and on Broadway in 2008. The play is also the subject of a Spike Lee documentary, Passing Strange: The Movie released in 2010. 3. Stephen Talty relies on W.E.B. Du Bois’ “deep contact” to examine the his- tory of interracial mixing in American society in Mulatto America. 4. The term “creole” like that of mulatto was used to classify individuals of mixed racial heritage particularly those of African and European back- ground. Creole remains a classification linked to Louisiana particularly to those individuals whose family lineages date back prior to the Louisiana Purchase of the French Territory by the United States in 1803. 5. A Free Man of Color written by John Guare and directed by George C. Wolfe premiered on Broadway in November 2010. 6. ‘’ is the title used in Haitian Vodu and Louisiana Voodoo for a priestess. 7. Every August in the south- western city of Osogbo, Nigeria, hundreds of national and international visitors pay homage to and ask for favours from Ò. s.un, as the Grove is dedicated to her. 8. The syncretism of Ò. s.un in and Santiago is the shrine dedicated to La Caridad (Our Lady of Charity of El Cobre). 188 Notes

9. Based on W.E.B. Du Bois’ notion of the ‘talented tenth’, ‘race men’ are those well- educated, ‘successful’ black men who are best suited to lead the black race on social, political, educational and religious matters. 10. ‘Talented Tenth’ is a terminology first used by W.E.B. Du Bois as a mandate or call to action that the most ‘educated’ of black men amounting to the ‘talented tenth’ percentage have an obligation to be leaders for the rest of the race. 11. Between 1932 and 1972, the U.S. Department of Health conducted a study of poor black men in sharecropping communities in Alabama, half of whom had syphilis. This study was done in order to observe the effects of the disease. The men were never told that they had syphilis nor were they treated with penicillin once it had been medically established that penicillin was safe for treating the disease. The experiment sparked controversy and public pressure towards greater ethical codes in medical experimentation on humans. 12. According to Krin Gabbard’s Black Magic: White Hollywood and African American Culture, Hollywood appropriates ‘blackness’ through white actors’ performance, inclusion of black actors as enablers to white protagonists and/ or elements of black cultural themes.

4 I’ll Fly Away: Baadasssss Mamas and Third Cinema in Sankofa

1. Frantz Fanon in The Wretched of the Earth discusses the importance of the artist in the construction of national culture. This notion of art as part of the postcolonial project informs “third cinema” and a push for film as an apparatus for decolonisation. 2. Akan is the family of ethnicities that the Ashanti belong to. In this context, the term ‘Akan’ refers to the cosmology and indigenous spiritual practices of the Akan. 3. The Akan in Ghana uses Adinkra symbols in artwork as well as adorning items with great significance like a royal stool or materials for regular use such as bowls or T- shirts. Adinkra symbols are designs like that of Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics as images signifying broad concepts. 4. According to Oyeronke Olajubu, “ìyálo. de” is a chieftaincy title granted to a woman of a Yorùbá town, one of the most powerful titles within a given town. At times in Yorùbá history, the ìyálo. de ruled the military and may have competed with other male chiefs for goods (2003:26). 5. Maroon societies are secret compounds in the Caribbean, South America and the American South where during slavery runaway slaves would flee in order to escape the slave plantation. Maroon societies were primarily self- sufficient but were also known for conducting slave raids on plantations, stealing food and taking slave women. 6. “strongblackwoman” is the term used by Michele Wallace in her 1978 work Black Macho and the Myth of the Superwoman, which examines black matriar- chy as constructed during slavery and as a continued notion that dehuman- ises black women as well as underestimates the experiences of oppression that black women face. Notes 189

7. Bollywood refers to the Hindi- language Indian film industry that is the larg- est motion picture industry in the world. 8. Nollywood is the term for the Nigerian film industry that is the world’s third largest motion picture industry. 9. Griot is a West African term with French and Portuguese origins. It is a name given to a praise singer, storyteller or oral historian. 10. Based on the Conference Paper for the Sixth Annual African Studies Consortium Workshop, 2 October 1998, accessed online at http://www. africa.upenn.edu/Workshop/solima98.html. 11. Valdés states that Cuba is acknowledged by the Roman as being majority Santería worshippers despite statistically having a loyal fol- lowing of the Catholic Church.

5 Not Another West Side Story: Nuyorican Women and New Black Realism in I Like It Like That

1. Martin would later direct the film adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston’s Their Eyes Are Watching God (2005). 2. Botanica is a store where Afro- religious totems, candles and potions associ- ated with Santería are sold. It has great significance within Latino communi- ties, as this may also be a place to seek consultation with an Afro- religious diviner. This can be considered a sacred place in the heart of a neighbour- hood, spiritually serving the community. 3. During the 1991 U.S. Senate confirmation hearing of Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas, his former assistant at the U.S. Department of Education and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Anita Hill accused Thomas of sexual harassment and for the first time making the issue of sexual harassment in the workplace a public debate in the U.S. Filmography

A Dry White Season, 1989. [Film] Directed by Euzhan Palcy. USA:MGM. Aladdin, 1992. [Film] Directed by Ron Clements and John Musker. USA: Walt Disney Pictures/Buena Vista Pictures. An Oversimplification of Her Beauty, 2012. [Film] Directed by Terence Nance. USA. Angel Heart, 1987. [Film] Directed by Alan Parker. USA/Canada/UK: Carolco International/Winkast Film/Union. Barravento, 1962. [Film] Directed by Glauber Rocha. : Iglu Filmes. Body and Soul, 1925. [Film] Directed by . USA: Micheaux Film. Bonnie and Clyde, 1967. [Film] Directed by Arthur Penn. USA: Tatira Hiller Productions/Warner Brothers/Seven Arts. Boyz n the Hood, 1991. [Film] Directed by John Singleton. USA: Columbia Pictures. Bulworth, 1998. [Film] Directed by Warren Beatty. USA: Twentieth Century Fox. Burning an Illusion, 1981. [Film] Directed by Menelik Shabazz. UK: British Film Institute (BFI). Bush Mama, 1979. [Film] Directed by Haile Gerima. USA: Mypheduh Productions. Central do Brasil / Central Station, 1998. [Film] Directed by Walter Salles. Brazil/ France: Canal+. Claudine, 1974. [Film] Directed by John Berry. USA: Third World Cinema/ Twentieth Century Fox. Cleopatra Jones, 1973. [Film] Directed by Jack Starrett. USA: Warner Brothers Pictures. Cosmic Slop, 1994. [TV Programme] ‘The First Commandment.’ HBO, 8 November 1994. Daughters of the Dust, 1991. [Film] Directed by Julie Dash. USA/UK: American Playhouse/Geechie Girls/WMG Films. Devil in a Blue Dress, 1995. [Film] Directed by Carl Franklin. USA: TriStar Pictures/ Clinica Estetico/Mundy Land Entertainment. Do the Right Thing, 1989. [Film] Directed by Spike Lee. USA: 40 Acres & A Mule Filmworks. Don’t Be a Menace to South Central While Drinking Your Juice in the Hood, 1996. [Film] Directed by Paris Barclay. USA: Island Pictures/Ivory Way Productions. El otro Francisco/The Other Francisco, 1976. [Film] Directed by Sergio Giral. Cuba: Instituto Cubano del Arte e Industrias Cinematográficos (ICAIC). Eve’s Bayou, 1997. [Film] Directed by Kasi Lemmons. USA: Trimark Pictures/ ChubbCo Film/Addis- Weschsler. Faat Kiné, 2000. [Film] Directed by Ousame Sembène. : Filmi Domireew. Fidel: The Untold Story, 2001. [Film] Directed by Estela Bravo. USA: Bravo Films/ Four Point Entertainment. For Colored Girls, 2010. [Film] Directed by Tyler Perry. USA: Tyler Perry Co./ Lionsgate. Foxy Brown, 1974. [Film] Directed by Jack Hill. USA: American International Pictures (AIP). Friday, 1995. [Film] Directed by F. Gary Grey. USA: New Line Cinema/Priority Films.

190 Filmography 191

Frozen, 2013. [Film] Directed by Chris Buck and Jennifer Lee. USA: Walt Disney Studios Pictures. Gone with the Wind, 1939. [Film] Directed by Victor Fleming. USA: Selznick International Pictures/ Metro- Goldwyn- Mayer. Good Hair, 2009. [Film] Directed by Jeff Stilson. USA: Entertainment/ HBO Films. Guelwaar, 1992. [Film] Directed by Ousmane Sembène. France/Germany/ Senegal: Channel IV. Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner, 1967. [Film] Directed by Stanley Kramer. USA: Columbia Pictures. Gun Hill Road, 2011. [Film] Directed by Rashaad Ernesto Green. USA: SimonSays Entertainment. I Like It Like That, 1994. [Film] Directed by Darnell Martin. USA: Columbia Pictures/Riot of Color/Think Again Productions. I Walked with a , 1943. [Film] Directed by Jacques Tourneur. USA: RKO. I Will Follow, 2011. [Film] Directed by Ava DuVernay. USA: AAFRM. Illusions, 1981. [Film] Directed by Julie Dash. USA: Women Make Movies. I’m Gonna Git You Sucka, 1988. [Film] Directed by Keenan Ivory Wayans. USA: Front Films/Ivory Way Productions/Raymond Katz Productions. Imitation of Life, 1934. [Film] Directed by John Stahl. USA: Universal Pictures. Imitation of Life, 1959. [Film] Directed by Douglas Sirk. USA: Universal International Pictures. In the Shadow of Hollywood: Race Movies & the Birth of Black Cinema, 2007. [Film] Directed by Brad Osborne. USA: AMS Productions Group. Juice, 1992. [Film] Directed by Ernest R. Dickerson. USA: Island World. Just Another Girl on the I.R.T. 1993. [Film] Directed by Leslie Harris. USA: Miramax Films/Trith 24 F.P.S. Kinyarwanda, 2011. [Film] Directed by Alrick Brown. USA: AFFRM. La nuit de la vérité/The Night of Truth, 2004. [Film] Directed by Fanta Régine Nacro. Burkino Faso/France: Les Films Du Defi/France 3 Cinéma. La última cena / The Last Supper, 1976. [Film] Directed by Tomás Gutiérrez Alea. Cuba: Instituto Cubano del Arte e Industrias Cinematográficos (ICAIC). La vida es sibar/Life is to Whistle, 1998. [Film] Directed by Fernando Pérez. Cuba: Instituto Cubano del Arte e Industrias Cinematográficos (ICAIC), Wanda Films. L’extraordinaire destin de Madame Brouette / Madame Brouette, 2002. Film] Directed by Moussa Sene Adsa. Canada/Senegal/France: Les Productions La Fête. L’homme sur les quais/The Man by the Shore, 1993. [Film] Directed by Raoul Peck. France/Canada: Blue Films. Mahogany, 1975. [Film] Directed by Berry Gordy. USA: Motown Productions/ Nikor Productions/Paramount Pictures. Meet Joe Black, 1998. [Film] Directed by Martin Brest. USA: City Light Films/ Universal Pictures. Medicine for Melancholy, 2007. [Film] Directed by . USA: IFC Films. Menace II Society, 1993. [Film] Directed by Albert Hughes and Allen Hughes. USA: New Line Cinema. Middle of Nowhere, 2012. [Film] Directed by Ava DuVernay. USA: AAFRM. Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil, 1997. [Film] Directed by Clint Eastwood. USA: Malpaso Productions/Silver Pictures/Warner Brothers. Mississippi Damned, 2009. [Film] Directed by Tina Mabry. USA: Morgan’s Mark. 192 Filmography

Monster’s Ball, 2001. [Film] Directed by Marc Forster. USA: Lee Daniels Entertainment/Lions Gate Films. Moolaadé, 2004. [Film] Directed by Ousmane Sembène. Senegal/France/ Burkina Faso// Morocco/Tunisia: Ciné- Sud Promotion. Mulan, 1998. [Film] Directed by Tony Bancroft and Barry Cook. USA: Walt Disney Pictures/Buena Vista Pictures. New Jack City, 1991. [Film] Directed by . USA: Warner Brothers/ Jackson- McHenry/Jacmac Films. Night Catches Us, 2010. [Film] Directed by Tanya Hamilton. USA: Magnolia Pictures. Odô Yá! Life with AIDS, 1997. [Film] Directed by Tania Cypriano. Brazil. Filmmaker Library (U.S.). Oggun: An Eternal Presence, 1991. [Film] Directed by Gloria Rolando. Cuba: Center for Cuban Studies, AfroCuba Web (U.S.). Once Upon a Time...When We Were Colored, 1995. [Film] Directed by Tim Reid. USA: BET Pictures/United Image Entertainment. Pariah, 2011. [Film] Directed by Dee Rees. USA: Focus Feature. Passing Strange, 2009. [Film] Directed by Spike Lee. USA: 40 Acres & A Mule Filmworks. Pinky, 1949. [Film] Directed by Elia Kazan. USA: Twentieth Century Fox. Pocahontas, 1995. [Film] Directed by Mike Gabriel and Eric Goldberg. USA: Walt Disney Pictures/Buena Vista Pictures. Poetic Justice, 1993. [Film] Directed by John Singleton. USA: Columbia Pictures/ New Deal Productions/Nickel. Precious: Based on the ‘Push’ by Sapphire, 2009. [Film] Directed by Lee Daniels. USA: Lee Daniels Entertainment/Smokewood Entertainment. Ratatouille, 2007. [Film] Directed by Bard Bird. USA: Walt Disney Pictures/Pixar Animation Studio/Buena Vista Pictures. Restless City, 2012. [Film] Directed by Andrew Dosunmu. USA: AFFRM. Roots, 1977. [TV Programme] ABC, 23 January 1977– 30 January 1977. Rue Case- Nègres / Sugar Cane Alley, 1983. [Film] Directed by Euzhan Palcy. France/ Martinique: NEF Diffusion/Orca Productions/SU.MA.FA. Sankofa, 1993. [Film] Directed by Haile Gerima. Burkina Faso/Germany/ Ghana/ USA/UK: Channel Four Films. Sara Goméz: An Afro- Cuban Filmmaker, 2005. [Film] Directed by Alessandra Muller. Cuba/Switzerland/USA: ArtMattan Productions. School Daze, 1988. [Film] Directed by Spike Lee. USA: 40 Acres & A Mule Filmworks/Columbia Pictures. She’s Gotta Have It, 1986. [Film] Directed by Spike Lee. USA: 40 Acres & A Mule Filmworks. Sometimes in April, 2005. [Film] Directed by Raoul Peck. France/USA: HBO Films. Sweet Sweetback’s Baadasssss Song, 1971. [Film] Directed by Melvin Van Peebles. USA: Yeah. Teza, 2008. [Film] Directed by Haile Gerima. Ethiopia/ Germany/ France: Negod- Gwad Productions. The Believers, 1987. [Film] Directed by John Schlesinger. USA: Orion Pictures. , 1915. [Film] Directed by D.W. Griffith. USA: David W. Griffith Corp./ Epoch Producing Corporation. Filmography 193

The Color Purple, 1985. [Film] Directed by Steven Spielberg. USA: Amblin Entertainment/Warner Brothers Pictures. The Comedians, 1965. [Film] Directed by Peter Glenville. USA/France: Maximillion Productions/ Metro- Goldwyn- Mayer/ Trianon Films. The Curious Case of Benjamin Button, 2008. [Film] Directed by David Fincher. USA: Warner Brothers/ Paramount Pictures/ Kennedy- Marshall Company. The Eyes of the Rainbow, 1997. [Film] Directed by Gloria Rolando. Cuba: Happy Birthday Assata/ AfroCuba Web. The Princess and the Frog, 2009. [Film] Directed by Ron Clements and Jon Musker. USA: Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. Their Eyes Were Watching God, 2005. [TV Film] Directed by Darnell Martin. USA: ABC/ Harpo Films. Touki Bouki, 1973. [Film] Directed by Djibril Diop Mambéty. Senegal: Cinegrit/ Studio Kankourama. Waiting to Exhale, 1995. [Film] Directed by Forest Whitaker. USA: Twentieth Century Fox. Westside Story, 1961. [Film] Directed by Jerome Robbins and Robert Wise. USA: Mirisch Pictures/ United Artist. What Happened in the Tunnel, 1903. [Film] Directed by Edwin S. Porter. USA: Edison Manufacturing Company. White Lies, Black Sheep, 2007. [Film] Directed by James Spooner. USA: Renew Media. Xala, 1975. [Film] Directed by Ousame Sembène. Senegal: Filmi Domireew/ Ste. Me. Production du Senegal. Xica da Silva, 1976. [Film] Directed by Carlos Diegues. Brazil: Enbrafilme/ Terra Filmes. Yelling to the Sky, 2011. [Film] Directed by Victoria Mahoney. USA: MPI Media Group. Bibliography

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A Free Man of Color, 85 Cuban Revolution, 136 àbíkú, 18, 185 Crenshaw, Kimberlé, 45, 46 àjé, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 61, 63 Daniels, Lee, 183 Akan, 109, 113, 118, 131, 188 Davis, Angela, 82, 125 Aláàfin, 146 De Lauretis, Teresa, 76 Alea, Tomás Gutiérrez, 133, Diegues, Carlos, 133, 134 134, 191 Do The Right Thing, 4, 142, 160, Angel Heart, 84, 105, 106, 107, 177, 162, 163, 182, 190, Du Bois, W.E.B., 17, 187, 188 Aristide, Jean-Bertrand, 33 Dunham, Katherine, 15, 17, 18 Asantewaa, Yaa, 113 Duvalier, ‘Papa Doc’, 31, 32, 106, 186 Baartman, Saartjie (Sarah Bartman), DuVernay, Ava, 4, 184 66, 67, 73, 75 Dyer, Richard, 7, 67, 68 Bambara, Toni Cade, 14, 130 Baraka, Amiri, 84, 85, 86, 102 Ès.ù-Eleggua (Eshu, Papa Legba), 18, Barravento, 133 55, 59, 63, 177 Bascom, William, 19, 143 Ellis, Trey, 183 Beloved (novel), 18 Ellison, Ralph, 18, 60, 67, 103 Birth of a Nation, The, 6 , 42, 88, 89 Bluest Eye, The, 13, 95, 98 Erzulie Dantor, 88, 89, 91 Boas, Franz, 15, 16 Erzulie Fréda, 88, 89 Bogle, Donald, 6, 114, 125, 127 Espinosa, Julio García, 135 Blaxploitation, 21, 114, 123, 125, 126, 127, 161, 182, 184 Flores, Juan, 157, 158 Brown, Elaine, 122, 125 Foxy Brown, 21, 125, 126, 182 Bush Mama, 132, 138 Frazier, Franklin E., 84, 96, 97, 98 Friedan, Betty, 25 Candomblé, 51, 71, 133 Frozen, 179 Castro, Fidel, 134, 135 Cinema Nôvô, 133 Gabriel, Teshome, 131, 134 Cleopatra Jones, 21, 114, 125, Gates, Henry Louis, 18, 19 126, 182 Gè.lè.dé. , 145 Collins, Kathleen, 28 George, Nelson, 4 Collins, Patricia Hill, 26, 27, Gettino, Octavio, 129 28, 155 Great Migration, 18, 52, 97, 158 Coltrane, John, 18 Green, Ernesto, 184 Combahee River Collective, 25, 26 griot, 131 Comedians, The, 84, 105, 106, Gullah, 14, 49, 77, 131 107, 182 Congo Square, 86, 87 Haitian Revolution, 85, 130 Cose, Ellis, 94 Hall, Stuart, 10, 11, 16

203 204 Index

Herskovits, Melville, 15, 16, 17, 185 New Black Wave, 4, 47, 142, 180, Hurricane Katrina, 170, 175, 176 183, 184 Huston, Zora Neal, 15, 17, 18, 24, 40, Newton, Huey P., 122 41, 42, 173, 189 Nguvu, Nefertite, 184

Imitation of Life, 5, 7, 8, 9, 178 O. ba, 141, 142, 143, 144 Instituto Cubano de Arte e Industria O. bàtálá, 19, 54, 71, 130 Cinematográfico (ICAIC), 135 Obeah, 15, 104, 118, 131, 185 ìwé. fà, 146 Ògún (Ogun, Oggun), 18, 19, 56, 57, ìyálöde, 113 63, 106, 130 Ogunyemi, Chikwenye Okonjo, Jacobs, Harriet, 124 53, 54 Jafa, Arthur, 77 Once Upon a Time ... When We Were Jelly’s Last Jam, 18, 177 Colored, 95 Jenkins, Barry, 184 oppositional gaze, 4, 7, 20, 44 òrìs.à, 2, 3, 14, 16, 51, 53, 54, 56, L.A. Rebellion, 109, 129, 130, 131, 57, 71, 72, 130, 133, 141, 145, 132, 137, 138 181, 186 Last Supper, The, 134, 137 Ò. s.un (Ochún, Oshun, Oxum), 111, Lasyrenn, 57, 61, 64 112, 113, 115, 119, 135 Latinidad, 141, 142, 154, 156, 157 Othello, 80 Laveau, Marie, 84, 86, 87, 106 Other Francisco, The, 137 La Virgen de la Caridad del Cobre, 2, O. ya (Oya), 2, 51, 56, 57, 69, 71, 74, 87, 135, 187 137, 185, 186 Lee, Spike, 160, 161, 162, 187 Oyewumni, Oyeronke, 3, 54, 116, Lopez, Jennifer, 150, 151, 152 117, 143 Ò. yó. , 146 Mambety, Djbril Diop, 78 mambo, 15, 41, 42, 86, 91, 93, Palcy, Euzhan, 31, 34, 35, 36, 37 105, 187 passing, 5, 6, 8, 9, 23, 80, 81, 83, 84, mami wata, 50, 51, 52, 57, 61, 63 87, 181, 182 Mahogany, 113, 114, 125 Peck, Raoul, 31, 32, 33, 34, 37 Mahoney, Victoria, 184 Perry, Tyler, 183 Mandela, Nelson, 176 Pinky, 6, 7, 8, 9 Matory, J. Lorand, 18, 104, 143, 145 Pleasant, Mary Ellen, 21, 84, 86, Mc Clintock, Anne, 120, 126 87, 88 Middle Passage, 2, 14, 31, 52, 58, 133 post-soul, 13, 20, 95, 142, 164, 184 miscegenation, 1, 8, 21, 81, 83, 84, Precious, 183 86, 103, 110, 112, 173, 174, 178 Public Enemy, 162, 163 Morgan, David, 48 Morrison, Toni, 13, 18, 67, 80, 95, 96, Reed, Ishmael, 18 103, 187, 199 Rees, Dee, 4, 184 Moynihan Report, 121, 122 Reid, Mark A., 24, 27, 28, 29, 31, 46, Mulvey, Laura, 64 47, 49 Reid-Pharr, Robert, 114 Nance, Terence, 184 Rivera, Raquel Z., 151, 152, 154, Neal, Mark Anthony, 13, 95 156, 164 New Black Realism, 4, 21, 22, 140, 143, Rocha, Glauber, 133 160, 161, 162, 164, 165, 166, 189 Rolando, Gloria, 137 Index 205 sacred gaze, 48 Voodoo Queens, 21, 80, 84, 86, 105, S.àngó (Shango, Chango), 19, 37, 56, 109, 177, 181, 187 58, 90, 133, 141, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147 Walker, Alice, 24, 25, 38, 40, 43, Santería, 16, 71, 134, 135, 141, 148, 45, 185 186, 189 Walker, Kara, 75, 76, 187 Schomburg, Arthur, 158 Wallace, Michelle, 165, 20, 121, Sembène, Ousmane, 78, 79, 131 122, 188 Settles, Shani, 39, 57 Watkins, S. Craig, 161, 164 Singleton, John, 161, 164, 166 Wilson, August, 18 Shohat, Ella, 132, 138 What Happened in the Tunnel, 173 Shukur, Assata, 137 Wolfe, George C., 18, 177, 187 Solanas, Fernando, 129 womanist film, 21, 23, 24, 27, 28, Soyinka, Wole, 19 29, 30, 31, 34, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, Steinem, Gloria, 25, 185 64, 74, 76, 77, 80, 92, 119, 140, Sweet Sweetback’s Baadasssss Song, 125 180, 186 syncretism, 15, 16, 17, 187 womanist gaze, 20, 23, 24, 31, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 64, 74, 79, 92, talented tenth, 99, 188 111, 115, 116, 139, 140, 154, 180, Teza (2008), 129, 138 181, 185 Thomas, Linda E., 38, 39, 186 Thomas, Piri, 158 Xica da Silva, 111, 114, 115, 116, 118, Thompson, Robert Farris, 18, 19 119, 133, 134, 137

Underground Railroad, 59, 186 Yemo.ja (Yemanjá, Yemayá), 2, 3, 37, 51, 57, 58, 63, 71, 74, Van Peeble, Melvin, 125 130, 133, 136, 141, 142, 143, Vega, Marta Moreno, 17, 18 145, 146 Voodoo (Vodu, Vodun), 14, 15, 21, 41, Yorùbá-Atlantic, 2, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 42, 54, 57, 82, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 50, 51, 53, 58, 63, 71, 107, 115, 93, 101, 105, 106, 107, 109, 130, 169, 130, 133, 134, 135, 136, 141, 143, 174, 176, 177, 178, 181, 186, 187 181, 186