HasHas ScienceScience eliminatedeliminated ?God?

RichardRichard DawkinsDawkins onon sciencescience andand religionreligion

ProfessorProfessor AlisterAlister McGrathMcGrath OxfordOxford UniversityUniversity RichardRichard DawkinsDawkins RichardRichard DawkinsDawkins (born(born 1941)1941)

TheThe SelfishSelfish GeneGene (1976)(1976) TheThe ExtendedExtended PhenotypePhenotype (1981)(1981) TheThe BlindBlind WatchmakerWatchmaker (1986)(1986) RiverRiver outout ofof EdenEden (1995)(1995) ClimbingClimbing MountMount ImprobableImprobable (1996)(1996) UnweavingUnweaving thethe RainbowRainbow (1998)(1998) AA Devil’sDevil’s ChaplainChaplain (2003)(2003) TheThe Ancestor’sAncestor’s TaleTale (2004)(2004) TheThe GodGod DelusionDelusion (2006)(2006) Dawkins’Dawkins’ fivefive groundsgrounds ofof criticismcriticism ofof religionreligion

1.1. TheThe naturalnatural sciencessciences makemake beliefbelief inin GodGod unnecessaryunnecessary oror impossible.impossible. AlthoughAlthough hintedhinted atat inin TheThe SelfishSelfish GeneGene,, thisthis ideaidea isis developeddeveloped inin detaildetail inin TheThe BlindBlind WatchmakerWatchmaker.. Dawkins’Dawkins’ fivefive groundsgrounds ofof criticismcriticism ofof religionreligion

2.2. ReligionReligion makesmakes assertionsassertions whichwhich areare groundedgrounded inin ,faith, whichwhich representsrepresents aa retreatretreat fromfrom aa rigorous,rigorous, evidenceevidence--basedbased concernconcern forfor truth.truth. ForFor Dawkins,Dawkins, truthtruth isis groundedgrounded inin explicitexplicit proof;proof; anyany formform ofof obscurantismobscurantism oror mysticismmysticism groundedgrounded inin faithfaith isis toto bebe opposedopposed vigorously.vigorously. Dawkins’Dawkins’ fivefive groundsgrounds ofof criticismcriticism ofof religionreligion

3.3. BeliefBelief inin GodGod arisesarises fromfrom aa "","meme", oror aa "virus"virus ofof thethe mind",mind", whichwhich infectsinfects otherwiseotherwise healthyhealthy minds.minds. Dawkins’Dawkins’ fivefive groundsgrounds ofof criticismcriticism ofof religionreligion

4.4. ReligionReligion offersoffers anan impoverishedimpoverished visionvision ofof thethe world.world. "The"The universeuniverse presentedpresented byby organizedorganized religionreligion isis aa pokypoky littlelittle medievalmedieval universe,universe, andand extremelyextremely limited".limited". InIn contrast,contrast, sciencescience offersoffers aa boldbold andand brilliantbrilliant visionvision ofof thethe universeuniverse asas grand,grand, beautiful,beautiful, andand aweawe--inspiring.inspiring. Dawkins’Dawkins’ fivefive groundsgrounds ofof criticismcriticism ofof religionreligion

5.5. ReligionReligion leadsleads toto evil.evil. ThisThis isis aa moral,moral, ratherrather thanthan aa scientific,scientific, objectionobjection toto religion,religion, whichwhich isis deeplydeeply rootedrooted withinwithin westernwestern cultureculture andand history.history. SomeSome historicalhistorical backgroundbackground ...... TheThe PerpetuationPerpetuation ofof MythsMyths

TwoTwo mythsmyths lielie behindbehind Dawkins’Dawkins’ approach:approach: 1.1. ScienceScience andand religionreligion areare engagedengaged inin aa warfarewarfare fromfrom whichwhich onlyonly oneone cancan emergeemerge asas victoriousvictorious 2.2. HistoricalHistorical mythsmyths –– suchsuch asas thethe legendarylegendary accountaccount ofof thethe debatedebate betweenbetween WilberforceWilberforce andand HuxleyHuxley atat OxfordOxford –– castcast aa lingeringlingering shadowshadow overover contemporarycontemporary discussionsdiscussions WilberforceWilberforce andand HuxleyHuxley WilberforceWilberforce andand HuxleyHuxley

Mrs Isabella Sidgewick’s recollections of 1898

II waswas happyhappy enoughenough toto bebe presentpresent onon thethe memorablememorable occasionoccasion atat OxfordOxford whenwhen MrMr HuxleyHuxley beardedbearded BishopBishop Wilberforce.Wilberforce...... TheThe BishopBishop rose,rose, andand beggedbegged toto know,know, waswas itit throughthrough hishis grandfathergrandfather oror hishis grandmothergrandmother thatthat hehe claimedclaimed descentdescent fromfrom aa monkey?monkey? JohnJohn R.R. Lucas,Lucas, "Wilberforce"Wilberforce andand Huxley:Huxley: AA LegendaryLegendary Encounter."Encounter." HistoricalHistorical JournalJournal 2222 (1979):(1979): 313313-- 30.30. RespondingResponding toto DawkinsDawkins

1.1. AreAre sciencescience andand religionreligion inin conflict?conflict? 2.2. TheThe relationrelation ofof faithfaith andand evidenceevidence 3.3. IsIs religionreligion aa virusvirus ofof thethe mind?mind? 4.4. DoesDoes religionreligion impoverishimpoverish ourour appreciationappreciation ofof nature?nature? 5.5. WhyWhy isis religionreligion suchsuch aa badbad thing?thing? 1.1. DoesDoes sciencescience leadlead toto ?atheism?

WhyWhy shouldshould sciencescience leadlead toto atheism?atheism? IfIf anything,anything, itit leadsleads toto agnosticism,agnosticism, oror anan understandingunderstanding ofof God’sGod’s relationshiprelationship withwith thethe worldworld basedbased onon secondarysecondary causalitycausality –– suchsuch asas thatthat developeddeveloped byby ThomasThomas AquinasAquinas inin thethe thirteenththirteenth century.century. DoesDoes sciencescience leadlead toto atheism?atheism?

TheThe problem:problem: AtAt thethe mostmost generalgeneral level,level, thethe scientificscientific methodmethod isis incapableincapable ofof decidingdeciding whetherwhether therethere isis aa GodGod oror not.not. SoSo whywhy doesdoes DawkinsDawkins insistinsist thatthat thethe sciencessciences leadlead toto atheismatheism?? DoDo theythey necessarilynecessarily leadlead toto anyany specificspecific beliefbelief system?system? Theism?Theism? Atheism?Atheism? T.H.T.H. HuxleyHuxley onon AgnosticismAgnosticism

SomeSome twentytwenty yearsyears ago,ago, oror thereabouts,thereabouts, II inventedinvented thethe wordword "Agnostic""Agnostic" toto denotedenote peoplepeople who,who, likelike myself,myself, confessconfess themselvesthemselves toto bebe hopelesslyhopelessly ignorantignorant concerningconcerning aa varietyvariety ofof matters,matters, aboutabout whichwhich metaphysiciansmetaphysicians andand theologians,theologians, bothboth orthodoxorthodox andand heterodox,heterodox, dogmatisedogmatise withwith utmostutmost confidence.confidence. T.H.T.H. HuxleyHuxley onon AgnosticismAgnosticism

AgnosticismAgnosticism isis ofof thethe essenceessence ofof science,science, whetherwhether ancientancient oror modern.modern. ItIt simplysimply meansmeans thatthat aa manman shallshall notnot saysay hehe knowsknows oror believesbelieves thatthat whichwhich hehe hashas nono scientificscientific groundsgrounds forfor professingprofessing toto knowknow oror believe.believe. .. .. ConsequentlyConsequently AgnosticismAgnosticism putsputs asideaside notnot onlyonly thethe greatergreater partpart ofof popularpopular ,theology, butbut alsoalso thethe greatergreater partpart ofof antianti--theology.theology. StephenStephen JayJay GouldGould

America’sAmerica’s foremostforemost evolutionaryevolutionary biologistbiologist DiedDied 2002,2002, agedaged 60,60, fromfrom lunglung cancercancer StephenStephen JayJay GouldGould

ToTo saysay itit forfor allall mymy colleaguescolleagues andand forfor thethe umpteenthumpteenth millionthmillionth time:time: sciencescience simplysimply cannotcannot (by(by itsits legitimatelegitimate methods)methods) adjudicateadjudicate thethe issueissue ofof GodGod’’ss possiblepossible superintendencesuperintendence ofof nature.nature. WeWe neitherneither affirmaffirm nornor denydeny it;it; wewe simplysimply cancan’’tt commentcomment onon itit asas scientists.scientists. StephenStephen JayJay GouldGould

EitherEither halfhalf mymy colleaguescolleagues areare enormouslyenormously stupid,stupid, oror elseelse thethe sciencescience ofof DarwinismDarwinism isis fullyfully compatiblecompatible withwith conventionalconventional religiousreligious beliefsbeliefs –– andand equallyequally compatiblecompatible withwith atheism.atheism. Dawkins’Dawkins’ response?response?

“I“I simplysimply dodo notnot believebelieve thatthat GouldGould couldcould possiblypossibly havehave meantmeant muchmuch ofof whatwhat hehe wrotewrote inin RocksRocks ofof AgesAges.”.”

TheThe GodGod DelusionDelusion,, 57.57. 2.2. DawkinsDawkins onon FaithFaith

FaithFaith "means"means blindblind trust,trust, inin thethe absenceabsence ofof evidence,evidence, eveneven inin thethe teethteeth ofof evidence."evidence."

The Selfish , 198. DawkinsDawkins onon FaithFaith

FaithFaith isis thethe greatgreat copcop--out,out, thethe greatgreat excuseexcuse toto evadeevade thethe needneed toto thinkthink andand evaluateevaluate evidence.evidence. FaithFaith isis beliefbelief inin spitespite of,of, eveneven perhapsperhaps becausebecause of,of, thethe lacklack ofof evidence.evidence...... FaithFaith isis notnot allowedallowed toto justifyjustify itselfitself byby argument.argument. W.W. H.H. GriffithGriffith--ThomasThomas onon FaithFaith [Faith][Faith] affectsaffects thethe wholewhole ofof man’sman’s nature.nature. ItIt commencescommences withwith thethe convictionconviction ofof thethe mindmind basedbased onon adequateadequate evidence;evidence; itit continuescontinues inin thethe confidenceconfidence ofof thethe heartheart oror emotionsemotions basedbased onon conviction,conviction, andand itit isis crownedcrowned inin thethe consentconsent ofof thethe will,will, byby meansmeans ofof whichwhich thethe convictionconviction andand confidenceconfidence areare expressedexpressed inin conduct.conduct. FaithFaith andand ProofProof

CanCan God’sGod’s existenceexistence bebe proved?proved? OrOr disproved?disproved? ArgumentsArguments aboutabout God’sGod’s existenceexistence havehave beenbeen stalematedstalemated forfor generationsgenerations AtheismAtheism andand theismtheism areare bothboth ;faiths; neitherneither cancan proveprove theirtheir casecase withwith totaltotal certainty.certainty. IfIf thethe naturalnatural sciencessciences necessitatenecessitate neitherneither atheismatheism nornor religiousreligious faith,faith, wewe seemseem toto havehave twotwo broadbroad optionsoptions aboutabout beliefbelief inin God:God: 1.1. TheThe questionquestion lieslies beyondbeyond resolution;resolution; 2.2. TheThe questionquestion hashas toto bebe resolvedresolved onon otherother groundsgrounds InferenceInference toto bestbest explanationexplanation

GilbertGilbert Harman,Harman, "The"The InferenceInference toto thethe BestBest Explanation."Explanation." PhilosophicalPhilosophical ReviewReview 7474 (1965):(1965): 8888--95.95.

MoreMore recentrecent explorationsexplorations include:include: PeterPeter Lipton,Lipton, InferenceInference toto thethe bestbest explanationexplanation.. London:London: RoutledgeRoutledge,, 2004.2004. ““InferenceInference toto thethe bestbest explanation”explanation” IdeaIdea developeddeveloped byby GilbertGilbert HarmanHarman ThereThere areare manymany potentialpotential explanationsexplanations ofof thethe worldworld SoSo whichwhich offersoffers thethe bestbest fit?fit? TheThe simplest?simplest? TheThe mostmost elegant?elegant? NotNot aa knockknock--downdown argumentargument –– butbut anan importantimportant attemptattempt toto evaluateevaluate howhow wewe makemake sensesense ofof complexcomplex situationssituations TheThe ideaidea ofof "empirical"empirical fit"fit"

WhatWhat worldviewworldview makesmakes mostmost sensesense ofof whatwhat wewe observeobserve inin thethe world?world? WhatWhat "big"big picture"picture" offersoffers thethe bestbest accountaccount ofof whatwhat wewe experience?experience? “Inference“Inference toto thethe bestbest explanation"explanation" isis aboutabout workingworking outout whichwhich explanationexplanation isis thethe mostmost satisfyingsatisfying TheThe ideaidea ofof "empirical"empirical fit"fit"

RichardRichard Dawkins:Dawkins:

"The"The universeuniverse wewe observeobserve hashas preciselyprecisely thethe propertiesproperties wewe shouldshould expectexpect ifif therethere is,is, atat bottom,bottom, nono design,design, nono purpose,purpose, nono evilevil andand nono good,good, nothingnothing butbut blindblind pitilesspitiless indifference."indifference."

River out of Eden, 133. TheThe ideaidea ofof "empirical"empirical fit"fit"

C.C. S.S. Lewis:Lewis:

"I"I believebelieve inin ChristianityChristianity asas II believebelieve thatthat thethe SunSun hashas risenrisen –– notnot onlyonly becausebecause II seesee it,it, butbut becausebecause byby it,it, II seesee everythingeverything else."else."

C.S. Lewis, "Is theology poetry?", in Essay Collection and Other Short Pieces. London: HarperCollins, 2000, 10-21; 21. TheThe limitslimits ofof sciencescience

DawkinsDawkins arguesargues thatthat sciencescience provesproves thingsthings withwith certaintycertainty AnythingAnything worthworth knowingknowing cancan bebe provedproved byby sciencescience EverythingEverything elseelse –– especiallyespecially beliefbelief inin God!God! –– isis justjust delusion,delusion, wishfulwishful thinking,thinking, oror madnessmadness ScienceScience andand Knowledge:Knowledge: OneOne ViewpointViewpoint

"Whatever"Whatever knowledgeknowledge isis attainable,attainable, mustmust bebe attainedattained byby scientificscientific methods;methods; andand whatwhat sciencescience cannotcannot discover,discover, mankindmankind cannotcannot know."know." BertrandBertrand RussellRussell ScienceScience andand Knowledge:Knowledge: AnotherAnother ViewpointViewpoint "The"The existenceexistence ofof aa limitlimit toto sciencescience is,is, however,however, mademade clearclear byby itsits inabilityinability toto answeranswer childlikechildlike elementaryelementary questionsquestions havinghaving toto dodo withwith firstfirst andand lastlast thingsthings –– questionsquestions suchsuch asas "How"How diddid everythingeverything begin?";begin?"; "What"What areare wewe allall herehere for?";for?"; "What"What isis thethe pointpoint ofof living?"living?" PeterPeter Medawar,Medawar, winnerwinner ofof thethe 19601960 NobelNobel prizeprize forfor medicine.medicine. AA qquestionuestion ......

IfIf thethe sciencessciences areare inferentialinferential inin theirtheir methodology,methodology, howhow cancan DawkinsDawkins presentpresent atheismatheism asas thethe certaincertain outcomeoutcome ofof thethe scientificscientific project?project?

RichardRichard Feynman:Feynman: scientificscientific knowledgeknowledge isis aa bodybody ofof statementsstatements ofof varyingvarying degreedegree ofof certaintycertainty –– somesome mostmost unsure,unsure, somesome nearlynearly sure,sure, butbut nonenone absolutelyabsolutely certain.certain. TimothyTimothy Shanahan,Shanahan, "Methodological"Methodological andand ContextualContextual FactorsFactors inin thethe Dawkins/GouldDawkins/Gould DisputeDispute overover EvolutionaryEvolutionary Progress."Progress." StudiesStudies inin HistoryHistory andand PhilosophyPhilosophy ofof ScienceScience 3131 (2001):(2001): 127127--51.51. 3.3. IsIs GodGod aa VirusVirus ofof thethe Mind?Mind? OrOr aa “meme”?“meme”? GodGod asas aa virus?virus?

ProblemProblem 1:1:

RealReal virusesviruses cancan bebe seenseen –– forfor example,example, usingusing cryocryo--electronelectron microscopy.microscopy. DawkinsDawkins’’ culturalcultural oror religiousreligious virusesviruses areare simplysimply hypotheses.hypotheses. ThereThere isis nono observationalobservational evidenceevidence forfor theirtheir existence.existence. TobaccoTobacco MosaicMosaic VirusVirus GodGod asas aa virus?virus?

ProblemProblem 2:2:

OnOn thethe basisbasis ofof Dawkins’Dawkins’ criteria,criteria, isn’tisn’t atheismatheism alsoalso aa virusvirus ofof thethe mind?mind? HeHe hashas nono objective,objective, scientificscientific methodmethod forfor distinguishingdistinguishing betweenbetween hishis ownown faithfaith (atheism)(atheism) andand thatthat ofof othersothers (such(such asas ).Christianity). AreAre allall beliefsbeliefs “viruses“viruses ofof thethe mind”?mind”? DawkinsDawkins holdsholds thatthat beliefbelief inin GodGod isis aa “virus“virus ofof thethe mind”.mind”. ButBut therethere areare manymany otherother beliefsbeliefs thatthat cannotcannot bebe provenproven –– includingincluding atheismatheism DawkinsDawkins endsends upup makingmaking thethe totallytotally subjective,subjective, unscientific,unscientific, argumentargument thatthat hishis ownown beliefsbeliefs areare notnot “viruses”,“viruses”, butbut thosethose hehe dislikesdislikes are.are. DawkinsDawkins onon thethe ScopeScope ofof DarwinismDarwinism

““Darwinism isis tootoo bigbig aa theorytheory toto bebe confinedconfined toto thethe narrownarrow contextcontext ofof thethe gene”gene”..

SoSo howhow cancan DarwinismDarwinism bebe extendedextended beyondbeyond thethe domaindomain ofof biology?biology? TheThe “meme”“meme”

InIn 1976,1976, DawkinsDawkins inventedinvented thethe conceptconcept ofof thethe “meme”“meme” asas anan explanationexplanation forfor howhow ideasideas areare transmittedtransmitted HeHe arguesargues therethere isis aa veryvery effective,effective, “God“God-- meme”meme” whichwhich makesmakes peoplepeople believebelieve inin GodGod VeryVery influentialinfluential idea!idea! TheThe “meme”“meme”

BUTBUT 1.1. Where’sWhere’s thethe science?science? What’sWhat’s thethe experimentalexperimental evidenceevidence forfor ?memes? 2.2. OnOn thethe basisbasis ofof Dawkins’Dawkins’ flawedflawed argument,argument, isn’tisn’t atheismatheism alsoalso thethe resultresult ofof aa meme?meme? SimonSimon ConwayConway--MorrisMorris onon MemesMemes ““MemesMemes areare trivial,trivial, toto bebe banishedbanished byby simplesimple mentalmental exercises.exercises. InIn anyany widerwider context,context, theythey areare hopelessly,hopelessly, ifif notnot hilariously,hilariously, simplistic.simplistic. ToTo conjureconjure upup memesmemes notnot onlyonly revealsreveals aa strangestrange imprecisionimprecision ofof thought,thought, but,but, asas AnthonyAnthony O’HearO’Hear hashas remarked,remarked, ifif memesmemes reallyreally existedexisted theythey wouldwould ultimatelyultimately denydeny thethe realityreality ofof reflectivereflective thought.”thought.” 4.4. ReligionReligion impoverishesimpoverishes ourour viewview ofof thethe universeuniverse

OneOne ofof DawkinsDawkins’’ persistentpersistent complaintscomplaints aboutabout religionreligion isis thatthat itit isis aestheticallyaesthetically deficient.deficient. ItsIts viewview ofof thethe universeuniverse isis limited,limited, impoverishedimpoverished andand unworthyunworthy ofof thethe wonderfulwonderful realityreality knownknown byby thethe sciencessciences ReligionReligion offersoffers aa ‘poky’‘poky’ viewview ofof thethe universeuniverse TheThe universeuniverse isis genuinelygenuinely mysterious,mysterious, grand,grand, beautiful,beautiful, aweawe--inspiring.inspiring. TheThe kindskinds ofof viewsviews ofof thethe universeuniverse whichwhich religiousreligious peoplepeople havehave traditionallytraditionally embracedembraced havehave beenbeen puny,puny, pathetic,pathetic, andand measlymeasly inin comparisoncomparison toto thethe wayway thethe universeuniverse actuallyactually is.is. TheThe universeuniverse presentedpresented byby organizedorganized religionsreligions isis aa pokypoky littlelittle medievalmedieval universe,universe, andand extremelyextremely limited.limited. TheThe NurembergNuremberg ChronicleChronicle (1493)(1493)

RespondingResponding toto thisthis criticismcriticism

AA ChristianChristian approachapproach toto naturenature identifiesidentifies threethree waysways inin whichwhich aa sensesense ofof aweawe comescomes aboutabout inin responseresponse toto whatwhat wewe observe.observe. 1.1. AnAn immediateimmediate sensesense ofof wonderwonder atat thethe beautybeauty ofof nature.nature. ThisThis isis evokedevoked immediatelyimmediately.. II cancan seesee nono goodgood reasonreason forfor suggestingsuggesting thatthat believingbelieving inin GodGod diminishesdiminishes thisthis sensesense ofof wonder.wonder. 2.2. AA sensesense ofof wonderwonder atat thethe mathematicalmathematical oror theoreticaltheoretical representationrepresentation ofof realityreality whichwhich arisesarises fromfrom this.this. ButBut whywhy doesdoes ChristianChristian faithfaith havehave anyany problemproblem withwith this?this? TheThe casecase ofof JamesJames ClerkClerk MaxwellMaxwell

AA TreatiseTreatise onon ElectricityElectricity andand MagnetismMagnetism (1873(1873 )) 3.3. ForFor thethe Christian,Christian, therethere isis anan additionaladditional sensesense ofof wonderwonder becausebecause thethe creationcreation bearsbears witnesswitness toto itsits creator,creator, "The"The heavensheavens declaredeclare thethe gloryglory ofof thethe Lord!"Lord!" (Psalm(Psalm 19:1).19:1). ForFor Christians,Christians, toto experienceexperience thethe beautybeauty ofof creationcreation isis aa signsign oror pointerpointer toto thethe gloryglory ofof God,God, andand isis toto bebe particularlyparticularly cherishedcherished forfor thisthis reason.reason. 5.5. ReligionReligion isis aa badbad thingthing

DawkinsDawkins rightlyrightly pointspoints outout thatthat religionreligion hashas causedcaused lotslots ofof problemsproblems –– suchsuch asas intoleranceintolerance andand violenceviolence ButBut soso diddid atheismatheism inin thethe twentiethtwentieth centurycentury –– witnesswitness itsits attemptsattempts toto forciblyforcibly eliminateeliminate religionreligion TheThe realreal truthtruth isis thatthat beliefsbeliefs (religious(religious oror atheist)atheist) cancan makemake peoplepeople dodo somesome veryvery goodgood andand veryvery badbad things.things. ReligionReligion andand ViolenceViolence

ReligionReligion providesprovides aa transcendenttranscendent motivationmotivation forfor violenceviolence ButBut whatwhat aboutabout transcendentalizationtranscendentalization ofof humanhuman values?values? ExampleExample ofof MadameMadame RolandRoland (executed(executed 1793)1793) “Liberty,“Liberty, whatwhat crimescrimes areare committedcommitted inin youryour name!”name!” ReligionReligion isis aa badbad thingthing

NowNow "science"science hashas nono methodsmethods forfor decidingdeciding whatwhat isis ethical."ethical." -- AA DevilDevil’’ss ChaplainChaplain,, 34.34.

SoSo howhow dodo wewe determinedetermine thatthat religionreligion isis "bad""bad" empiricallyempirically?? W.W. R.R. MillerMiller andand C.C. E.E. ThoresonThoreson.. "Spirituality,"Spirituality, ReligionReligion andand Health:Health: AnAn EmergingEmerging ResearchResearch Field."Field." AmericanAmerican PsychologistPsychologist 5858 (2003):(2003): 2424--35.35. AA keykey reviewreview ofof thethe field:field:

HaroldHarold G.G. KoenigKoenig andand HarveyHarvey J.J. Cohen.Cohen. TheThe LinkLink betweenbetween ReligionReligion andand HealthHealth :: PsychoneuroimmunologyPsychoneuroimmunology andand thethe FaithFaith FactorFactor.. Oxford:Oxford: OxfordOxford UniversityUniversity Press,Press, 20012001 OfOf 100100 evidenceevidence--basedbased studies:studies: 7979 reportedreported atat leastleast oneone positivepositive correlationcorrelation betweenbetween religiousreligious involvementinvolvement andand wellbeing;wellbeing; 1313 foundfound nono meaningfulmeaningful associationassociation betweenbetween religionreligion andand wellbeing;wellbeing; 77 foundfound mixedmixed oror complexcomplex associationsassociations betweenbetween religionreligion andand wellbeing;wellbeing; 11 foundfound aa negativenegative associationassociation betweenbetween religionreligion andand wellbeing.wellbeing. AlisterAlister E.E. McGrath,McGrath, "Spirituality"Spirituality andand wellwell-- being:being: somesome recentrecent discussions."discussions." Brain:Brain: AA JournalJournal ofof NeurologyNeurology 129129 (2006):(2006): 278278--82.82. ForFor furtherfurther reading,reading, withwith fullfull sourcingsourcing andand detailsdetails ofof secondarysecondary studies,studies, seesee AlisterAlister E.E. McGrath,McGrath, Dawkins’Dawkins’ God:God: ,Genes, MemesMemes andand thethe MeaningMeaning ofof LifeLife.. BlackwellBlackwell Publishing,Publishing, 2004.2004. AA responseresponse toto Dawkin’sDawkin’s GodGod DelusionDelusion ““TheThe DawkinsDawkins Delusion?”Delusion?” hashas becomebecome aa nationalnational bestsellerbestseller ..