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MACADAMIA NUT (Macadamia integrifolia)

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M. K. Verma Ashok Yadav Indian Agricultural Research Institute ICAR-Central Agroforestry Research Institute, Jhansi Uttar Pradesh

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The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. CHAPTER 28 MACADAMIA NUT (Macadamia integrifolia) M.K. Verma, Ashok Yadav, Nayan Deepak G., K. Usha and Sunil Kumar

1. INTRODUCTION CONTENTS The Macadamia nut, is known by several names like Queensland nut, Australian nut, 1. Introduction ...... 583 Bopple nut, Bauple nut, popple nut, kindal, 2. History, Origin and Distribution ...... 584 boombera, burrawang (Hardner et al., 3. Area and Production ...... 585 2005) and considered as world finest 4. Taxonomy ...... 585 nut. The Macadamia nut, M. integrifolia 5. Species ...... 586 is a relative newcomer among crop plants 6. Cultivars ...... 588 of the world. It is the first and only native 7. Propagation ...... 591 food plant of Australia, which has 8. Cultivation ...... 592 achieved the status of a commercial crop. 9. Quality Characteristics and Maximum commercial development has Maturity Indices ...... 601 taken place in Hawaii during the last 60 10. Harvesting ...... 601 years (Sharma et al., 2015). It is mainly 11. Yield ...... 601 grown in tropical climates of Australia, 12. Post Harvest Management ...... 602 Brazil, Indonesia, Kenya, New Zealand 13. Value Addition ...... 603 and South Africa. Among these Australia 14. Trade and Marketing ...... 603 is the largest producer of Macadamia 15. Effect of Climate Change on nuts; whereas, nut in the Hawaii are the Macadamia Nut...... 604 most delicious in taste and their delicate 16. Future Research Plan ...... 605 flavour and crunchy texture makes them 17. Organic Cultivation ...... 605 a delight to consume. It is a dark green spreading semi hard wood tree and can grow up to 20 meters (Duke, 2001). Nutritive value of macadamia nut has been presented in the Table 1. Macadamia nuts are world’s most delicious nut with small in size, crispy buttery flavoured nuts. Apart from being delicious, these nuts are good sources of protein and minerals with sweet in taste and can be eaten either raw from the shell, dry roasted or 584 MINOR FRUITS: NUTRACEUTICAL IMPORTANCE AND CULTIVATION cooked in oil. Macadamia nuts are a high energy food, commonly used in preparations of cakes, confectionery, ice cream, salads, roasts and casseroles to enhance the savour. Macadamia nuts are one of the only food sources that contain palmitoleic acid. Palmitoleic acid is a beneficiary fatty acid, found higher in human liver. These acid increases insulin sensitivity by suppressing inflammation, as well as inhibits the destruction of insulin secreting pancreatic beta cells.

Table 1: Nutritive value of the Macadamia nut

Nutrient Value Nutrient Value Nutrient Value Energy 718 Kcal Pyridoxine 0.275 mg Manganese 4.131 mg Carbohydrates 13.82 g Riboflavin 0.162 mg Phosphorus 188 mg Protein 7.91 g Thiamin 1.195 mg Selenium 3.6 mcg Total Fat 75.77 g Vitamin A 0 IU Zinc 1.30 mg Cholesterol 0 mg Vitamin C 1.2 mg Sodium 5 mg Dietary Fiber 8.6 g Vitamin E 0.24 mg Potassium 368 mg Folates 11 mcg Calcium 85 mg Phyto­sterols 116 mcg Niacin 2.473 mg Copper 0.756 mg ß­sitosterol 108 mcg Pantothenic acid 0.758 mg Iron 3.69 mg

Source: USDA National Nutrient data base (www.nutrition­and­you.com)

2. HISTORY, ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION The macadamia nut has originated in Australia, more precisely in the rain forests of the south­eastern Queensland and north­eastern New South Wales whereas he present day macadamia nut is credited to have developed in Hawaii, and from there the crop further moved to East Africa. Isolated tree of this nut are found in number of south­ east­Asian countries. In the 1850’s, a German­Australian physician and botanist called Ferdinand von Mueller discovered the macadamia nut and decided to name the genus after a colleague. His name was John Macadam. Von Mueller was a noted chemist and physician who encouraged macadamia nut cultivation. The macadamia genus consists of eight species, two of which produce nuts which are a viable food source. This genus of flowering trees is found in the family Proteaceae, and most of them actually produce poisonous or inedible nuts. They are mainly found in Australia with a species or two growing in Indonesia and New Caledonia. Macadamia nuts trees were imported to Hawaii for cultivation in the 1880s for growing as a windbreak and later in 1930; its commercial potential for dessert nut was developed by university of Hawaii. Nowadays, most macadamia plantations thrive in Hawaii. It is distribute mainly in tropical climates of Australia, Brazil, Indonesia, Peru, Fiji, Kenya, Israel, Colombia, Venezuela, New Zealand, South Africa and Tanzania. MACADAMIA NUT 585 3. AREA AND PRODUCTION Presently Australia and Hawaii are the largest producing areas of macadamia with others including eastern and southern Africa, and Central and Latin America. Northern New South Wales and south­eastern Queensland are the region having high production of macadamia nuts in Australia. Hawaii accounting 70 percent of total macadamia production worldwide followed by Australia, around 22 percent, rest is produced by other countries including Malawi, South Africa, Kenya, Guatemala, Mexico, Brazil, Costa Rica, New Zealand, California and China.

4. TAXONOMY It belongs to the family Proteaceae of which about 1000 species exist including the Banksias, Grevilleas, Stenocarpus, Dryandra, Hakea and Telope (Mc Conachie, 1980~ BenJeecov and Silber, 2006). Proteaceae, is an ancient angiosperm family whose initial differentiation from ancestral forms occurred in the southeast of Australia 90­100 million years ago. The family is well known for other genera such as Banksia, Grevillea, and Hakea. Proteaceae appear to have been a major component of the early angiosperm dominated rainforests which once covered most of Australia. Macadamia were probably widely distributed within these early forests as evidenced by macadamia type fossil pollen recorded in sediments in southeast Australia, central coastal Queensland and New Zealand. Kingdom: Plantae Phylum: Magnoliophyta Class: Magnoliopsida Order: Proteales Family: Proteaceae Genus: Macadamia Species: (i) integrifolia, (ii) ternifolia, (iii) tetraphylla

4.1. Cytogenetic All three species have the identical somatic chromosome number of 2n = 28. This report was the first on the chromosome numbers of M. ternifolia and M. tetraphylla. These numbers were determined from root tips of M. ternifolia and M. tetraphylla seedlings, and from dividing microsporocytes in M. tetraphylla. The chromosome number of M. integrifolia was first reported by Darlington and Wylie (1955) as 2n = 28 (56), as a previously unpublished number determined by Ukio Urata of the University of Hawaii. The 56 in parentheses refers to a clone, Y279, which was discovered to be tetraploid. Later, Urata (1954) published the numbers as n = 14 and n = 28. 586 MINOR FRUITS: NUTRACEUTICAL IMPORTANCE AND CULTIVATION 5. SPECIES According to Costello et al. (2008) the genus consists of nine species. The species native to Australia are Macadamia integrifolia, M. tetraphylla, M. ternifolia, M. jansenii, M. whelani, M. claudiensis and M. grandis, whereas M neurophylla is native to New Caledonia and M. hildebrandii is native to Sulawesi in Indonesia. However, only the smooth shelled (Macadamia integrifolia) and the rough shelled (Macadamia tetraphylla) are cultivated for their edible nuts (Peace et al., 2003) as M. ternifolia produces tiny nuts with a bitter flavoured kernel (Mc Conachie, 1980). The two edible Macadamia species are classified according to among other characteristics, number of leaves in a nodal whorl (phyllotaxy), leaf type, leaf marginal serrations and colour of new growth (Ryan, 2006). The Genus Macadamia (family­Proteaceae), as presently understood, comprises ten species of tropical and subtropical evergreen trees (Table 2).

Table 2: List of Macadamia species

S.No. Species Origin 1 M. hildebrandii Steenis Celebes 2 M. Rousselii (Veill.) Sleumer New Caledonia 3 M. veillardii (Brongn. and Gris.) Sleumer 4 M. francii (Guill.) Sleumer 5 M. whelani F.M. Bail. Eastern Australia 6 M. ternifolia F. Muell. 7 M. integrifolia Maiden and Betche 8 M. tetraphylla LAS. Johnson 9 M. prealta (F. Muell.) F. M. Bail 10 M. heyana (F. M. Bail.) Sleumer

Description of the Macadamia species 5.1. Macadamia integrifolia (Queensland/Australian nut; bush nut; nut oak; Bauple nut; smooth shell nut) Plant: Trees are vigorous with dark green foliage, strong crotches and ascending rather than spreading branch structure. ‘Kakea’ as well as ‘Keaau’ and ‘Kau’, the most recently introduced cultivars, have more upright growth habits than Keauhou and ‘Ikaika’, which have spreading growth habits. A more upright growth habit permits closer planting within the row and thus more trees per acre. Individuals are often multi stemmed with small crowns. Leaves: The simple obovate to narrowly oblong leaves are arranged in whorls of three or opposite, and 5.5cm to 14cm long by 2.5cm to 6cm wide (Stanley and Ross, 2002). Blade tips are rounded and finish in a short sharp point~ the base tapers to petioles 5 to 10mm long. Flowers: Axillary creamy white flowers are arranged in brush like hanging racemes 10 to 30cm long. Flowering period is August to October with kernel MACADAMIA NUT 587 maturation from December to March, with mature nuts falling to the ground thereafter. Fruits: Rounded fruits are green, 2.5 to 3.5cm wide with a hard brown inner shell protecting the edible nut.

5.2. Macadamia jansenii (Bulburin nut tree) Plant: The plant are small, single or multi­stemmed tree 69m tall, with generally smooth bark dotted with prominent lenticels (Halford, 1997). Leaves: The leaves are oblanceolate to oblongelliptic and are generally arranged in whorls of three and 10­18cm long with an acute apex, tapered base and wavy margins (Harden et al., 2006). Net venation on leaf blades is distinct on both surfaces, especially when held up to the light. Petioles are 2­14mm long. Flowers: The flowers are creamy brownish having sepals that are 79 mm long~ flowers have been observed in July and September. Fruits: The globose fruit are 20­25mm in diameter. The kernel is mildly cyanogenetic and not edible

5.3. Macadamia ternifolia (Gympie nut, Marcoochy nut, Small fruited Queensland nut) Plant: The trees are perennial with 6 m tall, with brown branchlets dotted with raised lenticels (Hauser and Blok, 1992). Leaves: The leaves are simple, narrow oblong to narrow elliptical leaves are arranged in whorls of three, and 10­12cm long~ new growth is pinkish red. Blade tips are pointed and the base tapers to petioles 3 to 13mm long (Stanley and Ross, 2002). Flowers: Axillary pinkish flowers are arranged in brush like hanging racemes 420 cm long. Flowering period is August to September with fruiting occurring from March to April (Hauser and Blok, 1992). Fruits: Compressed rounded fruits are greyish, 1.52cm long with a hard inner shell protecting the edible nut. The seed kernel is cyanogenetic (presence of poisonous cyanide radicals) and not edible.

5.4. Macadamia tetraphylla (Spiny leaf macadamia; rough shell Queensland nut; bush nut) Plant: Tree is a perennial 18m tall, with greyish brown branchlets dotted with pale elongated lenticels (Hauser and Blok 1992). Leaves: The simple oblong lanceolate leaves are arranged in whorls of three to four, 620cm long and 24cm wide. Blade tips are pointed, margins sharply serrated and petioles are 28m long (Stanley and Ross 2002). New leaves of M. tetraphylla are bright red in colour, whereas those of M. integrifolia are light green. 588 MINOR FRUITS: NUTRACEUTICAL IMPORTANCE AND CULTIVATION

Flowers: Axillary pinkish purple flowers are arranged in brush like hanging racemes 15­ 45cm long. Flowering period is August to September with fruit maturing and falling from March (Hauser and Blok 1992). Fruits: The fruit are compressed rounded with greyish green, 23.5cm wide with a hard inner shell protecting the nut. The seed kernel is edible and not cyanogenetic.

6. CULTIVARS 6.1. Beaumont (Dr. Beaumont) It is a hybrid (Macadamia integrifolia x M. tetraphylla) commercial variety, widely planted in Australia and New Zealand. The cultivar was discovered by Dr. J. H. Beaumont. It is high in oil, but is not sweet. New leaves are reddish, flowers are bright pink, borne on long racemes. It is one of the quickest varieties to come into bearing once planted in the orchard, usually carrying a useful crop by the fourth year, and improving from then on. It crops prodigiously when well pollinated. The impressive, grapelike clusters are sometimes so heavy they break the branchlet to which they are attached. In commercial orchards, it has reached 18 kg nuts per tree by eight years old. On the downside, the macadamias do not drop from the tree when ripe, and the leaves are a bit prickly when one reaches into the interior of the tree during harvest. Its shell is easier to open than that of most commercial varieties. Shell medium thick, kernel 40 per cent of nut, with a high percentage of Grade A kernels.

6.2. Burdick M. tetraphylla. Originated in Encinitas, Calif. Large nut, averaging 40 per pound. Shell thin, about 1/16 inches thick, well filled. Kernel recovery averages about 34 per cent of total nut weight, quality good. It matures in October. Tree bears annually. Not widely planted these days and has been replaced by better cultivars. Also used as a rootstock.

6.3. Cate M. tetraphylla. Originated on the property of William R. Cate, Malibu, California. Nuts medium to large. Shell with average thickness. Kernels 40 per cent of nut, cream colour, crisp in texture, flavour good to very good. Ripens in late October and November continuing over a period of 6 to 8 weeks. Tree precocious, moderately hardy, shows no alternate bearing tendency. The most widely adapted cultivar for commercial use in California.

6.4. Dorado M. integrifolia. Originated in Hawaii. Introduced by Rancho Nuez Nursery. Mediumsized, uniform nuts, 7/8 to 1 inch in diameter. Kernel averages 35 per cent of nut, oil content 75 per cent. Tree medium tall, upright, attractive. Begins to bear after 5 years, self­harvesting, cold resistant. Very productive, often yielding 65 or more pounds of nuts per year. MACADAMIA NUT 589 6.5. Elimbah Originated in Australia. Imported into California by E. Westree. Thin shells. Kernel averages 45­50 per cent of nut. The tree has attractive white flowers, comes into bearing very quickly, is very productive, and has a relatively thin shell. Variety have tendency to drop nuts year round.

6.6. James M. integrifolia. Originated in La Habra Heights, California. Medium sized, uniform nuts, about 1 inch in diameter. Kernel averages 40 to 42 per cent of nut, quality high, flavor very well, oil content 75 per cent. Tree very tall, columnar, precocious, often producing after 2 or 3 years. Self harvesting. Yields more per acre than any other California cultivar, 60 or more pounds per tree when mature.

6.7. Keaau M. integrifolia. Originated in Lawai Valley, Kalaheo, Kauai, Hawaii. Medium sized nut, averaging about 80 nuts per pound~ Shell smooth, medium brown, thin. Kernel 42­46 per cent of nut, color light cream, quality good. Season August to November. Tree moderately vigorous, upright, very productive.

6.8. Keauhou M. integrifolia. Originated in Kona, Hawaii by W.B. Storey. Medium to large nut, averaging about 54 nuts per pound. Shell very slightly pebbled, medium thick. Kernel 37 to 40 per cent of nut, quality tends to vary in different locations. Harvest season relatively short, with most of the crop maturing within about 3 months. Tree vigorous, yields well, extremely resistant to anthracnose.

6.9. Vista Hybrid originated in Rancho Santa Fe, California by Cliff Tanner. Small to medium sized nut, 3/4 to 7/8 inch in diameter. Kernel averages 46 per cent of weight of nut, flavor excellent, oil content 75 per cent. Shell very thin, can be cracked in an ordinary hand cracker. Tree medium sized, pyramidal, begins to bear after 3 years. Self harvesting. Flowers pink. Recommended for both home garden and commercial plantings.

6.10. Waimanalo (M. integrifolia) Originated at the Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, Waimanalo, Hawaii. Large nuts, occasionally with twin halves. Shell relatively thick. Kernel 38 per cent of nut, flavor good, oil content 75 per cent. Tree medium sized, pyramidal, productive, begins to bear after 5 years. Produces nuts in large clusters. Resistant to frost and disease. Grows well in cooler climates, particularly near the ocean. Also yields good crops in the inland. 590 MINOR FRUITS: NUTRACEUTICAL IMPORTANCE AND CULTIVATION 6.11. PA39 One 7 year old tree of this variety gave 33 kg. The kernel is clean and attractive. It gives 95 per cent Grade A kernel, with a crack out of 40 per cent. Another great virtue is that the nuts drop when ripe. It combines well with Beaumont as a pollinator. It is a small compact tree, very prickly, and very susceptible to green shield bug. PA39 is one of Brian Piper’s selections.

6.12. GT1 A good self or cross pollinator which can crop heavily with smaller nuts and may require extra feeding. The nut is small and of good quality, with a high oil content. The kernel is clean and attractive, and the crack out is high. The tree is less dense and prone to wind damage.

6.13. GT2 A Gordon Titirangi selection. This nut has a thin shell, so rat depredation and shield bug damage are both real problems. Nine year old trees gave 8 kg per tree.

6.14. GT201 A Gordon Titirangi selection, useful as a pollinator for Beaumont, has good nut quality.

6.15. GT207 A Gordon Titirangi selection. Beverly has only just planted this variety, has 100 per cent grade 1 nut at Woodhill.

6.16. Own Choice A Hawaiian variety produces the best quality nut .The crack out is 32 per cent. Nine year old trees produced 22 kg per tree, nuts do not drop when ripe. It is a good pollinator for Beaumont, and appears to be largely self fertile on their orchard. Another good variety for the domestic garden with good self or cross pollination, large nuts and few prickles. Tends to crop inconsistently and year round not of much use commercially.

6.17. Maroochy A pure M. tetraphylla variety from Australia, is cultivated for its productive crop yield, flavor, and suitability for pollinating ‘Beaumont’. Seven year old trees produced 75 kg.

6.18. Nutty Glen An Australian hybrid selection. The nut is large and of good quality also popular as a rootstock. MACADAMIA NUT 591 6.19. Nelmac I It is quite a light cropper, a 10 year old tree yielding an average of 8 kg. It is a month late in flowering, which may be hindering its pollination effect on Beaumont and its own cropping. However, if the pollination could be corrected, it would be a very good variety because the nuts drop when ripe. Although the nut is slightly elliptical which makes cracking awkward, and has a low crack out because of the thick shell, processors like this variety because of the high quality kernel. It has a bland taste like the Hawaiian nuts, and high oil content.

6.20. Nelmac II It is a popular variety because of its pollination of Beaumont, and the yields are almost comparable. It appears to be susceptible to iron chlorosis, with bleached leaves showing up in early summer when the tree is under stress. It has a sweet nut, which means that it has to be cooked carefully so that the sugars do not caramelise. The sweet nut does not taste good when processed, but people who eat it uncooked relish the taste. The nut is too big for processors, and has an open micropyle (hole in the shell) which lets in mould. The crack out percentage is high. Ten year old trees average 22 kg per tree.

6.21. Renown A M. integrifolia / M. tetraphylla hybrid, this is a rather spreading tree. It is high yielding (commercially, 17 kg from a 9 year old tree has been recorded), and the macadamias drop to the ground however it is thick shelled, and with not much flavour. It is often used as parent in breeding new varieties. Its good characteristics include the yield (17 kg from 9 year old trees), the fact that it drops when ripe, and a kernel of quite good quality. The nut is elliptical, so is difficult to handle for processing. The crack out is only 33 per cent.

7. PROPAGATION 7.1. Seed propagation Select fresh, medium sized seeds from the elite trees. Soak the seeds in water for 1 day and discard the floating ones. Seeds will germinate after 8 weeks of sowing at high soil temperatures (30 – 35 0C ) and moisture levels (90 %). When temperature falls below 24 0 C, germination time extends. Use sand or organic matter as media for germination and it avoids water logging. Harden the seedlings before transplanting to the main fields. Seedlings take 8 to 10 years for start commercial bearing.

7.2. Vegetative propagation Macadamia can be vegetative propagated by budding, softwood cutting, air­layering and grafting but, grafting method is common. Grafting methods followed are simple whip, side graft, tip, wedge or cleft. Grafting has to be done in spring or autumn for better results. 592 MINOR FRUITS: NUTRACEUTICAL IMPORTANCE AND CULTIVATION

The scion wood as M. integrifolia is preferred for the best nuts production and rootstock is M. tetraphylla for its resistance to diseases (trunk canker and anthracnose). The rootstock to be used for grafting should be usually seedlings of 9­12 months old with at least a diameter of 1­1.3 cm. Some grafted varieties of macadamias begin bearing within 2 years, while others not before 7 to 8 years.

7.3. Micro‐propagation Tissue culture techniques help in easy and rapid introduction of new varieties, production of disease free plants, ease of propagation and uniformity in plants. Micro­propagation directly from meristem of shoot tips and axillary buds is used for regeneration of true­to­ type plant in macadamia nut. Bhalla and Mulwa (2001) developed an efficient micro­ propagation system in macadamia nut which would be valuable in facilitating quicker multiplication of new rootstock and scion varieties. Single node sections along with dormant axillary buds were taken from the new growth of two­year old grafted plants of Macadamia tetraphylla. After surface sterilisation and culture initiation using MS medium for explants were exposed to different levels of BA (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 8 mg l ­1 ). The developing shoots were sub­cultured every four weeks and the new shoots exceeding 15 mm in length were taken for studying rooting experiments and the number of shoots produced at each subculture interval was recorded to determine the total number of shoots produced per explant in every treatment. Optimum BA level (2 mgl ­1) from the above experiment was combined with varying concentrations of GA3 (0, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 0.8 and 1.0 mg l­1) to determine an optimum shoot elongation treatment. The regenerated shoots were exposed to medium containing different levels of IBA (1, 2 and 3 mgl­1) for root induction. Bud break and shoot numbers were significant reduced in the lowest (0.5 mgl ­1) and higher (4 and 8 mg l­1) concentrations of BA tested whereas bud response and shoot growth was recorded highest percentage in the medium containing 2 mgl­1 BA. Bhalla and Mulwa (2001) observed increase in shoot lengths with increasing concentrations of BA in the medium. A maximum mean shoot length of 1.6 cm at 2 mgl ­1 BA was obtained. These shoots were used for rooting experiments. In vitro rooting experiments showed very inconsistent results due to high incidences of shoot tip necrosis.

7.4. Rejuvenation and Top working This is usually done at a convenient height, 2 to 4 feet above ground level. This operation is done to reduce tree height or to change the genotype with desirable one. Grafting is followed for top working.

8. CULTIVATION 8. 1. Soils and climatic requirements Macadamia can be grown in wide range of soils but performs well in red soils rich in manganese with well drainage, deep and fertile (organic matter). Avoid planting in poor MACADAMIA NUT 593 drained clay soils. The soil pH of 5 – 6.5 is suitable for growth and development. Area receiving 60­120 inches of rainfall per year is ideal and can be grown at an elevation of 1500­3,500 feet above the sea level. Temperature ranges from 15 0C to 30 0C is ideal for plant growth and flower formation occurs at 18 0C . At higher temperatures decline in production and quality of kernel deteriorates. At low temperatures vegetative growth is seized and if the temperature drops below 1.5 0C , the trees are killed by frost. Trees won’t require chilling for flowering and a seasonal change in temperature may help to synchronize bloom. Avoid planting in extreme windy sites as macadamia wood is brittle in nature. Train the plants at younger age and use windbreaks like leguminous species or Silver oak to prevent wind movement. Avoid planting in shady areas.

8.2. Land/ pit preparation Before orchard selection, soil analysis has to be done for better orchard management. In some areas there are serious problem of chlorosis which is caused by deficiency of ca and phosphate, there is need to correct it. So, if the soils are lacking calcium and phosphate at initial level during planting, there is need to apply lime and phosphate at that time only. Soil analysis helps in calculation of fertilizer requirement. Clear the land, if slope is there make it into level. Dig the 60 cm 3 pits three weeks before planting. Pits are dug in September and October.

8.3. Spacing Planting should be spaced at 7m apart within row with 3­5 m between rows for upright varieties. For spreading cultivar, planting is done at 10m apart within the row with 6m between the rows. Spacing also depends on soil, variety, climatic conditions, etc.

8.4. Planting Remove the top soil and mix with manure and other required manures. Select healthy seedlings free from pest, diseases and abnormalities. After placing the seedling in pit refill the top soil mixed with the manure to bottom and sub soil on top. Add neem or pongamia cake into pit where termite problem is there. Finally give stalk to avoid damage from wind and for better standing. Apply water around the plant.

8.5. Training and pruning At early stages training is necessary to maintain good framework for future growth. Macadamia produces several leaders but, need to leave only strong ones and rest has to be removed. The frame work for a strong, well­balanced tree can only be established while the tree is young. Remove shoots growing in rootstocks where grafts are used. It is desirable to have a spacing of ½ to 2 feet between sets of main branches. Remove the flowers till plant attains good stature. 594 MINOR FRUITS: NUTRACEUTICAL IMPORTANCE AND CULTIVATION

Pruning of matured macadamia trees is very important to reduce the amount of unproductive woods in turn allows new productive vegetative flush. When pruning, suckers which are on the rootstock that is below the grafting union should be removed during the months of July to August. If there is no lateral branches after two years of planting, the head of the tree should be pruned at least 80cm high. Prune the abnormal, pest and disease infects branches.

8.6. Intercropping At early stages of planting intercrops can grow in between space. Although macadamia­ Arabica coffee intercropping under rainfed conditions has been shown to produce positive results with irrigation (Perdona et al., 2015).

8.7. Irrigation Proper and regular irrigation has to be given at early stages of growth and development. Premature nut drop is a major problem in warm dry regions where, high temperature with water stress will be there. The critical stage of irrigation is from the beginning of August until the end of November. Over irrigation from May to July may hinder flowering. Provide timely irrigation based on soil condition to get quality and quantity yield.

8.8. Weeding Weeds compete for water, light, space, nutrients and also harbor pests and diseases. Therefore timely remove weeds either manually or mechanically. By adopting drip or basin irrigation system there will be reduced weed growth and high water use efficiency.

8.9. Mulching Organic and inorganic mulch can be applied but organic one is economical. Mulching suppresses weed growth, retains moisture, maintains micro climate for micro­organisms and also acts as cushion while harvesting fruits. Dry and chopped grass, crop residues and leaves can be used for mulching and they should be placed in a basin leaving a radius of 10 to 15cm from the stem and the thickness should be 10­15cm again. Barner grass, macadamia husks, fowl manure and bagasse mulch were compared in a demonstration trial under 10­year­old trees with macadamia decline symptoms. It showed that the application of macadamia husks resulted in the best response in the trees, with increased root growth and improved tree health (Anon., 2013).

8.10. Frost Protection Young trees are more prone to frost than mature ones. Wrap the young plants with plastic over a frame around. As the trees get larger, they are more difficult to cover, but they also become more tolerant of mild frosts. MACADAMIA NUT 595 8.11. Fertilizer management Apply fertilizer after plant attaining a year, broadcast in the drip area that is 15­20cm from the stem. This fertilizer should be applied following rains. In case of non rainy period artificial irrigation has to be given after fertilizer application. N.P.K should be applied in split applications particularly during the months of November to December. Soil and leaf analysis provides clear indication of nutrients requirement.

Table 3: Fertilizer application recommendations for Macadamia (g/tree)

Option 1 Option 2 Age of tree CAN Triple Muriate of Compound Muriate of (Year) superphosphate potash (15­5­20) potash 1 100 20 125 185 65 2 200 40 250 370 130 3 300 60 375 555 190 4 400 80 500 740 260 5 500 100 625 925 320 6 600 120 750 1,110 380 7 700 140 875 1,295 450 8 800 160 1,000 1,480 510 9 900 180 1,125 1,665 570 10 1,000 200 1,250 1,850 630 11 1,100 220 1,500 2,035 700 12 1,200 240 1,625 2,220 760 13 1,300 260 1,750 2,405 830 14 1,400 280 1,875 2,590 890 15 1,500 300 2,000 2,775 950 16 1,600 320 2,000 2,960 1,020

(Source: Anon., 2012)

8.12. Insect‐ pests and their management Macadamia nut is infested by various pest during it life cycle. For better management of pest, weekly monitoring of the pests during flowering and fruiting should be done. Macadamia pests are infesting the tree at three different stages A. Flowering stage: Flowers are damaged by Black citrus aphids (Toxoptera aurantii), Broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus), Blue butterfly (Morpho peleides), and Loopers (Anacamptodes fragilaria). The pests can be controlled by insecticides like Endosulfan 35EC, Propineb 50 EC, etc. 596 MINOR FRUITS: NUTRACEUTICAL IMPORTANCE AND CULTIVATION

B. Fruit formation stage: At this stage Yellow spotted bug (Bathycoelia rhodaini), Mosquito bug (Heloppeltis species) and Coreid bug (Leptocaria sordida) are noticed. These insect­pests are controlled by spraying with Endosulfan 35 EC, Fenitrothion 50 EC, etc. C. Nut maturity stage: Macadamia nut borer (Cryptophlebia batrachopa), False codling moth (Cryptophlebia leucotreta), Litchi moth (Cryptophleabia peltastica) and carob moth (Spectrobates ceratoniae) are important at nut maturity stage. The pests are controlled by insecticides like Cypermerthrin 20 EC, etc.

8.12.1. Nut borer Nut borer can bore into the green husks of nuts or it feed on the kernels. Susceptibility varies in cultivars depending on hardness and thickness of the shell. The infected nut can be identified by a small hole in the husk surrounded by excreta. Affected nuts, especially young developing nuts, usually drop as a result of damage to the husks. However, it can be avoid by growing fairly resistant cultivars (Nelmak 1, Nelmak 2 and the Hawaiian cultivars).

8.12.2. Stinkbugs In Africa, stinkbugs are the most important pest on macadamias causing losses up to 80 pre cent. The damage is caused by 20 different type’s stinkbugs among them the important types are: two­spotted stinkbug, green vegetable stinkbug, small green stinkbug, coconut stinkbug, spotted stinkbug, yellow­spotted stinkbug and yellow­edged stinkbug. Stinkbugs can be controlled chemically through cypermethrin and endosulfan. For reduction of the original population size of stink bug spraying of cypermethrin must be given after flowering. Majorly stinkbugs have four generations per year and each generation causes a different type of damage to the nuts.

S. No. Stinkbugs generation Occurrence Damage of plant part 1 Spring generation August to September Occur during or after flowering and can cause extensive flower and fruit drop. 2 Summer generation December It causes damage at the time of fruit development and just before the fruit reaches to mature size. 3 Autumn generation February to March It mainly feeds on the nuts before and during harvest. Although it causes lesions on the nut kernel, no fruit drop occurs 4 Winter generation December end to January It doesn’t cause problems because most nuts are harvested, hardness of the shell prevent stinkbug feeding and also they are not very active during this season MACADAMIA NUT 597 8.12.3. Southern Green Stinkbug (Nezara viridula) Its attack leads to premature nut drop and kernel damage. The stinkbug inserts its hollow needle­like mouthpart into the nut and injects saliva into the kernel. Enzymes in the saliva damage the tissue around the tip of the mouthparts and the bug consumes the liquid. This feeding activity causes pitting of the kernel. Nuts infested on the ground may also have white or brown discoloring. The damage can be seen year­round but majorly damage is observed from July to September. The variation in infestations is due difference in environmental conditions. The stinkbugs reproduction and development stages occur on the weeds while it feeds on macadamia tree if their primary food plants become unavailable. It can be control by spray of endosulphan and malathion.

8.12.4. Litchi Fruit Moth (C. ombrodelta) It bores into the nut causing premature nut fall and damaging the kernel. Nut quality is diminished and production is decreased. The damage mainly occurs during the oil accumulation period whereas the insects are prevalent year­round. Heavy premature nut drop results from May to mid of the August. It effectively controlled by spray of Azadirachtin.

8.12. 5. Red‐banded thrips (Selenothrips rubrocinctus) It damages is mainly restricted to the outer surface of nuts having no impact on maturation, nut drop or nut quality. In severe infestation bronzing symptom appears on the leaf. Pest pressures from this pest may be greater at lower elevations. It mainly occurs in end of the harvest season, but they are present in orchards year­round. In the nursery it affects the development of rootstock and grafted macadamia nut seedlings by suppressing seedling growth during the first six months where seedling height will be 10­12 inches tall (when growth is normally slow). It can be chemically controlled by malathion.

8.12.6. Red & Black Flat Mites (Brevipalpus phoenicis) & Broad Mites (Polyphagotarsonemus latus) The both flat and broad mites are abundantly found in macadamia growing areas feeding on the foliage, flowers and nuts. The damage flowers and infested flowers do not set nuts. They are most prevalent during growth flushes which occur after a period of dry weather. The infection by broad mites results in silvering of husks whereas flat mites results bronzing of husks. They can be chemically controlled by spaying with Microthiol.

8.12.7. Hawaiian flower thrips (Thrips hawaiiensis) It is widespread throughout macadamia growing areas. It is chemically controlled by spray of Malathion. 598 MINOR FRUITS: NUTRACEUTICAL IMPORTANCE AND CULTIVATION 8.12.8. Secondary pests In spite of major pests, numerous other insects are associated with macadamia nut production. The secondary pests which are commonly found in macadamia nut are broad mite, red­ banded thrips, Hawaiian flower thrips, black citrus aphid, katydids, various scales and whiteflies, and flat mite. The secondary pests’ seriousness varies dramatically in orchards due to abnormality in cultural practices (fertilizer application and pruning), weather conditions (temperature & humidity), alternate host plants surrounding the orchard, or pesticide use.

8.13. Diseases and their control measures 8.13.1. Macadamia Root Rot (C.O. Armillariella mellea) Due to the soil borne nature of fungus, the infection starts from the root system which later extends toward upwards resulting into complete death of the plants. Root rottening results due to covering of white mycelial growth on the roots. Spread of the disease from tree to tree occurs by root contact. The temperatures varying from 8 oC to 22 oC along with wet soils having a high proportion of woody debris facilitates rapid spread of the fungus and again. Before digging holes for planting, all woody roots debris must be removed and burnt.

8.13.2. Blossom Blight (C.O. Botrytis cinerea) It is a fungal disease which is prevalent especially in the winter months. High humidity and temperature about 16 oC to 22 oC favours the development of the blossom blight disease. Old orchards and high density planting are most susceptible because of reduced air circulation. The affected flowers becomes blighted having grey to brownish powdery substances and do not develop into mature fruits. It can be controlled by spraying Benomyl 50 EC or Propineb 50 EC which can also be used with Endosulfan 35 EC or Endosulfan 47.5 EC

8.13.3. Anthracnose (C.O. Glomerella cingulata) The fungal pathogen mainly affects the leaves, twigs and the nut. Leaves dropping and die back of the twigs takes place with the advancement of the disease. The disease is spread by wind and infected leaves and twigs which fall of the plant acting as a source of inoculums in the following season. Removing and burning all dead twigs, branches and leaves may results in control of the disease.

8.13. 4. Husk spot (C.O. Pseudocercospora macadamiae) Initially chlorotic to yellow flecks symptom appear on the husks which enlarge and develop tan brown in the centres. Later the lesions coalesce and develop diffuse bright MACADAMIA NUT 599 yellow halos and may develop inside the husk but shells and kernels remain unaffected. The spores are spread from infected husks by water splash and diseased husks may produce spores for up two years. Remove the old and diseased husks from the tree to reduce inoculum levels.

8.14. Physiological disorders 8.14.1. Tree Decline It is a major disorder in macadamia nut. So many factors like low organic matter levels in soil, deficit nutrients, drought, root exposure due to soil erosion, root death in shallow marginal soils, heavy crop loads, pests and diseases are responsible for this disorder.

8.14.1.1. Management practices

G Good orchard management.

G Pruning – Prune affected parts to generate new flush. Apply foliar fertilizers at regular intervals for new leaves.

G Mulching – Based on availability and cost, apply organic or inorganic mulch just 50 cm away and around the trunk. Don’t apply mulch near to trunk because mulch hosts for pests and there may be chances of trunk canker infestation and pest attack.

G Apply recommended dose of organic and inorganic fertilizers, and go for regular soil and leaf analysis.

G To prevent soil erosion, adapt drip or channel irrigation system for watering.

G Avoid planting in shallow lands or after mounding go for planting.

G Regular checking and management of pests and diseases.

8.14.2. Abnormal vertical growth (AVG) The cause for this disorder is not yet unknown may be due to genetic factor. This disorder has observed in dry areas of Queensland and New South Wales, and deep well drained red soils. HAES 344 is the most susceptible variety. Symptoms – Upright branch growth, reduction in flowering which leads to low yield.

8.14.2.1. Management practices

G Avoid planting in dry regions or after correcting the possible factors like limit water infiltration, water retention and root growth go for planting.

G Go for suitable irrigation system.

G Avoid planting susceptible varieties or plant spreading varieties.

G Maintain optimum soil conditions, regular application of manures and fertilizers. 600 MINOR FRUITS: NUTRACEUTICAL IMPORTANCE AND CULTIVATION 8.15. Use of plant growth regulators 8.15.1. Auxin Williams, (1980) tested for reducing immature fruit drop of macadamia but no effects were found on the initial or final numbers of fruit set per raceme when an auxin, i.e. naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) was used at different concentration (1, 10, or 100 mg L ­1 ).

8.15.2. Gibberellins Gibberellins also play important role in flower and fruit development, and fruits often contain high level of endogenous gibberellin concentrations (Wilkie et al., 2008; Ayele et al., 2010). Trueman, (2010a) found that immature macadamia fruits contain very low gibberellin levels and are, unlikely to respond to gibberellin­synthesis inhibitors. Fruit drop is also unaffected by GA3 application which tends to indicate that the processes involved in macadamia fruit retention are not sensitive to gibberellin concentrations

8.15.3. Cytokinin Cytokinin application to flowers or immature fruit of macadamia increases initial fruit set and delays fruit abscission, without affecting final fruit set (Trueman, 2010). Several plant growth regulators have been tested for their ability to reduce abscission of macadamia flowers and immature fruits but only the cytokinin, benzyladenine (BA), has shown any promise of increasing fruit retention (Williams, 1980; Trueman, 2010a). The cytokinin, benzyladenine, increases fruit retention for up to 8 weeks after anthesis but does not increase fruit set beyond the major abscission period at 10 weeks post­anthesis (Trueman, 2010a). Endogenous cytokinin levels are very high in macadamia fruits around 10 weeks post­anthesis, which suggests that fruits may be, in effect, cytokinin­saturated and insensitive to applied cytokinins at this stage (Trueman, 2010b).

8.15.4. Ethylene The benefits resulting from Ethephon reduced harvest length and time, less pressure on dehusking shed, less nuts per harvest round and improved in nut quality has been observed (Jim and Kevin . 2012).

8.15.5. Uniconazole Nagao et al. (1999) studied the effect of uniconazole (0.2 g a.i. per cm trunk diameter) on 2­ year­old potted macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia Maiden & Betche) trees and they found that uniconazole significantly reduced tree height and trunk diameter 1 year after initial treatment, and suppressed shoot extension for the duration of the study. In case of flowering, there is similar and normal flowering in treated and control tree during 1 st year but in 2 nd year in treated plant there was increase in flowering as compare to MACADAMIA NUT 601 untreated plant. Subsequently, no differences in flowering were observed until the fifth year, when flowering was significantly less in treated trees, probably due to reduced shoot and trunk growth and tip dieback.

9. QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS AND MATURITY INDICES For better quality, macadamia nut kernels should have light cream colour, spherical in shape, high oil content, free from rancidity, decay, insect damage, blemishes and discoloration. Highest quality kernels contain 72 to 78 per cent oil and 1.5 per cent moisture whereas for fully developed macadamia kernels should contain 72 per cent oil or more. Oil content is a major quality factor which varies from cultivar to cultivar and also with maturity. After the prolonged flowering season, macadamia nuts are mature over a long period from late summer to late spring. Kernels are mature when oil accumulation is completed. The rapid drying, oil content and electrical impedance of the nut are the other maturity indices of the macadamia nut. Sometimes shake­harvesting is employed to facilitate the harvest while minimizing the amount of immature nuts are harvested.

10. HARVESTING Macadamia nuts are mainly ready for harvest during late May to July, but variety to variety it varies also and it may go on unto late November. Nuts are picked by hand or swept up mechanically from the orchard floor, depending on the variety of tree. A long pole can be used to carefully knock down mature nuts that are out of reach. A reasonably good tree will produce 30­50 pounds of nuts at 10 years age and gradually increase for many years. If mechanically harvesting, attention needs to be paid to the efficiency of harvesting machinery and the evenness of the soil surface. Harvest containers and machinery equipment must be cleaned before use otherwise it may increase the risk of contamination of the nuts and also risk of spreading diseases.

11. YIELD Orchards in New Zealand have returned yields of 4­6 tonnes per hectare (http:// www.macadamia.co.nz/growing­macadamias). In optimum conditions an 8 year old tree can produce 8 kg of nut­in­shell (NIS). The largest producer of macadamia nuts worldwide is Australia with 40% of total world production. The United States is the second largest producer followed by South Africa, Guatemala, Brazil and Costa Rica. In the United States, Hawaii dominates production with 95% of domestic macadamia nut production.

Tree age 5 6 7 8 11 25 Tree yield (Kg/tree) 2 5 8 10 15 55

(Source: http://www.macnut.co.nz/macadamia­info/macadamia­nut­growers­guide­macnut­farms) 602 MINOR FRUITS: NUTRACEUTICAL IMPORTANCE AND CULTIVATION 12. POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT 12.1. Dehusking Dehusking the macadamia nuts must be done within 24 hours of harvest, after which followed by the drying process. Freshly fallen nuts contain about 25 per cent kernel moisture, although nuts that have remained on the ground for extended periods may have as little as 10 to 15 per cent moisture.

12.2. Drying The object of drying is mainly to produce nuts firm, crisp, light in colour and free from blemishes. Drying should begin with ambient air, followed by a gradual increase in temperature that will not exceed 60 0C at the final stage of drying. The moisture content of kernel must be reduced to 1.5 per cent for processing this can also be done by hanging the nuts in onion sacks for 8 ­ 12 weeks depending on the ambient temperature and humidity. It is necessary to protect the dry kernels from moisture and oxygen because dryer the nut, higher the quality and net return.

12.3. Storage The hard, unshelled nuts have protection against insects during storage whereas the kernels of shelled nuts are susceptible to infestation. So it would be better to store them unshelled. The shelled nuts must be kept in cold storage because they are susceptible to insect damage. They can then immediately be placed in a cold store at 0 to ­4 °C. Cold storage prevents fungal growth and rancidity. This method is also recommended for the long­term storage of unshelled nuts. Cold storage is normally not necessary for short­term storage but might be desirable for extended periods. Frozen storage (­18 °C) can be very effective in extending shelf­life.

12.4. Packaging The nuts should be packed into cartons as soon as possible after shelling. Packaging is done mainly to avoid exposure to light, moisture and oxygen which enhances or increase the final taste of the nuts, and also increases the shelf life.

12.5. Grades, Sizes, and Packaging In U.S. there are no grades are made for macadamia nuts, but Hawaii state has standards and grades for shelled macadamia nuts, in­shell macadamia nuts, and roasted macadamia nuts (Hawaii Department of Agriculture 1984). The standards grade consists of eight styles: MACADAMIA NUT 603

Style I ­ Wholes Style II ­ Wholes and halves Style III ­ Cocktail Style IV ­ Halves and pieces Style V ­ Large diced Style VI ­ Chips Style VII ­ Bits, dice Style VIII ­ Fines For the wholesale market shelled nuts are mainly packed in 11.4 to 22.7 kg (25 to 50 lb) vacuum­packed or nitrogen­flushed foil bags but sometimes larger nitrogen flushed containers are used.

13. VALUE ADDITION The kernel is the main product from the macadamia nut tree. Macadamia nut kernels are mainly used in confectionaries including chocolate bar, chocolate covered candy, ice cream and other baking products. Macadamia nut kernel are also used for making macadamia butter and also used in the form of roasted/fried kernel and snacks. The oil produced by macadamia nuts can be used for cooking and in the long term could be processed for beauty products. In cosmetics industry, oil of the kernel is used in shampoos, sunscreens, soaps and others. The shell and husk also have uses. Shells can be used as mulch, fuel for processing macadamia nuts and planting medium. Husks are used as fuel, fertilizer (after composting) and mulch whereas the remaining press cake can be used for animal feed.

14. TRADE AND MARKETING The domestic market consumes about 35% of total production, 90% of which is sold as kernel. The promotion of health benefits is a support driver of demand and, combined with new market penetration, is expected to underpin further industry growth. In 2013 kernel exports were spread relatively evenly between the USA, Japan, Europe and other Asian markets. Asian markets are showing the greatest growth driven by increasing trade interest and consumer awareness. In the last few years market development campaigns have supported the product in Taiwan and Korea. On the basis of Geographical region, global market of macadamia nut is lies in North America, Latin America, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, Asia Pacific excluding Japan and Middle East and Africa (Table 4). In present North America and Western Europe had higher market share for macadamia. The global macadamia market on the basis of application is broadly segmented into food industry, and cosmetics industry. 604 MINOR FRUITS: NUTRACEUTICAL IMPORTANCE AND CULTIVATION

Table 4: Global Macadamia Market Regions and countries belonging to macadamia nut

S.N. Global Macadamia Market Regions Countries 1 North America US and Canada 2 Latin America Brazil and Argentina 3 Western Europe EU5, Nordics and Benelux 4 Asia Pacific Australia and New Zealand (ANZ), Greater China, India, and ASEAN 5 Middle East and Africa GCC Countries, Other Middle East, North Africa and South Africa

Exports of macadamia nuts to various regions of the world from 2007 to 2011

(Source: Quantec Easydata)

In present companies are investing through promotional activities in order to increase the footprint of macadamia worldwide. So there is a high potential to increase share of market of macadamia in terms of revenue in countries like Mexico, China, South Africa and others. The key element in global macadamia market are Mauna Loa Macadamia Nut Corp., Hamakua Macadamia Nut Company, Wondaree Macadamias, MacFarms, NAMBUCCA MACNUTS Pty Ltd, Golden Macadamias, Kenya Nut Company Ltd., Royal Macadamia (Pty) Ltd. and MWT Foods Australia.

15. EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON MACADAMIA NUT In 21 st century, climate change is the greatest concern in macadamia as well as in horticulture crops. Change in climate results in development of the physiological disorder, attack of pest and serious disease. The effect of change in climate are ­ global warming, MACADAMIA NUT 605 drought, excessive rain, melting of ice, change of seasonal pattern, flood, rising sea level etc. leading to decrease in yield potential. The air temperature for growing of macadamia nut varies from 20 to 25°C while 30°C is the upper threshold for productivity. Prolonged high temperature in macadamia nut results into leaf damage, bud damage and dieback whereas; if low temperature doesn’t met as the requirement floral initiation is affected. During drought flowering results into reduced water potential in racemes causes damage to perianths, affecting pollination while during later stages of nut maturation it results into nut drop and less percent of kernel development. Climatic conditions are also having strong influence on oil accumulation and the subsequent impact of husk spot on premature abscission.

16. FUTURE RESEARCH PLAN

G To increase productivity and quality nuts.

G To make available planting material commercially.

G Reduce the crop losses due to immature nuts and moldy / rotten nuts

G To solve the problem of inadequate value­addition and processing.

G To develop the variety resistant to biotic and abiotic stress.

G Use of molecular techniques for germplasm characterization and marker assisted selection should be a high priority.

G Use of biotechnology tools applications should be prioritized to yield maximum practical benefits in the shortest possible time.

17. ORGANIC CULTIVATION Organic cultivation in macadamia nut aim to achieve a totally integrated production with a balanced soil ecosystem encourage plant and animal health and also to minimize inputs in macadamia nut cultivation. The main form of organic fertilizer used in macadamia growing is broiler litter. This is the major source of nitrogen for trees. It must be composted before use in an organic orchard. Composting will reduce the levels of food pathogens to acceptable levels and destroy antibiotic residues. Before starting organic cultivation of macadamia nut, those variety or cultivar must be selected which are resistant to biotic and abiotic stress. Mowing must be undertaken down and across the rows, especially when trees are young. This is due to strong and vigorous grass growth, which requires mowing in both directions for control. When growing macadamias organically the use of trap crops (example­(for sting bug trap crop used are triticale, vetches and crimson clover) is also an option which results in monitoring crop of plants that are more susceptible to insects, and which lures the pests away from the macadamia crop. 606 MINOR FRUITS: NUTRACEUTICAL IMPORTANCE AND CULTIVATION References Anonymous, 2012. Chindikani Kaseka Nyirenda,(2012). Macadamia in Malawi its pest and diseases. http://chindikanikaseka.blogspot.in/2012/01/macadamia­in­malawi­its­pest and. html? view= magazine. (Jan­24). Anonymous, 2013. Reducing erosion and other soil degradation in macadamia orchards Agnote DPI­331, Second edition, 16 Jan 2003 (NSW Dept. Primary Industries) Website: www.dpi.nsw.gov.au Ayele BT, Magnus V, Mihaljeviæ S, Prebeg T, Èož­Rakovac R, Ozga JA, Reinecke DM, Mander LN, Kamiya Y, Yamaguchi S, Salopek­Sondi B 2010. Endogenous gibberellin profile during Christmas rose (Helleborus niger L.) flower and fruit development. J. Plant Growth Regul., 29: 194­209. BenJaacov, J., and Silber, A. 2006. Leucadendron: a major proteaceous floricultural crop. Horticultural Reviews, 32:167–228. Bhalla, P.L. and Mulwa, R.M., 2001, September. Tissue culture and macadamia propagation. In I International Symposium on Acclimatization and Establishment of Micropropagated Plants 616 (pp. 343­346). Costello, G., Gregory, M. and Donaitu, P. 2008. Southern Macadamia Species Recover Plan 20082012. Report to Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Canberra by Horticulture Australia Limited, Sydney. Darlington, C. D., and Wylie A. P. 1955.Chromosome atlas of flowering plants. George Allen & Unwin Lrd., London. Duke, J.A. 2001. Macadamia Spp. In: Handbook of Nuts. CRC Press, Boca Raton, 208. Halford, D.1997. Macadamia jansenii. Queensland Herbarium, Environmental Protection Agency, Brisbane. Exp. Sta. Prog. Notes, 51. 6 pp. Harden, G., McDonald, B. and Williams, J. 2006. Rainforest Trees and Shrubs: A Field Guide to their Identification. Gwen Harden Publishing, Nambucca Heads. Hardner, C. M., Peace, C.P. Henshall, J. and. Manners, J. 2005. Opportunities and constraints for marker assisted selection in Macadamia breeding. Acta Horticulturae, 694:85–90. Hauser, J. and Blok, J. 1992. Fragments of Green. Australian Rainforest Conservation Society, Brisbane. Jim Patch and Kevin Quinlan. 2012. Ethephon and its use on macadamia nuts. Website: http://www.mpcgrowers.com.au/. MPC Growers Site An Online Resource For Our Macadamia Growers. MACADAMIA NUT 607

Mc Conachie, I. 1980. The Macadamia story. Macadamia consultants Pty limited, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. Nagao, M. A., Ho­a, E. B., & Yoshimoto, J. M. 1999. Uniconazole retards growth and increases flowering of young macadamia trees. Hort. Science,34(1), 104­105. Peace, C.P., Vithanage, V., Turnbull, C.G.N. and Carroll, B.J. 2003. A genetic map of macadamia based on randomly amplified DNA fingerprinting (RAF) markers. Euphytica, 134 (1): 1726. Perdona, Marcos Jose, Rogerio Peres Soratto, and Maura Seiko Tsutsui Esperancini..2015. Productive and economic performance of Arabica coffee and macadamia nut intercropping.” PESQUISA AGROPECUARIA BRASILEIRA50, no. 1: 12­23. Queensland nut tree. Macadamia integrifolia em.pdf. [Accessed: 4th Dec, 2009]. Ryan, S. 2006. Conservation Management Profile: Queensland nut tree Macadamia integrifolia. Queensland: Environmental Protection Agency, Ecosystem Conservation Branch.http://www.epa.qld.gov.au /publications/ p02096aa.pdf/ Sharma Girish, Yadav Ashok, Sharma, D.P. and Sharma N. 2015. Macadamia nut. In: Temperate Fruit Crop Breeding: Domestication to Cultivar Development (Part­ I and Part­II), Editors: S.N. Ghosh, M.K. Verma and A. Thakur, Jaya Publishing House, 27­B, Pocket­B, Dilshad Garden, Delhi­110095. Pp: 351­380. Stanley, TD and Ross, EM. 2002. Flora of South eastern Queensland. Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Brisbane vol.2. Trueman SJ 2010a. Benzyladenine delays immature fruit abscission but does not affect final fruit set or kernel size of Macadamia. Afr. J. Agric. Res., 5: 1523­1530. Trueman SJ 2010b. Endogenous cytokinin levels during early fruit development of macadamia. Afr. J. Agric. Res., 5: 3402­3407. Urata U. 1954. Pollination requirements of macadamia. Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station Technical Bulletin No. 22. Wilkie JD, Sedgley M, Olesen T. 2008. Regulation of floral initiation in horticultural trees. J. Exp. Bot., 59: 3215­3228. Williams RR 1980. Control of premature fruit drop in Macadamia integrifolia: Effects of naphthalene acetic acid application, cincturing, and shoot tip removal. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. Anim. Husb., 20: 740­742.

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